Relatively complete absence of oxygen in one or more tissues.
A reduction in brain oxygen supply due to ANOXEMIA (a reduced amount of oxygen being carried in the blood by HEMOGLOBIN), or to a restriction of the blood supply to the brain, or both. Severe hypoxia is referred to as anoxia, and is a relatively common cause of injury to the central nervous system. Prolonged brain anoxia may lead to BRAIN DEATH or a PERSISTENT VEGETATIVE STATE. Histologically, this condition is characterized by neuronal loss which is most prominent in the HIPPOCAMPUS; GLOBUS PALLIDUS; CEREBELLUM; and inferior olives.
An element with atomic symbol O, atomic number 8, and atomic weight [15.99903; 15.99977]. It is the most abundant element on earth and essential for respiration.
##### I apologize, but the term "turtles" is not a recognized medical term or concept. It is commonly referred to as a group of reptiles with a shell, and does not have any direct relevance to medical definition.
A condition of decreased oxygen content at the cellular level.
The complete absence, or (loosely) the paucity, of gaseous or dissolved elemental oxygen in a given place or environment. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
A genus of CRUSTACEA of the order ANOSTRACA, found in briny pools and lakes and often cultured for fish food. It has 168 chromosomes and differs from most crustaceans in that its blood contains hemoglobin.
Catalyzes the decarboxylation of an alpha keto acid to an aldehyde and carbon dioxide. Thiamine pyrophosphate is an essential cofactor. In lower organisms, which ferment glucose to ethanol and carbon dioxide, the enzyme irreversibly decarboxylates pyruvate to acetaldehyde. EC 4.1.1.1.
A part of the embryo in a seed plant. The number of cotyledons is an important feature in classifying plants. In seeds without an endosperm, they store food which is used in germination. In some plants, they emerge above the soil surface and become the first photosynthetic leaves. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
A highly poisonous compound that is an inhibitor of many metabolic processes and is used as a test reagent for the function of chemoreceptors. It is also used in many industrial processes.
A highly poisonous compound that is an inhibitor of many metabolic processes, but has been shown to be an especially potent inhibitor of heme enzymes and hemeproteins. It is used in many industrial processes.
A plant family of the order Najadales, subclass Alismatidae, class Liliopsida (monocotyledons).
An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter.
Common name for a number of different species of fish in the family Cyprinidae. This includes, among others, the common carp, crucian carp, grass carp, and silver carp.
A metabolic process that converts GLUCOSE into two molecules of PYRUVIC ACID through a series of enzymatic reactions. Energy generated by this process is conserved in two molecules of ATP. Glycolysis is the universal catabolic pathway for glucose, free glucose, or glucose derived from complex CARBOHYDRATES, such as GLYCOGEN and STARCH.
Small oviparous fishes in the family Cyprinodontidae, usually striped or barred black. They are much used in mosquito control.
The non-genetic biological changes of an organism in response to challenges in its ENVIRONMENT.
An element in the alkali group of metals with an atomic symbol K, atomic number 19, and atomic weight 39.10. It is the chief cation in the intracellular fluid of muscle and other cells. Potassium ion is a strong electrolyte that plays a significant role in the regulation of fluid volume and maintenance of the WATER-ELECTROLYTE BALANCE.
A monocot plant family of the Liliopsida class. It is classified by some in the Liliales order and some in the Asparagales order.
The rate at which oxygen is used by a tissue; microliters of oxygen STPD used per milligram of tissue per hour; the rate at which oxygen enters the blood from alveolar gas, equal in the steady state to the consumption of oxygen by tissue metabolism throughout the body. (Stedman, 25th ed, p346)
The ginseng plant family of the order Apiales, subclass Rosidae, class Magnoliopsida. Leaves are generally alternate, large, and compound. Flowers are five-parted and arranged in compound flat-topped umbels. The fruit is a berry or (rarely) a drupe (a one-seeded fruit). It is well known for plant preparations used as adaptogens (immune support and anti-fatigue).
A primitive form of digestive gland found in marine ARTHROPODS, that contains cells similar to those found in the mammalian liver (HEPATOCYTES), and the PANCREAS.
Organic compounds that contain two nitro groups attached to a phenol.
A plant genus of the family ACORACEAE, order Arales, subclass Arecidae most notable for Acorus calamus L. root which contains asarone and has been used in TRADITIONAL MEDICINE.
A tetrameric enzyme that, along with the coenzyme NAD+, catalyzes the interconversion of LACTATE and PYRUVATE. In vertebrates, genes for three different subunits (LDH-A, LDH-B and LDH-C) exist.
Annual cereal grass of the family POACEAE and its edible starchy grain, rice, which is the staple food of roughly one-half of the world's population.
Life or metabolic reactions occurring in an environment containing oxygen.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Veratrine is a mixture of alkaloids, primarily veratridine and cevadine, obtained from the seeds of various plants of the genus Schoenocaulon (formerly Veratrum), known to stimulate sodium channels in nerve membranes, leading to depolarization and prolonged action potentials.
A barbiturate with hypnotic and sedative properties (but not antianxiety). Adverse effects are mainly a consequence of dose-related CNS depression and the risk of dependence with continued use is high. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p565)
A plant genus of the family POACEAE that is grown mainly as a hay crop.
Mixtures of closely related hypotensive alkaloids from Veratrum album (Liliaceae). They have been used in the treatment of hypertension but have largely been replaced by drugs with fewer adverse effects.
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
The chemical reactions involved in the production and utilization of various forms of energy in cells.
A plant genus of the family ALISMATACEAE that grows in salty marshes and is used for phytoremediation of oil spills. The unisexual flowers have 3 sepals and 3 petals. Members contain trifoliones (DITERPENES).
Macrolide antifungal antibiotic complex produced by Streptomyces noursei, S. aureus, and other Streptomyces species. The biologically active components of the complex are nystatin A1, A2, and A3.
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
The muscle tissue of the HEART. It is composed of striated, involuntary muscle cells (MYOCYTES, CARDIAC) connected to form the contractile pump to generate blood flow.
A proton ionophore that is commonly used as an uncoupling agent in biochemical studies.
Common name for a family of eel-shaped jawless fishes (Myxinidae), the only family in the order MYXINIFORMES. They are not true vertebrates.
Fluids found within the osseous labyrinth (PERILYMPH) and the membranous labyrinth (ENDOLYMPH) of the inner ear. (From Gray's Anatomy, 30th American ed, p1328, 1332)
The part of the membranous labyrinth that traverses the bony vestibular aqueduct and emerges through the bone of posterior cranial fossa (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR) where it expands into a blind pouch called the endolymphatic sac.
A member of the alkali group of metals. It has the atomic symbol Na, atomic number 11, and atomic weight 23.
The recording of wavelike motions or undulations. It is usually used on arteries to detect variations in blood pressure.
A normal intermediate in the fermentation (oxidation, metabolism) of sugar. The concentrated form is used internally to prevent gastrointestinal fermentation. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Iodinated derivatives of acetic acid. Iodoacetates are commonly used as alkylating sulfhydryl reagents and enzyme inhibitors in biochemical research.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
The usually underground portions of a plant that serve as support, store food, and through which water and mineral nutrients enter the plant. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982; Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
A derivative of ACETIC ACID that contains one IODINE atom attached to its methyl group.
Cellular processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of CARBOHYDRATES.
The developmental entity of a fertilized egg (ZYGOTE) in animal species other than MAMMALS. For chickens, use CHICK EMBRYO.
Inorganic salts of HYDROGEN CYANIDE containing the -CN radical. The concept also includes isocyanides. It is distinguished from NITRILES, which denotes organic compounds containing the -CN radical.
Animals and plants which have, as their normal mode of reproduction, both male and female sex organs in the same individual.
Semiautonomous, self-reproducing organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of all cells of most, but not all, eukaryotes. Each mitochondrion is surrounded by a double limiting membrane. The inner membrane is highly invaginated, and its projections are called cristae. Mitochondria are the sites of the reactions of oxidative phosphorylation, which result in the formation of ATP. They contain distinctive RIBOSOMES, transfer RNAs (RNA, TRANSFER); AMINO ACYL T RNA SYNTHETASES; and elongation and termination factors. Mitochondria depend upon genes within the nucleus of the cells in which they reside for many essential messenger RNAs (RNA, MESSENGER). Mitochondria are believed to have arisen from aerobic bacteria that established a symbiotic relationship with primitive protoeukaryotes. (King & Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Salts or esters of LACTIC ACID containing the general formula CH3CHOHCOOR.
The sodium salt of racemic or inactive lactic acid. It is a hygroscopic agent used intravenously as a systemic and urinary alkalizer.
Adenine nucleotides are molecules that consist of an adenine base attached to a ribose sugar and one, two, or three phosphate groups, including adenosine monophosphate (AMP), adenosine diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which play crucial roles in energy transfer and signaling processes within cells.
A pathologic condition of acid accumulation or depletion of base in the body. The two main types are RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS and metabolic acidosis, due to metabolic acid build up.
The hollow, muscular organ that maintains the circulation of the blood.
Interstitial space between cells, occupied by INTERSTITIAL FLUID as well as amorphous and fibrous substances. For organisms with a CELL WALL, the extracellular space includes everything outside of the CELL MEMBRANE including the PERIPLASM and the cell wall.
An antidiabetic sulfonylurea derivative with actions similar to those of chlorpropamide.
Marine, freshwater, or terrestrial mollusks of the class Gastropoda. Most have an enclosing spiral shell, and several genera harbor parasites pathogenic to man.
A basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor that plays a role in APOPTOSIS. It is composed of two subunits: ARYL HYDROCARBON RECEPTOR NUCLEAR TRANSLOCATOR and HYPOXIA-INDUCIBLE FACTOR 1, ALPHA SUBUNIT.
The metabolic process of all living cells (animal and plant) in which oxygen is used to provide a source of energy for the cell.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Electron transfer through the cytochrome system liberating free energy which is transformed into high-energy phosphate bonds.
The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.
A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
Treatment process involving the injection of fluid into an organ or tissue.
A cardioactive glycoside consisting of rhamnose and ouabagenin, obtained from the seeds of Strophanthus gratus and other plants of the Apocynaceae; used like DIGITALIS. It is commonly used in cell biological studies as an inhibitor of the NA(+)-K(+)-EXCHANGING ATPASE.
The balance between acids and bases in the BODY FLUIDS. The pH (HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION) of the arterial BLOOD provides an index for the total body acid-base balance.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
A clear, colorless liquid rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and distributed throughout the body. It has bactericidal activity and is used often as a topical disinfectant. It is widely used as a solvent and preservative in pharmaceutical preparations as well as serving as the primary ingredient in ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES.
The part of the brain that connects the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES with the SPINAL CORD. It consists of the MESENCEPHALON; PONS; and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.
Refers to animals in the period of time just after birth.
A common name used for the genus Cavia. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.
A metallic element that has the atomic symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and atomic weight 24.31. It is important for the activity of many enzymes, especially those involved in OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION.
A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals.
Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of glucose from a nucleoside diphosphate glucose to an acceptor molecule which is frequently another carbohydrate. EC 2.4.1.-.
A zinc-containing enzyme which oxidizes primary and secondary alcohols or hemiacetals in the presence of NAD. In alcoholic fermentation, it catalyzes the final step of reducing an aldehyde to an alcohol in the presence of NADH and hydrogen.
Very young plant after GERMINATION of SEEDS.
An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight [14.00643; 14.00728]. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells.
The voltage differences across a membrane. For cellular membranes they are computed by subtracting the voltage measured outside the membrane from the voltage measured inside the membrane. They result from differences of inside versus outside concentration of potassium, sodium, chloride, and other ions across cells' or ORGANELLES membranes. For excitable cells, the resting membrane potentials range between -30 and -100 millivolts. Physical, chemical, or electrical stimuli can make a membrane potential more negative (hyperpolarization), or less negative (depolarization).
Drugs that are chemically similar to naturally occurring metabolites, but differ enough to interfere with normal metabolic pathways. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p2033)
A group of elongate elasmobranchs. Sharks are mostly marine fish, with certain species large and voracious.
The initial stages of the growth of SEEDS into a SEEDLINGS. The embryonic shoot (plumule) and embryonic PLANT ROOTS (radicle) emerge and grow upwards and downwards respectively. Food reserves for germination come from endosperm tissue within the seed and/or from the seed leaves (COTYLEDON). (Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
Intracellular fluid from the cytoplasm after removal of ORGANELLES and other insoluble cytoplasmic components.
Acidosis caused by accumulation of lactic acid more rapidly than it can be metabolized. It may occur spontaneously or in association with diseases such as DIABETES MELLITUS; LEUKEMIA; or LIVER FAILURE.
The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.
A hypoperfusion of the BLOOD through an organ or tissue caused by a PATHOLOGIC CONSTRICTION or obstruction of its BLOOD VESSELS, or an absence of BLOOD CIRCULATION.
Anaerobic degradation of GLUCOSE or other organic nutrients to gain energy in the form of ATP. End products vary depending on organisms, substrates, and enzymatic pathways. Common fermentation products include ETHANOL and LACTIC ACID.
A sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of CHLORPROPAMIDE. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p290)
A nucleoside that is composed of ADENINE and D-RIBOSE. Adenosine or adenosine derivatives play many important biological roles in addition to being components of DNA and RNA. Adenosine itself is a neurotransmitter.
A compound tubular gland, located around the eyes and nasal passages in marine animals and birds, the physiology of which figures in water-electrolyte balance. The Pekin duck serves as a common research animal in salt gland studies. A rectal gland or rectal salt gland in the dogfish shark is attached at the junction of the intestine and cloaca and aids the kidneys in removing excess salts from the blood. (Storer, Usinger, Stebbins & Nybakken: General Zoology, 6th ed, p658)
Chemical compounds which yield hydrogen ions or protons when dissolved in water, whose hydrogen can be replaced by metals or basic radicals, or which react with bases to form salts and water (neutralization). An extension of the term includes substances dissolved in media other than water. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
An enzyme of the lyase class that catalyzes the cleavage of fructose 1,6-biphosphate to form dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The enzyme also acts on (3S,4R)-ketose 1-phosphates. The yeast and bacterial enzymes are zinc proteins. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) E.C. 4.1.2.13.
Hypoxia-inducible factor 1, alpha subunit is a basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor that is regulated by OXYGEN availability and is targeted for degradation by VHL TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEIN.
The 12th cranial nerve. The hypoglossal nerve originates in the hypoglossal nucleus of the medulla and supplies motor innervation to all of the muscles of the tongue except the palatoglossus (which is supplied by the vagus). This nerve also contains proprioceptive afferents from the tongue muscles.
The mitochondria of the myocardium.
An antibiotic substance produced by Streptomyces species. It inhibits mitochondrial respiration and may deplete cellular levels of ATP. Antimycin A1 has been used as a fungicide, insecticide, and miticide. (From Merck Index, 12th ed)
Inorganic salts of phosphoric acid.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Utah" is a proper noun and refers to a state in the United States, it does not have a medical definition. If you have any medical questions or need information on specific medical conditions or terms, I would be happy to help!
Presence of warmth or heat or a temperature notably higher than an accustomed norm.
A plant species of the family POACEAE. It is a tall grass grown for its EDIBLE GRAIN, corn, used as food and animal FODDER.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
The 2nd cranial nerve which conveys visual information from the RETINA to the brain. The nerve carries the axons of the RETINAL GANGLION CELLS which sort at the OPTIC CHIASM and continue via the OPTIC TRACTS to the brain. The largest projection is to the lateral geniculate nuclei; other targets include the SUPERIOR COLLICULI and the SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEI. Though known as the second cranial nerve, it is considered part of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Highly reactive molecules with an unsatisfied electron valence pair. Free radicals are produced in both normal and pathological processes. They are proven or suspected agents of tissue damage in a wide variety of circumstances including radiation, damage from environment chemicals, and aging. Natural and pharmacological prevention of free radical damage is being actively investigated.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
A toxic dye, chemically related to trinitrophenol (picric acid), used in biochemical studies of oxidative processes where it uncouples oxidative phosphorylation. It is also used as a metabolic stimulant. (Stedman, 26th ed)
A pathological condition caused by lack of oxygen, manifested in impending or actual cessation of life.
Salts of nitrous acid or compounds containing the group NO2-. The inorganic nitrites of the type MNO2 (where M=metal) are all insoluble, except the alkali nitrites. The organic nitrites may be isomeric, but not identical with the corresponding nitro compounds. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group esterified to the sugar moiety in the 2'-, 3'-, or 5'-position.
2-Deoxy-D-arabino-hexose. An antimetabolite of glucose with antiviral activity.
Adaptation to a new environment or to a change in the old.
Proteins which are synthesized in eukaryotic organisms and bacteria in response to hyperthermia and other environmental stresses. They increase thermal tolerance and perform functions essential to cell survival under these conditions.
Abrupt changes in the membrane potential that sweep along the CELL MEMBRANE of excitable cells in response to excitation stimuli.
Naphthalene derivatives carrying one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups at any ring position. They are often used in dyes and pigments, as antioxidants for rubber, fats, and oils, as insecticides, in pharmaceuticals, and in numerous other applications.
Drugs that bind to and block the activation of ADRENERGIC BETA-2 RECEPTORS.
A species of nematode that is widely used in biological, biochemical, and genetic studies.
Cell membrane glycoproteins that are selectively permeable to potassium ions. At least eight major groups of K channels exist and they are made up of dozens of different subunits.
Proteins found in plants (flowers, herbs, shrubs, trees, etc.). The concept does not include proteins found in vegetables for which VEGETABLE PROTEINS is available.
An absence of warmth or heat or a temperature notably below an accustomed norm.
A trace element that is a component of vitamin B12. It has the atomic symbol Co, atomic number 27, and atomic weight 58.93. It is used in nuclear weapons, alloys, and pigments. Deficiency in animals leads to anemia; its excess in humans can lead to erythrocytosis.
Damage to the MYOCARDIUM resulting from MYOCARDIAL REPERFUSION (restoration of blood flow to ischemic areas of the HEART.) Reperfusion takes place when there is spontaneous thrombolysis, THROMBOLYTIC THERAPY, collateral flow from other coronary vascular beds, or reversal of vasospasm.
A mass of organic or inorganic solid fragmented material, or the solid fragment itself, that comes from the weathering of rock and is carried by, suspended in, or dropped by air, water, or ice. It refers also to a mass that is accumulated by any other natural agent and that forms in layers on the earth's surface, such as sand, gravel, silt, mud, fill, or loess. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed, p1689)
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in plants.
Organisms whose GENOME has been changed by a GENETIC ENGINEERING technique.
A small cluster of chemoreceptive and supporting cells located near the bifurcation of the internal carotid artery. The carotid body, which is richly supplied with fenestrated capillaries, senses the pH, carbon dioxide, and oxygen concentrations in the blood and plays a crucial role in their homeostatic control.
The renal tubule portion that extends from the BOWMAN CAPSULE in the KIDNEY CORTEX into the KIDNEY MEDULLA. The proximal tubule consists of a convoluted proximal segment in the cortex, and a distal straight segment descending into the medulla where it forms the U-shaped LOOP OF HENLE.
Root-like underground horizontal stem of plants that produces shoots above and roots below. Distinguished from true roots which don't have buds and nodes. Similar to true roots in being underground and thickened by storage deposits.
A chemical reaction in which an electron is transferred from one molecule to another. The electron-donating molecule is the reducing agent or reductant; the electron-accepting molecule is the oxidizing agent or oxidant. Reducing and oxidizing agents function as conjugate reductant-oxidant pairs or redox pairs (Lehninger, Principles of Biochemistry, 1982, p471).
Identification and measurement of ELEMENTS and their location based on the fact that X-RAYS emitted by an element excited by an electron beam have a wavelength characteristic of that element and an intensity related to its concentration. It is performed with an electron microscope fitted with an x-ray spectrometer, in scanning or transmission mode.
The encapsulated embryos of flowering plants. They are used as is or for animal feed because of the high content of concentrated nutrients like starches, proteins, and fats. Rapeseed, cottonseed, and sunflower seed are also produced for the oils (fats) they yield.
The technique of using a microtome to cut thin or ultrathin sections of tissues embedded in a supporting substance. The microtome is an instrument that hold a steel, glass or diamond knife in clamps at an angle to the blocks of prepared tissues, which it cuts in sections of equal thickness.
Contractile activity of the MYOCARDIUM.
Spectroscopic method of measuring the magnetic moment of elementary particles such as atomic nuclei, protons or electrons. It is employed in clinical applications such as NMR Tomography (MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING).
Organic compounds containing both the hydroxyl and carboxyl radicals.
10-carbon saturated monocarboxylic acids.
An electrogenic ion exchange protein that maintains a steady level of calcium by removing an amount of calcium equal to that which enters the cells. It is widely distributed in most excitable membranes, including the brain and heart.
A disorder of cardiac function caused by insufficient blood flow to the muscle tissue of the heart. The decreased blood flow may be due to narrowing of the coronary arteries (CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE), to obstruction by a thrombus (CORONARY THROMBOSIS), or less commonly, to diffuse narrowing of arterioles and other small vessels within the heart. Severe interruption of the blood supply to the myocardial tissue may result in necrosis of cardiac muscle (MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION).
A technique in which tissue is rendered resistant to the deleterious effects of prolonged ISCHEMIA and REPERFUSION by prior exposure to brief, repeated periods of vascular occlusion. (Am J Physiol 1995 May;268(5 Pt 2):H2063-7, Abstract)
Use of electric potential or currents to elicit biological responses.
An analytical method for detecting and measuring FLUORESCENCE in compounds or targets such as cells, proteins, or nucleotides, or targets previously labeled with FLUORESCENCE AGENTS.
Liquids transforming into solids by the removal of heat.
The movement of materials across cell membranes and epithelial layers against an electrochemical gradient, requiring the expenditure of metabolic energy.
Emission of LIGHT when ELECTRONS return to the electronic ground state from an excited state and lose the energy as PHOTONS. It is sometimes called cool light in contrast to INCANDESCENCE. LUMINESCENT MEASUREMENTS take advantage of this type of light emitted from LUMINESCENT AGENTS.
A non-essential amino acid naturally occurring in the L-form. Glutamic acid is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Chemical agents that uncouple oxidation from phosphorylation in the metabolic cycle so that ATP synthesis does not occur. Included here are those IONOPHORES that disrupt electron transfer by short-circuiting the proton gradient across mitochondrial membranes.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in enzyme synthesis.
A benzothiadiazine derivative that is a peripheral vasodilator used for hypertensive emergencies. It lacks diuretic effect, apparently because it lacks a sulfonamide group.
Derivatives of GLUTAMIC ACID. Included under this heading are a broad variety of acid forms, salts, esters, and amides that contain the 2-aminopentanedioic acid structure.
A free radical gas produced endogenously by a variety of mammalian cells, synthesized from ARGININE by NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE. Nitric oxide is one of the ENDOTHELIUM-DEPENDENT RELAXING FACTORS released by the vascular endothelium and mediates VASODILATION. It also inhibits platelet aggregation, induces disaggregation of aggregated platelets, and inhibits platelet adhesion to the vascular endothelium. Nitric oxide activates cytosolic GUANYLATE CYCLASE and thus elevates intracellular levels of CYCLIC GMP.
Localized reduction of blood flow to brain tissue due to arterial obstruction or systemic hypoperfusion. This frequently occurs in conjunction with brain hypoxia (HYPOXIA, BRAIN). Prolonged ischemia is associated with BRAIN INFARCTION.
A proton ionophore. It is commonly used as an uncoupling agent and inhibitor of photosynthesis because of its effects on mitochondrial and chloroplast membranes.
The unfavorable effect of environmental factors (stressors) on the physiological functions of an organism. Prolonged unresolved physiological stress can affect HOMEOSTASIS of the organism, and may lead to damaging or pathological conditions.
Inorganic or organic salts and esters of nitric acid. These compounds contain the NO3- radical.
A multisubunit enzyme complex containing CYTOCHROME A GROUP; CYTOCHROME A3; two copper atoms; and 13 different protein subunits. It is the terminal oxidase complex of the RESPIRATORY CHAIN and collects electrons that are transferred from the reduced CYTOCHROME C GROUP and donates them to molecular OXYGEN, which is then reduced to water. The redox reaction is simultaneously coupled to the transport of PROTONS across the inner mitochondrial membrane.
Parts of plants that usually grow vertically upwards towards the light and support the leaves, buds, and reproductive structures. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
A transient absence of spontaneous respiration.
The study of the generation and behavior of electrical charges in living organisms particularly the nervous system and the effects of electricity on living organisms.
A purine and a reaction intermediate in the metabolism of adenosine and in the formation of nucleic acids by the salvage pathway.
A great expanse of continuous bodies of salt water which together cover more than 70 percent of the earth's surface. Seas may be partially or entirely enclosed by land, and are smaller than the five oceans (Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic).
An enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of nitrite to nitrate. It is a cytochrome protein that contains IRON and MOLYBDENUM.
Drugs that bind to and block the activation of PURINERGIC RECEPTORS.
An endogenous substance found mainly in skeletal muscle of vertebrates. It has been tried in the treatment of cardiac disorders and has been added to cardioplegic solutions. (Reynolds JEF(Ed): Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia (electronic version). Micromedex, Inc, Englewood, CO, 1996)
Respiratory failure in the newborn. (Dorland, 27th ed)
The process by which ELECTRONS are transported from a reduced substrate to molecular OXYGEN. (From Bennington, Saunders Dictionary and Encyclopedia of Laboratory Medicine and Technology, 1984, p270)
An allosteric enzyme that regulates glycolysis by catalyzing the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to fructose-6-phosphate to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. D-tagatose- 6-phosphate and sedoheptulose-7-phosphate also are acceptors. UTP, CTP, and ITP also are donors. In human phosphofructokinase-1, three types of subunits have been identified. They are PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, MUSCLE TYPE; PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, LIVER TYPE; and PHOSPHOFRUCTOKINASE-1, TYPE C; found in platelets, brain, and other tissues.
Natural product isolated from Streptomyces pilosus. It forms iron complexes and is used as a chelating agent, particularly in the mesylate form.
A complex of enzymes and PROTON PUMPS located on the inner membrane of the MITOCHONDRIA and in bacterial membranes. The protein complex provides energy in the form of an electrochemical gradient, which may be used by either MITOCHONDRIAL PROTON-TRANSLOCATING ATPASES or BACTERIAL PROTON-TRANSLOCATING ATPASES.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
Electrical responses recorded from nerve, muscle, SENSORY RECEPTOR, or area of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM following stimulation. They range from less than a microvolt to several microvolts. The evoked potential can be auditory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, AUDITORY), somatosensory (EVOKED POTENTIALS, SOMATOSENSORY), visual (EVOKED POTENTIALS, VISUAL), or motor (EVOKED POTENTIALS, MOTOR), or other modalities that have been reported.
An intermediate compound in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. In thiamine deficiency, its oxidation is retarded and it accumulates in the tissues, especially in nervous structures. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
A large stout-bodied, sometimes anadromous, TROUT found in still and flowing waters of the Pacific coast from southern California to Alaska. It has a greenish back, a whitish belly, and pink, red, or lavender stripes on the sides, with usually a sprinkling of black dots. It is highly regarded as a sport and food fish. Its former name was Salmo gairdneri. The sea-run rainbow trouts are often called steelheads. Redband trouts refer to interior populations of rainbows.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Pacific Ocean" is a geographical term referring to the largest ocean in the world, covering an area of about 63,800,000 square miles (165,200,000 square kilometers), and it is not a medical term.
An alkaloid from SOLANACEAE, especially DATURA and SCOPOLIA. Scopolamine and its quaternary derivatives act as antimuscarinics like ATROPINE, but may have more central nervous system effects. Among the many uses are as an anesthetic premedication, in URINARY INCONTINENCE, in MOTION SICKNESS, as an antispasmodic, and as a mydriatic and cycloplegic.

