Pathological conditions involving the CAROTID ARTERIES, including the common, internal, and external carotid arteries. ATHEROSCLEROSIS and TRAUMA are relatively frequent causes of carotid artery pathology.
Either of the two principal arteries on both sides of the neck that supply blood to the head and neck; each divides into two branches, the internal carotid artery and the external carotid artery.
Narrowing or stricture of any part of the CAROTID ARTERIES, most often due to atherosclerotic plaque formation. Ulcerations may form in atherosclerotic plaques and induce THROMBUS formation. Platelet or cholesterol emboli may arise from stenotic carotid lesions and induce a TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; or temporary blindness (AMAUROSIS FUGAX). (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp 822-3)
Branch of the common carotid artery which supplies the anterior part of the brain, the eye and its appendages, the forehead and nose.
The excision of the thickened, atheromatous tunica intima of a carotid artery.
The two principal arteries supplying the structures of the head and neck. They ascend in the neck, one on each side, and at the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, each divides into two branches, the external (CAROTID ARTERY, EXTERNAL) and internal (CAROTID ARTERY, INTERNAL) carotid arteries.
Pathological processes of CORONARY ARTERIES that may derive from a congenital abnormality, atherosclerotic, or non-atherosclerotic cause.
Branch of the common carotid artery which supplies the exterior of the head, the face, and the greater part of the neck.
Blood clot formation in any part of the CAROTID ARTERIES. This may produce CAROTID STENOSIS or occlusion of the vessel, leading to TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK; CEREBRAL INFARCTION; or AMAUROSIS FUGAX.
The vessels carrying blood away from the heart.
Surgical excision, performed under general anesthesia, of the atheromatous tunica intima of an artery. When reconstruction of an artery is performed as an endovascular procedure through a catheter, it is called ATHERECTOMY.
Ultrasonography applying the Doppler effect combined with real-time imaging. The real-time image is created by rapid movement of the ultrasound beam. A powerful advantage of this technique is the ability to estimate the velocity of flow from the Doppler shift frequency.
Pathological processes which result in the partial or complete obstruction of ARTERIES. They are characterized by greatly reduced or absence of blood flow through these vessels. They are also known as arterial insufficiency.
Brief reversible episodes of focal, nonconvulsive ischemic dysfunction of the brain having a duration of less than 24 hours, and usually less than one hour, caused by transient thrombotic or embolic blood vessel occlusion or stenosis. Events may be classified by arterial distribution, temporal pattern, or etiology (e.g., embolic vs. thrombotic). (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp814-6)
Devices that provide support for tubular structures that are being anastomosed or for body cavities during skin grafting.
Non-invasive method of vascular imaging and determination of internal anatomy without injection of contrast media or radiation exposure. The technique is used especially in CEREBRAL ANGIOGRAPHY as well as for studies of other vascular structures.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
An imbalance between myocardial functional requirements and the capacity of the CORONARY VESSELS to supply sufficient blood flow. It is a form of MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA (insufficient blood supply to the heart muscle) caused by a decreased capacity of the coronary vessels.
A spectrum of pathological conditions of impaired blood flow in the brain. They can involve vessels (ARTERIES or VEINS) in the CEREBRUM, the CEREBELLUM, and the BRAIN STEM. Major categories include INTRACRANIAL ARTERIOVENOUS MALFORMATIONS; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE; and others.
Transient complete or partial monocular blindness due to retinal ischemia. This may be caused by emboli from the CAROTID ARTERY (usually in association with CAROTID STENOSIS) and other locations that enter the central RETINAL ARTERY. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p245)
The arterial blood vessels supplying the CEREBRUM.
A polygonal anastomosis at the base of the brain formed by the internal carotid (CAROTID ARTERY, INTERNAL), proximal parts of the anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries (ANTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY; MIDDLE CEREBRAL ARTERY; POSTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY), the anterior communicating artery and the posterior communicating arteries.
A non-invasive technique using ultrasound for the measurement of cerebrovascular hemodynamics, particularly cerebral blood flow velocity and cerebral collateral flow. With a high-intensity, low-frequency pulse probe, the intracranial arteries may be studied transtemporally, transorbitally, or from below the foramen magnum.
The visualization of deep structures of the body by recording the reflections or echoes of ultrasonic pulses directed into the tissues. Use of ultrasound for imaging or diagnostic purposes employs frequencies ranging from 1.6 to 10 megahertz.
A group of pathological conditions characterized by sudden, non-convulsive loss of neurological function due to BRAIN ISCHEMIA or INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGES. Stroke is classified by the type of tissue NECROSIS, such as the anatomic location, vasculature involved, etiology, age of the affected individual, and hemorrhagic vs. non-hemorrhagic nature. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp777-810)
Reconstruction or repair of a blood vessel, which includes the widening of a pathological narrowing of an artery or vein by the removal of atheromatous plaque material and/or the endothelial lining as well, or by dilatation (BALLOON ANGIOPLASTY) to compress an ATHEROMA. Except for ENDARTERECTOMY, usually these procedures are performed via catheterization as minimally invasive ENDOVASCULAR PROCEDURES.
The circulation of blood through the BLOOD VESSELS of the BRAIN.
The splitting of the vessel wall in one or both (left and right) internal carotid arteries (CAROTID ARTERY, INTERNAL). Interstitial hemorrhage into the media of the vessel wall can lead to occlusion of the internal carotid artery and aneurysm formation.
Radiography of blood vessels after injection of a contrast medium.
A small cluster of chemoreceptive and supporting cells located near the bifurcation of the internal carotid artery. The carotid body, which is richly supplied with fenestrated capillaries, senses the pH, carbon dioxide, and oxygen concentrations in the blood and plays a crucial role in their homeostatic control.
Surgical therapy of ischemic coronary artery disease achieved by grafting a section of saphenous vein, internal mammary artery, or other substitute between the aorta and the obstructed coronary artery distal to the obstructive lesion.
Radiography of the vascular system of the brain after injection of a contrast medium.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
The innermost layer of an artery or vein, made up of one layer of endothelial cells and supported by an internal elastic lamina.
Thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of ARTERIES of all sizes. There are many forms classified by the types of lesions and arteries involved, such as ATHEROSCLEROSIS with fatty lesions in the ARTERIAL INTIMA of medium and large muscular arteries.
Use of a balloon catheter for dilation of an occluded artery. It is used in treatment of arterial occlusive diseases, including renal artery stenosis and arterial occlusions in the leg. For the specific technique of BALLOON DILATION in coronary arteries, ANGIOPLASTY, BALLOON, CORONARY is available.
A method of delineating blood vessels by subtracting a tissue background image from an image of tissue plus intravascular contrast material that attenuates the X-ray photons. The background image is determined from a digitized image taken a few moments before injection of the contrast material. The resulting angiogram is a high-contrast image of the vessel. This subtraction technique allows extraction of a high-intensity signal from the superimposed background information. The image is thus the result of the differential absorption of X-rays by different tissues.
The dilated portion of the common carotid artery at its bifurcation into external and internal carotids. It contains baroreceptors which, when stimulated, cause slowing of the heart, vasodilatation, and a fall in blood pressure.
A value equal to the total volume flow divided by the cross-sectional area of the vascular bed.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Vascular diseases characterized by thickening and hardening of the walls of ARTERIES inside the SKULL. There are three subtypes: (1) atherosclerosis with fatty deposits in the ARTERIAL INTIMA; (2) Monckeberg's sclerosis with calcium deposits in the media and (3) arteriolosclerosis involving the small caliber arteries. Clinical signs include HEADACHE; CONFUSION; transient blindness (AMAUROSIS FUGAX); speech impairment; and HEMIPARESIS.