Quantification of tumour vasculature and hypoxia by immunohistochemical staining and HbO2 saturation measurements. (1/8649)

Despite the possibility that tumour hypoxia may limit radiotherapeutic response, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. A new methodology has been developed in which information from several sophisticated techniques is combined and analysed at a microregional level. First, tumour oxygen availability is spatially defined by measuring intravascular blood oxygen saturations (HbO2) cryospectrophotometrically in frozen tumour blocks. Second, hypoxic development is quantified in adjacent sections using immunohistochemical detection of a fluorescently conjugated monoclonal antibody (ELK3-51) to a nitroheterocyclic hypoxia marker (EF5), thereby providing information relating to both the oxygen consumption rates and the effective oxygen diffusion distances. Third, a combination of fluorescent (Hoechst 33342 or DiOC7(3)) and immunohistological (PECAM-1/CD31) stains is used to define the anatomical vascular densities and the fraction of blood vessels containing flow. Using a computer-interfaced microscope stage, image analysis software and a 3-CCD colour video camera, multiple images are digitized, combined to form a photo-montage and revisited after each of the three staining protocols. By applying image registration techniques, the spatial distribution of HbO2 saturations is matched to corresponding hypoxic marker intensities in adjacent sections. This permits vascular configuration to be related to oxygen availability and allows the hypoxic marker intensities to be quantitated in situ.  (+info)

Effect of chronic hypoxia on alpha-1 adrenoceptor-mediated inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate signaling in ovine uterine artery. (2/8649)

The present study examined the effect of chronic hypoxia on coupling efficiency of alpha-1 adrenoceptors to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (InsP3) signaling in ovine uterine artery. Chronic hypoxia did not change the time course of InsP3 formation, but significantly decreased the potency (pD2: 6.17 +/- 0.09 --> 5.26 +/- 0.12) and the maximal response (220.7 +/- 21.7 --> 147.7 +/- 15.3 pmol/mg protein) of norepinephrine-induced InsP3 synthesis. The coupling efficiency of alpha-1 adrenoceptors to InsP3 synthesis (picomoles InsP3 per femtomoles receptor) was decreased 45% by chronic hypoxia. In addition, simultaneous measurement of norepinephrine-induced contractions and InsP3 synthesis indicated that for a given amount of InsP3 generated, the contractile force of the uterine artery was significantly less in chronically hypoxic than in control tissues (0. 27 +/- 0.01 versus 0.35 +/- 0.02 g tension/pmol InsP3). InsP3 receptors were characterized using radioligand binding techniques. Although the density of InsP3 receptors was not changed by chronic hypoxia (Bmax: 325 +/- 35 --> 378 +/- 18 fmol/mg protein), the dissociation constant (Kd) of InsP3 to its receptors was significantly increased (Kd: 5.20 +/- 0.40 --> 7.81 +/- 0.34 nM). Analysis of InsP3 receptor occupancy-tension development relationship indicated no difference in intrinsic ability of the InsP3-receptor complex in eliciting contractions between the control and hypoxic tissues. Our results suggest that chronic hypoxia attenuates coupling efficiency of alpha-1 adrenoceptors to InsP3 synthesis in the uterine artery. In addition, the tissue contractile sensitivity to InsP3 is reduced, which is mediated predominantly by a decrease in InsP3 binding affinity to InsP3 receptors.  (+info)

Nonlinear indicial response of complex nonstationary oscillations as pulmonary hypertension responding to step hypoxia. (3/8649)

This paper is devoted to the quantization of the degree of nonlinearity of the relationship between two biological variables when one of the variables is a complex nonstationary oscillatory signal. An example of the situation is the indicial responses of pulmonary blood pressure (P) to step changes of oxygen tension (DeltapO2) in the breathing gas. For a step change of DeltapO2 beginning at time t1, the pulmonary blood pressure is a nonlinear function of time and DeltapO2, which can be written as P(t-t1 | DeltapO2). An effective method does not exist to examine the nonlinear function P(t-t1 | DeltapO2). A systematic approach is proposed here. The definitions of mean trends and oscillations about the means are the keys. With these keys a practical method of calculation is devised. We fit the mean trends of blood pressure with analytic functions of time, whose nonlinearity with respect to the oxygen level is clarified here. The associated oscillations about the mean can be transformed into Hilbert spectrum. An integration of the square of the Hilbert spectrum over frequency yields a measure of oscillatory energy, which is also a function of time, whose mean trends can be expressed by analytic functions. The degree of nonlinearity of the oscillatory energy with respect to the oxygen level also is clarified here. Theoretical extension of the experimental nonlinear indicial functions to arbitrary history of hypoxia is proposed. Application of the results to tissue remodeling and tissue engineering of blood vessels is discussed.  (+info)

Depression of peripheral chemosensitivity by a dopaminergic mechanism in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome. (4/8649)

In the present study, respiratory drives to chemical stimuli and peripheral chemosensitivity were evaluated in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea (OSAS). The effects of oral administration of domperidone, a selective dopamine D2-receptor antagonist, were also examined, to study the respiratory effects of endogenous dopamine on peripheral chemoreceptors. Sixteen patients with OSAS and nine normal control subjects were studied. Respiratory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia were measured using the rebreathing method and isocapnic progressive hypoxia method, respectively. The hypoxic withdrawal test, which measures the decrease in ventilation caused by two breaths of 100% O2 under mild hypercapnic hypoxic conditions (end-tidal oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions approximately 8.0 kPa and 5.3-6.7 kPa, respectively), was used to evaluate peripheral chemosensitivity. In the patients with OSAS, ventilatory responses to hypercapnia and hypoxia were significantly decreased compared with those of control subjects. Hypoxic withdrawal tests showed that peripheral chemosensitivity was significantly lower in patients with OSAS than in normal subjects. Hypercapnic ventilatory response and peripheral chemosensitivity were enhanced by administration of domperidone in the patients with OSAS, although no changes in either of these were observed in the control subjects. The hypoxic ventilatory response and peripheral chemosensitivity in the patients with OSAS were each significantly correlated with severity of hypoxia during sleep. These findings suggest that peripheral chemosensitivity in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome may be decreased as a result of abnormality in dopaminergic mechanisms and that the reduced chemosensitivity observed in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome may affect the severity of hypoxia during sleep.  (+info)

Evidence of O2 supply-dependent VO2 max in the exercise-trained human quadriceps. (5/8649)

Maximal O2 delivery and O2 uptake (VO2) per 100 g of active muscle mass are far greater during knee extensor (KE) than during cycle exercise: 73 and 60 ml. min-1. 100 g-1 (2.4 kg of muscle) (R. S. Richardson, D. R. Knight, D. C. Poole, S. S. Kurdak, M. C. Hogan, B. Grassi, and P. D. Wagner. Am. J. Physiol. 268 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 37): H1453-H1461, 1995) and 28 and 25 ml. min-1. 100 g-1 (7.5 kg of muscle) (D. R. Knight, W. Schaffartzik, H. J. Guy, R. Predilleto, M. C. Hogan, and P. D. Wagner. J. Appl. Physiol. 75: 2586-2593, 1993), respectively. Although this is evidence of muscle O2 supply dependence in itself, it raises the following question: With such high O2 delivery in KE, are the quadriceps still O2 supply dependent at maximal exercise? To answer this question, seven trained subjects performed maximum KE exercise in hypoxia [0.12 inspired O2 fraction (FIO2)], normoxia (0.21 FIO2), and hyperoxia (1.0 FIO2) in a balanced order. The protocol (after warm-up) was a square wave to a previously determined maximum work rate followed by incremental stages to ensure that a true maximum was achieved under each condition. Direct measures of arterial and venous blood O2 concentration in combination with a thermodilution blood flow technique allowed the determination of O2 delivery and muscle VO2. Maximal O2 delivery increased with inspired O2: 1.3 +/- 0.1, 1.6 +/- 0.2, and 1.9 +/- 0.2 l/min at 0.12, 0.21, and 1.0 FIO2, respectively (P < 0.05). Maximal work rate was affected by variations in inspired O2 (-25 and +14% at 0.12 and 1.0 FIO2, respectively, compared with normoxia, P < 0.05) as was maximal VO2 (VO2 max): 1.04 +/- 0.13, 1. 24 +/- 0.16, and 1.45 +/- 0.19 l/min at 0.12, 0.21, and 1.0 FIO2, respectively (P < 0.05). Calculated mean capillary PO2 also varied with FIO2 (28.3 +/- 1.0, 34.8 +/- 2.0, and 40.7 +/- 1.9 Torr at 0.12, 0.21, and 1.0 FIO2, respectively, P < 0.05) and was proportionally related to changes in VO2 max, supporting our previous finding that a decrease in O2 supply will proportionately decrease muscle VO2 max. As even in the isolated quadriceps (where normoxic O2 delivery is the highest recorded in humans) an increase in O2 supply by hyperoxia allows the achievement of a greater VO2 max, we conclude that, in normoxic conditions of isolated KE exercise, KE VO2 max in trained subjects is not limited by mitochondrial metabolic rate but, rather, by O2 supply.  (+info)

Mechanisms of hypoxic vasodilatation of isolated rat mesenteric arteries: a comparison with metabolic inhibition. (6/8649)

1. Hypoxia (PO2 < 5 mmHg) decreased vessel tone in isolated rat mesenteric arteries precontracted with either high [K+] or the thromboxane analogue U46619. This response was not altered by N-nitro-L-arginine (L-NA) and indomethacin. 2. Simultaneous measurement of pHi and tension showed that the decrease in vessel tone was accompanied by an intracellular acidification. Similar reductions in tone and pHi were observed with the metabolic inhibitors 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP) and sodium azide. 3. The presence of the lactate transport inhibitor alpha-cyano-4-hydroxy-cinnamic acid (CHC) increased the magnitude of the acidification and resulted in a significantly faster reduction in tone in response to hypoxia. Addition of CHC to normoxic tissues caused both a vasodilatation and a reduction of pHi. 4. A decrease in pHi induced on washout of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) resulted in an increase in tone. 5. Relaxation to hypoxia or metabolic inhibition was unaffected when the change in pHi was neutralized by addition of the weak base trimethylamine (TMA). 6. It is concluded that severe hypoxia decreases tone in isolated rat mesenteric arteries by a mechanism which is independent of nitric oxide and prostaglandins. Both severe hypoxia and metabolic inhibition reduced pHi, although this does not appear to be contributing to the changes in tone observed.  (+info)

Comparison of vascular reactivity in spinal cord and brain. (7/8649)

The local tissue PO2 in the brain cortex and in the spinal cord of rats was examined with ultramicroelectrodes. In the spinal cord the PO2 was highest in white matter, intermediate in dorsal horn gray matter, and lowest in the ventral horn gray matter. In the gray matter of the cord, as well as in the brain, the PO2 at a fixed locus was found normally to oscillate. CO2 responses were more brisk in the cord than in the brain while the responses to hypoxia were similar. Therefore, it appears that the physiological regulation of blood flow in the spinal cord is qualitatively similar to that of the brain.  (+info)

Estimation of corneal endothelial pump function in long-term contact lens wearers. (8/8649)

PURPOSE: To study the effects of long-term contact lens wear on morphologic and physiologic properties of corneal endothelial cells. METHODS: The endothelial permeability to fluorescein and the rate of corneal deswelling from hypoxia-induced edema were measured in 20 long-term (mean, 17+/-9 years; range, 5-33 years) contact lens wearers and 20 age-matched control subjects. From these data, the relative endothelial pump rate in each subject was estimated, based on the pump-leak hypothesis of corneal hydration control. Corneal autofluorescence and the aqueous humor flow rate were determined by fluorescein fluorophotometry. Images of corneal endothelial cells were recorded by using specular microscopy, and morphologic indices (cell density, coefficient of variation of cell area, percentage of hexagonal cells, and skewness) were determined. RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were found between the contact lens and control groups in endothelial permeability, corneal deswelling, relative endothelial pump rate ([mean +/- SD] 1.07+/-0.33 relative pump units versus 1.01+/-0.25 relative pump units; contact lens versus control; P = 0.57), and endothelial cell density. Contact lens wearers had a significantly higher aqueous humor flow rate (3.57+/-1.03 microl/min versus 2.77+/-0.51 microl/min; P = 0.005), coefficient of variation of cell area (0.35+/-0.09 versus 0.28+/-0.04; P = 0.006), and corneal autofluorescence (3.1+/-0.6 ng/ml versus 2.3+/-0.3 ng/ml fluorescein equivalents; P < 0.001) than did non-contact lens wearers. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the known effects of long-term contact lens wear on corneal endothelial morphometry, no effect on endothelial function was found.  (+info)

Anoxia is a medical condition that refers to the absence or complete lack of oxygen supply in the body or a specific organ, tissue, or cell. This can lead to serious health consequences, including damage or death of cells and tissues, due to the vital role that oxygen plays in supporting cellular metabolism and energy production.

Anoxia can occur due to various reasons, such as respiratory failure, cardiac arrest, severe blood loss, carbon monoxide poisoning, or high altitude exposure. Prolonged anoxia can result in hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, a serious condition that can cause brain damage and long-term neurological impairments.

Medical professionals use various diagnostic tests, such as blood gas analysis, pulse oximetry, and electroencephalography (EEG), to assess oxygen levels in the body and diagnose anoxia. Treatment for anoxia typically involves addressing the underlying cause, providing supplemental oxygen, and supporting vital functions, such as breathing and circulation, to prevent further damage.

Brain hypoxia is a medical condition characterized by a reduced supply of oxygen to the brain. The brain requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function properly, and even a brief period of hypoxia can cause significant damage to brain cells.

Hypoxia can result from various conditions, such as cardiac arrest, respiratory failure, carbon monoxide poisoning, or high altitude exposure. When the brain is deprived of oxygen, it can lead to a range of symptoms, including confusion, disorientation, seizures, loss of consciousness, and ultimately, brain death.

Brain hypoxia is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment to prevent long-term neurological damage or death. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of hypoxia, such as administering oxygen therapy, resuscitating the heart, or treating respiratory failure. In some cases, more invasive treatments, such as therapeutic hypothermia or mechanical ventilation, may be necessary to prevent further brain damage.

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that constitutes about 21% of the earth's atmosphere. It is a crucial element for human and most living organisms as it is vital for respiration. Inhaled oxygen enters the lungs and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, which carries it to tissues throughout the body where it is used to convert nutrients into energy and carbon dioxide, a waste product that is exhaled.

Medically, supplemental oxygen therapy may be provided to patients with conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, heart failure, or other medical conditions that impair the body's ability to extract sufficient oxygen from the air. Oxygen can be administered through various devices, including nasal cannulas, face masks, and ventilators.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "turtles" is not a medical term. It refers to the group of reptiles that have a shell and include various species such as tortoises and terrapins. If you have any medical concerns or questions, I would be happy to try to help with those!

Cell hypoxia, also known as cellular hypoxia or tissue hypoxia, refers to a condition in which the cells or tissues in the body do not receive an adequate supply of oxygen. Oxygen is essential for the production of energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. When the cells are deprived of oxygen, they switch to anaerobic metabolism, which produces lactic acid as a byproduct and can lead to acidosis.

Cell hypoxia can result from various conditions, including:

1. Low oxygen levels in the blood (hypoxemia) due to lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, or high altitude.
2. Reduced blood flow to tissues due to cardiovascular diseases such as heart failure, peripheral artery disease, or shock.
3. Anemia, which reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
4. Carbon monoxide poisoning, which binds to hemoglobin and prevents it from carrying oxygen.
5. Inadequate ventilation due to trauma, drug overdose, or other causes that can lead to respiratory failure.

Cell hypoxia can cause cell damage, tissue injury, and organ dysfunction, leading to various clinical manifestations depending on the severity and duration of hypoxia. Treatment aims to correct the underlying cause and improve oxygen delivery to the tissues.

Anaerobiosis is a state in which an organism or a portion of an organism is able to live and grow in the absence of molecular oxygen (O2). In biological contexts, "anaerobe" refers to any organism that does not require oxygen for growth, and "aerobe" refers to an organism that does require oxygen for growth.

There are two types of anaerobes: obligate anaerobes, which cannot tolerate the presence of oxygen and will die if exposed to it; and facultative anaerobes, which can grow with or without oxygen but prefer to grow in its absence. Some organisms are able to switch between aerobic and anaerobic metabolism depending on the availability of oxygen, a process known as "facultative anaerobiosis."

Anaerobic respiration is a type of metabolic process that occurs in the absence of molecular oxygen. In this process, organisms use alternative electron acceptors other than oxygen to generate energy through the transfer of electrons during cellular respiration. Examples of alternative electron acceptors include nitrate, sulfate, and carbon dioxide.

Anaerobic metabolism is less efficient than aerobic metabolism in terms of energy production, but it allows organisms to survive in environments where oxygen is not available or is toxic. Anaerobic bacteria are important decomposers in many ecosystems, breaking down organic matter and releasing nutrients back into the environment. In the human body, anaerobic bacteria can cause infections and other health problems if they proliferate in areas with low oxygen levels, such as the mouth, intestines, or deep tissue wounds.

'Artemia' is a genus of aquatic branchiopod crustaceans, also known as brine shrimp. They are commonly found in saltwater environments such as salt lakes and highly saline ponds. Artemia are known for their ability to produce cysts (also called "resting eggs") that can survive extreme environmental conditions, making them an important organism in research related to survival in harsh environments and space exploration.

In a medical context, Artemia is not typically used as a term but may be referenced in scientific studies related to biology, genetics, or astrobiology. The compounds derived from Artemia, such as astaxanthin and other carotenoids, have been studied for their potential health benefits, including antioxidant properties and support for eye and heart health. However, these applications are still under research and not yet considered part of mainstream medical practice.