Radiography of the vascular system of the heart muscle after injection of a contrast medium.
Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.
Sudden ISCHEMIA in the RETINA due to blocked blood flow through the CENTRAL RETINAL ARTERY or its branches leading to sudden complete or partial loss of vision, respectively, in the eye.
One of the CARBONIC ANHYDRASE INHIBITORS that is sometimes effective against absence seizures. It is sometimes useful also as an adjunct in the treatment of tonic-clonic, myoclonic, and atonic seizures, particularly in women whose seizures occur or are exacerbated at specific times in the menstrual cycle. However, its usefulness is transient often because of rapid development of tolerance. Its antiepileptic effect may be due to its inhibitory effect on brain carbonic anhydrase, which leads to an increased transneuronal chloride gradient, increased chloride current, and increased inhibition. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1991, p337)
Blocking of a blood vessel in the SKULL by an EMBOLUS which can be a blood clot (THROMBUS) or other undissolved material in the blood stream. Most emboli are of cardiac origin and are associated with HEART DISEASES. Other non-cardiac sources of emboli are usually associated with VASCULAR DISEASES.
Artery originating from the internal carotid artery and distributing to the eye, orbit and adjacent facial structures.
The middle layer of blood vessel walls, composed principally of thin, cylindrical, smooth muscle cells and elastic tissue. It accounts for the bulk of the wall of most arteries. The smooth muscle cells are arranged in circular layers around the vessel, and the thickness of the coat varies with the size of the vessel.
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Localized reduction of blood flow to brain tissue due to arterial obstruction or systemic hypoperfusion. This frequently occurs in conjunction with brain hypoxia (HYPOXIA, BRAIN). Prolonged ischemia is associated with BRAIN INFARCTION.
The condition of an anatomical structure's being constricted beyond normal dimensions.
Diseases that do not exhibit symptoms.
The main artery of the thigh, a continuation of the external iliac artery.
The short wide vessel arising from the conus arteriosus of the right ventricle and conveying unaerated blood to the lungs.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
Embolism or thrombosis involving blood vessels which supply intracranial structures. Emboli may originate from extracranial or intracranial sources. Thrombosis may occur in arterial or venous structures.
Blocking of a blood vessel by an embolus which can be a blood clot or other undissolved material in the blood stream.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
A measurement of the thickness of the carotid artery walls. It is measured by B-mode ULTRASONOGRAPHY and is used as a surrogate marker for ATHEROSCLEROSIS.
The formation of an area of NECROSIS in the CEREBRUM caused by an insufficiency of arterial or venous blood flow. Infarcts of the cerebrum are generally classified by hemisphere (i.e., left vs. right), lobe (e.g., frontal lobe infarction), arterial distribution (e.g., INFARCTION, ANTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY), and etiology (e.g., embolic infarction).
The qualitative or quantitative estimation of the likelihood of adverse effects that may result from exposure to specified health hazards or from the absence of beneficial influences. (Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 1988)
The first branch of the SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY with distribution to muscles of the NECK; VERTEBRAE; SPINAL CORD; CEREBELLUM; and interior of the CEREBRUM.
Damages to the CAROTID ARTERIES caused either by blunt force or penetrating trauma, such as CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; THORACIC INJURIES; and NECK INJURIES. Damaged carotid arteries can lead to CAROTID ARTERY THROMBOSIS; CAROTID-CAVERNOUS SINUS FISTULA; pseudoaneurysm formation; and INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY DISSECTION. (From Am J Forensic Med Pathol 1997, 18:251; J Trauma 1994, 37:473)
Ultrasonography applying the Doppler effect, with the superposition of flow information as colors on a gray scale in a real-time image. This type of ultrasonography is well-suited to identifying the location of high-velocity flow (such as in a stenosis) or of mapping the extent of flow in a certain region.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
A branch of the abdominal aorta which supplies the kidneys, adrenal glands and ureters.
The artery formed by the union of the right and left vertebral arteries; it runs from the lower to the upper border of the pons, where it bifurcates into the two posterior cerebral arteries.
PRESSURE of the BLOOD on the ARTERIES and other BLOOD VESSELS.
The veins and arteries of the HEART.
Maintenance of blood flow to an organ despite obstruction of a principal vessel. Blood flow is maintained through small vessels.
Ultrasonography applying the Doppler effect, with frequency-shifted ultrasound reflections produced by moving targets (usually red blood cells) in the bloodstream along the ultrasound axis in direct proportion to the velocity of movement of the targets, to determine both direction and velocity of blood flow. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Pathologic processes that affect patients after a surgical procedure. They may or may not be related to the disease for which the surgery was done, and they may or may not be direct results of the surgery.
Arteries which arise from the abdominal aorta and distribute to most of the intestines.
Artery arising from the brachiocephalic trunk on the right side and from the arch of the aorta on the left side. It distributes to the neck, thoracic wall, spinal cord, brain, meninges, and upper limb.
The continuation of the axillary artery; it branches into the radial and ulnar arteries.
The direct continuation of the brachial trunk, originating at the bifurcation of the brachial artery opposite the neck of the radius. Its branches may be divided into three groups corresponding to the three regions in which the vessel is situated, the forearm, wrist, and hand.
Either of two large arteries originating from the abdominal aorta; they supply blood to the pelvis, abdominal wall and legs.
Criteria and standards used for the determination of the appropriateness of the inclusion of patients with specific conditions in proposed treatment plans and the criteria used for the inclusion of subjects in various clinical trials and other research protocols.
A thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of ARTERIES that occurs with formation of ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUES within the ARTERIAL INTIMA.
The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.
Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
Arteries originating from the subclavian or axillary arteries and distributing to the anterior thoracic wall, mediastinal structures, diaphragm, pectoral muscles and mammary gland.
The nonstriated involuntary muscle tissue of blood vessels.
Use or insertion of a tubular device into a duct, blood vessel, hollow organ, or body cavity for injecting or withdrawing fluids for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. It differs from INTUBATION in that the tube here is used to restore or maintain patency in obstructions.
Narrowing or constriction of a coronary artery.
Single pavement layer of cells which line the luminal surface of the entire vascular system and regulate the transport of macromolecules and blood components.
NECROSIS of the MYOCARDIUM caused by an obstruction of the blood supply to the heart (CORONARY CIRCULATION).
Pathologic deposition of calcium salts in tissues.
Controlled physical activity which is performed in order to allow assessment of physiological functions, particularly cardiovascular and pulmonary, but also aerobic capacity. Maximal (most intense) exercise is usually required but submaximal exercise is also used.
The symptom of paroxysmal pain consequent to MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA usually of distinctive character, location and radiation. It is thought to be provoked by a transient stressful situation during which the oxygen requirements of the MYOCARDIUM exceed that supplied by the CORONARY CIRCULATION.
The largest of the cerebral arteries. It trifurcates into temporal, frontal, and parietal branches supplying blood to most of the parenchyma of these lobes in the CEREBRAL CORTEX. These are the areas involved in motor, sensory, and speech activities.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
The physiological widening of BLOOD VESSELS by relaxing the underlying VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE.
Pathological outpouching or sac-like dilatation in the wall of any blood vessel (ARTERIES or VEINS) or the heart (HEART ANEURYSM). It indicates a thin and weakened area in the wall which may later rupture. Aneurysms are classified by location, etiology, or other characteristics.
The movement and the forces involved in the movement of the blood through the CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM.
The flow of BLOOD through or around an organ or region of the body.
Statistical models which describe the relationship between a qualitative dependent variable (that is, one which can take only certain discrete values, such as the presence or absence of a disease) and an independent variable. A common application is in epidemiology for estimating an individual's risk (probability of a disease) as a function of a given risk factor.
A method of computed tomography that uses radionuclides which emit a single photon of a given energy. The camera is rotated 180 or 360 degrees around the patient to capture images at multiple positions along the arc. The computer is then used to reconstruct the transaxial, sagittal, and coronal images from the 3-dimensional distribution of radionuclides in the organ. The advantages of SPECT are that it can be used to observe biochemical and physiological processes as well as size and volume of the organ. The disadvantage is that, unlike positron-emission tomography where the positron-electron annihilation results in the emission of 2 photons at 180 degrees from each other, SPECT requires physical collimation to line up the photons, which results in the loss of many available photons and hence degrades the image.
Lack of perfusion in the EXTREMITIES resulting from atherosclerosis. It is characterized by INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION, and an ANKLE BRACHIAL INDEX of 0.9 or less.
Procedures for finding the mathematical function which best describes the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. In linear regression (see LINEAR MODELS) the relationship is constrained to be a straight line and LEAST-SQUARES ANALYSIS is used to determine the best fit. In logistic regression (see LOGISTIC MODELS) the dependent variable is qualitative rather than continuously variable and LIKELIHOOD FUNCTIONS are used to find the best relationship. In multiple regression, the dependent variable is considered to depend on more than a single independent variable.
The circulation of blood through the CORONARY VESSELS of the HEART.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Drugs used to cause dilation of the blood vessels.
Lesions formed within the walls of ARTERIES.
Recording of the moment-to-moment electromotive forces of the HEART as projected onto various sites on the body's surface, delineated as a scalar function of time. The recording is monitored by a tracing on slow moving chart paper or by observing it on a cardioscope, which is a CATHODE RAY TUBE DISPLAY.
Abnormal outpouching in the wall of intracranial blood vessels. Most common are the saccular (berry) aneurysms located at branch points in CIRCLE OF WILLIS at the base of the brain. Vessel rupture results in SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE or INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGES. Giant aneurysms (>2.5 cm in diameter) may compress adjacent structures, including the OCULOMOTOR NERVE. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p841)
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
Microsurgical revascularization to improve intracranial circulation. It usually involves joining the extracranial circulation to the intracranial circulation but may include extracranial revascularization (e.g., subclavian-vertebral artery bypass, subclavian-external carotid artery bypass). It is performed by joining two arteries (direct anastomosis or use of graft) or by free autologous transplantation of highly vascularized tissue to the surface of the brain.
A disorder of cardiac function caused by insufficient blood flow to the muscle tissue of the heart. The decreased blood flow may be due to narrowing of the coronary arteries (CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE), to obstruction by a thrombus (CORONARY THROMBOSIS), or less commonly, to diffuse narrowing of arterioles and other small vessels within the heart. Severe interruption of the blood supply to the myocardial tissue may result in necrosis of cardiac muscle (MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION).
Benign paraganglioma at the bifurcation of the COMMON CAROTID ARTERIES. It can encroach on the parapharyngeal space and produce dysphagia, pain, and cranial nerve palsies.
Arteries arising from the external carotid or the maxillary artery and distributing to the temporal region.
Persistently high systemic arterial BLOOD PRESSURE. Based on multiple readings (BLOOD PRESSURE DETERMINATION), hypertension is currently defined as when SYSTOLIC PRESSURE is consistently greater than 140 mm Hg or when DIASTOLIC PRESSURE is consistently 90 mm Hg or more.
Application of a ligature to tie a vessel or strangulate a part.
Dilation of an occluded coronary artery (or arteries) by means of a balloon catheter to restore myocardial blood supply.
An increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ without tumor formation. It differs from HYPERTROPHY, which is an increase in bulk without an increase in the number of cells.
The largest branch of the celiac trunk with distribution to the spleen, pancreas, stomach and greater omentum.
An irregularly shaped venous space in the dura mater at either side of the sphenoid bone.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
A method of hemostasis utilizing various agents such as Gelfoam, silastic, metal, glass, or plastic pellets, autologous clot, fat, and muscle as emboli. It has been used in the treatment of spinal cord and INTRACRANIAL ARTERIOVENOUS MALFORMATIONS, renal arteriovenous fistulas, gastrointestinal bleeding, epistaxis, hypersplenism, certain highly vascular tumors, traumatic rupture of blood vessels, and control of operative hemorrhage.
The physiological narrowing of BLOOD VESSELS by contraction of the VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE.
Narrowing or occlusion of the RENAL ARTERY or arteries. It is due usually to ATHEROSCLEROSIS; FIBROMUSCULAR DYSPLASIA; THROMBOSIS; EMBOLISM, or external pressure. The reduced renal perfusion can lead to renovascular hypertension (HYPERTENSION, RENOVASCULAR).
A branch of the celiac artery that distributes to the stomach, pancreas, duodenum, liver, gallbladder, and greater omentum.
The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.
The arterial trunk that arises from the abdominal aorta and after a short course divides into the left gastric, common hepatic and splenic arteries.
A phosphodiesterase inhibitor that blocks uptake and metabolism of adenosine by erythrocytes and vascular endothelial cells. Dipyridamole also potentiates the antiaggregating action of prostacyclin. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p752)
The degree to which BLOOD VESSELS are not blocked or obstructed.
The creation and display of functional images showing where the blood is flowing into the MYOCARDIUM by following over time the distribution of tracers injected into the blood stream.
A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual's condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.
Veins in the neck which drain the brain, face, and neck into the brachiocephalic or subclavian veins.
Arteries originating from the subclavian or axillary arteries and distributing to the anterior thoracic wall, mediastinal structures, diaphragm, pectoral muscles, mammary gland and the axillary aspect of the chest wall.
The restoration of blood supply to the myocardium. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Ultrasonic recording of the size, motion, and composition of the heart and surrounding tissues. The standard approach is transthoracic.
Surgical insertion of BLOOD VESSEL PROSTHESES to repair injured or diseased blood vessels.
Rhythmic, intermittent propagation of a fluid through a BLOOD VESSEL or piping system, in contrast to constant, smooth propagation, which produces laminar flow.
Unstable isotopes of thallium that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Tl atoms with atomic weights 198-202, 204, and 206-210 are thallium radioisotopes.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Distensibility measure of a chamber such as the lungs (LUNG COMPLIANCE) or bladder. Compliance is expressed as a change in volume per unit change in pressure.
Use of a balloon CATHETER to block the flow of blood through an artery or vein.
Operative procedures for the treatment of vascular disorders.
The portion of the descending aorta proceeding from the arch of the aorta and extending to the DIAPHRAGM, eventually connecting to the ABDOMINAL AORTA.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
A distribution in which a variable is distributed like the sum of the squares of any given independent random variable, each of which has a normal distribution with mean of zero and variance of one. The chi-square test is a statistical test based on comparison of a test statistic to a chi-square distribution. The oldest of these tests are used to detect whether two or more population distributions differ from one another.