Pyruvate decarboxylase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the cellular process of fermentation and gluconeogenesis. In medical and biochemical terms, pyruvate decarboxylase is defined as:

"An enzyme (EC 4.1.1.1) that catalyzes the decarboxylation of pyruvate to form acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide in the presence of thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) as a cofactor. This reaction occurs during anaerobic metabolism, such as alcohol fermentation in yeast or bacteria, and helps to generate ATP and NADH for the cell's energy needs."

In humans, pyruvate decarboxylase is primarily found in the liver and kidneys, where it participates in gluconeogenesis – the process of generating new glucose molecules from non-carbohydrate precursors. The enzyme's activity is essential for maintaining blood glucose levels during fasting or low-carbohydrate intake.

Deficiencies in pyruvate decarboxylase can lead to metabolic disorders, such as pyruvate decarboxylase deficiency (PDC deficiency), which is characterized by lactic acidosis, developmental delays, and neurological issues. Proper diagnosis and management of these conditions often involve monitoring enzyme activity and glucose metabolism.

A cotyledon is a seed leaf in plants, which is part of the embryo within the seed. Cotyledons are often referred to as "seed leaves" because they are the first leaves to emerge from the seed during germination and provide nutrients to the developing plant until it can produce its own food through photosynthesis.

In some plants, such as monocotyledons, there is only one cotyledon, while in other plants, such as dicotyledons, there are two cotyledons. The number of cotyledons is a characteristic that is used to classify different types of plants.

Cotyledons serve important functions during the early stages of plant growth, including providing energy and nutrients to the developing plant, protecting the embryo, and helping to anchor the seed in the soil. Once the plant has established its root system and begun to produce true leaves through photosynthesis, the cotyledons may wither or fall off, depending on the species.

Sodium cyanide is a highly toxic chemical compound with the formula NaCN. It is a white solid that is readily soluble in water, and it has a bitter, almond-like odor that some people can detect. Sodium cyanide is used in various industrial processes, including metal cleaning and electroplating, but it is perhaps best known as a poison.

Cyanide ions (CN-) are extremely toxic because they bind to the ferric iron (Fe3+) in cytochrome c oxidase, a crucial enzyme in the mitochondria that is responsible for cellular respiration and energy production. When cyanide ions bind to this enzyme, it becomes unable to function, leading to a rapid depletion of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and an accumulation of lactic acid, which can cause metabolic acidosis, coma, and death within minutes to hours.

It is important to note that sodium cyanide should be handled with extreme care and only by trained professionals who are familiar with its hazards and proper safety protocols. Exposure to this compound can cause severe health effects, including respiratory failure, convulsions, and cardiac arrest.

Potassium Cyanide (C6H5KN) is defined as a white, water-soluble, crystalline salt that is highly toxic. It is used in fumigation, electroplating, and metal cleaning. When combined with acids, it releases the deadly gas hydrogen cyanide. It can cause immediate death by inhibiting cellular respiration. It is also known as Cyanide of Potassium or Potassium Salt of Hydrocyanic Acid.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Potamogetonaceae" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in botany, specifically a family of aquatic plants commonly known as pondweeds. The plants in this family are characterized by their submerged or floating leaves and their adaptation to living in freshwater environments. If you have any questions related to the field of medicine, I would be happy to try and help answer them for you.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a high-energy molecule that stores and transports energy within cells. It is the main source of energy for most cellular processes, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. ATP is composed of a base (adenine), a sugar (ribose), and three phosphate groups. The bonds between these phosphate groups contain a significant amount of energy, which can be released when the bond between the second and third phosphate group is broken, resulting in the formation of adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. This process is known as hydrolysis and can be catalyzed by various enzymes to drive a wide range of cellular functions. ATP can also be regenerated from ADP through various metabolic pathways, such as oxidative phosphorylation or substrate-level phosphorylation, allowing for the continuous supply of energy to cells.

I cannot provide a medical definition for "carps" as it is not a term used in medicine. The term "carp" refers to a type of freshwater fish that belongs to the family Cyprinidae. If you meant to ask about something else, please provide more context or clarify your question.

Glycolysis is a fundamental metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells, consisting of a series of biochemical reactions. It's the process by which a six-carbon glucose molecule is broken down into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. This process generates a net gain of two ATP molecules (the main energy currency in cells), two NADH molecules, and two water molecules.

Glycolysis can be divided into two stages: the preparatory phase (or 'energy investment' phase) and the payoff phase (or 'energy generation' phase). During the preparatory phase, glucose is phosphorylated twice to form glucose-6-phosphate and then converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. These reactions consume two ATP molecules but set up the subsequent breakdown of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into triose phosphates in the payoff phase. In this second stage, each triose phosphate is further oxidized and degraded to produce one pyruvate molecule, one NADH molecule, and one ATP molecule through substrate-level phosphorylation.

Glycolysis does not require oxygen to proceed; thus, it can occur under both aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvate produced during glycolysis is further metabolized through fermentation pathways such as lactic acid fermentation or alcohol fermentation to regenerate NAD+, which is necessary for glycolysis to continue.

In summary, glycolysis is a crucial process in cellular energy metabolism, allowing cells to convert glucose into ATP and other essential molecules while also serving as a starting point for various other biochemical pathways.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "killifishes" is not a term used in medical definitions. Killifishes are a type of small, freshwater or saltwater fish that belong to the family Cyprinodontidae. They are known for their bright colors and patterns, and are often kept as aquarium pets. If you have any questions about biology or animal species, I'd be happy to try to help answer them!

Physiological adaptation refers to the changes or modifications that occur in an organism's biological functions or structures as a result of environmental pressures or changes. These adaptations enable the organism to survive and reproduce more successfully in its environment. They can be short-term, such as the constriction of blood vessels in response to cold temperatures, or long-term, such as the evolution of longer limbs in animals that live in open environments.

In the context of human physiology, examples of physiological adaptation include:

1. Acclimatization: The process by which the body adjusts to changes in environmental conditions, such as altitude or temperature. For example, when a person moves to a high-altitude location, their body may produce more red blood cells to compensate for the lower oxygen levels, leading to improved oxygen delivery to tissues.

2. Exercise adaptation: Regular physical activity can lead to various physiological adaptations, such as increased muscle strength and endurance, enhanced cardiovascular function, and improved insulin sensitivity.

3. Hormonal adaptation: The body can adjust hormone levels in response to changes in the environment or internal conditions. For instance, during prolonged fasting, the body releases stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline to help maintain energy levels and prevent muscle wasting.

4. Sensory adaptation: Our senses can adapt to different stimuli over time. For example, when we enter a dark room after being in bright sunlight, it takes some time for our eyes to adjust to the new light level. This process is known as dark adaptation.

5. Aging-related adaptations: As we age, various physiological changes occur that help us adapt to the changing environment and maintain homeostasis. These include changes in body composition, immune function, and cognitive abilities.

Potassium is a essential mineral and an important electrolyte that is widely distributed in the human body. The majority of potassium in the body (approximately 98%) is found within cells, with the remaining 2% present in blood serum and other bodily fluids. Potassium plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including:

1. Regulation of fluid balance and maintenance of normal blood pressure through its effects on vascular tone and sodium excretion.
2. Facilitation of nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction by participating in the generation and propagation of action potentials.
3. Protein synthesis, enzyme activation, and glycogen metabolism.
4. Regulation of acid-base balance through its role in buffering systems.

The normal serum potassium concentration ranges from 3.5 to 5.0 mEq/L (milliequivalents per liter) or mmol/L (millimoles per liter). Potassium levels outside this range can have significant clinical consequences, with both hypokalemia (low potassium levels) and hyperkalemia (high potassium levels) potentially leading to serious complications such as cardiac arrhythmias, muscle weakness, and respiratory failure.

Potassium is primarily obtained through the diet, with rich sources including fruits (e.g., bananas, oranges, and apricots), vegetables (e.g., leafy greens, potatoes, and tomatoes), legumes, nuts, dairy products, and meat. In cases of deficiency or increased needs, potassium supplements may be recommended under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Iridaceae is not a medical term but a taxonomic category in botany. It refers to the family of plants known as the Iris family, which includes over 2,000 species distributed across 66 genera. These plants are characterized by their distinctive flowers, which typically have six petal-like structures (three outer and three inner) and a tubular or cup-shaped structure called the perianth tube.

While Iridaceae is not a medical term, some of its member species do have medicinal uses. For example, the roots of certain iris species, such as Iris germanica and Iris versicolor, contain compounds with medicinal properties. These compounds have been used in traditional medicine to treat various conditions, including digestive disorders, skin problems, and respiratory ailments. However, it is important to note that the use of these plants for medicinal purposes should be done under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as they can also contain toxic compounds that can cause adverse effects if used improperly.

Oxygen consumption, also known as oxygen uptake, is the amount of oxygen that is consumed or utilized by the body during a specific period of time, usually measured in liters per minute (L/min). It is a common measurement used in exercise physiology and critical care medicine to assess an individual's aerobic metabolism and overall health status.

In clinical settings, oxygen consumption is often measured during cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) to evaluate cardiovascular function, pulmonary function, and exercise capacity in patients with various medical conditions such as heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other respiratory or cardiac disorders.

During exercise, oxygen is consumed by the muscles to generate energy through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. The amount of oxygen consumed during exercise can provide important information about an individual's fitness level, exercise capacity, and overall health status. Additionally, measuring oxygen consumption can help healthcare providers assess the effectiveness of treatments and rehabilitation programs in patients with various medical conditions.

Araliaceae is a family of flowering plants, also known as the aralia family or ivy family. It includes a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, many of which have compound leaves and small clusters of flowers. Some well-known members of this family include the genera Aralia (commonly called "aralias" or "devil's walkingsticks"), Panax (which includes ginseng), Hedera (common ivy), and Schefflera (also known as umbrella trees). The plants in this family are found primarily in tropical and subtropical regions around the world.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "hepatopancreas" is not a recognized term in human anatomy or pathology. It is commonly used to describe a combined exocrine organ in some invertebrates, like crustaceans, where it serves both digestive and metabolic functions. If you have any questions about human medical conditions, I'd be happy to help with those!

Dinitrophenols (DNP) are a class of chemical compounds that contain two nitro groups (-NO2) attached to a phenol group. Dinitrophenols have been used in the past as industrial dyes, wood preservatives, and pesticides. However, they have also been misused as weight loss supplements due to their ability to increase metabolic rate and cause weight loss.

The use of DNP for weight loss is dangerous and has been linked to several fatalities. DNP works by disrupting the normal functioning of the mitochondria in cells, which are responsible for producing energy. This disruption causes an increase in metabolic rate, leading to a rapid breakdown of fat and carbohydrates, and ultimately weight loss. However, this increased metabolism can also produce excessive heat, leading to hyperthermia, dehydration, and damage to organs such as the heart, liver, and kidneys.

Due to their potential for serious harm, DNP-containing products are banned in many countries, including the United States. Medical professionals should be aware of the dangers associated with DNP use and advise patients accordingly.

"Acorus" is a genus of perennial plants in the family Acoraceae. The most common species is Acorus calamus, also known as sweet flag or calamus. This plant has been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, including as a stimulant, carminative, and antiemetic. However, it's important to note that the use of this plant in modern medicine is limited due to concerns about its potential toxicity and lack of rigorous scientific evidence supporting its efficacy. Therefore, it's recommended to consult with a healthcare professional before using any products containing Acorus for medicinal purposes.

L-Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme found in various tissues within the body, including the heart, liver, kidneys, muscles, and brain. It plays a crucial role in the process of energy production, particularly during anaerobic conditions when oxygen levels are low.

In the presence of the coenzyme NADH, LDH catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to lactate, generating NAD+ as a byproduct. Conversely, in the presence of NAD+, LDH can convert lactate back to pyruvate using NADH. This reversible reaction is essential for maintaining the balance between lactate and pyruvate levels within cells.

Elevated blood levels of LDH may indicate tissue damage or injury, as this enzyme can be released into the circulation following cellular breakdown. As a result, LDH is often used as a nonspecific biomarker for various medical conditions, such as myocardial infarction (heart attack), liver disease, muscle damage, and certain types of cancer. However, it's important to note that an isolated increase in LDH does not necessarily pinpoint the exact location or cause of tissue damage, and further diagnostic tests are usually required for confirmation.

"Oryza sativa" is the scientific name for Asian rice, which is a species of grass and one of the most important food crops in the world. It is a staple food for more than half of the global population, providing a significant source of calories and carbohydrates. There are several varieties of Oryza sativa, including indica and japonica, which differ in their genetic makeup, growth habits, and grain characteristics.

Oryza sativa is an annual plant that grows to a height of 1-2 meters and produces long slender leaves and clusters of flowers at the top of the stem. The grains are enclosed within a tough husk, which must be removed before consumption. Rice is typically grown in flooded fields or paddies, which provide the necessary moisture for germination and growth.

Rice is an important source of nutrition for people around the world, particularly in developing countries where it may be one of the few reliable sources of food. It is rich in carbohydrates, fiber, and various vitamins and minerals, including thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, iron, and magnesium. However, rice can also be a significant source of arsenic, a toxic heavy metal that can accumulate in the grain during growth.

In medical terms, Oryza sativa may be used as a component of nutritional interventions for individuals who are at risk of malnutrition or who have specific dietary needs. It may also be studied in clinical trials to evaluate its potential health benefits or risks.

Aerobiosis is the process of living, growing, and functioning in the presence of oxygen. It refers to the metabolic processes that require oxygen to break down nutrients and produce energy in cells. This is in contrast to anaerobiosis, which is the ability to live and grow in the absence of oxygen.

In medical terms, aerobiosis is often used to describe the growth of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, that require oxygen to survive and multiply. These organisms are called aerobic organisms, and they play an important role in many biological processes, including decomposition and waste breakdown.

However, some microorganisms are unable to grow in the presence of oxygen and are instead restricted to environments where oxygen is absent or limited. These organisms are called anaerobic organisms, and their growth and metabolism are referred to as anaerobiosis.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Veratrine is not a medical term, but it is a pharmacological term that refers to a mixture of alkaloids (veratridine and cevadine) extracted from the seeds of the sabadilla lily (Schoenocaulon officinale). Veratrine has been used in research and medicine for its effects on nerve cells, particularly in studying sodium channels. It can cause prolonged depolarization of nerve membranes leading to repetitive firing of action potentials. However, due to its high toxicity, it is not used clinically.

Amobarbital is a barbiturate drug that is primarily used as a sedative and sleep aid. It works by depressing the central nervous system, which can lead to relaxation, drowsiness, and reduced anxiety. Amobarbital is also sometimes used as an anticonvulsant to help control seizures.

Like other barbiturates, amobarbital has a high potential for abuse and addiction, and it can be dangerous or even fatal when taken in large doses or mixed with alcohol or other drugs. It is typically prescribed only for short-term use due to the risk of tolerance and dependence.

It's important to note that the use of barbiturates like amobarbital has declined in recent years due to the development of safer and more effective alternatives, such as benzodiazepines and non-benzodiazepine sleep aids.

'Echinochloa' is not a medical term, but rather a taxonomic genus name in the plant kingdom. It belongs to the family Poaceae and includes several species of annual grasses commonly known as barnyard grass or jointed grass. These plants are often considered weeds in agricultural settings. They have distinctively jointed stems and spike-like inflorescences, and some species can produce both sexual and asexual seeds.

While Echinochloa species may not have direct medical relevance, they can sometimes serve as hosts for crop pests or pathogens that might impact human health indirectly. For instance, certain grassy weeds like Echinochloa spp. can harbor and spread plant viruses, bacteria, or fungi that could potentially affect crops of agricultural importance. However, the medical definition of 'Echinochloa' is not applicable since it does not refer to a human disease, condition, or treatment.

Protoveratrines are a group of toxic compounds found in the plant species Veratrum album (white hellebore). These compounds include protoveratrine A and protoveratrine B, which can cause severe cardiovascular and neurological symptoms when ingested or otherwise introduced into the body. They act as alkaloids that disrupt the functioning of sodium channels in cell membranes, leading to a range of adverse effects such as bradycardia (slow heart rate), hypotension (low blood pressure), respiratory depression, and neurological symptoms like paralysis, convulsions, and coma.

It is important to note that white hellebore and its extracts, including protoveratrines, have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, such as treating heart conditions and reducing fever. However, due to their high toxicity and narrow therapeutic index, they are not commonly used in modern medical practice. Instead, safer and more effective alternatives are preferred.

Calcium is an essential mineral that is vital for various physiological processes in the human body. The medical definition of calcium is as follows:

Calcium (Ca2+) is a crucial cation and the most abundant mineral in the human body, with approximately 99% of it found in bones and teeth. It plays a vital role in maintaining structural integrity, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, hormonal secretion, blood coagulation, and enzyme activation.

Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated through the interplay of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D. Dietary calcium intake, absorption, and excretion are also critical factors in maintaining optimal calcium levels in the body.

Hypocalcemia refers to low serum calcium levels, while hypercalcemia indicates high serum calcium levels. Both conditions can have detrimental effects on various organ systems and require medical intervention to correct.

Energy metabolism is the process by which living organisms produce and consume energy to maintain life. It involves a series of chemical reactions that convert nutrients from food, such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, into energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

The process of energy metabolism can be divided into two main categories: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism is the breakdown of nutrients to release energy, while anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones using energy.

There are three main stages of energy metabolism: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). The citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondria and involves the further breakdown of pyruvate to produce more ATP, NADH, and carbon dioxide. Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of energy metabolism and occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It involves the transfer of electrons from NADH and other electron carriers to oxygen, which generates a proton gradient across the membrane. This gradient drives the synthesis of ATP, producing the majority of the cell's energy.

Overall, energy metabolism is a complex and essential process that allows organisms to grow, reproduce, and maintain their bodily functions. Disruptions in energy metabolism can lead to various diseases, including diabetes, obesity, and neurodegenerative disorders.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Sagittaria" is not a medical term. It is the genus name of a group of aquatic plants commonly known as arrowheads or sagittarias. These plants are often found in wetlands and are known for their arrow-shaped leaves. If you have any questions about a medical term, I would be happy to help with that instead.

Nystatin is an antifungal medication used to treat various fungal infections such as candidiasis, which can affect the skin, mouth, throat, and vagina. It works by binding to ergosterol, a component of fungal cell membranes, creating pores that increase permeability and ultimately lead to fungal cell death.

The medical definition of Nystatin is:

A polyene antifungal agent derived from Streptomyces noursei, used primarily for topical treatment of mucocutaneous candidiasis. It has little systemic absorption and is therefore not useful for treating systemic fungal infections. Common side effects include local irritation and burning sensations at the application site.

Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.

In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.

Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.

The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall, composed of specialized cardiac muscle cells that are responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. It forms the thickest part of the heart wall and is divided into two sections: the left ventricle, which pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and the right ventricle, which pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

The myocardium contains several types of cells, including cardiac muscle fibers, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. The muscle fibers are arranged in a highly organized pattern that allows them to contract in a coordinated manner, generating the force necessary to pump blood through the heart and circulatory system.

Damage to the myocardium can occur due to various factors such as ischemia (reduced blood flow), infection, inflammation, or genetic disorders. This damage can lead to several cardiac conditions, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and cardiomyopathy.

Carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone (CCP) is a chemical compound that functions as an ionophore, which is a type of molecule that can transport ions across biological membranes. CCP is specifically known to transport protons (H+) and has been used in research as a tool to study the role of proton transport in various cellular processes.

CCP is also a potent mitochondrial uncoupler, which means that it disrupts the normal functioning of the mitochondria, the energy-producing structures in cells. By doing so, CCP can cause a rapid and irreversible decline in ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production, leading to cell death.

Due to its potent toxicity, CCP is not used as a therapeutic agent but rather as a research tool to study mitochondrial function and cellular metabolism. It is important to handle this compound with care and follow appropriate safety protocols when working with it in the laboratory.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "hagfishes" are not a medical term. They are a group of marine animals that are considered to be some of the most primitive and ancient of all living jawless fish. Hagfishes are well known for their ability to produce large amounts of slime when threatened, which can help them escape from predators.

If you have any questions about biology or zoology, I'd be happy to try to answer them for you!

Labyrinthine fluids, also known as endolymph and perilymph, are fluids that fill the inner ear structures, specifically the bony labyrinth. The bony labyrinth is divided into two main parts: the cochlea, responsible for hearing, and the vestibular system, responsible for balance.

Endolymph is a clear, plasma-like fluid found within the membranous labyrinth, which is a series of interconnected tubes and sacs that lie inside the bony labyrinth. Endolymph plays a crucial role in the functioning of both the cochlea and vestibular system by creating an electrochemical gradient necessary for the conversion of mechanical sound vibrations into electrical signals in the cochlea, as well as facilitating the detection of head movements and maintaining balance in the vestibular system.

Perilymph, on the other hand, is a clear, colorless fluid that fills the space between the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth. It is similar in composition to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serves as a protective cushion for the delicate inner ear structures. Perilymph also helps maintain the electrochemical gradient required for sound transduction in the cochlea.

Disorders related to these labyrinthine fluids, such as endolymphatic hydrops or perilymph fistula, can lead to hearing and balance problems.

The endolymphatic duct is a narrow canal in the inner ear that is part of the membranous labyrinth. It connects the utricle and saccule (two sensory structures in the vestibular system responsible for detecting changes in head position and movement) to the endolymphatic sac (a dilated portion of the duct that helps regulate the volume and pressure of endolymph, a fluid found within the membranous labyrinth).

The endolymphatic duct plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance and homeostasis of the inner ear by allowing the absorption and circulation of endolymph. Disorders or abnormalities in this region can lead to various vestibular and hearing dysfunctions, such as Meniere's disease, endolymphatic hydrops, and other inner ear disorders.

Sodium is an essential mineral and electrolyte that is necessary for human health. In a medical context, sodium is often discussed in terms of its concentration in the blood, as measured by serum sodium levels. The normal range for serum sodium is typically between 135 and 145 milliequivalents per liter (mEq/L).

Sodium plays a number of important roles in the body, including:

* Regulating fluid balance: Sodium helps to regulate the amount of water in and around your cells, which is important for maintaining normal blood pressure and preventing dehydration.
* Facilitating nerve impulse transmission: Sodium is involved in the generation and transmission of electrical signals in the nervous system, which is necessary for proper muscle function and coordination.
* Assisting with muscle contraction: Sodium helps to regulate muscle contractions by interacting with other minerals such as calcium and potassium.

Low sodium levels (hyponatremia) can cause symptoms such as confusion, seizures, and coma, while high sodium levels (hypernatremia) can lead to symptoms such as weakness, muscle cramps, and seizures. Both conditions require medical treatment to correct.

Kymography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize and analyze the movement or motion of structures, such as muscles, blood vessels, or intestines, over time. It involves capturing a series of images at high temporal resolution and then displaying them in a way that emphasizes changes in intensity along a single line or region of interest.