Procedures in which placement of CARDIAC CATHETERS is performed for therapeutic or diagnostic procedures.
A set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. In statistics, multivariate analysis is interpreted as any analytic method that allows simultaneous study of two or more dependent variables.
A large vessel supplying the whole length of the small intestine except the superior part of the duodenum. It also supplies the cecum and the ascending part of the colon and about half the transverse part of the colon. It arises from the anterior surface of the aorta below the celiac artery at the level of the first lumbar vertebra.
Pathological processes involving any one of the BLOOD VESSELS in the vasculature outside the HEART.
Specialized arterial vessels in the umbilical cord. They carry waste and deoxygenated blood from the FETUS to the mother via the PLACENTA. In humans, there are usually two umbilical arteries but sometimes one.
An idiopathic, segmental, nonatheromatous disease of the musculature of arterial walls, leading to STENOSIS of small and medium-sized arteries. There is true proliferation of SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS and fibrous tissue. Fibromuscular dysplasia lesions are smooth stenosis and occur most often in the renal and carotid arteries. They may also occur in other peripheral arteries of the extremity.
Delivery of drugs into an artery.
Not an aneurysm but a well-defined collection of blood and CONNECTIVE TISSUE outside the wall of a blood vessel or the heart. It is the containment of a ruptured blood vessel or heart, such as sealing a rupture of the left ventricle. False aneurysm is formed by organized THROMBUS and HEMATOMA in surrounding tissue.
The number of times the HEART VENTRICLES contract per unit of time, usually per minute.
Drugs or agents which antagonize or impair any mechanism leading to blood platelet aggregation, whether during the phases of activation and shape change or following the dense-granule release reaction and stimulation of the prostaglandin-thromboxane system.
The failure by the observer to measure or identify a phenomenon accurately, which results in an error. Sources for this may be due to the observer's missing an abnormality, or to faulty technique resulting in incorrect test measurement, or to misinterpretation of the data. Two varieties are inter-observer variation (the amount observers vary from one another when reporting on the same material) and intra-observer variation (the amount one observer varies between observations when reporting more than once on the same material).
The act of constricting.
NECROSIS occurring in the MIDDLE CEREBRAL ARTERY distribution system which brings blood to the entire lateral aspects of each CEREBRAL HEMISPHERE. Clinical signs include impaired cognition; APHASIA; AGRAPHIA; weak and numbness in the face and arms, contralaterally or bilaterally depending on the infarction.
The continuation of the femoral artery coursing through the popliteal fossa; it divides into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries.
Cholesterol which is contained in or bound to low density lipoproteins (LDL), including CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and free cholesterol.
A catecholamine derivative with specificity for BETA-1 ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS. It is commonly used as a cardiotonic agent after CARDIAC SURGERY and during DOBUTAMINE STRESS ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY.
Formation and development of a thrombus or blood clot in the blood vessel.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
Substances used to allow enhanced visualization of tissues.
Studies to determine the advantages or disadvantages, practicability, or capability of accomplishing a projected plan, study, or project.
The first and largest artery branching from the aortic arch. It distributes blood to the right side of the head and neck and to the right arm.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
Resistance and recovery from distortion of shape.
The use of ultrasound to guide minimally invasive surgical procedures such as needle ASPIRATION BIOPSY; DRAINAGE; etc. Its widest application is intravascular ultrasound imaging but it is useful also in urology and intra-abdominal conditions.
A plasma protein that circulates in increased amounts during inflammation and after tissue damage.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
VASCULAR DISEASES that are associated with DIABETES MELLITUS.
Cholesterol which is contained in or bound to high-density lipoproteins (HDL), including CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and free cholesterol.
Pathological conditions involving the CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM including the HEART; the BLOOD VESSELS; or the PERICARDIUM.
The hollow, muscular organ that maintains the circulation of the blood.
The new and thickened layer of scar tissue that forms on a PROSTHESIS, or as a result of vessel injury especially following ANGIOPLASTY or stent placement.
The main trunk of the systemic arteries.
Device constructed of either synthetic or biological material that is used for the repair of injured or diseased blood vessels.
The larger of the two terminal branches of the brachial artery, beginning about one centimeter distal to the bend of the elbow. Like the RADIAL ARTERY, its branches may be divided into three groups corresponding to their locations in the forearm, wrist, and hand.
A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
A technique of inputting two-dimensional images into a computer and then enhancing or analyzing the imagery into a form that is more useful to the human observer.
Compounds that inhibit HMG-CoA reductases. They have been shown to directly lower cholesterol synthesis.
A method of recording heart motion and internal structures by combining ultrasonic imaging with exercise testing (EXERCISE TEST) or pharmacologic stress.
Comparison of the BLOOD PRESSURE between the BRACHIAL ARTERY and the POSTERIOR TIBIAL ARTERY. It is a predictor of PERIPHERAL ARTERIAL DISEASE.
A technetium imaging agent used to reveal blood-starved cardiac tissue during a heart attack.
A branch of the external carotid artery which distributes to the deep structures of the face (internal maxillary) and to the side of the face and nose (external maxillary).
The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis.
Left bronchial arteries arise from the thoracic aorta, the right from the first aortic intercostal or the upper left bronchial artery; they supply the bronchi and the lower trachea.
A volatile vasodilator which relieves ANGINA PECTORIS by stimulating GUANYLATE CYCLASE and lowering cytosolic calcium. It is also sometimes used for TOCOLYSIS and explosives.
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
The neural systems which act on VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE to control blood vessel diameter. The major neural control is through the sympathetic nervous system.
A condition with abnormally high levels of CHOLESTEROL in the blood. It is defined as a cholesterol value exceeding the 95th percentile for the population.
The ratio of two odds. The exposure-odds ratio for case control data is the ratio of the odds in favor of exposure among cases to the odds in favor of exposure among noncases. The disease-odds ratio for a cohort or cross section is the ratio of the odds in favor of disease among the exposed to the odds in favor of disease among the unexposed. The prevalence-odds ratio refers to an odds ratio derived cross-sectionally from studies of prevalent cases.
Conditions or pathological processes associated with the disease of diabetes mellitus. Due to the impaired control of BLOOD GLUCOSE level in diabetic patients, pathological processes develop in numerous tissues and organs including the EYE, the KIDNEY, the BLOOD VESSELS, and the NERVE TISSUE.
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
Agents that affect the rate or intensity of cardiac contraction, blood vessel diameter, or blood volume.
A subfamily of the Muridae consisting of several genera including Gerbillus, Rhombomys, Tatera, Meriones, and Psammomys.
Pathological conditions of intracranial ARTERIES supplying the CEREBRUM. These diseases often are due to abnormalities or pathological processes in the ANTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY; MIDDLE CEREBRAL ARTERY; and POSTERIOR CEREBRAL ARTERY.
A neurotransmitter found at neuromuscular junctions, autonomic ganglia, parasympathetic effector junctions, a subset of sympathetic effector junctions, and at many sites in the central nervous system.
Dysfunction of one or more cranial nerves causally related to a traumatic injury. Penetrating and nonpenetrating CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; NECK INJURIES; and trauma to the facial region are conditions associated with cranial nerve injuries.
Act of listening for sounds within the body.