In kymography, a moving stripe or band is created on the image display, representing the movement of the structure being studied. The resulting image shows the velocity, direction, and patterns of motion of the structure, which can be useful for diagnostic purposes or for research in physiology and biomechanics.

Kymography is often used in conjunction with other imaging techniques, such as ultrasound or fluoroscopy, to provide more detailed information about the function and behavior of different tissues and organs.

Lactic acid, also known as 2-hydroxypropanoic acid, is a chemical compound that plays a significant role in various biological processes. In the context of medicine and biochemistry, lactic acid is primarily discussed in relation to muscle metabolism and cellular energy production. Here's a medical definition for lactic acid:

Lactic acid (LA): A carboxylic acid with the molecular formula C3H6O3 that plays a crucial role in anaerobic respiration, particularly during strenuous exercise or conditions of reduced oxygen availability. It is formed through the conversion of pyruvate, catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), when there is insufficient oxygen to complete the final step of cellular respiration in the Krebs cycle. The accumulation of lactic acid can lead to acidosis and muscle fatigue. Additionally, lactic acid serves as a vital intermediary in various metabolic pathways and is involved in the production of glucose through gluconeogenesis in the liver.

Iodoacetates are salts or esters of iodoacetic acid, an organic compound containing iodine. In medicine, iodoacetates have been used as topical antiseptics and anti-inflammatory agents. However, their use is limited due to potential skin irritation and the availability of safer alternatives.

In a broader context, iodoacetates are also known for their chemical properties. They can act as alkylating agents, which means they can react with proteins and enzymes in living organisms, disrupting their function. This property has been exploited in research to study various cellular processes.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

A plant root is not a medical term per se, but it is a term from botany, which is the study of plants. However, I can certainly provide a definition for you.

Plant roots are the underground organs of a plant that typically grow downward into the soil. They serve several important functions, including:

1. Anchorage: Roots help to stabilize the plant and keep it upright in the ground.
2. Absorption: Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which are essential for the plant's growth and development.
3. Conduction: Roots conduct water and nutrients up to the above-ground parts of the plant, such as the stem and leaves.
4. Vegetative reproduction: Some plants can reproduce vegetatively through their roots, producing new plants from root fragments or specialized structures called rhizomes or tubers.

Roots are composed of several different tissues, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and vascular tissue. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the root, which secretes a waxy substance called suberin that helps to prevent water loss. The cortex is the middle layer of the root, which contains cells that store carbohydrates and other nutrients. The endodermis is a thin layer of cells that surrounds the vascular tissue and regulates the movement of water and solutes into and out of the root. The vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem, which transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.

Iodoacetic acid is not typically defined in the context of medical terminology, but rather it is a chemical compound with the formula CH2ICO2H. It is a colorless, oily liquid that is used in organic synthesis as an alkylating agent and also has been studied for its potential antibacterial and antifungal properties.

In medical contexts, iodoacetic acid may be mentioned in relation to its use in research or in the discussion of certain chemical reactions that may occur in the body. For example, it can inhibit the enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), which plays a crucial role in energy metabolism. However, iodoacetic acid itself is not a medical treatment or therapy.

Carbohydrate metabolism is the process by which the body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose, which is then used for energy or stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen. This process involves several enzymes and chemical reactions that convert carbohydrates from food into glucose, fructose, or galactose, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells throughout the body.

The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate carbohydrate metabolism by controlling the uptake and storage of glucose in cells. Insulin is released from the pancreas when blood sugar levels are high, such as after a meal, and promotes the uptake and storage of glucose in cells. Glucagon, on the other hand, is released when blood sugar levels are low and signals the liver to convert stored glycogen back into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.

Disorders of carbohydrate metabolism can result from genetic defects or acquired conditions that affect the enzymes or hormones involved in this process. Examples include diabetes, hypoglycemia, and galactosemia. Proper management of these disorders typically involves dietary modifications, medication, and regular monitoring of blood sugar levels.

A nonmammalian embryo refers to the developing organism in animals other than mammals, from the fertilized egg (zygote) stage until hatching or birth. In nonmammalian species, the developmental stages and terminology differ from those used in mammals. The term "embryo" is generally applied to the developing organism up until a specific stage of development that is characterized by the formation of major organs and structures. After this point, the developing organism is referred to as a "larva," "juvenile," or other species-specific terminology.

The study of nonmammalian embryos has played an important role in our understanding of developmental biology and evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo). By comparing the developmental processes across different animal groups, researchers can gain insights into the evolutionary origins and diversification of body plans and structures. Additionally, nonmammalian embryos are often used as model systems for studying basic biological processes, such as cell division, gene regulation, and pattern formation.

Cyanides are a group of chemical compounds that contain the cyano group, -CN, which consists of a carbon atom triple-bonded to a nitrogen atom. They are highly toxic and can cause rapid death due to the inhibition of cellular respiration. Cyanide ions (CN-) bind to the ferric iron in cytochrome c oxidase, a crucial enzyme in the electron transport chain, preventing the flow of electrons and the production of ATP, leading to cellular asphyxiation.

Common sources of cyanides include industrial chemicals such as hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and potassium cyanide (KCN), as well as natural sources like certain fruits, nuts, and plants. Exposure to high levels of cyanides can occur through inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption, leading to symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, rapid heartbeat, seizures, coma, and ultimately death. Treatment for cyanide poisoning typically involves the use of antidotes that bind to cyanide ions and convert them into less toxic forms, such as thiosulfate and rhodanese.

A hermaphroditic organism is one that has both male and female reproductive structures in the same individual. This means that the organism has both ovaries and testes, or their equivalents, and can produce both sperm and eggs. Hermaphroditism is most commonly found in plants, but it also occurs in some animals, including certain species of snails, slugs, worms, and fish.

It's important to note that true hermaphroditism is different from intersex conditions, which refer to individuals who may have physical or genetic features that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies. Intersex people may have physical characteristics that are not typically associated with male or female anatomy, or they may have chromosomal variations that do not fit the typical pattern of XX (female) or XY (male).

In medical terminology, hermaphroditism is sometimes referred to as "true hermaphroditism" to distinguish it from intersex conditions. However, the term "hermaphrodite" has fallen out of favor in modern medical and social contexts because it is often considered stigmatizing and misleading. Instead, many professionals prefer to use terms like "intersex" or "disorders of sex development" (DSD) to describe individuals with atypical sexual anatomy or chromosomal patterns.

Mitochondria are specialized structures located inside cells that convert the energy from food into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the primary form of energy used by cells. They are often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell because they generate most of the cell's supply of chemical energy. Mitochondria are also involved in various other cellular processes, such as signaling, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Mitochondria have their own DNA, known as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is inherited maternally. This means that mtDNA is passed down from the mother to her offspring through the egg cells. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been linked to a variety of diseases and conditions, including neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, and aging.

Lactates, also known as lactic acid, are compounds that are produced by muscles during intense exercise or other conditions of low oxygen supply. They are formed from the breakdown of glucose in the absence of adequate oxygen to complete the full process of cellular respiration. This results in the production of lactate and a hydrogen ion, which can lead to a decrease in pH and muscle fatigue.

In a medical context, lactates may be measured in the blood as an indicator of tissue oxygenation and metabolic status. Elevated levels of lactate in the blood, known as lactic acidosis, can indicate poor tissue perfusion or hypoxia, and may be seen in conditions such as sepsis, cardiac arrest, and severe shock. It is important to note that lactates are not the primary cause of acidemia (low pH) in lactic acidosis, but rather a marker of the underlying process.

Sodium lactate is not a medical condition but a medication or solution containing sodium lactate. Sodium lactate is the sodium salt of lactic acid, which is a naturally occurring substance in the body produced during anaerobic metabolism. It is available as a sterile, isotonic solution for intravenous (IV) administration and is used to treat or prevent metabolic acidosis, a condition characterized by low blood pH due to excessive acid accumulation in the body.

Sodium lactate solution can help restore the normal pH balance of the body fluids by providing an alkaline substance (lactate) that can be metabolized to bicarbonate, a base, in the liver. It is also used as a source of hydration and electrolytes during surgery or other medical procedures.

It's important to note that sodium lactate should not be confused with lactic acid, which can contribute to metabolic acidosis in certain conditions such as hypoxia, intense exercise, or severe illnesses.

Adenine nucleotides are molecules that consist of a nitrogenous base called adenine, which is linked to a sugar molecule (ribose in the case of adenosine monophosphate or AMP, and deoxyribose in the case of adenosine diphosphate or ADP and adenosine triphosphate or ATP) and one, two, or three phosphate groups. These molecules play a crucial role in energy transfer and metabolism within cells.

AMP contains one phosphate group, while ADP contains two phosphate groups, and ATP contains three phosphate groups. When a phosphate group is removed from ATP, energy is released, which can be used to power various cellular processes such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and protein synthesis. The reverse reaction, in which a phosphate group is added back to ADP or AMP to form ATP, requires energy input and often involves the breakdown of nutrients such as glucose or fatty acids.

In addition to their role in energy metabolism, adenine nucleotides also serve as precursors for other important molecules, including DNA and RNA, coenzymes, and signaling molecules.

Acidosis is a medical condition that occurs when there is an excess accumulation of acid in the body or when the body loses its ability to effectively regulate the pH level of the blood. The normal pH range of the blood is slightly alkaline, between 7.35 and 7.45. When the pH falls below 7.35, it is called acidosis.

Acidosis can be caused by various factors, including impaired kidney function, respiratory problems, diabetes, severe dehydration, alcoholism, and certain medications or toxins. There are two main types of acidosis: metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis.

Metabolic acidosis occurs when the body produces too much acid or is unable to eliminate it effectively. This can be caused by conditions such as diabetic ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis, kidney failure, and ingestion of certain toxins.

Respiratory acidosis, on the other hand, occurs when the lungs are unable to remove enough carbon dioxide from the body, leading to an accumulation of acid. This can be caused by conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and sedative overdose.

Symptoms of acidosis may include fatigue, shortness of breath, confusion, headache, rapid heartbeat, and in severe cases, coma or even death. Treatment for acidosis depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, oxygen therapy, fluid replacement, and dialysis.

In medical terms, the heart is a muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity that functions as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body. It's responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. The human heart is divided into four chambers: two atria on the top and two ventricles on the bottom. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the rest of the body. The heart's rhythmic contractions and relaxations are regulated by a complex electrical conduction system.

The extracellular space is the region outside of cells within a tissue or organ, where various biological molecules and ions exist in a fluid medium. This space is filled with extracellular matrix (ECM), which includes proteins like collagen and elastin, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans that provide structural support and biochemical cues to surrounding cells. The ECM also contains various ions, nutrients, waste products, signaling molecules, and growth factors that play crucial roles in cell-cell communication, tissue homeostasis, and regulation of cell behavior. Additionally, the extracellular space includes the interstitial fluid, which is the fluid component of the ECM, and the lymphatic and vascular systems, through which cells exchange nutrients, waste products, and signaling molecules with the rest of the body. Overall, the extracellular space is a complex and dynamic microenvironment that plays essential roles in maintaining tissue structure, function, and homeostasis.

Glyburide is a medication that falls under the class of drugs known as sulfonylureas. It is primarily used to manage type 2 diabetes by lowering blood sugar levels. Glyburide works by stimulating the release of insulin from the pancreas, thereby increasing the amount of insulin available in the body to help glucose enter cells and decrease the level of glucose in the bloodstream.

The medical definition of Glyburide is:
A second-generation sulfonylurea antidiabetic drug (oral hypoglycemic) used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. It acts by stimulating pancreatic beta cells to release insulin and increases peripheral glucose uptake and utilization, thereby reducing blood glucose levels. Glyburide may also decrease glucose production in the liver.

It is important to note that Glyburide should be used as part of a comprehensive diabetes management plan that includes proper diet, exercise, regular monitoring of blood sugar levels, and other necessary lifestyle modifications. As with any medication, it can have side effects and potential interactions with other drugs, so it should only be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "snails" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to a large group of land and sea-dwelling mollusks that have coiled shells and move slowly by means of a muscular foot. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I'd be happy to help! Just let me know what you're looking for.

Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1 (HIF-1) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the cellular response to low oxygen levels, also known as hypoxia. It is a heterodimeric protein composed of two subunits: HIF-1α and HIF-1β.

Under normoxic conditions (adequate oxygen supply), HIF-1α is constantly produced but rapidly degraded by proteasomes due to the action of prolyl hydroxylases, which mark it for destruction in the presence of oxygen. However, under hypoxic conditions, the activity of prolyl hydroxylases is inhibited, leading to the stabilization and accumulation of HIF-1α.

Once stabilized, HIF-1α translocates to the nucleus and forms a complex with HIF-1β. This complex then binds to hypoxia-responsive elements (HREs) in the promoter regions of various genes involved in angiogenesis, glucose metabolism, erythropoiesis, cell survival, and other processes that help cells adapt to low oxygen levels.

By activating these target genes, HIF-1 plays a critical role in regulating the body's response to hypoxia, including promoting the formation of new blood vessels (angiogenesis), enhancing anaerobic metabolism, and inhibiting cell proliferation and apoptosis under low oxygen conditions. Dysregulation of HIF-1 has been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and ischemic disorders.

Cell respiration is the process by which cells convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. The three main stages of cell respiration are glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and the electron transport chain.

During glycolysis, which takes place in the cytoplasm, glucose is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and reducing power in the form of NADH.

The citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondria and involves the breakdown of acetyl-CoA (formed from pyruvate) to produce more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

Finally, the electron transport chain, also located in the mitochondria, uses the energy from NADH and FADH2 to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient. The flow of protons back across the membrane drives the synthesis of ATP, which is used as a source of energy by the cell.

Cell respiration is a crucial process that allows cells to generate the energy they need to perform various functions and maintain homeostasis.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Oxidative phosphorylation is the metabolic process by which cells use enzymes to generate energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the oxidation of nutrients, such as glucose or fatty acids. This process occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and is facilitated by the electron transport chain, which consists of a series of protein complexes that transfer electrons from donor molecules to acceptor molecules. As the electrons are passed along the chain, they release energy that is used to pump protons across the membrane, creating a gradient. The ATP synthase enzyme then uses the flow of protons back across the membrane to generate ATP, which serves as the main energy currency for cellular processes.

Cell survival refers to the ability of a cell to continue living and functioning normally, despite being exposed to potentially harmful conditions or treatments. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or other stressors that can damage cells or interfere with their normal processes.

In scientific research, measures of cell survival are often used to evaluate the effectiveness of various therapies or treatments. For example, researchers may expose cells to a particular drug or treatment and then measure the percentage of cells that survive to assess its potential therapeutic value. Similarly, in toxicology studies, measures of cell survival can help to determine the safety of various chemicals or substances.

It's important to note that cell survival is not the same as cell proliferation, which refers to the ability of cells to divide and multiply. While some treatments may promote cell survival, they may also inhibit cell proliferation, making them useful for treating diseases such as cancer. Conversely, other treatments may be designed to specifically target and kill cancer cells, even if it means sacrificing some healthy cells in the process.

The hippocampus is a complex, curved formation in the brain that resembles a seahorse (hence its name, from the Greek word "hippos" meaning horse and "kampos" meaning sea monster). It's part of the limbic system and plays crucial roles in the formation of memories, particularly long-term ones.

This region is involved in spatial navigation and cognitive maps, allowing us to recognize locations and remember how to get to them. Additionally, it's one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer's disease, which often results in memory loss as an early symptom.

Anatomically, it consists of two main parts: the Ammon's horn (or cornu ammonis) and the dentate gyrus. These structures are made up of distinct types of neurons that contribute to different aspects of learning and memory.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

Perfusion, in medical terms, refers to the process of circulating blood through the body's organs and tissues to deliver oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products. It is a measure of the delivery of adequate blood flow to specific areas or tissues in the body. Perfusion can be assessed using various methods, including imaging techniques like computed tomography (CT) scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and perfusion scintigraphy.

Perfusion is critical for maintaining proper organ function and overall health. When perfusion is impaired or inadequate, it can lead to tissue hypoxia, acidosis, and cell death, which can result in organ dysfunction or failure. Conditions that can affect perfusion include cardiovascular disease, shock, trauma, and certain surgical procedures.

Ouabain is defined as a cardiac glycoside, a type of steroid, that is found in the seeds and roots of certain plants native to Africa. It is used in medicine as a digitalis-like agent to increase the force of heart contractions and slow the heart rate, particularly in the treatment of congestive heart failure and atrial fibrillation. Ouabain functions by inhibiting the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase) in the cell membrane, leading to an increase in intracellular sodium and calcium ions, which ultimately enhances cardiac muscle contractility. It is also known as g-strophanthin or ouabaine.

Acid-base equilibrium refers to the balance between the concentration of acids and bases in a solution, which determines its pH level. In a healthy human body, maintaining acid-base equilibrium is crucial for proper cellular function and homeostasis.

The balance is maintained by several buffering systems in the body, including the bicarbonate buffer system, which helps to regulate the pH of blood. This system involves the reaction between carbonic acid (a weak acid) and bicarbonate ions (a base) to form water and carbon dioxide.

The balance between acids and bases is carefully regulated by the body's respiratory and renal systems. The lungs control the elimination of carbon dioxide, a weak acid, through exhalation, while the kidneys regulate the excretion of hydrogen ions and the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions.

When the balance between acids and bases is disrupted, it can lead to acid-base disorders such as acidosis (excessive acidity) or alkalosis (excessive basicity). These conditions can have serious consequences on various organ systems if left untreated.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Ethanol is the medical term for pure alcohol, which is a colorless, clear, volatile, flammable liquid with a characteristic odor and burning taste. It is the type of alcohol that is found in alcoholic beverages and is produced by the fermentation of sugars by yeasts.

In the medical field, ethanol is used as an antiseptic and disinfectant, and it is also used as a solvent for various medicinal preparations. It has central nervous system depressant properties and is sometimes used as a sedative or to induce sleep. However, excessive consumption of ethanol can lead to alcohol intoxication, which can cause a range of negative health effects, including impaired judgment, coordination, and memory, as well as an increased risk of accidents, injuries, and chronic diseases such as liver disease and addiction.

The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The brainstem controls many vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory and motor information between the cerebral cortex and the rest of the body. Additionally, several cranial nerves originate from the brainstem, including those that control eye movements, facial movements, and hearing.

"Newborn animals" refers to the very young offspring of animals that have recently been born. In medical terminology, newborns are often referred to as "neonates," and they are classified as such from birth until about 28 days of age. During this time period, newborn animals are particularly vulnerable and require close monitoring and care to ensure their survival and healthy development.

The specific needs of newborn animals can vary widely depending on the species, but generally, they require warmth, nutrition, hydration, and protection from harm. In many cases, newborns are unable to regulate their own body temperature or feed themselves, so they rely heavily on their mothers for care and support.

In medical settings, newborn animals may be examined and treated by veterinarians to ensure that they are healthy and receiving the care they need. This can include providing medical interventions such as feeding tubes, antibiotics, or other treatments as needed to address any health issues that arise. Overall, the care and support of newborn animals is an important aspect of animal medicine and conservation efforts.

I must clarify that the term "Guinea Pigs" is not typically used in medical definitions. However, in colloquial or informal language, it may refer to people who are used as the first to try out a new medical treatment or drug. This is known as being a "test subject" or "in a clinical trial."

In the field of scientific research, particularly in studies involving animals, guinea pigs are small rodents that are often used as experimental subjects due to their size, cost-effectiveness, and ease of handling. They are not actually pigs from Guinea, despite their name's origins being unclear. However, they do not exactly fit the description of being used in human medical experiments.

Magnesium is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in various biological processes in the human body. It is the fourth most abundant cation in the body and is involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions, including protein synthesis, muscle and nerve function, blood glucose control, and blood pressure regulation. Magnesium also contributes to the structural development of bones and teeth.

In medical terms, magnesium deficiency can lead to several health issues, such as muscle cramps, weakness, heart arrhythmias, and seizures. On the other hand, excessive magnesium levels can cause symptoms like diarrhea, nausea, and muscle weakness. Magnesium supplements or magnesium-rich foods are often recommended to maintain optimal magnesium levels in the body.

Some common dietary sources of magnesium include leafy green vegetables, nuts, seeds, legumes, whole grains, and dairy products. Magnesium is also available in various forms as a dietary supplement, including magnesium oxide, magnesium citrate, magnesium chloride, and magnesium glycinate.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that is naturally present in the Earth's atmosphere. It is a normal byproduct of cellular respiration in humans, animals, and plants, and is also produced through the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

In medical terms, carbon dioxide is often used as a respiratory stimulant and to maintain the pH balance of blood. It is also used during certain medical procedures, such as laparoscopic surgery, to insufflate (inflate) the abdominal cavity and create a working space for the surgeon.

Elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the body can lead to respiratory acidosis, a condition characterized by an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and a decrease in pH. This can occur in conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, or other lung diseases that impair breathing and gas exchange. Symptoms of respiratory acidosis may include shortness of breath, confusion, headache, and in severe cases, coma or death.

Glucosyltransferases (GTs) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a glucose molecule from an activated donor to an acceptor molecule, resulting in the formation of a glycosidic bond. These enzymes play crucial roles in various biological processes, including the biosynthesis of complex carbohydrates, cell wall synthesis, and protein glycosylation. In some cases, GTs can also contribute to bacterial pathogenesis by facilitating the attachment of bacteria to host tissues through the formation of glucans, which are polymers of glucose molecules.

GTs can be classified into several families based on their sequence similarities and catalytic mechanisms. The donor substrates for GTs are typically activated sugars such as UDP-glucose, TDP-glucose, or GDP-glucose, which serve as the source of the glucose moiety that is transferred to the acceptor molecule. The acceptor can be a wide range of molecules, including other sugars, proteins, lipids, or small molecules.

In the context of human health and disease, GTs have been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as cancer, inflammation, and microbial infections. For example, some GTs can modify proteins on the surface of cancer cells, leading to increased cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Additionally, GTs can contribute to bacterial resistance to antibiotics by modifying the structure of bacterial cell walls or by producing biofilms that protect bacteria from host immune responses and antimicrobial agents.

Overall, Glucosyltransferases are essential enzymes involved in various biological processes, and their dysregulation has been associated with several human diseases. Therefore, understanding the structure, function, and regulation of GTs is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies to target these enzymes and treat related pathological conditions.

Alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) is a group of enzymes responsible for catalyzing the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes or ketones, and reducing equivalents such as NAD+ to NADH. In humans, ADH plays a crucial role in the metabolism of ethanol, converting it into acetaldehyde, which is then further metabolized by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) into acetate. This process helps to detoxify and eliminate ethanol from the body. Additionally, ADH enzymes are also involved in the metabolism of other alcohols, such as methanol and ethylene glycol, which can be toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "seedling" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. It is an agricultural and horticultural term that refers to a young plant grown from a seed, typically during the early stages of its growth. If you have any questions related to health or medicine, I'd be happy to try to help with those!