Facial diplegia complicating a bilateral internal carotid artery dissection. (1/2869)

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: We report a case of facial diplegia complicating a bilateral internal carotid artery dissection. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 49-year-old patient presented with unilateral headache and oculosympathetic paresis. Cerebral angiography revealed a bilateral internal carotid artery dissection. A few days later, the patient developed a facial diplegia that regressed after arterial recanalization. An arterial anatomic variation may explain this ischemic complication of carotid dissection. CONCLUSIONS: Double carotid dissection should be included among the causes of bilateral seventh nerve palsy.  (+info)

Bruits, ophthalmodynamometry and rectilinear scanning on transient ischemic attacks. (2/2869)

One hundred seventeen patients with clinical signs and symptoms of transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) were evaluated. All underwent clinical evaluation for bruit, ophthalmodynamometry, rapid sequence scintiphotography with rectilinear scanning and four-vessel cerebral angiography. The results of these tests were compared for reliability in predicting location of lesions causing transient ischemic attacks. Angiography remains the most accurate procedure in evaluating extracranial vascular lesions. When determination of bruits, ophthalmodynamometry and brain scanning are done together, accuracy is greater than when any one of the procedures is done alone.  (+info)

A new sign of occlusion of the origin of the internal carotid artery. (3/2869)

When the origin of the internal carotid artery is occluded, the transmission of cardiac sounds along the carotid stops at the site of the occlusion. This is a new neurovascular sign which is being reported.  (+info)

Ophthalmodynamometry in internal carotid artery occlusion. (4/2869)

Retinal artery pressure was measured by ophthalmodynamometry in 15 patients with occlusion of the internal carotid artery in its extracranial part. Nine of the patients had severe neurological deficit whereas the remaining six had slight or intermittent symptoms. Retinal artery pressure was reduced on the side of the internal carotid artery occlusion in all patients studied. Near-zero low diastolic retinal artery pressure on the affected side was a common finding among patients with severe deficit and was also seen in some patients with slight deficit. Its presence strongly suggests occlusion of the ipsilateral internal carotid artery.  (+info)

Carotid endarterectomy and intracranial thrombolysis: simultaneous and staged procedures in ischemic stroke. (5/2869)

PURPOSE: The feasibility and safety of combining carotid surgery and thrombolysis for occlusions of the internal carotid artery (ICA) and the middle cerebral artery (MCA), either as a simultaneous or as a staged procedure in acute ischemic strokes, was studied. METHODS: A nonrandomized clinical pilot study, which included patients who had severe hemispheric carotid-related ischemic strokes and acute occlusions of the MCA, was performed between January 1994 and January 1998. Exclusion criteria were cerebral coma and major infarction established by means of cerebral computed tomography scan. Clinical outcome was assessed with the modified Rankin scale. RESULTS: Carotid reconstruction and thrombolysis was performed in 14 of 845 patients (1.7%). The ICA was occluded in 11 patients; occlusions of the MCA (mainstem/major branches/distal branch) or the anterior cerebral artery (ACA) were found in 14 patients. In three of the 14 patients, thrombolysis was performed first, followed by carotid enarterectomy (CEA) after clinical improvement (6 to 21 days). In 11 of 14 patients, 0.15 to 1 mIU urokinase was administered intraoperatively, ie, emergency CEA for acute ischemic stroke (n = 5) or surgical reexploration after elective CEA complicated by perioperative intracerebral embolism (n = 6). Thirteen of 14 intracranial embolic occlusions and 10 of 11 ICA occlusions were recanalized successfully (confirmed with angiography or transcranial Doppler studies). Four patients recovered completely (Rankin 0), six patients sustained a minor stroke (Rankin 2/3), two patients had a major stroke (Rankin 4/5), and two patients died. In one patient, hemorrhagic transformation of an ischemic infarction was detectable postoperatively. CONCLUSION: Combining carotid surgery with thrombolysis (simultaneous or staged procedure) offers a new therapeutic approach in the emergency management of an acute carotid-related stroke. Its efficacy should be evaluated in interdisciplinary studies.  (+info)

Expression of interleukin-10 in advanced human atherosclerotic plaques: relation to inducible nitric oxide synthase expression and cell death. (6/2869)

Inflammation is a major feature of human atherosclerosis and is central to development and progression of the disease. A variety of proinflammatory cytokines are expressed in the atherosclerotic plaque and may modulate extracellular matrix remodeling, cell proliferation, and cell death. Little is known, however, about the expression and potential role of anti-inflammatory cytokines in human atherosclerosis. Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a major anti-inflammatory cytokine whose expression and potential effects in advanced human atherosclerotic plaques have not been evaluated. We studied 21 advanced human atherosclerotic plaques. IL-10 expression was analyzed by use of reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemical techniques. Inducible nitric oxide synthase expression was assessed by using immunohistochemistry, and cell death was determined by use of the TUNEL method. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction identified IL-10 mRNA in 12 of 17 atherosclerotic plaques. Immunohistochemical staining of serial sections and double staining identified immunoreactive IL-10 mainly in macrophages, as well as in smooth muscle cells. Consistent with its anti-inflammatory properties, high levels of IL-10 expression were associated with significant decrease in inducible nitric oxide synthase expression (P<0.0001) and cell death (P<0. 0001). Hence, IL-10, a potent anti-inflammatory cytokine, is expressed in a substantial number of advanced human atherosclerotic plaques and might contribute to the modulation of the local inflammatory response and protect from excessive cell death in the plaque.  (+info)

Surgical treatment of internal carotid artery anterior wall aneurysm with extravasation during angiography--case report. (7/2869)

A 54-year-old female presented subarachnoid hemorrhage from an aneurysm arising from the anterior (dorsal) wall of the internal carotid artery (ICA). During four-vessel angiography, an extravasated saccular pooling of contrast medium emerged in the suprasellar area unrelated to any arterial branch. The saccular pooling was visualized in the arterial phase and cleared in the venophase during every contrast medium injection. We suspected that the extravasated pooling was surrounded by hard clot but communicated with the artery. Direct surgery was performed but major premature bleeding occurred during the microsurgical procedure. After temporary clipping, an opening of the anterior (dorsal) wall of the ICA was found without apparent aneurysm wall. The vessel wall was sutured with nylon thread. The total occlusion time of the ICA was about 50 minutes. Follow-up angiography demonstrated good patency of the ICA. About 2 years after the operation, the patient was able to walk with a stick and to communicate freely through speech, although left hemiparesis and left homonymous hemianopsia persisted. The outcome suggests our treatment strategy was not optimal, but suture of the ICA wall is one of the therapeutic choices when premature rupture occurs in the operation.  (+info)

Vasa vasorum: another cause of the carotid string sign. (8/2869)

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Our purpose was to describe a variant of the carotid string sign that may be associated with a completely occluded vessel and to consider possible pathophysiological mechanisms for this observation. METHODS: Carotid angiography was performed in three patients with suspected carotid stenosis and in a fourth with carotid dissection. Surgery was performed in one of the patients with carotid stenosis. RESULTS: On all angiograms, instead of a single linear or curvilinear contrast "string," either single or multiple serpiginous channels were seen. In one case, such a channel was seen emanating from below the origin of an occluded internal carotid stump, reconstituting the distal portion of the vessel. Surgery revealed a completely occluded lumen with a small intramural vessel bypassing the obstruction. CONCLUSION: We propose that these channels are either atherosclerotically induced neovessels connecting bridging vasa vasorum or recanalized luminal thrombus. We review the literature associated with this subject.  (+info)

Carotid artery diseases refer to conditions that affect the carotid arteries, which are the major blood vessels that supply oxygen-rich blood to the head and neck. The most common type of carotid artery disease is atherosclerosis, which occurs when fatty deposits called plaques build up in the inner lining of the arteries.

These plaques can cause the arteries to narrow or become blocked, reducing blood flow to the brain and increasing the risk of stroke. Other carotid artery diseases include carotid artery dissection, which occurs when there is a tear in the inner lining of the artery, and fibromuscular dysplasia, which is a condition that affects the muscle and tissue in the walls of the artery.

Symptoms of carotid artery disease may include neck pain or pulsations, transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) or "mini-strokes," and strokes. Treatment options for carotid artery disease depend on the severity and type of the condition but may include lifestyle changes, medications, endarterectomy (a surgical procedure to remove plaque from the artery), or angioplasty and stenting (procedures to open blocked arteries using a balloon and stent).

The carotid arteries are a pair of vital blood vessels in the human body that supply oxygenated blood to the head and neck. Each person has two common carotid arteries, one on each side of the neck, which branch off from the aorta, the largest artery in the body.

The right common carotid artery originates from the brachiocephalic trunk, while the left common carotid artery arises directly from the aortic arch. As they ascend through the neck, they split into two main branches: the internal and external carotid arteries.

The internal carotid artery supplies oxygenated blood to the brain, eyes, and other structures within the skull, while the external carotid artery provides blood to the face, scalp, and various regions of the neck.

Maintaining healthy carotid arteries is crucial for overall cardiovascular health and preventing serious conditions like stroke, which can occur when the arteries become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of plaque or fatty deposits (atherosclerosis). Regular check-ups with healthcare professionals may include monitoring carotid artery health through ultrasound or other imaging techniques.

Carotid stenosis is a medical condition that refers to the narrowing or constriction of the lumen (inner space) of the carotid artery. The carotid arteries are major blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood to the head and neck. Carotid stenosis usually results from the buildup of plaque, made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances, on the inner walls of the artery. This process is called atherosclerosis.

As the plaque accumulates, it causes the artery to narrow, reducing blood flow to the brain. Severe carotid stenosis can increase the risk of stroke, as a clot or debris from the plaque can break off and travel to the brain, blocking a smaller blood vessel and causing tissue damage or death.

Carotid stenosis is typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT angiography, or MRI angiography. Treatment options may include lifestyle modifications (such as quitting smoking, controlling blood pressure, and managing cholesterol levels), medications to reduce the risk of clots, or surgical procedures like endarterectomy or stenting to remove or bypass the blockage.

The internal carotid artery is a major blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the brain. It originates from the common carotid artery and passes through the neck, entering the skull via the carotid canal in the temporal bone. Once inside the skull, it branches into several smaller vessels that supply different parts of the brain with blood.

The internal carotid artery is divided into several segments: cervical, petrous, cavernous, clinoid, and supraclinoid. Each segment has distinct clinical significance in terms of potential injury or disease. The most common conditions affecting the internal carotid artery include atherosclerosis, which can lead to stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA), and dissection, which can cause severe headache, neck pain, and neurological symptoms.

It's important to note that any blockage or damage to the internal carotid artery can have serious consequences, as it can significantly reduce blood flow to the brain and lead to permanent neurological damage or even death. Therefore, regular check-ups and screening tests are recommended for individuals at high risk of developing vascular diseases.

Carotid endarterectomy is a surgical procedure to remove plaque buildup (atherosclerosis) from the carotid arteries, which are the major blood vessels that supply oxygen-rich blood to the brain. The surgery involves making an incision in the neck, opening the carotid artery, and removing the plaque from the inside of the artery wall. The goal of the procedure is to restore normal blood flow to the brain and reduce the risk of stroke caused by the narrowing or blockage of the carotid arteries.

The common carotid artery is a major blood vessel in the neck that supplies oxygenated blood to the head and neck. It originates from the brachiocephalic trunk or the aortic arch and divides into the internal and external carotid arteries at the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage. The common carotid artery is an important structure in the circulatory system, and any damage or blockage to it can have serious consequences, including stroke.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a medical condition in which the coronary arteries, which supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle, become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of cholesterol, fatty deposits, and other substances, known as plaque. Over time, this buildup can cause the arteries to harden and narrow (a process called atherosclerosis), reducing blood flow to the heart muscle.

The reduction in blood flow can lead to various symptoms and complications, including:

1. Angina (chest pain or discomfort) - This occurs when the heart muscle doesn't receive enough oxygen-rich blood, causing pain, pressure, or discomfort in the chest, arms, neck, jaw, or back.
2. Shortness of breath - When the heart isn't receiving adequate blood flow, it can't pump blood efficiently to meet the body's demands, leading to shortness of breath during physical activities or at rest.
3. Heart attack - If a piece of plaque ruptures or breaks off in a coronary artery, a blood clot can form and block the artery, causing a heart attack (myocardial infarction). This can damage or destroy part of the heart muscle.
4. Heart failure - Chronic reduced blood flow to the heart muscle can weaken it over time, leading to heart failure, a condition in which the heart can't pump blood efficiently to meet the body's needs.
5. Arrhythmias - Reduced blood flow and damage to the heart muscle can lead to abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

Coronary artery disease is typically diagnosed through a combination of medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests such as electrocardiograms (ECGs), stress testing, cardiac catheterization, and imaging studies like coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA). Treatment options for CAD include lifestyle modifications, medications, medical procedures, and surgery.

The external carotid artery is a major blood vessel in the neck that supplies oxygenated blood to the structures of the head and neck, excluding the brain. It originates from the common carotid artery at the level of the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, then divides into several branches that supply various regions of the head and neck, including the face, scalp, ears, and neck muscles.

The external carotid artery has eight branches:

1. Superior thyroid artery: Supplies blood to the thyroid gland, larynx, and surrounding muscles.
2. Ascending pharyngeal artery: Supplies blood to the pharynx, palate, and meninges of the brain.
3. Lingual artery: Supplies blood to the tongue and floor of the mouth.
4. Facial artery: Supplies blood to the face, nose, lips, and palate.
5. Occipital artery: Supplies blood to the scalp and muscles of the neck.
6. Posterior auricular artery: Supplies blood to the ear and surrounding muscles.
7. Maxillary artery: Supplies blood to the lower face, nasal cavity, palate, and meninges of the brain.
8. Superficial temporal artery: Supplies blood to the scalp, face, and temporomandibular joint.