Nitrogen is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is an element that is crucial to medicine and human life.

In a medical context, nitrogen is often mentioned in relation to gas analysis, respiratory therapy, or medical gases. Nitrogen (N) is a colorless, odorless, and nonreactive gas that makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. It is an essential element for various biological processes, such as the growth and maintenance of organisms, because it is a key component of amino acids, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds.

In some medical applications, nitrogen is used to displace oxygen in a mixture to create a controlled environment with reduced oxygen levels (hypoxic conditions) for therapeutic purposes, such as in certain types of hyperbaric chambers. Additionally, nitrogen gas is sometimes used in cryotherapy, where extremely low temperatures are applied to tissues to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation.

However, it's important to note that breathing pure nitrogen can be dangerous, as it can lead to unconsciousness and even death due to lack of oxygen (asphyxiation) within minutes.

Membrane potential is the electrical potential difference across a cell membrane, typically for excitable cells such as nerve and muscle cells. It is the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a cell, created by the selective permeability of the cell membrane to different ions. The resting membrane potential of a typical animal cell is around -70 mV, with the interior being negative relative to the exterior. This potential is generated and maintained by the active transport of ions across the membrane, primarily through the action of the sodium-potassium pump. Membrane potentials play a crucial role in many physiological processes, including the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle cells.

Antimetabolites are a class of drugs that interfere with the normal metabolic processes of cells, particularly those involved in DNA replication and cell division. They are commonly used as chemotherapeutic agents to treat various types of cancer because many cancer cells divide more rapidly than normal cells. Antimetabolites work by mimicking natural substances needed for cell growth and division, such as nucleotides or amino acids, and getting incorporated into the growing cells' DNA or protein structures, which ultimately leads to the termination of cell division and death of the cancer cells. Examples of antimetabolites include methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, and capecitabine.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "sharks" are not a medical term. Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral and dorsal fins without spines.

If you have any medical questions or terms that you would like defined, I'd be happy to help!

In the context of medical terminology, "germination" is not typically used as a term to describe a physiological process in humans or animals. It is primarily used in the field of botany to refer to the process by which a seed or spore sprouts and begins to grow into a new plant.

However, if you are referring to the concept of germination in the context of bacterial or viral growth, then it could be defined as:

The process by which bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms become active and start to multiply, often after a period of dormancy or latency. This can occur when the microorganisms encounter favorable conditions, such as moisture, warmth, or nutrients, that allow them to grow and reproduce. In medical contexts, this term is more commonly used in relation to infectious diseases caused by these microorganisms.

Cytosol refers to the liquid portion of the cytoplasm found within a eukaryotic cell, excluding the organelles and structures suspended in it. It is the site of various metabolic activities and contains a variety of ions, small molecules, and enzymes. The cytosol is where many biochemical reactions take place, including glycolysis, protein synthesis, and the regulation of cellular pH. It is also where some organelles, such as ribosomes and vesicles, are located. In contrast to the cytosol, the term "cytoplasm" refers to the entire contents of a cell, including both the cytosol and the organelles suspended within it.

Lactic acidosis is a medical condition characterized by an excess accumulation of lactic acid in the body. Lactic acid is a byproduct produced in the muscles and other tissues during periods of low oxygen supply or increased energy demand. Under normal circumstances, lactic acid is quickly metabolized and cleared from the body. However, when the production of lactic acid exceeds its clearance, it can lead to a state of acidosis, where the pH of the blood becomes too acidic.

Lactic acidosis can be caused by several factors, including:

* Prolonged exercise or strenuous physical activity
* Severe illness or infection
* Certain medications, such as metformin and isoniazid
* Alcoholism
* Hypoxia (low oxygen levels) due to lung disease, heart failure, or anemia
* Inherited metabolic disorders that affect the body's ability to metabolize lactic acid

Symptoms of lactic acidosis may include rapid breathing, fatigue, muscle weakness, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Severe cases can lead to coma, organ failure, and even death. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the condition and providing supportive care, such as administering intravenous fluids and bicarbonate to help restore normal pH levels.

The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain, characterized by its intricate folded structure and wrinkled appearance. It is a region of great importance as it plays a key role in higher cognitive functions such as perception, consciousness, thought, memory, language, and attention. The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres, each containing four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. These areas are responsible for different functions, with some regions specializing in sensory processing while others are involved in motor control or associative functions. The cerebral cortex is composed of gray matter, which contains neuronal cell bodies, and is covered by a layer of white matter that consists mainly of myelinated nerve fibers.

Ischemia is the medical term used to describe a lack of blood flow to a part of the body, often due to blocked or narrowed blood vessels. This can lead to a shortage of oxygen and nutrients in the tissues, which can cause them to become damaged or die. Ischemia can affect many different parts of the body, including the heart, brain, legs, and intestines. Symptoms of ischemia depend on the location and severity of the blockage, but they may include pain, cramping, numbness, weakness, or coldness in the affected area. In severe cases, ischemia can lead to tissue death (gangrene) or organ failure. Treatment for ischemia typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the blocked blood flow, such as through medication, surgery, or lifestyle changes.

Fermentation is a metabolic process in which an organism converts carbohydrates into alcohol or organic acids using enzymes. In the absence of oxygen, certain bacteria, yeasts, and fungi convert sugars into carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and various end products, such as alcohol, lactic acid, or acetic acid. This process is commonly used in food production, such as in making bread, wine, and beer, as well as in industrial applications for the production of biofuels and chemicals.

Tolbutamide is defined as a first-generation sulfonylurea oral hypoglycemic agent used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. It acts by stimulating the release of insulin from the pancreas, thereby reducing blood glucose levels. Tolbutamide is metabolized and excreted rapidly, with a half-life of about 6 hours, making it useful in patients with renal impairment.

Common side effects of tolbutamide include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as skin reactions such as rash and itching. Hypoglycemia is a potential adverse effect, particularly if the medication is dosed improperly or if the patient skips meals. Tolbutamide should be used with caution in patients with hepatic impairment, kidney disease, and the elderly due to an increased risk of hypoglycemia.

It's important to note that tolbutamide is not commonly used as a first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes mellitus due to the availability of newer medications with more favorable side effect profiles and efficacy.

Adenosine is a purine nucleoside that is composed of a sugar (ribose) and the base adenine. It plays several important roles in the body, including serving as a precursor for the synthesis of other molecules such as ATP, NAD+, and RNA.

In the medical context, adenosine is perhaps best known for its use as a pharmaceutical agent to treat certain cardiac arrhythmias. When administered intravenously, it can help restore normal sinus rhythm in patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) by slowing conduction through the atrioventricular node and interrupting the reentry circuit responsible for the arrhythmia.

Adenosine can also be used as a diagnostic tool to help differentiate between narrow-complex tachycardias of supraventricular origin and those that originate from below the ventricles (such as ventricular tachycardia). This is because adenosine will typically terminate PSVT but not affect the rhythm of VT.

It's worth noting that adenosine has a very short half-life, lasting only a few seconds in the bloodstream. This means that its effects are rapidly reversible and generally well-tolerated, although some patients may experience transient symptoms such as flushing, chest pain, or shortness of breath.

A salt gland is a type of exocrine gland found in certain animals, including birds and reptiles, that helps regulate the balance of salt and water in their bodies. These glands are capable of excreting a highly concentrated solution of sodium chloride, or salt, which allows these animals to drink seawater and still maintain the proper osmotic balance in their tissues.

In birds, salt glands are typically located near the eyes and are responsible for producing tears that contain high levels of salt. These tears then drain into the nasal passages and are eventually expelled from the body. In reptiles, salt glands can be found in various locations, depending on the species, but they serve the same function of helping to regulate salt and water balance.

It's worth noting that mammals do not have salt glands and must rely on other mechanisms to regulate their salt and water balance, such as through the kidneys and the production of sweat.

In medical terms, acids refer to a class of chemicals that have a pH less than 7 and can donate protons (hydrogen ions) in chemical reactions. In the context of human health, acids are an important part of various bodily functions, such as digestion. However, an imbalance in acid levels can lead to medical conditions. For example, an excess of hydrochloric acid in the stomach can cause gastritis or peptic ulcers, while an accumulation of lactic acid due to strenuous exercise or decreased blood flow can lead to muscle fatigue and pain.

Additionally, in clinical laboratory tests, certain substances may be tested for their "acidity" or "alkalinity," which is measured using a pH scale. This information can help diagnose various medical conditions, such as kidney disease or diabetes.

Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase is a crucial enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, which is a metabolic process that breaks down glucose to produce energy. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into two triose sugars: dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.

There are two main types of aldolase isoenzymes in humans, classified as aldolase A (or muscle type) and aldolase B (or liver type). Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase refers specifically to aldolase A, which is primarily found in the muscles, brain, and red blood cells. Aldolase B, on the other hand, is predominantly found in the liver, kidney, and small intestine.

Deficiency or dysfunction of fructose-bisphosphate aldolase can lead to metabolic disorders, such as hereditary fructose intolerance, which results from a deficiency in another enzyme called aldolase B. However, it is essential to note that the term "fructose-bisphosphate aldolase" typically refers to aldolase A and not aldolase B.

Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1 (HIF-1) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the body's response to low oxygen levels, also known as hypoxia. HIF-1 is a heterodimeric protein composed of two subunits: an alpha subunit (HIF-1α) and a beta subunit (HIF-1β).

The alpha subunit, HIF-1α, is the regulatory subunit that is subject to oxygen-dependent degradation. Under normal oxygen conditions (normoxia), HIF-1α is constantly produced in the cell but is rapidly degraded by proteasomes due to hydroxylation of specific proline residues by prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing proteins (PHDs). This hydroxylation reaction requires oxygen as a substrate, and under hypoxic conditions, the activity of PHDs is inhibited, leading to the stabilization and accumulation of HIF-1α.

Once stabilized, HIF-1α translocates to the nucleus, where it heterodimerizes with HIF-1β and binds to hypoxia-responsive elements (HREs) in the promoter regions of target genes. This binding results in the activation of gene transcription programs that promote cellular adaptation to low oxygen levels. These adaptive responses include increased erythropoiesis, angiogenesis, glucose metabolism, and pH regulation, among others.

Therefore, HIF-1α is a critical regulator of the body's response to hypoxia, and its dysregulation has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders.

The hypoglossal nerve, also known as the 12th cranial nerve (CN XII), is primarily responsible for innervating the muscles of the tongue, allowing for its movement and function. These muscles include the intrinsic muscles that alter the shape of the tongue and the extrinsic muscles that position it in the oral cavity. The hypoglossal nerve also has some minor contributions to the innervation of two muscles in the neck: the sternocleidomastoid and the trapezius. These functions are related to head turning and maintaining head position. Any damage to this nerve can lead to weakness or paralysis of the tongue, causing difficulty with speech, swallowing, and tongue movements.

I'm happy to help! However, it seems like there are two terms combined into one request: "Mitochondria" and "Heart." I will provide separate definitions for each.

Mitochondrion (singular) or Mitochondria (plural): These are specialized structures found in the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus), including human cells. They are often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the cell because they generate energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondria contain their own DNA, which is distinct from the nuclear DNA, and are believed to have originated from ancient bacteria that established a symbiotic relationship with primitive eukaryotic cells.

Heart: In human anatomy, the heart is a muscular organ responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. It is located in the thoracic cavity, slightly left of the center, and is enclosed by the pericardium, a double-walled sac that provides protection and lubrication for the heart's movement. The human heart is divided into four chambers: two atria on the top and two ventricles on the bottom. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body. The heart's pumping action is regulated by electrical signals that originate in a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells called the sinoatrial node (SA node).

Antimycin A is an antibiotic substance produced by various species of Streptomyces bacteria. It is known to inhibit the electron transport chain in mitochondria, which can lead to cellular dysfunction and death. Antimycin A has been used in research to study the mechanisms of cellular respiration and oxidative phosphorylation.

In a medical context, antimycin A is not used as a therapeutic agent due to its toxicity to mammalian cells. However, it may be used in laboratory settings to investigate various biological processes or to develop new therapies for diseases related to mitochondrial dysfunction.

Phosphates, in a medical context, refer to the salts or esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates play crucial roles in various biological processes within the human body. They are essential components of bones and teeth, where they combine with calcium to form hydroxyapatite crystals. Phosphates also participate in energy transfer reactions as phosphate groups attached to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Additionally, they contribute to buffer systems that help maintain normal pH levels in the body.

Abnormal levels of phosphates in the blood can indicate certain medical conditions. High phosphate levels (hyperphosphatemia) may be associated with kidney dysfunction, hyperparathyroidism, or excessive intake of phosphate-containing products. Low phosphate levels (hypophosphatemia) might result from malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or certain diseases affecting the small intestine or kidneys. Both hypophosphatemia and hyperphosphatemia can have significant impacts on various organ systems and may require medical intervention.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Utah" is not a medical term or concept. It is a geographical location, being the 45th state admitted to the United States of America. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

In a medical context, "hot temperature" is not a standard medical term with a specific definition. However, it is often used in relation to fever, which is a common symptom of illness. A fever is typically defined as a body temperature that is higher than normal, usually above 38°C (100.4°F) for adults and above 37.5-38°C (99.5-101.3°F) for children, depending on the source.

Therefore, when a medical professional talks about "hot temperature," they may be referring to a body temperature that is higher than normal due to fever or other causes. It's important to note that a high environmental temperature can also contribute to an elevated body temperature, so it's essential to consider both the body temperature and the environmental temperature when assessing a patient's condition.

'Zea mays' is the biological name for corn or maize, which is not typically considered a medical term. However, corn or maize can have medical relevance in certain contexts. For example, cornstarch is sometimes used as a diluent for medications and is also a component of some skin products. Corn oil may be found in topical ointments and creams. In addition, some people may have allergic reactions to corn or corn-derived products. But generally speaking, 'Zea mays' itself does not have a specific medical definition.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

The optic nerve, also known as the second cranial nerve, is the nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. It is composed of approximately one million nerve fibers that carry signals related to vision, such as light intensity and color, from the eye's photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) to the visual cortex in the brain. The optic nerve is responsible for carrying this visual information so that it can be processed and interpreted by the brain, allowing us to see and perceive our surroundings. Damage to the optic nerve can result in vision loss or impairment.

Free radicals are molecules or atoms that have one or more unpaired electrons in their outermost shell, making them highly reactive. They can be formed naturally in the body through processes such as metabolism and exercise, or they can come from external sources like pollution, radiation, and certain chemicals. Free radicals can cause damage to cells and contribute to the development of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. Antioxidants are substances that can neutralize free radicals and help protect against their harmful effects.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP) is a chemical compound with the formula C6H4N2O5. It is an organic compound that contains two nitro groups (-NO2) attached to a phenol molecule. DNP is a yellow, crystalline solid that is slightly soluble in water and more soluble in organic solvents.

In the medical field, DNP has been used in the past as a weight loss agent due to its ability to disrupt mitochondrial function and increase metabolic rate. However, its use as a weight loss drug was banned in the United States in the 1930s due to serious side effects, including cataracts, skin lesions, and hyperthermia, which can lead to death.

Exposure to DNP can occur through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. Acute exposure to high levels of DNP can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, sweating, dizziness, headache, and rapid heartbeat. Chronic exposure to lower levels of DNP can lead to cataracts, skin lesions, and damage to the nervous system, liver, and kidneys.

It is important to note that DNP is not approved for use as a weight loss agent or any other medical purpose in the United States. Its use as a dietary supplement or weight loss aid is illegal and can be dangerous.

Asphyxia is a medical condition that occurs when there is insufficient oxygen supply or excessive carbon dioxide buildup in the body, leading to impaired respiration and oxygenation of organs. This can result in unconsciousness, damage to internal organs, and potentially death if not treated promptly.

Asphyxia can be caused by various factors such as strangulation, choking, smoke inhalation, chemical exposure, or drowning. Symptoms of asphyxia may include shortness of breath, coughing, wheezing, cyanosis (bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes), rapid heartbeat, confusion, and eventually loss of consciousness.

Immediate medical attention is required for individuals experiencing symptoms of asphyxia. Treatment may involve providing supplemental oxygen, removing the source of obstruction or exposure to harmful substances, and supporting respiratory function with mechanical ventilation if necessary. Prevention measures include avoiding hazardous environments, using proper safety equipment, and seeking prompt medical attention in case of suspected asphyxiation.

In a medical context, nitrites are typically referred to as organic compounds that contain a functional group with the formula R-N=O, where R represents an alkyl or aryl group. They are commonly used in medicine as vasodilators, which means they widen and relax blood vessels, improving blood flow and lowering blood pressure.

One example of a nitrite used medically is amyl nitrite, which was previously used to treat angina pectoris, a type of chest pain caused by reduced blood flow to the heart muscle. However, its use has largely been replaced by other medications due to safety concerns and the availability of more effective treatments.

It's worth noting that inorganic nitrites, such as sodium nitrite, are also used in medicine for various purposes, including as a preservative in food and as a medication to treat cyanide poisoning. However, these compounds have different chemical properties and uses than organic nitrites.

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) is a nucleotide that is the monophosphate ester of adenosine, consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine attached to the 1' carbon atom of ribose via a β-N9-glycosidic bond, which in turn is esterified to a phosphate group. It is an important molecule in biological systems as it plays a key role in cellular energy transfer and storage, serving as a precursor to other nucleotides such as ADP and ATP. AMP is also involved in various signaling pathways and can act as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.

Deoxyglucose is a glucose molecule that has had one oxygen atom removed, resulting in the absence of a hydroxyl group (-OH) at the 2' position of the carbon chain. It is used in research and medical settings as a metabolic tracer to study glucose uptake and metabolism in cells and organisms.

Deoxyglucose can be taken up by cells through glucose transporters, but it cannot be further metabolized by glycolysis or other glucose-utilizing pathways. This leads to the accumulation of deoxyglucose within the cell, which can interfere with normal cellular processes and cause toxicity in high concentrations.

In medical research, deoxyglucose is sometimes labeled with radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14 or fluorine-18 to create radiolabeled deoxyglucose (FDG), which can be used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans to visualize and measure glucose uptake in tissues. This technique is commonly used in cancer imaging, as tumors often have increased glucose metabolism compared to normal tissue.

Acclimatization is the process by which an individual organism adjusts to a change in its environment, enabling it to maintain its normal physiological functions and thus survive and reproduce. In the context of medicine, acclimatization often refers to the body's adaptation to changes in temperature, altitude, or other environmental factors that can affect health.

For example, when a person moves from a low-altitude area to a high-altitude area, their body may undergo several physiological changes to adapt to the reduced availability of oxygen at higher altitudes. These changes may include increased breathing rate and depth, increased heart rate, and altered blood chemistry, among others. This process of acclimatization can take several days or even weeks, depending on the individual and the degree of environmental change.

Similarly, when a person moves from a cold climate to a hot climate, their body may adjust by increasing its sweat production and reducing its heat production, in order to maintain a stable body temperature. This process of acclimatization can help prevent heat-related illnesses such as heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

Overall, acclimatization is an important physiological process that allows organisms to adapt to changing environments and maintain their health and well-being.

Heat-shock proteins (HSPs) are a group of conserved proteins that are produced by cells in response to stressful conditions, such as increased temperature, exposure to toxins, or infection. They play an essential role in protecting cells and promoting their survival under stressful conditions by assisting in the proper folding and assembly of other proteins, preventing protein aggregation, and helping to refold or degrade damaged proteins. HSPs are named according to their molecular weight, for example, HSP70 and HSP90. They are found in all living organisms, from bacteria to humans, indicating their fundamental importance in cellular function and survival.

An action potential is a brief electrical signal that travels along the membrane of a nerve cell (neuron) or muscle cell. It is initiated by a rapid, localized change in the permeability of the cell membrane to specific ions, such as sodium and potassium, resulting in a rapid influx of sodium ions and a subsequent efflux of potassium ions. This ion movement causes a brief reversal of the electrical potential across the membrane, which is known as depolarization. The action potential then propagates along the cell membrane as a wave, allowing the electrical signal to be transmitted over long distances within the body. Action potentials play a crucial role in the communication and functioning of the nervous system and muscle tissue.

Naphthols are chemical compounds that consist of a naphthalene ring (a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon made up of two benzene rings) substituted with a hydroxyl group (-OH). They can be classified as primary or secondary naphthols, depending on whether the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the naphthalene ring (primary) or attached through a carbon atom (secondary). Naphthols are important intermediates in the synthesis of various chemical and pharmaceutical products. They have been used in the production of azo dyes, antioxidants, and pharmaceuticals such as analgesics and anti-inflammatory agents.

Adrenergic beta-2 receptor antagonists, also known as beta-2 adrenergic blockers or beta-2 antagonists, are a class of medications that block the action of epinephrine (adrenaline) and other catecholamines at beta-2 adrenergic receptors. These receptors are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the lungs, blood vessels, and skeletal muscles.

Beta-2 adrenergic receptor antagonists are primarily used to treat respiratory conditions such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). They work by relaxing the smooth muscle in the airways, which helps to reduce bronchoconstriction and improve breathing.

Some examples of beta-2 adrenergic receptor antagonists include:

* Butoxamine
* ICI 118,551
* Salbutamol (also a partial agonist)
* Terbutaline (also a partial agonist)

It's important to note that while these medications are called "antagonists," some of them can also act as partial agonists at beta-2 receptors, meaning they can both block the action of catecholamines and stimulate the receptor to some degree. This property can make them useful in certain clinical situations, such as during an asthma attack or preterm labor.

'Caenorhabditis elegans' is a species of free-living, transparent nematode (roundworm) that is widely used as a model organism in scientific research, particularly in the fields of biology and genetics. It has a simple anatomy, short lifespan, and fully sequenced genome, making it an ideal subject for studying various biological processes and diseases.

Some notable features of C. elegans include:

* Small size: Adult hermaphrodites are about 1 mm in length.
* Short lifespan: The average lifespan of C. elegans is around 2-3 weeks, although some strains can live up to 4 weeks under laboratory conditions.
* Development: C. elegans has a well-characterized developmental process, with adults developing from eggs in just 3 days at 20°C.
* Transparency: The transparent body of C. elegans allows researchers to observe its internal structures and processes easily.
* Genetics: C. elegans has a fully sequenced genome, which contains approximately 20,000 genes. Many of these genes have human homologs, making it an excellent model for studying human diseases.
* Neurobiology: C. elegans has a simple nervous system, with only 302 neurons in the hermaphrodite and 383 in the male. This simplicity makes it an ideal organism for studying neural development, function, and behavior.

Research using C. elegans has contributed significantly to our understanding of various biological processes, including cell division, apoptosis, aging, learning, and memory. Additionally, studies on C. elegans have led to the discovery of many genes associated with human diseases such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and metabolic conditions.

Potassium channels are membrane proteins that play a crucial role in regulating the electrical excitability of cells, including cardiac, neuronal, and muscle cells. These channels facilitate the selective passage of potassium ions (K+) across the cell membrane, maintaining the resting membrane potential and shaping action potentials. They are composed of four or six subunits that assemble to form a central pore through which potassium ions move down their electrochemical gradient. Potassium channels can be modulated by various factors such as voltage, ligands, mechanical stimuli, or temperature, allowing cells to fine-tune their electrical properties and respond to different physiological demands. Dysfunction of potassium channels has been implicated in several diseases, including cardiac arrhythmias, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disorders.

"Plant proteins" refer to the proteins that are derived from plant sources. These can include proteins from legumes such as beans, lentils, and peas, as well as proteins from grains like wheat, rice, and corn. Other sources of plant proteins include nuts, seeds, and vegetables.

Plant proteins are made up of individual amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. While animal-based proteins typically contain all of the essential amino acids that the body needs to function properly, many plant-based proteins may be lacking in one or more of these essential amino acids. However, by consuming a variety of plant-based foods throughout the day, it is possible to get all of the essential amino acids that the body needs from plant sources alone.

Plant proteins are often lower in calories and saturated fat than animal proteins, making them a popular choice for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as well as those looking to maintain a healthy weight or reduce their risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Additionally, plant proteins have been shown to have a number of health benefits, including improving gut health, reducing inflammation, and supporting muscle growth and repair.

"Cold temperature" is a relative term and its definition can vary depending on the context. In general, it refers to temperatures that are lower than those normally experienced or preferred by humans and other warm-blooded animals. In a medical context, cold temperature is often defined as an environmental temperature that is below 16°C (60.8°F).

Exposure to cold temperatures can have various physiological effects on the human body, such as vasoconstriction of blood vessels near the skin surface, increased heart rate and metabolic rate, and shivering, which helps to generate heat and maintain body temperature. Prolonged exposure to extreme cold temperatures can lead to hypothermia, a potentially life-threatening condition characterized by a drop in core body temperature below 35°C (95°F).

It's worth noting that some people may have different sensitivities to cold temperatures due to factors such as age, health status, and certain medical conditions. For example, older adults, young children, and individuals with circulatory or neurological disorders may be more susceptible to the effects of cold temperatures.

Cobalt is a chemical element with the symbol Co and atomic number 27. It is a hard, silver-white, lustrous, and brittle metal that is found naturally only in chemically combined form, except for small amounts found in meteorites. Cobalt is used primarily in the production of magnetic, wear-resistant, and high-strength alloys, as well as in the manufacture of batteries, magnets, and pigments.

In a medical context, cobalt is sometimes used in the form of cobalt-60, a radioactive isotope, for cancer treatment through radiation therapy. Cobalt-60 emits gamma rays that can be directed at tumors to destroy cancer cells. Additionally, small amounts of cobalt are present in some vitamin B12 supplements and fortified foods, as cobalt is an essential component of vitamin B12. However, exposure to high levels of cobalt can be harmful and may cause health effects such as allergic reactions, lung damage, heart problems, and neurological issues.

Myocardial reperfusion injury is a pathological process that occurs when blood flow is restored to the heart muscle (myocardium) after a period of ischemia or reduced oxygen supply, such as during a myocardial infarction (heart attack). The restoration of blood flow, although necessary to salvage the dying tissue, can itself cause further damage to the heart muscle. This paradoxical phenomenon is known as myocardial reperfusion injury.

The mechanisms behind myocardial reperfusion injury are complex and involve several processes, including:

1. Oxidative stress: The sudden influx of oxygen into the previously ischemic tissue leads to an overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage cellular structures, such as proteins, lipids, and DNA.
2. Calcium overload: During reperfusion, there is an increase in calcium influx into the cardiomyocytes (heart muscle cells). This elevated intracellular calcium level can disrupt normal cellular functions, leading to further damage.
3. Inflammation: Reperfusion triggers an immune response, with the recruitment of inflammatory cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes, to the site of injury. These cells release cytokines and other mediators that can exacerbate tissue damage.
4. Mitochondrial dysfunction: The restoration of blood flow can cause mitochondria, the powerhouses of the cell, to malfunction, leading to the release of pro-apoptotic factors and contributing to cell death.
5. Vasoconstriction and microvascular obstruction: During reperfusion, there may be vasoconstriction of the small blood vessels (microvasculature) in the heart, which can further limit blood flow and contribute to tissue damage.

Myocardial reperfusion injury is a significant concern because it can negate some of the benefits of early reperfusion therapy, such as thrombolysis or primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), used to treat acute myocardial infarction. Strategies to minimize myocardial reperfusion injury are an area of active research and include pharmacological interventions, ischemic preconditioning, and remote ischemic conditioning.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geologic sediments" is not a term used in medical definitions. Geological sediments are deposits of material that accumulate over time, usually in layers, as a result of natural geological processes such as weathering, erosion, and deposition. These sediments can eventually become rock formations and provide important clues about the Earth's history, including information about past climates, environments, and life on Earth.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Gene expression regulation in plants refers to the processes that control the production of proteins and RNA from the genes present in the plant's DNA. This regulation is crucial for normal growth, development, and response to environmental stimuli in plants. It can occur at various levels, including transcription (the first step in gene expression, where the DNA sequence is copied into RNA), RNA processing (such as alternative splicing, which generates different mRNA molecules from a single gene), translation (where the information in the mRNA is used to produce a protein), and post-translational modification (where proteins are chemically modified after they have been synthesized).

In plants, gene expression regulation can be influenced by various factors such as hormones, light, temperature, and stress. Plants use complex networks of transcription factors, chromatin remodeling complexes, and small RNAs to regulate gene expression in response to these signals. Understanding the mechanisms of gene expression regulation in plants is important for basic research, as well as for developing crops with improved traits such as increased yield, stress tolerance, and disease resistance.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. This can include the insertion, deletion, or modification of specific genes to achieve desired traits. In the context of medical definitions, GMOs are often used in research, biomedicine, and pharmaceutical production.

For example, genetically modified bacteria or yeast can be used to produce therapeutic proteins, such as insulin or vaccines. Genetic modification can also be used to create animal models of human diseases, allowing researchers to study disease mechanisms and test new therapies in a controlled setting. Additionally, GMOs are being explored for their potential use in gene therapy, where they can be engineered to deliver therapeutic genes to specific cells or tissues in the body.

It's important to note that while genetically modified organisms have shown great promise in many areas of medicine and biotechnology, there are also concerns about their potential impacts on human health and the environment. Therefore, their development and use are subject to strict regulations and oversight.

The carotid body is a small chemoreceptor organ located near the bifurcation of the common carotid artery into the internal and external carotid arteries. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of respiration, blood pressure, and pH balance by detecting changes in the chemical composition of the blood, particularly oxygen levels, carbon dioxide levels, and hydrogen ion concentration (pH).

The carotid body contains specialized nerve endings called glomus cells that are sensitive to changes in these chemical parameters. When there is a decrease in oxygen or an increase in carbon dioxide or hydrogen ions, the glomus cells release neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine, which activate afferent nerve fibers leading to the brainstem's nucleus tractus solitarius. This information is then integrated with other physiological signals in the brainstem, resulting in appropriate adjustments in breathing rate, depth, and pattern, as well as changes in heart rate and blood vessel diameter to maintain homeostasis.

Dysfunction of the carotid body can lead to various disorders, such as hypertension, sleep apnea, and chronic lung disease. In some cases, overactivity of the carotid body may result in conditions like primary breathing pattern disorders or pseudohypoxia, where the body responds as if it is experiencing hypoxia despite normal oxygen levels.

The proximal kidney tubule is the initial portion of the renal tubule in the nephron of the kidney. It is located in the renal cortex and is called "proximal" because it is closer to the glomerulus, compared to the distal tubule. The proximal tubule plays a crucial role in the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients from the filtrate that has been formed by the glomerulus. It also helps in the secretion of waste products and other substances into the urine.

The proximal tubule is divided into two segments: the pars convoluta and the pars recta. The pars convoluta is the curved portion that receives filtrate from the Bowman's capsule, while the pars recta is the straight portion that extends deeper into the renal cortex.

The proximal tubule is lined with a simple cuboidal epithelium, and its cells are characterized by numerous mitochondria, which provide energy for active transport processes. The apical surface of the proximal tubular cells has numerous microvilli, forming a brush border that increases the surface area for reabsorption.

In summary, the proximal kidney tubule is a critical site for the reabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients from the glomerular filtrate, contributing to the maintenance of fluid and electrolyte balance in the body.

A rhizome is not typically used as a medical term, but it is a term borrowed from botany that has been adopted in some areas of medicine, particularly in psychiatry and psychotherapy.

In its original botanical sense, a rhizome is a horizontal stem of a plant that grows underground, often sending out roots and shoots from its nodes. This growth pattern is contrasted with that of a root system, which grows downward, and a stem system, which grows upward.

In psychiatry and psychotherapy, the term "rhizome" has been used as a metaphor to describe a non-hierarchical and decentralized approach to understanding mental processes and subjectivity. The rhizome model emphasizes the complexity, multiplicity, and interconnectedness of these processes, and rejects simplistic or reductionist explanations that focus on a single cause or origin. Instead, it encourages a more holistic and dynamic view of mental life, one that is open to multiple perspectives and interpretations.

It's important to note that the use of the term "rhizome" in this context is metaphorical and not medical in the strict sense. It is a way of thinking about mental processes and subjectivity that has been influenced by poststructuralist and feminist theories, among others.

Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."

In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).

The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.

Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.

Electron Probe Microanalysis (EPMA) is a technique used in materials science and geology to analyze the chemical composition of materials at very small scales, typically on the order of microns or less. In this technique, a focused beam of electrons is directed at a sample, causing the emission of X-rays that are characteristic of the elements present in the sample. By analyzing the energy and intensity of these X-rays, researchers can determine the concentration of different elements in the sample with high precision and accuracy.

EPMA is typically performed using a specialized instrument called an electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA), which consists of an electron column for generating and focusing the electron beam, an X-ray spectrometer for analyzing the emitted X-rays, and a stage for positioning and manipulating the sample. The technique is widely used in fields such as mineralogy, geochemistry, metallurgy, and materials science to study the composition and structure of minerals, alloys, semiconductors, and other materials.

One of the key advantages of EPMA is its ability to analyze the chemical composition of small regions within a sample, even in cases where there are spatial variations in composition or where the sample is heterogeneous. This makes it an ideal technique for studying the distribution and behavior of trace elements in minerals, the microstructure of alloys and other materials, and the composition of individual grains or phases within a polyphase material. Additionally, EPMA can be used to analyze both conductive and non-conductive samples, making it a versatile tool for a wide range of applications.

In medical terms, "seeds" are often referred to as a small amount of a substance, such as a radioactive material or drug, that is inserted into a tissue or placed inside a capsule for the purpose of treating a medical condition. This can include procedures like brachytherapy, where seeds containing radioactive materials are used in the treatment of cancer to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Similarly, in some forms of drug delivery, seeds containing medication can be used to gradually release the drug into the body over an extended period of time.

It's important to note that "seeds" have different meanings and applications depending on the medical context. In other cases, "seeds" may simply refer to small particles or structures found in the body, such as those present in the eye's retina.

Microtomy is a medical term that refers to the process of cutting thin slices of tissue for examination under a microscope, typically with the use of a microtome. A microtome is a precision instrument that allows for the uniform and controlled cutting of very thin sections of biological tissues, usually ranging from 2-10 micrometers in thickness.

The process of microtomy involves fixing, embedding, and sectioning the tissue specimen. First, the tissue is fixed using a fixative such as formalin to preserve its structure and prevent decomposition. Then, it is embedded in a support medium, often paraffin wax or a plastic resin, which helps to hold the tissue together during cutting.

Once the tissue is properly prepared, it is loaded into the microtome, where a sharp blade cuts through the tissue, producing thin sections that can be mounted on glass slides and stained with various dyes to highlight specific structures or features of interest. These stained sections are then examined under a microscope for diagnostic or research purposes.

Microtomy is an essential technique in histology, pathology, and many areas of biological research, as it allows researchers and clinicians to visualize the structure and composition of tissues at the cellular and subcellular level.

Myocardial contraction refers to the rhythmic and forceful shortening of heart muscle cells (myocytes) in the myocardium, which is the muscular wall of the heart. This process is initiated by electrical signals generated by the sinoatrial node, causing a wave of depolarization that spreads throughout the heart.

During myocardial contraction, calcium ions flow into the myocytes, triggering the interaction between actin and myosin filaments, which are the contractile proteins in the muscle cells. This interaction causes the myofilaments to slide past each other, resulting in the shortening of the sarcomeres (the functional units of muscle contraction) and ultimately leading to the contraction of the heart muscle.

Myocardial contraction is essential for pumping blood throughout the body and maintaining adequate circulation to vital organs. Any impairment in myocardial contractility can lead to various cardiac disorders, such as heart failure, cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmias.

Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that provides information about the biochemical composition of tissues, including their metabolic state. It is often used in conjunction with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) to analyze various metabolites within body tissues, such as the brain, heart, liver, and muscles.

During MRS, a strong magnetic field, radio waves, and a computer are used to produce detailed images and data about the concentration of specific metabolites in the targeted tissue or organ. This technique can help detect abnormalities related to energy metabolism, neurotransmitter levels, pH balance, and other biochemical processes, which can be useful for diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders, and metabolic diseases.

There are different types of MRS, such as Proton (^1^H) MRS, Phosphorus-31 (^31^P) MRS, and Carbon-13 (^13^C) MRS, each focusing on specific elements or metabolites within the body. The choice of MRS technique depends on the clinical question being addressed and the type of information needed for diagnosis or monitoring purposes.

Hydroxy acids are a class of chemical compounds that contain both a carboxylic acid group and a hydroxyl group. They are commonly used in dermatology and cosmetic products for their exfoliating, moisturizing, and anti-aging properties. The two main types of hydroxy acids used in skincare are alpha-hydroxy acids (AHAs) and beta-hydroxy acids (BHAs).

Alpha-hydroxy acids include compounds such as glycolic acid, lactic acid, malic acid, tartaric acid, and citric acid. They work by breaking down the "glue" that holds dead skin cells together, promoting cell turnover and helping to improve the texture and tone of the skin. AHAs are also known for their ability to improve the appearance of fine lines, wrinkles, and age spots.

Beta-hydroxy acids, on the other hand, are primarily represented by salicylic acid. BHAs are oil-soluble, which allows them to penetrate deeper into the pores and exfoliate dead skin cells and excess sebum that can lead to clogged pores and acne breakouts.

It is important to note that hydroxy acids can cause skin irritation and sensitivity to sunlight, so it is recommended to use sunscreen and start with lower concentrations when first incorporating them into a skincare routine.

Decanoic acids are a type of medium-chain fatty acid with a chain length of 10 carbon atoms. The most common decanoic acid is decanoic acid or capric acid. It is found in various animal and plant sources, such as coconut oil and cow's milk. Decanoic acids have a variety of uses, including as ingredients in cosmetics and food products, and as a potential treatment for medical conditions such as epilepsy and bacterial infections. In the body, decanoic acids are metabolized in the liver and used for energy production.

A sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) is a type of ion transport protein found in the membranes of cells, including those of the heart and brain. It plays a crucial role in regulating intracellular calcium concentrations by facilitating the exchange of sodium ions for calcium ions across the cell membrane.

During each heartbeat, calcium ions enter the cardiac muscle cells to trigger contraction. After the contraction, the sodium-calcium exchanger helps remove excess calcium from the cell by exchanging it for sodium ions. This process is essential for maintaining normal calcium levels within the cell and allowing the heart muscle to relax between beats.

There are three main isoforms of the sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX1, NCX2, and NCX3) with different tissue distributions and functions. Dysfunction in sodium-calcium exchangers has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as heart failure, hypertension, and neurological disorders.

Myocardial ischemia is a condition in which the blood supply to the heart muscle (myocardium) is reduced or blocked, leading to insufficient oxygen delivery and potential damage to the heart tissue. This reduction in blood flow typically results from the buildup of fatty deposits, called plaques, in the coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygen-rich blood. The plaques can rupture or become unstable, causing the formation of blood clots that obstruct the artery and limit blood flow.

Myocardial ischemia may manifest as chest pain (angina pectoris), shortness of breath, fatigue, or irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias). In severe cases, it can lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack) if the oxygen supply is significantly reduced or cut off completely, causing permanent damage or death of the heart muscle. Early diagnosis and treatment of myocardial ischemia are crucial for preventing further complications and improving patient outcomes.

Ischemic preconditioning is a phenomenon in which brief, non-lethal episodes of ischemia (restriction or interruption of blood supply to an organ or tissue) render the tissue more resistant to subsequent prolonged ischemia and reperfusion injury. This adaptive response involves a complex series of cellular and molecular changes that protect the myocardium, brain, kidney, or other organs from ischemic damage. The underlying mechanisms include the activation of various signaling pathways, such as adenosine, opioid, and kinase pathways, which lead to the production of protective factors and the modulation of cellular responses to ischemia and reperfusion injury. Ischemic preconditioning has been extensively studied in the context of cardiovascular medicine, where it has been shown to reduce infarct size and improve cardiac function after myocardial infarction. However, this protective phenomenon has also been observed in other organs and systems, including the brain, kidney, liver, and skeletal muscle.

Electric stimulation, also known as electrical nerve stimulation or neuromuscular electrical stimulation, is a therapeutic treatment that uses low-voltage electrical currents to stimulate nerves and muscles. It is often used to help manage pain, promote healing, and improve muscle strength and mobility. The electrical impulses can be delivered through electrodes placed on the skin or directly implanted into the body.

In a medical context, electric stimulation may be used for various purposes such as:

1. Pain management: Electric stimulation can help to block pain signals from reaching the brain and promote the release of endorphins, which are natural painkillers produced by the body.
2. Muscle rehabilitation: Electric stimulation can help to strengthen muscles that have become weak due to injury, illness, or surgery. It can also help to prevent muscle atrophy and improve range of motion.
3. Wound healing: Electric stimulation can promote tissue growth and help to speed up the healing process in wounds, ulcers, and other types of injuries.
4. Urinary incontinence: Electric stimulation can be used to strengthen the muscles that control urination and reduce symptoms of urinary incontinence.
5. Migraine prevention: Electric stimulation can be used as a preventive treatment for migraines by applying electrical impulses to specific nerves in the head and neck.

It is important to note that electric stimulation should only be administered under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional, as improper use can cause harm or discomfort.

Fluorometry is not a medical term per se, but it is a scientific technique that has applications in the medical field. Fluorometry refers to the measurement of the intensity of fluorescence emitted by a substance when it absorbs light at a specific wavelength. This technique is widely used in various fields such as biochemistry, molecular biology, and clinical chemistry.

In the medical context, fluorometry is often used in diagnostic tests to detect and measure the concentration of certain substances in biological samples such as blood, urine, or tissues. For example, fluorometric assays are commonly used to measure the levels of enzymes, hormones, vitamins, and other biomolecules that exhibit fluorescence.

Fluorometry is also used in research and clinical settings to study various biological processes at the cellular and molecular level. For instance, fluorescent probes can be used to label specific proteins or organelles within cells, allowing researchers to track their movement, localization, and interactions in real-time.

Overall, fluorometry is a valuable tool in medical research and diagnostics, providing sensitive and specific measurements of various biological molecules and processes.

"Freezing" is a term used in the medical field to describe a phenomenon that can occur in certain neurological conditions, most notably in Parkinson's disease. It refers to a sudden and temporary inability to move or initiate movement, often triggered by environmental factors such as narrow spaces, turning, or approaching a destination. This can increase the risk of falls and make daily activities challenging for affected individuals.

Freezing is also known as "freezing of gait" (FOG) when it specifically affects a person's ability to walk. During FOG episodes, the person may feel like their feet are glued to the ground, making it difficult to take steps forward. This can be very distressing and debilitating for those affected.

It is important to note that "freezing" has different meanings in different medical contexts, such as in the field of orthopedics, where it may refer to a loss of joint motion due to stiffness or inflammation. Always consult with a healthcare professional for accurate information tailored to your specific situation.

Biological transport, active is the process by which cells use energy to move materials across their membranes from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. This type of transport is facilitated by specialized proteins called transporters or pumps that are located in the cell membrane. These proteins undergo conformational changes to physically carry the molecules through the lipid bilayer of the membrane, often against their concentration gradient.

Active transport requires energy because it works against the natural tendency of molecules to move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, a process known as diffusion. Cells obtain this energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is produced through cellular respiration.

Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose and amino acids into cells, as well as the secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters. The sodium-potassium pump, which helps maintain resting membrane potential in nerve and muscle cells, is a classic example of an active transporter.

Luminescence is not a term that has a specific medical definition. However, in general terms, luminescence refers to the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed energy. This phenomenon can occur in some medical contexts, such as in medical imaging techniques like bioluminescence imaging (BLI) and chemiluminescence immunoassays (CLIA).

In BLI, genetically modified organisms or cells are used to produce light at specific wavelengths that can be detected and measured. This technique is often used in preclinical research to study biological processes such as gene expression, cell proliferation, and metastasis.

In CLIA, an enzymatic reaction produces light that is used to detect and quantify the presence of a specific analyte or target molecule. This technique is commonly used in clinical laboratories for the detection of various biomarkers, such as hormones, drugs, and infectious agents.

Therefore, while luminescence is not a medical term per se, it has important applications in medical research and diagnostics.

Glutamic acid is an alpha-amino acid, which is one of the 20 standard amino acids in the genetic code. The systematic name for this amino acid is (2S)-2-Aminopentanedioic acid. Its chemical formula is HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2CO2H.

Glutamic acid is a crucial excitatory neurotransmitter in the human brain, and it plays an essential role in learning and memory. It's also involved in the metabolism of sugars and amino acids, the synthesis of proteins, and the removal of waste nitrogen from the body.

Glutamic acid can be found in various foods such as meat, fish, beans, eggs, dairy products, and vegetables. In the human body, glutamic acid can be converted into gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), another important neurotransmitter that has a calming effect on the nervous system.

Uncoupling agents are chemicals that interfere with the normal process of oxidative phosphorylation in cells. In this process, the energy from food is converted into ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is the main source of energy for cellular functions. Uncouplers disrupt this process by preventing the transfer of high-energy electrons to oxygen, which normally drives the production of ATP.

Instead, the energy from these electrons is released as heat, leading to an increase in body temperature. This effect is similar to what happens during shivering or exercise, when the body generates heat to maintain its core temperature. Uncoupling agents are therefore also known as "mitochondrial protonophores" because they allow protons to leak across the inner mitochondrial membrane, bypassing the ATP synthase enzyme that would normally use the energy from this proton gradient to produce ATP.

Uncoupling agents have been studied for their potential therapeutic uses, such as in weight loss and the treatment of metabolic disorders. However, they can also be toxic at high doses, and their long-term effects on health are not well understood.