The external carotid artery is an essential structure for maintaining adequate blood flow to the head and neck, and any damage or blockage can lead to serious medical conditions such as stroke or tissue necrosis.

Carotid artery thrombosis is a medical condition characterized by the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) inside the carotid artery, which is one of the major blood vessels that supplies oxygenated blood to the head and neck. This condition can lead to serious complications such as a stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA), also known as a "mini-stroke," if the clot dislodges and travels to the brain, blocking the flow of blood and oxygen.

Carotid artery thrombosis can result from various factors, including atherosclerosis (the buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in the artery walls), hypertension (high blood pressure), diabetes, smoking, and genetic predisposition. Symptoms may include neck pain or stiffness, weakness or numbness in the face or limbs, difficulty speaking or understanding speech, vision problems, and sudden severe headaches. Diagnosis typically involves imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT angiography, or MRI angiography. Treatment options may include anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications, endovascular procedures to remove the clot, or surgery to clean out the artery (carotid endarterectomy).

Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the rest of the body. They have thick, muscular walls that can withstand the high pressure of blood being pumped out of the heart. Arteries branch off into smaller vessels called arterioles, which further divide into a vast network of tiny capillaries where the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste occurs between the blood and the body's cells. After passing through the capillary network, deoxygenated blood collects in venules, then merges into veins, which return the blood back to the heart.

Endarterectomy is a surgical procedure in which the inner lining of an artery (the endothelium) that has become thickened, damaged, or narrowed due to the buildup of fatty deposits, called plaques, is removed. This process helps restore normal blood flow through the artery and reduces the risk of serious complications such as stroke or limb loss.

The procedure typically involves making an incision in the affected artery, carefully removing the plaque and inner lining, and then closing the artery with sutures or a patch graft. Endarterectomy is most commonly performed on the carotid arteries in the neck, but it can also be done on other arteries throughout the body, including the femoral artery in the leg and the iliac artery in the pelvis.

Endarterectomy is usually recommended for patients with significant narrowing of their arteries who are experiencing symptoms such as pain, numbness, or weakness in their limbs, or who have a high risk of stroke due to carotid artery disease. The procedure is generally safe and effective, but like any surgery, it carries risks such as bleeding, infection, and damage to nearby nerves or tissues.

Ultrasonography, Doppler, and Duplex are diagnostic medical techniques that use sound waves to create images of internal body structures and assess their function. Here are the definitions for each:

1. Ultrasonography: Also known as ultrasound, this is a non-invasive imaging technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to produce images of internal organs and tissues. A small handheld device called a transducer is placed on the skin surface, which emits and receives sound waves. The returning echoes are then processed to create real-time visual images of the internal structures.
2. Doppler: This is a type of ultrasound that measures the velocity and direction of blood flow in the body by analyzing the frequency shift of the reflected sound waves. It can be used to assess blood flow in various parts of the body, such as the heart, arteries, and veins.
3. Duplex: Duplex ultrasonography is a combination of both gray-scale ultrasound and Doppler ultrasound. It provides detailed images of internal structures, as well as information about blood flow velocity and direction. This technique is often used to evaluate conditions such as deep vein thrombosis, carotid artery stenosis, and peripheral arterial disease.

In summary, ultrasonography is a diagnostic imaging technique that uses sound waves to create images of internal structures, Doppler is a type of ultrasound that measures blood flow velocity and direction, and duplex is a combination of both techniques that provides detailed images and information about blood flow.

Arterial occlusive diseases are medical conditions characterized by the blockage or narrowing of the arteries, which can lead to a reduction in blood flow to various parts of the body. This reduction in blood flow can cause tissue damage and may result in serious complications such as tissue death (gangrene), organ dysfunction, or even death.

The most common cause of arterial occlusive diseases is atherosclerosis, which is the buildup of plaque made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances in the inner lining of the artery walls. Over time, this plaque can harden and narrow the arteries, restricting blood flow. Other causes of arterial occlusive diseases include blood clots, emboli (tiny particles that travel through the bloodstream and lodge in smaller vessels), inflammation, trauma, and certain inherited conditions.

Symptoms of arterial occlusive diseases depend on the location and severity of the blockage. Common symptoms include:

* Pain, cramping, or fatigue in the affected limb, often triggered by exercise and relieved by rest (claudication)
* Numbness, tingling, or weakness in the affected limb
* Coldness or discoloration of the skin in the affected area
* Slow-healing sores or wounds on the toes, feet, or legs
* Erectile dysfunction in men

Treatment for arterial occlusive diseases may include lifestyle changes such as quitting smoking, exercising regularly, and eating a healthy diet. Medications to lower cholesterol, control blood pressure, prevent blood clots, or manage pain may also be prescribed. In severe cases, surgical procedures such as angioplasty, stenting, or bypass surgery may be necessary to restore blood flow.

A Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA), also known as a "mini-stroke," is a temporary period of symptoms similar to those you'd get if you were having a stroke. A TIA doesn't cause permanent damage and is often caused by a temporary decrease in blood supply to part of your brain, which may last as little as five minutes.

Like an ischemic stroke, a TIA occurs when a clot or debris blocks blood flow to part of your nervous system. However, unlike a stroke, a TIA doesn't leave lasting damage because the blockage is temporary.

Symptoms of a TIA can include sudden onset of weakness, numbness or paralysis in your face, arm or leg, typically on one side of your body. You could also experience slurred or garbled speech, or difficulty understanding others. Other symptoms can include blindness in one or both eyes, dizziness, or a severe headache with no known cause.

Even though TIAs usually last only a few minutes, they are a serious condition and should not be ignored. If you suspect you or someone else is experiencing a TIA, seek immediate medical attention. TIAs can be a warning sign that a full-blown stroke is imminent.

A stent is a small mesh tube that's used to treat narrow or weak arteries. Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from your heart to other parts of your body. A stent is placed in an artery as part of a procedure called angioplasty. Angioplasty restores blood flow through narrowed or blocked arteries by inflating a tiny balloon inside the blocked artery to widen it.

The stent is then inserted into the widened artery to keep it open. The stent is usually made of metal, but some are coated with medication that is slowly and continuously released to help prevent the formation of scar tissue in the artery. This can reduce the chance of the artery narrowing again.

Stents are also used in other parts of the body, such as the neck (carotid artery) and kidneys (renal artery), to help maintain blood flow and prevent blockages. They can also be used in the urinary system to treat conditions like ureteropelvic junction obstruction or narrowing of the urethra.

Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA) is a non-invasive medical imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the blood vessels or arteries within the body. It is a type of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) that focuses specifically on the circulatory system.

MRA can be used to diagnose and evaluate various conditions related to the blood vessels, such as aneurysms, stenosis (narrowing of the vessel), or the presence of plaques or tumors. It can also be used to plan for surgeries or other treatments related to the vascular system. The procedure does not use radiation and is generally considered safe, although people with certain implants like pacemakers may not be able to have an MRA due to safety concerns.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Coronary artery disease, often simply referred to as coronary disease, is a condition in which the blood vessels that supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of fatty deposits called plaques. This can lead to chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, or in severe cases, a heart attack.