Gene expression regulation, enzymologic refers to the biochemical processes and mechanisms that control the transcription and translation of specific genes into functional proteins or enzymes. This regulation is achieved through various enzymatic activities that can either activate or repress gene expression at different levels, such as chromatin remodeling, transcription factor activation, mRNA processing, and protein degradation.

Enzymologic regulation of gene expression involves the action of specific enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions involved in these processes. For example, histone-modifying enzymes can alter the structure of chromatin to make genes more or less accessible for transcription, while RNA polymerase and its associated factors are responsible for transcribing DNA into mRNA. Additionally, various enzymes are involved in post-transcriptional modifications of mRNA, such as splicing, capping, and tailing, which can affect the stability and translation of the transcript.

Overall, the enzymologic regulation of gene expression is a complex and dynamic process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment and maintain proper physiological function.

Diazoxide is a medication that is primarily used to treat hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) in newborns and infants. It works by inhibiting the release of insulin from the pancreas, which helps to prevent the blood sugar levels from dropping too low. Diazoxide may also be used in adults with certain rare conditions that cause hypoglycemia.

In addition to its use as a hypoglycemic agent, diazoxide has been used off-label for other indications, such as the treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure) that is resistant to other medications. It works as a vasodilator, relaxing the smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels and causing them to widen, which reduces the resistance to blood flow and lowers blood pressure.

Diazoxide is available as an injection and is typically administered in a hospital setting under the close supervision of a healthcare professional. Common side effects of diazoxide include fluid retention, headache, nausea, and vomiting. It may also cause rare but serious side effects such as heart rhythm disturbances and allergic reactions.

Glutamates are the salt or ester forms of glutamic acid, which is a naturally occurring amino acid and the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system. Glutamate plays a crucial role in various brain functions, such as learning, memory, and cognition. However, excessive levels of glutamate can lead to neuronal damage or death, contributing to several neurological disorders, including stroke, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.

Glutamates are also commonly found in food as a natural flavor enhancer, often listed under the name monosodium glutamate (MSG). While MSG has been extensively studied, its safety remains a topic of debate, with some individuals reporting adverse reactions after consuming foods containing this additive.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a molecule made up of one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom. In the body, it is a crucial signaling molecule involved in various physiological processes such as vasodilation, immune response, neurotransmission, and inhibition of platelet aggregation. It is produced naturally by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) from the amino acid L-arginine. Inhaled nitric oxide is used medically to treat pulmonary hypertension in newborns and adults, as it helps to relax and widen blood vessels, improving oxygenation and blood flow.

Brain ischemia is the medical term used to describe a reduction or interruption of blood flow to the brain, leading to a lack of oxygen and glucose delivery to brain tissue. This can result in brain damage or death of brain cells, known as infarction. Brain ischemia can be caused by various conditions such as thrombosis (blood clot formation), embolism (obstruction of a blood vessel by a foreign material), or hypoperfusion (reduced blood flow). The severity and duration of the ischemia determine the extent of brain damage. Symptoms can range from mild, such as transient ischemic attacks (TIAs or "mini-strokes"), to severe, including paralysis, speech difficulties, loss of consciousness, and even death. Immediate medical attention is required for proper diagnosis and treatment to prevent further damage and potential long-term complications.

Carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (CCCP) is a chemical compound that is often used in research and scientific studies. It is an ionophore, which is a type of molecule that can transport ions across biological membranes. CCCP specifically transports protons (H+ ions) across membranes.

In biochemistry and cell biology, CCCP is commonly used as an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation. This is a process by which cells generate energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) using the energy from the electron transport chain. By disrupting the proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, CCCP prevents the synthesis of ATP and causes a rapid depletion of cellular energy stores.

The medical relevance of CCCP is primarily limited to its use as a research tool in laboratory studies. It is not used as a therapeutic agent in clinical medicine.

Physiological stress is a response of the body to a demand or threat that disrupts homeostasis and activates the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This results in the release of stress hormones such as adrenaline, cortisol, and noradrenaline, which prepare the body for a "fight or flight" response. Increased heart rate, rapid breathing, heightened sensory perception, and increased alertness are some of the physiological changes that occur during this response. Chronic stress can have negative effects on various bodily functions, including the immune, cardiovascular, and nervous systems.

Nitrates are chemical compounds that consist of a nitrogen atom bonded to three oxygen atoms (NO3-). In the context of medical science, nitrates are often discussed in relation to their use as medications or their presence in food and water.

As medications, nitrates are commonly used to treat angina (chest pain) caused by coronary artery disease. Nitrates work by relaxing and widening blood vessels, which improves blood flow and reduces the workload on the heart. Some examples of nitrate medications include nitroglycerin, isosorbide dinitrate, and isosorbide mononitrate.

In food and water, nitrates are naturally occurring compounds that can be found in a variety of vegetables, such as spinach, beets, and lettuce. They can also be present in fertilizers and industrial waste, which can contaminate groundwater and surface water sources. While nitrates themselves are not harmful, they can be converted into potentially harmful compounds called nitrites under certain conditions, particularly in the digestive system of young children or in the presence of bacteria such as those found in unpasteurized foods. Excessive levels of nitrites can react with hemoglobin in the blood to form methemoglobin, which cannot transport oxygen effectively and can lead to a condition called methemoglobinemia.

Electron Transport Complex IV is also known as Cytochrome c oxidase. It is the last complex in the electron transport chain, located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of prokaryotic cells. This complex contains 13 subunits, two heme groups (a and a3), and three copper centers (A, B, and C).

In the electron transport chain, Complex IV receives electrons from cytochrome c and transfers them to molecular oxygen, reducing it to water. This process is accompanied by the pumping of protons across the membrane, contributing to the generation of a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase (Complex V). The overall reaction catalyzed by Complex IV can be summarized as follows:

4e- + 4H+ + O2 → 2H2O

Defects in Cytochrome c oxidase can lead to various diseases, including mitochondrial encephalomyopathies and neurodegenerative disorders.

A plant stem is not typically defined in a medical context, but rather in the field of botany. However, I can certainly provide a general biological definition for you.

In plants, stems are organs that serve primarily as support structures, holding leaves, flowers, and fruits aloft where they can receive sunlight and exchange gases. They also act as conduits, transporting water, nutrients, and sugars made during photosynthesis between the roots and shoots of a plant.

The stem is usually composed of three main tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground. The dermal tissue system forms the outermost layer(s) of the stem, providing protection and sometimes participating in gas exchange. The vascular tissue system contains the xylem (which transports water and nutrients upward) and phloem (which transports sugars and other organic compounds downward). The ground tissue system, located between the dermal and vascular tissues, is responsible for food storage and support.

While not a direct medical definition, understanding the structure and function of plant stems can be relevant in fields such as nutrition, agriculture, and environmental science, which have implications for human health.

Apnea is a medical condition defined as the cessation of breathing for 10 seconds or more. It can occur during sleep (sleep apnea) or while awake (wakeful apnea). There are different types of sleep apnea, including obstructive sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, and complex sleep apnea syndrome. Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when the airway becomes blocked during sleep, while central sleep apnea occurs when the brain fails to signal the muscles to breathe. Complex sleep apnea syndrome, also known as treatment-emergent central sleep apnea, is a combination of obstructive and central sleep apneas. Sleep apnea can lead to various complications, such as fatigue, difficulty concentrating, high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke.

Electrophysiology is a branch of medicine that deals with the electrical activities of the body, particularly the heart. In a medical context, electrophysiology studies (EPS) are performed to assess abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) and to evaluate the effectiveness of certain treatments, such as medication or pacemakers.

During an EPS, electrode catheters are inserted into the heart through blood vessels in the groin or neck. These catheters can record the electrical activity of the heart and stimulate it to help identify the source of the arrhythmia. The information gathered during the study can help doctors determine the best course of treatment for each patient.

In addition to cardiac electrophysiology, there are also other subspecialties within electrophysiology, such as neuromuscular electrophysiology, which deals with the electrical activity of the nervous system and muscles.

Hypoxanthine is a purine derivative and an intermediate in the metabolic pathways of nucleotide degradation, specifically adenosine to uric acid in humans. It is formed from the oxidation of xanthine by the enzyme xanthine oxidase. In the body, hypoxanthine is converted to xanthine and then to uric acid, which is excreted in the urine. Increased levels of hypoxanthine in the body can be indicative of various pathological conditions, including tissue hypoxia, ischemia, and necrosis.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Oceans and Seas" are not medical terms. Generally speaking, an ocean is a large body of saltwater that covers a majority of the Earth's surface, and a sea is a smaller body of saltwater that may be partially enclosed by land. However, if you have any questions related to marine biology or environmental science, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you!

Nitrate reductase is an enzyme that catalyzes the reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). It is widely distributed in nature and plays a crucial role in the nitrogen cycle, particularly in the process of nitrate assimilation by plants, fungi, and some bacteria.

In plants, nitrate reductase is primarily located in the cytoplasm and chloroplasts of plant cells. It requires reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) or flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2) as electron donors to facilitate the reduction of nitrate to nitrite.

The reaction catalyzed by nitrate reductase can be summarized as follows:
NO3- + NAD(P)H + H+ -> NO2- + NAD(P)+ + H2O

It is worth noting that there are different types of nitrate reductases, each with distinct properties and functions. For example, some nitrate reductases require molybdenum cofactor as a prosthetic group for their catalytic activity, while others do not. Additionally, some nitrate reductases are membrane-bound, while others are soluble enzymes.

Overall, nitrate reductase is an essential enzyme in the global nitrogen cycle and has significant implications for agriculture, environmental science, and microbiology.

Purinergic antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of purinergic receptors, which are specialized proteins found on the surface of cells that respond to purines such as ATP and ADP. These receptors play important roles in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, inflammation, and cell death.

Purinergic antagonists work by binding to these receptors and preventing them from being activated by purines. This can have a variety of effects depending on the specific receptor that is blocked. For example, some purinergic antagonists are used in the treatment of conditions such as chronic pain, depression, and Parkinson's disease because they block receptors that play a role in these conditions.

It's important to note that while purinergic antagonists can be useful therapeutically, they can also have side effects and potential risks. As with any medication, it's important to use them only under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Phosphocreatine (PCr) is a high-energy phosphate compound found in the skeletal muscles, cardiac muscle, and brain. It plays a crucial role in energy metabolism and storage within cells. Phosphocreatine serves as an immediate energy reserve that helps regenerate ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the primary source of cellular energy, during short bursts of intense activity or stress. This process is facilitated by the enzyme creatine kinase, which catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from phosphocreatine to ADP (adenosine diphosphate) to form ATP.

In a medical context, phosphocreatine levels may be assessed in muscle biopsies or magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) imaging to evaluate muscle energy metabolism and potential mitochondrial dysfunction in conditions such as muscular dystrophies, mitochondrial disorders, and neuromuscular diseases. Additionally, phosphocreatine depletion has been implicated in various pathological processes, including ischemia-reperfusion injury, neurodegenerative disorders, and heart failure.

Asphyxia neonatorum is a medical condition that refers to a newborn baby's lack of oxygen or difficulty breathing, which can lead to suffocation and serious complications. It is often caused by problems during the birthing process, such as umbilical cord compression or prolapse, placental abruption, or prolonged labor.

Symptoms of asphyxia neonatorum may include bluish skin color (cyanosis), weak or absent breathing, poor muscle tone, meconium-stained amniotic fluid, and a slow heart rate. In severe cases, it can lead to organ damage, developmental delays, or even death.

Prompt medical attention is necessary to diagnose and treat asphyxia neonatorum. Treatment may include oxygen therapy, mechanical ventilation, and medications to support the baby's heart function and blood pressure. In some cases, therapeutic hypothermia (cooling the body) may be used to reduce the risk of brain damage. Preventive measures such as proper prenatal care, timely delivery, and careful monitoring during labor and delivery can also help reduce the risk of asphyxia neonatorum.

The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) is a series of complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that are involved in the process of cellular respiration. It is the final pathway for electrons derived from the oxidation of nutrients such as glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids to be transferred to molecular oxygen. This transfer of electrons drives the generation of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, which is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP, the main energy currency of the cell.

The electron transport chain consists of four complexes (I-IV) and two mobile electron carriers (ubiquinone and cytochrome c). Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to Complex I and Complex II respectively, which then pass them along to ubiquinone. Ubiquinone then transfers the electrons to Complex III, which passes them on to cytochrome c. Finally, cytochrome c transfers the electrons to Complex IV, where they combine with oxygen and protons to form water.

The transfer of electrons through the ETC is accompanied by the pumping of protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the intermembrane space, creating a proton gradient. The flow of protons back across the inner membrane through ATP synthase drives the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Overall, the electron transport chain is a crucial process for generating energy in the form of ATP in the cell, and it plays a key role in many metabolic pathways.

Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) is a rate-limiting enzyme in the glycolytic pathway, which is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH as energy currency for the cell. PFK-1 plays a crucial role in regulating the rate of glycolysis by catalyzing the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, using ATP as the phosphate donor.

PFK-1 is allosterically regulated by various metabolites, such as AMP, ADP, and ATP, which act as positive or negative effectors of the enzyme's activity. For example, an increase in the intracellular concentration of AMP or ADP can activate PFK-1, promoting glycolysis and energy production, while an increase in ATP levels can inhibit the enzyme's activity, conserving glucose for use under conditions of low energy demand.

Deficiencies in PFK-1 can lead to a rare genetic disorder called Tarui's disease or glycogen storage disease type VII, which is characterized by exercise intolerance, muscle cramps, and myoglobinuria (the presence of myoglobin in the urine due to muscle damage).

Deferoxamine is a medication used to treat iron overload, which can occur due to various reasons such as frequent blood transfusions or excessive iron intake. It works by binding to excess iron in the body and promoting its excretion through urine. This helps to prevent damage to organs such as the heart and liver that can be caused by high levels of iron.

Deferoxamine is an injectable medication that is typically administered intravenously or subcutaneously, depending on the specific regimen prescribed by a healthcare professional. It may also be used in combination with other medications to manage iron overload more effectively.

It's important to note that deferoxamine should only be used under the guidance of a medical professional, as improper use or dosing can lead to serious side effects or complications.

The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) is a series of complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane that are involved in the process of cellular respiration, through which the majority of energy is generated for the cell. The ETC complex proteins are a group of transmembrane protein complexes that facilitate the transfer of electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions. This transfer of electrons drives the generation of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane, which is then used by ATP synthase to generate ATP, the primary energy currency of the cell.

The ETC complex proteins consist of four main complexes: Complex I (NADH-Q oxidoreductase), Complex II (succinate-Q oxidoreductase), Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex or CoQ:cytochrome c oxidoreductase), and Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase). Each complex contains a number of subunits, many of which are encoded by both the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes.

In summary, Electron Transport Chain Complex Proteins are a group of transmembrane protein complexes located in the inner mitochondrial membrane that facilitate the transfer of electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors, driving the generation of a proton gradient and ultimately ATP synthesis during cellular respiration.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Evoked potentials (EPs) are medical tests that measure the electrical activity in the brain or spinal cord in response to specific sensory stimuli, such as sight, sound, or touch. These tests are often used to help diagnose and monitor conditions that affect the nervous system, such as multiple sclerosis, brainstem tumors, and spinal cord injuries.

There are several types of EPs, including:

1. Visual Evoked Potentials (VEPs): These are used to assess the function of the visual pathway from the eyes to the back of the brain. A patient is typically asked to look at a patterned image or flashing light while electrodes placed on the scalp record the electrical responses.
2. Brainstem Auditory Evoked Potentials (BAEPs): These are used to evaluate the function of the auditory nerve and brainstem. Clicking sounds are presented to one or both ears, and electrodes placed on the scalp measure the response.
3. Somatosensory Evoked Potentials (SSEPs): These are used to assess the function of the peripheral nerves and spinal cord. Small electrical shocks are applied to a nerve at the wrist or ankle, and electrodes placed on the scalp record the response as it travels up the spinal cord to the brain.
4. Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs): These are used to assess the function of the motor pathways in the brain and spinal cord. A magnetic or electrical stimulus is applied to the brain or spinal cord, and electrodes placed on a muscle measure the response as it travels down the motor pathway.

EPs can help identify abnormalities in the nervous system that may not be apparent through other diagnostic tests, such as imaging studies or clinical examinations. They are generally safe, non-invasive procedures with few risks or side effects.

Pyruvic acid, also known as 2-oxopropanoic acid, is a key metabolic intermediate in both anaerobic and aerobic respiration. It is a carboxylic acid with a ketone functional group, making it a β-ketoacid. In the cytosol, pyruvate is produced from glucose during glycolysis, where it serves as a crucial link between the anaerobic breakdown of glucose and the aerobic process of cellular respiration in the mitochondria.

During low oxygen availability or high energy demands, pyruvate can be converted into lactate through anaerobic glycolysis, allowing for the continued production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) without oxygen. In the presence of adequate oxygen and functional mitochondria, pyruvate is transported into the mitochondrial matrix where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form acetyl-CoA by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). This reaction also involves the reduction of NAD+ to NADH and the release of CO2. Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, where it is further oxidized to produce energy in the form of ATP, NADH, FADH2, and GTP (guanosine triphosphate) through a series of enzymatic reactions.

In summary, pyruvic acid is a vital metabolic intermediate that plays a significant role in energy production pathways, connecting glycolysis to both anaerobic and aerobic respiration.

Oncorhynchus mykiss is the scientific name for a species of fish that is commonly known as the Rainbow Trout. According to the medical or clinical definition provided by the US National Library of Medicine, Oncorhynchus mykiss is "a freshwater fish that is widely cultured and an important food source in many parts of the world." It is also a popular game fish and is often stocked in lakes and rivers for recreational fishing. Rainbow trout are native to cold-water tributaries that flow into the Pacific Ocean in Asia and North America. They have been introduced widely throughout the world and can now be found in freshwater systems on every continent except Antarctica. Rainbow trout are a valuable species for both commercial and recreational fisheries, and they also play an important role in the food web as both predators and prey.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Pacific Ocean" is a geographical term referring to the largest single body of saltwater on Earth, extending from the Arctic in the north to the Antarctic in the south. It covers an area of about 63,800,000 square miles (165,200,000 square kilometers).

If you're looking for a medical term or definition, I'd be happy to help with that as well. Could you please provide more context?

Scopolamine hydrobromide is a synthetic anticholinergic drug, which means it blocks the action of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It is primarily used for its anti-motion sickness and anti-nausea effects. It can also be used to help with symptoms of Parkinson's disease, such as muscle stiffness and tremors.

In medical settings, scopolamine hydrobromide may be administered as a transdermal patch, which is placed behind the ear to allow for slow release into the body over several days. It can also be given as an injection or taken orally in the form of tablets or liquid solutions.

It's important to note that scopolamine hydrobromide can have various side effects, including dry mouth, blurred vision, dizziness, and drowsiness. It may also cause confusion, especially in older adults, and should be used with caution in patients with glaucoma, enlarged prostate, or certain heart conditions.

... means a total depletion in the level of oxygen, an extreme form of hypoxia or "low oxygen". The terms anoxia and hypoxia ... Look up anoxia, anoxic, or anoxically in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... when the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply Cerebral anoxia, when the brain is completely ... This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Anoxia. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to ...
Anoxia affinis Anoxia africana Anoxia arenbergeri Anoxia asiatica Anoxia australis Anoxia baraudi Anoxia caphtor Anoxia ... Anoxia pasiphae Anoxia pilosa Anoxia rattoi Anoxia reisseri Anoxia rotroui Anoxia scutellaris Anoxia smyrnensis Anoxia tristis ... Anoxia cingulata Anoxia cretica Anoxia cypria Anoxia derelicta Anoxia desbrochersi Anoxia emarginata Anoxia hirta Anoxia ... Anoxia kocheri Anoxia kraatzi Anoxia laevimacula Anoxia lodosi Anoxia luteipilosa Anoxia maculiventris Anoxia makrisi Anoxia ...
... matutinalis Castelnau, 1823 Anoxia matutinalis sardoa Motschulsky, 1861 Anoxia matutinalis suturalis Reitter ... Anoxia matutinalis is a species of dung beetle in the family Scarabaeidae. ... In Sardinia there is an endemic subspecies, Anoxia matutinalis sardoa. Biolib William Ciesla Forest Entomology Fauna europaea ... 1890 Anoxia matutinalis can reach a length of 19-26 millimetres (0.75-1.02 in). Body shows short whitish hairs and a pale brown ...
Anoxia in the Western Interior Seaway during Oceanic Anoxic Event II is still an enigma. Oceanic Anoxic Event II is believed to ... The episodes of anoxia came about at times when very high sea levels coincided with the nearby Sevier orogeny that affected ... It has been argued that the Western Interior Seaway could have had patches of anoxia, or places where water is stratified. This ... Molybdenum, an oxygen-sensitive trace metal, will be present in unoxidized form in strata only if there is anoxia. One study ...
Anoxia. Cellular Origin, Life in Extreme Habitats and Astrobiology. Vol. 21. pp. 205-17. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1896-8_12. ISBN ...
Anoxia. Anagrama, 2023. Short Stories Infraleve: lo que queda en el espejo cuando dejas de mirarte. Editora Regional, 2004. ...
The Fink effect, also known as "diffusion anoxia", "diffusion hypoxia", or the "second gas effect", is a factor that influences ... ISBN 978-0-443-06785-3. Bernard R. Fink (1955). "Diffusion Anoxia". Anesthesiology. 16 (4): 511-519. doi:10.1097/00000542- ...
He first explained the Fink Effect in his 1955 paper "Diffusion anoxia". He went to the University of London at 16. He served ... B. R. Fink (1955). "Diffusion anoxia". Anesthesiology. 16 (51): 1-519. doi:10.1097/00000542-195507000-00007. PMID 13238868. ...
Another anoxia-tolerant animal that is commonly used as a model to study anoxia in the mammalian brain is the crucian carp, ... Even though glycolysis is stimulated early in anoxia in both the crucian carp and C. picta, the crucian carp is able to stay ... Anoxia-prone cells in the brain include the hippocampal pyramidal cells of CA1, cerebellar purkinje cells, pyramidal ... Selective vulnerability is how some parts of the brain are more sensitive to anoxia than others, and thus to ischemic insult. ...
Argon anoxia - Similar to cryofumigation, but using dry argon gas to exclude oxygen. This process may cost more than carbon ... Nitrogen anoxia - Similar to cryofumigation, but using dry nitrogen gas to exclude oxygen This process may cost more than ... "Insect Mortality under Anoxia". Keepsafe. Keepsafe Microclimate Systems. Retrieved 2015-05-20. Daniel, Vinod; et al. (25 ... asphyxiating the insects Carbon dioxide anoxia - Similar to cryofumigation, but using compressed dry carbon dioxide gas to ...
Peskine, A.; Picq, C.; Pradat-Diehl, P. (Dec 2004). "Cerebral anoxia and disability". Brain Injury. 18 (12): 1243-54. doi: ...
Anoxia and the Electroencephalogram. Springfield, Illinois, C. C. Thomas 1961 Bonduelle M, Gastaut H, eds. Les Myoclonies. ...
Stroke or brain anoxia. Brain tumor Brain trauma Autoimmune disease Paraneoplastic syndrome Micrometastasis neurodegenerative ...
p.295 PLUM, FRED (July 1962). "Delayed Neurological Deterioration After Anoxia". Archives of Internal Medicine. 110 (1): 18-25 ...
The persistence of anoxia into the Hettangian age may have helped delay the recovery of marine life in the extinction's ... Anoxia was another mechanism of extinction; the end-Triassic extinction was coeval with an uptick in black shale deposition and ... Evidence of anoxia has been discovered at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary across the world's oceans; the western Tethys, eastern ... In northeastern Panthalassa, episodes of anoxia and euxinia were already occurring before the TJME, making its marine ...
David P. G. Bond; Paul B. Wignalla (2008). "The role of sea-level change and marine anoxia in the Frasnian-Famennian (Late ... In May 2020, studies suggested that the causes of the mass extinction were global warming, related to volcanism, and anoxia, ... Bond DP, Grasby SE (18 May 2020). "Late Ordovician mass extinction caused by volcanism, warming, and anoxia, not cooling and ... Watson AJ (December 2016). "Oceans on the edge of anoxia". Science. 354 (6319): 1529-1530. Bibcode:2016Sci...354.1529W. doi: ...
Miller JA (July 1949). "Factors in Neonatal Resistance to Anoxia. I. Temperature and Survival of Newborn Guinea Pigs Under ... Anoxia". Science. 110 (2848): 113-114. Bibcode:1949Sci...110..113M. doi:10.1126/science.110.2848.113. PMID 17780238. Enhorning ...
Neretin LE (2006). Past and present water column anoxia. Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-4297-3. OCLC 209932741. Blees, ...
... anoxia in at least some strata; high turbidity; high incident irradiation; and low macrophyte biomass. The bacterium is thought ...
Anoxia and Ischemia; and collected papers in Emergency Medical Services and Traumatology. Editorial boards: Disaster Medicine; ...
anoxia Tissues completely lacking in oxygen. anoxic Environment or gas completely lacking in oxygen. ANSTI machine ANSTI ...
This is because anoxia slows the degradation of organic matter, allowing for greater burial in the sediments. Other evidence ... This caused a temporary state of total anoxia in the fjord, and resulted in dramatic fish mortality. This fjord is marked by a ... The degree of pyritization and the δ34S were both high, supporting the presence of anoxia and sulfide, as well as the depletion ... Anoxia and sulfidic conditions often occur together. In anoxic conditions anaerobic, sulfate reducing bacteria convert sulfate ...
However, anoxia was also rife during the Hirnantian (late Ordovician) ice age. Oceanic anoxic events have been recognized ... Page, A. (2007). "Deglacial anoxia in a long-lived Early Palaeozoic Icehouse." (PDF). In Budd, G. E.; Streng, M.; Daley, A. C ... Pearce, C. R.; Cohen, A. S.; Coe, A. L.; Burton, K. W. (March 2008). "Molybdenum isotope evidence for global ocean anoxia ... British oceanologist and atmospheric scientist Andrew Watson says full-scale ocean anoxia would take "thousands of years to ...
... or soil anoxia as oxygen levels plummeted. Before the Permian extinction, Archaeplastida (red and green algae) had been the ...
". "Autopsy results reveal triathlete died of anoxia". Siskiyou Daily News, Yreka, CA. Retrieved 2019-07-19. Harding, Thomas ( ...
Anoxia is further influenced by biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), which is the amount of oxygen used by marine organisms in the ... This property leads to daily anoxic cycles on small geographic scales and seasonal cycles of anoxia on larger scales. Thus, ... Sarmiento, J. L.; Herbert, T. D.; Toggweiler, J. R. (1988). "Causes of anoxia in the world ocean". Global Biogeochemical Cycles ... H2O2 Anoxia is quite common in muddy ocean bottoms where there are both high amounts of organic matter and low levels of inflow ...
He experiences anoxia, resulting in brain damage. Henry survives but can neither move nor talk and he suffers retrograde ...
Gelfan, Samuel; Tarlov, I. M. (1955). "Differential Vulnerability of Spinal Cord Structures to Anoxia". Journal of ...
Seliger, H.H; Boggs, J.A; Biggley, W.H (1985). "Catastrophic Anoxia in the Chesapeake Bay in 1984". Science. 228 (4695): 70-73 ...
The cause of death is "anoxia and hypercarbia". Due to the fact adult beetles mostly live outside, permanent mitigation is ...
Anoxia means a total depletion in the level of oxygen, an extreme form of hypoxia or "low oxygen". The terms anoxia and hypoxia ... Look up anoxia, anoxic, or anoxically in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... when the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply Cerebral anoxia, when the brain is completely ... This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Anoxia. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to ...
Conclusion: The périnatal anoxia (PA) is a major health issue in Mali because of its frequency and severity. Monitoring of ... This work, which is unique in this domain in Mali, will permit to understand perinatal anoxia in Mali and to improve its ... The most common obstetrical event was dystocia (64.5%, n = 49). The prognosis was poor in grade III anoxia in our patients (56 ... If the part of neonatal anoxia in neonatal mortality is known in Mali [6] , however, its epidemio-clinical characteristics had ...
Teichert, Sebastian and Nützel, Alexander (2015): Early Jurassic anoxia triggered the evolution of the oldest holoplanktonic ...
Isotopic evidence for Mesoarchaean anoxia and changing atmospheric sulphur chemistry.. Farquhar, J., Peters, M., Johnston, D. T ...
However, the lack of quantitative constraints on the details of Early Triassic oceanic anoxia (for example, time, duration, and ... However, the lack of quantitative constraints on the details of Early Triassic oceanic anoxia (for example, time, duration, and ... However, the lack of quantitative constraints on the details of Early Triassic oceanic anoxia (for example, time, duration, and ... Multiple episodes of extensive marine anoxia linked to global warming and continental weathering following the latest Permian ...
Metabolic Responses to Heat, Anoxia, or Oxidative Stress Elucidated in Muscle Cell Cultures Using 13C NMR Spectroscopy. In ... Metabolic Responses to Heat, Anoxia, or Oxidative Stress Elucidated in Muscle Cell Cultures Using 13C NMR Spectroscopy. / ... Metabolic Responses to Heat, Anoxia, or Oxidative Stress Elucidated in Muscle Cell Cultures Using 13C NMR Spectroscopy. ... Metabolic Responses to Heat, Anoxia, or Oxidative Stress Elucidated in Muscle Cell Cultures Using 13C NMR Spectroscopy. ...
A Lapdance For The Devil. Debut album from AnoxiA. Release year: 2010. Label: Mighty Music / Target. Recorded at Jailhouse studios and Muzirkus Studios. Recorded by Tommy Hansen, Simon Jørgensen & Ole Bertelsen. Mixed and Mastered at Jailhouse Studios by Tommy Hansen (Helloween, Pretty Maids). Tracklist:. 1. Cold Violence. 2. Lapdance For The Devil. 3. Risky On The Rocks. 4. Lonely Ride. 5. Beyond The Line. 6. Flowers On My Grave. 7. The Tale Of Jimi And Janis. 8. The Expected. 9. My Prison. 10. Hell Bent For Heaven. ...
Tag: anoxia. Aquaculture Biogeochemistry Conservation Ecology Harmful Algal Bloom Human impacts Oysters Restoration ...
Automatic Anoxia Disinfestation Chamber. Automatic Anoxia. Disinfestation Chamber. Anoxia. Anoxi Chamber. 100 % non-toxic. ... Anoxia Chamber - designed and manufactured with efficiency, ecology and high technology.. Anoxia Chamber - has intuitive ... Automatic System Anoxia for treatment and prevention for the purpose of long-term and systematic treatment of documents and ...
... - totally 98 synonyms
We are a team of passionate people whose goal is to improve everyones life through disruptive products. We build great products to solve your business problems. Our products are designed for small to medium size companies willing to optimize their performance.. ...
Genus Anoxia (3). Species Anoxia pilosa Species Anoxia scutellaris Species Anoxia villosa ... Information from GBIF about Anoxia. GBIF scientific name: Anoxia Laporte, 1832. GBIF taxonomic status: ACCEPTED ... GBIF cointains 0 occurances (with coordinates) of Anoxia Laporte, 1832 from Georgia. ...
Certain countries apply withholding at source on the amount of invoices, in accordance with their internal legislation. Any withholding at source will be paid by the client to the tax authorities. Under no circumstances can My Company become involved in costs related to a countrys legislation. The amount of the invoice will therefore be due to My Company in its entirety and does not include any costs relating to the legislation of the country in which the client is located ...
O2 availability modulates transmembrane Ca2+ flux via second- messenger pathways in anoxia-tolerant hepatocytes. / Land, S. C. ... O2 availability modulates transmembrane Ca2+ flux via second- messenger pathways in anoxia-tolerant hepatocytes. Journal of ... Dive into the research topics of O2 availability modulates transmembrane Ca2+ flux via second- messenger pathways in anoxia- ... O2 availability modulates transmembrane Ca2+ flux via second- messenger pathways in anoxia-tolerant hepatocytes. ...
Insect Control with AnoxiaKeepsafe2018-10-27T13:04:47-04:00 Insect Control with Anoxia. Insects cannot survive in an oxygen- ... Oxygen Free/Anoxia. Passive Humidity Control. Active Humidity Control. Temperature Control. Climate Control for Archives. ... the informative article on using anoxia for pest control by John Burke ... Please click on the links below for further information regarding anoxia and insects: ...
Whatsapp +1(415)237-3209 For More Details ...
What causes cerebral anoxia?. There are many potential causes of cerebral anoxia, including: Cardiac or respiratory arrest. ... What is cerebral anoxia?. What is cerebral hypoxia? Cerebral hypoxia occurs when your brain doesnt get enough oxygen. A ... related condition, anoxia, occurs when no oxygen reaches the brain. Healthcare providers often use the terms together: a ...
EXPM Portable Anoxia Disinfestation Chamber. * SGD 000 SGD 0.00 Unit price/ per ... Anoxia eliminates the investing insects at any stage of their development - eggs, larva or adults. ...
A New Model for the Kellwasser Anoxia Events (Late Devonian): Shallow Water Anoxia in an Open Oceanic Setting in the Central ... sustained ocean anoxia with a volcanic trigger?, Global and Planetary Change (Special issue on Devonian global changes - recent ...
Anoxia Symptoms and Diagnosis Anoxia is a condition characterized by the complete lack of oxygen supply to a tissue or an organ ...
products/herbiotics-multipill-for-men-tab-60s HERBIOTICS MULTIPILL FOR MEN TAB 60S Rs.1,364.00 Product InformationDescription:Having the right vitamins and nutrients is essential for your body to function properly. Multipill is formulated to meet your everyday health needs and keep your body performing at its best.Multipill is a Unique Multivitamin formula, that has a combination of 23 vitamins and minerals to provide men with nutritional support at different stages of life.Vitamin A is a broad term for a group of related compounds best known for supporting eye health.Vitamin D is central to healthy bones and influences cell growth and immune function, keeping inflammation in check.Vitamin C is essential for immune health, as well as the repair and maintenance of muscles, skin, bones, and teeth.Vitamin E helps to prevent coronary heart disease, support immune function, prevent inflammation, promote eye health, and lower the risk of cancer.Vitamin K plays a role in blood clotting, bone ...
Anoxia-Languish In Suffering EP. FFO: OSDM brutality.. This is an excellent release that doesnt imitate the peak OSDM, ...
... Abstract The response of plants to anaerobiosis is characterized ... The effects of anoxia on starch synthesis genes are limited, and the pathway of starch degradation is not induced under anoxia ... Eight genes coding for putative ethylene responsive elements are also induced by anoxia. Induction of these genes by anoxia, ... REDOX GENES: ANOXIA INDUCES STRONGLY A NON-SYMBIOTIC HEMOGLOBIN AND ACTIVATES THE ASCORBATE-GLUTATHIONE CYCLE ...
In fact, the rate at which the NAP disappeared during anoxia was not simply related to degree of recovery after anoxia. These ... Anoxia Fructose Galactose Glucose Lactic Acid Male Neural Conduction Oxygen Rats, Sprague-Dawley Sciatic Nerve Sorbitol Tissue ... Anoxia-induced changes in optimal substrate for peripheral nerve. M M Stecker, M R Stevenson ... With intermittent anoxia, the pattern of substrate effects on the NAP changed markedly so that low concentrations of fructose ...
Farías, L., Monteiro, P. M. S., Scranton, M. I. and Zhang, J. (2010) Marine hypoxia/anoxia as a source of CH4 and N2O . ... In other regions experiencing various degrees of O2-deficiency (hypoxia to anoxia), CH4 concentrations vary from a few to ...
Foraminiferal community response to seasonal anoxia in Lake Grevelingen (the Netherlands) Julien Richirt, Bettina Riedel, ...
Re: Widespread Ocean Anoxia to be Noticeable by 2030 « Reply #1 on: July 11, 2016, 12:44:25 AM » ... Re: Widespread Ocean Anoxia to be Noticeable by 2030 « Reply #2 on: July 11, 2016, 01:46:24 AM » ... Re: Widespread Ocean Anoxia to be Noticeable by 2030 « Reply #3 on: July 11, 2016, 01:52:12 AM » ... Re: Widespread Ocean Anoxia to be Noticeable by 2030 « Reply #4 on: July 11, 2016, 04:12:56 AM » ...
Several vertebrate species can survive anoxia, the complete absence of oxygen, for days or even months. These anoxia-tolerant ... To find out, Nilsson and his team examined cardiac function in the crucian carp over a period of 5 days of anoxia at 8±1°C. In ... In fact, the only cardiovascular functions that seemed to have changed over 2-5 days of anoxia were the fishs peripheral ... Sarah L. Milton; ANOXIA NOT A REAL HEARTBREAKER. J Exp Biol 1 January 2005; 208 (1): v. doi: https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.01389 ...
  • a measure of the severity of hypoxic conditions Oxygen toxicity (hyperoxia), the opposite condition of hypoxia, an excess of oxygen in body tissues Oxygen-free (disambiguation) This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Anoxia. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, plants can experience a lower oxygen availability (hypoxia) or total absence of oxygen (anoxia) owing to flooding of the soil or as a consequence of the anatomical structure of some tissues. (ristudypost.com)
  • Plants cannot survive for long periods of time under hypoxia or anoxia, but some species can avoid or withstand anaerobiosis. (ristudypost.com)
  • Ethylene production under anoxia is prevented by the lack of oxygen, required for the conversion of 1-aminocyclopropane1-carboxylic acid (ACC) to ethylene, while production of this hormone is observed under hypoxia. (ristudypost.com)
  • In other regions experiencing various degrees of O2-deficiency (hypoxia to anoxia), CH4 concentrations vary from a few to hundreds of nanomolar levels. (geomar.de)
  • Role of sedimentary environment in the development of hypoxia and anoxia in the NW Adriatic shelf (Italy). (ogs.it)
  • This suggests a global drawdown of the seawater molybdenum reservoir caused by the widespread extent of ocean anoxia/euxinia in the Cretaceous oceans during OAE2. (ku.dk)
  • However, the lack of quantitative constraints on the details of Early Triassic oceanic anoxia (for example, time, duration, and extent) leaves the links between oceanic conditions and the delayed biotic recovery ambiguous. (lu.se)
  • Comparisons of the U-, C-, and Sr-isotope records with a modeled seawater PO 4 3- concentration curve for the Early Triassic suggest that elevated marine productivity and enhanced oceanic stratification were likely the immediate causes of expanded oceanic anoxia. (lu.se)
  • Our results indicate that multiple oscillations in oceanic anoxia modulated the recovery of marine ecosystems following the latest Permian mass extinction. (lu.se)
  • Several vertebrate species can survive anoxia, the complete absence of oxygen, for days or even months. (silverchair.com)
  • Anoxia is a condition characterized by the complete lack of oxygen supply to a tissue or an organ of the body. (news-medical.net)
  • A related condition, anoxia, occurs when no oxygen reaches the brain. (mybubbaandme.com)
  • In this review, we describe some classical aspects of the physiology of plants under limited oxygen availability, highlighting new evidence of gene modulation by anoxia arising from recent microarray experiments using Arabidopsis seedlings. (ristudypost.com)
  • Because anoxic conditions have been postulated to foster deposition of petroleum source rocks and have been implicated as a kill mechanism in extinction events, the genesis of such anoxia has been an area of intense study. (psu.edu)
  • These results suggest that box models must capture the open-system and vertically stratified nature of the ocean to allow meaningful interpretations of long-lived episodes of anoxia. (psu.edu)
  • In particular, the detection of Bacteriopheophytin a (Bphe a), a pigment produced by anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria at the chemocline of meromictic lakes, emphasizes episodes of multi-decadal to centennial hypolimnetic anoxia in Lake Son Kol. (knaw.nl)
  • To find out, Nilsson and his team examined cardiac function in the crucian carp over a period of 5 days of anoxia at 8±1°C. In a paper recently published in Science , they report that following an initial 24 h adjustment period of increased stroke volume and cardiac output, the carp's cardiac function returned to normal levels. (silverchair.com)
  • It would be of interest to investigate in more detail the biochemical and molecular bases of continued cardiac function during anoxia. (silverchair.com)
  • We conclude that the persistence or even the increase of anoxia in the NW shelf area could be due to the role of hypoxic, reactive shelf sediments which favours the fast onset of anoxia even with limited inputs of new fresh OM and/or during short period of water stratification. (ogs.it)
  • Phases of hypolimnetic anoxia are inferred from the deposition of dark organic sediments within a stratified lake system, which occurred during periods of increased snowmelt (and solid winter precipitation) and warmer spring/summer temperatures that promoted floods and the export of terrestrial material from the catchment. (knaw.nl)
  • When light and temperature are physiologically suitable for cyanobacteria growth, bloom onset is regulated by the onset of internal Fe2+ loading which in turn is controlled by anoxia, reducible Fe content of surface sediments and sulphate reduction rate. (environmental-expert.com)
  • To explore this idea, we reconstruct the contemporaneous global extent of marine anoxia using uranium (U) isotopes from Ludfordian marine carbonates sampled from two widely spaced paleogeographic locations. (lu.se)
  • The availability of molecular tools for genome-wide analyses of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings transcriptome opens new opportunities for the study of plant responses to anoxia. (ristudypost.com)
  • Anoxia eliminates the investing insects at any stage of their development - eggs, larva or adults. (imagescanners.asia)
  • The positive δ 13 C excursion and the extinctions have been linked to increased marine productivity (ocean eutrophication), leading to increased organic carbon burial, and expansion of marine anoxia in shallow continental seas. (lu.se)
  • Our δ 238 U results demonstrate that the overall MLCIE was not coupled to expanding marine anoxia and a presumed associated increased marine primary productivity. (lu.se)
  • Thus, increased marine primary productivity and marine anoxia may have caused the initial carbon cycle disturbance and the extinctions but was not a main driver for the continued growth and exceptional magnitude of the MLCIE. (lu.se)
  • Genes coding for enzymes of the lipid degradation pathway are repressed by anoxia, mostly at the level of lipases, while the genes encoding b-oxidation and the glyoxylate cycle genes are unaffected or moderately induced by anoxia. (ristudypost.com)
  • The effects of anoxia on starch synthesis genes are limited, and the pathway of starch degradation is not induced under anoxia in Arabidopsis thaliana. (ristudypost.com)
  • AMP degradation in the perfused rat heart during 2-deoxy-D-glucose perfusion and anoxia. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Dive into the research topics of 'AMP degradation in the perfused rat heart during 2-deoxy-D-glucose perfusion and anoxia. (elsevierpure.com)
  • In this article, we analyze the results obtained by transcript profiling of Arabidopsis seedlings under anoxia and discuss the results in relation to the existing literature on the anaerobic response of higher plants. (ristudypost.com)
  • While a three-box modeling approach shows that only changes in high-latitude convective mixing rate and character of deepwater sources are likely to cause anoxia, four-box model experiments indicate that slowing of thermohaline circulation, a reduction in wind-driven upwelling, and changes in high-latitude export production may also cause dysoxia or anoxia in part of the deep ocean on long timescales. (psu.edu)
  • Strong climatic variability at this time suggests anoxia and climate change led to the extinctions of the Lau/Kozlowskii bioevent. (lu.se)
  • Few sedimentary archives of lake meromixis are available in palaeolimnological records, because long-term observations are limited in time and indisputable sediment proxies of hypolimnetic anoxia are still scarce. (knaw.nl)
  • In summer 2010, the last objects of the world's oldest photo lab are finally on view in the Niépce House after several months of anoxia - a process that consists in destroying worms and parasites contained in the wood by means of a vacuum, without interfering with future chemical analyses. (photo-museum.org)
  • Isotopic evidence for Mesoarchaean anoxia and changing atmospheric sulphur chemistry. (fu-berlin.de)
  • Anoxia Chamber - has intuitive controls, simple and automated operation and observes health and safety working conditions for users. (conservationlabinternational.com)
  • The disappearance of hypolimnetic anoxia in Lake Son Kol coincides with strengthened wind conditions that imply enhanced lake overturning and upward mixing of nutrients in the water column. (knaw.nl)
  • Besides the important role of fermentative metabolism, the AHB/NR1-dependent NADH utilization can be useful to regenerate nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) under anoxia. (ristudypost.com)
  • Anti-apoptotic response during anoxia and recovery in a freeze-tolerant wood frog. (wijelab.ca)
  • Systemic damage is usually a secondary result of anoxia caused by loss of lung function. (cdc.gov)
  • These anoxia-tolerant animals include freshwater turtles in the genera Chrysemys and Trachemys , and the crucian carp Carassius carassius . (silverchair.com)
  • In fact, the only cardiovascular functions that seemed to have changed over 2-5 days of anoxia were the fish's peripheral vascular resistance and blood pressure in the ventral aorta, which continued to be depressed, indicating that the fish's blood vessels had dilated. (silverchair.com)
  • We reexamine the question of anoxia in open-system box models in order to test the applicability of closed-system results over long timescales and find that open and closed-system modeling results may differ significantly on both short and long timescales. (psu.edu)
  • Tissue specific controls on carbohydrate catabolism during anoxia in goldfish. (kenstoreylab.com)
  • The microarray results highlight the strong induction of two sucrose synthase genes, which, together with the repression of neutral invertase (At1g35580) and the activation of an invertase inhibitor, suggests that a sucrose-synthase pathway predominates for sucrose utilization under anoxia, as previously proposed for rice seedlings. (ristudypost.com)