The medical definition of coronary artery disease is:

A condition characterized by the accumulation of atheromatous plaques in the walls of the coronary arteries, leading to decreased blood flow and oxygen supply to the myocardium (heart muscle). This can result in symptoms such as angina pectoris, shortness of breath, or arrhythmias, and may ultimately lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack) or heart failure.

Risk factors for coronary artery disease include age, smoking, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, obesity, physical inactivity, and a family history of the condition. Lifestyle changes such as quitting smoking, exercising regularly, eating a healthy diet, and managing stress can help reduce the risk of developing coronary artery disease. Medical treatments may include medications to control blood pressure, cholesterol levels, or irregular heart rhythms, as well as procedures such as angioplasty or bypass surgery to improve blood flow to the heart.

Cerebrovascular disorders are a group of medical conditions that affect the blood vessels of the brain. These disorders can be caused by narrowing, blockage, or rupture of the blood vessels, leading to decreased blood flow and oxygen supply to the brain. The most common types of cerebrovascular disorders include:

1. Stroke: A stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain becomes blocked or bursts, causing a lack of oxygen and nutrients to reach brain cells. This can lead to permanent damage or death of brain tissue.
2. Transient ischemic attack (TIA): Also known as a "mini-stroke," a TIA occurs when blood flow to the brain is temporarily blocked, often by a blood clot. Symptoms may last only a few minutes to a few hours and typically resolve on their own. However, a TIA is a serious warning sign that a full-blown stroke may occur in the future.
3. Aneurysm: An aneurysm is a weakened or bulging area in the wall of a blood vessel. If left untreated, an aneurysm can rupture and cause bleeding in the brain.
4. Arteriovenous malformation (AVM): An AVM is a tangled mass of abnormal blood vessels that connect arteries and veins. This can lead to bleeding in the brain or stroke.
5. Carotid stenosis: Carotid stenosis occurs when the carotid arteries, which supply blood to the brain, become narrowed or blocked due to plaque buildup. This can increase the risk of stroke.
6. Vertebrobasilar insufficiency: This condition occurs when the vertebral and basilar arteries, which supply blood to the back of the brain, become narrowed or blocked. This can lead to symptoms such as dizziness, vertigo, and difficulty swallowing.

Cerebrovascular disorders are a leading cause of disability and death worldwide. Risk factors for these conditions include age, high blood pressure, smoking, diabetes, high cholesterol, and family history. Treatment may involve medications, surgery, or lifestyle changes to reduce the risk of further complications.

Amaurosis fugax is a medical term that describes a temporary loss of vision in one eye, which is often described as a "shade or curtain falling over the field of vision." It's usually caused by a temporary interruption of blood flow to the retina or optic nerve. This condition is often associated with conditions such as giant cell arteritis, carotid artery stenosis, and cardiovascular disease.

It's important to note that Amaurosis fugax can be a warning sign for a more serious medical event, such as a stroke, so it's essential to seek medical attention promptly if you experience any symptoms of this condition.

Cerebral arteries refer to the blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood to the brain. These arteries branch off from the internal carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries, which combine to form the basilar artery. The major cerebral arteries include:

1. Anterior cerebral artery (ACA): This artery supplies blood to the frontal lobes of the brain, including the motor and sensory cortices responsible for movement and sensation in the lower limbs.
2. Middle cerebral artery (MCA): The MCA is the largest of the cerebral arteries and supplies blood to the lateral surface of the brain, including the temporal, parietal, and frontal lobes. It is responsible for providing blood to areas involved in motor function, sensory perception, speech, memory, and vision.
3. Posterior cerebral artery (PCA): The PCA supplies blood to the occipital lobe, which is responsible for visual processing, as well as parts of the temporal and parietal lobes.
4. Anterior communicating artery (ACoA) and posterior communicating arteries (PComAs): These are small arteries that connect the major cerebral arteries, forming an important circulatory network called the Circle of Willis. The ACoA connects the two ACAs, while the PComAs connect the ICA with the PCA and the basilar artery.

These cerebral arteries play a crucial role in maintaining proper brain function by delivering oxygenated blood to various regions of the brain. Any damage or obstruction to these arteries can lead to serious neurological conditions, such as strokes or transient ischemic attacks (TIAs).

The Circle of Willis is a circulatory arrangement in the brain where the major arteries that supply blood to the brain converge to form an almost circular structure. It is named after Thomas Willis, an English physician who first described it in 1664.

This circle is formed by the joining of the two internal carotid arteries, which divide into the anterior cerebral and middle cerebral arteries, with the basilar artery, which arises from the vertebral arteries. These vessels anastomose, or connect, to form a polygon-like structure at the base of the brain.

The Circle of Willis plays a crucial role in maintaining adequate blood flow to the brain, as it allows for collateral circulation. If one of the arteries that make up the circle becomes blocked or narrowed, blood can still reach the affected area through the other vessels in the circle. This helps to minimize the risk of stroke and other neurological disorders.

Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to visualize and measure the velocity of blood flow in the cerebral arteries located in the skull. This imaging modality employs the Doppler effect, which describes the change in frequency of sound waves as they reflect off moving red blood cells. By measuring the frequency shift of the reflected ultrasound waves, the velocity and direction of blood flow can be determined.

Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography is primarily used to assess cerebrovascular circulation and detect abnormalities such as stenosis (narrowing), occlusion (blockage), or embolism (obstruction) in the intracranial arteries. It can also help monitor patients with conditions like sickle cell disease, vasospasm following subarachnoid hemorrhage, and evaluate the effectiveness of treatments such as thrombolysis or angioplasty. The procedure is typically performed by placing a transducer on the patient's skull after applying a coupling gel, and it does not involve radiation exposure or contrast agents.

Ultrasonography, also known as sonography, is a diagnostic medical procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) to produce dynamic images of organs, tissues, or blood flow inside the body. These images are captured in real-time and can be used to assess the size, shape, and structure of various internal structures, as well as detect any abnormalities such as tumors, cysts, or inflammation.

During an ultrasonography procedure, a small handheld device called a transducer is placed on the patient's skin, which emits and receives sound waves. The transducer sends high-frequency sound waves into the body, and these waves bounce back off internal structures and are recorded by the transducer. The recorded data is then processed and transformed into visual images that can be interpreted by a medical professional.

Ultrasonography is a non-invasive, painless, and safe procedure that does not use radiation like other imaging techniques such as CT scans or X-rays. It is commonly used to diagnose and monitor conditions in various parts of the body, including the abdomen, pelvis, heart, blood vessels, and musculoskeletal system.

A stroke, also known as cerebrovascular accident (CVA), is a serious medical condition that occurs when the blood supply to part of the brain is interrupted or reduced, leading to deprivation of oxygen and nutrients to brain cells. This can result in the death of brain tissue and cause permanent damage or temporary impairment to cognitive functions, speech, memory, movement, and other body functions controlled by the affected area of the brain.

Strokes can be caused by either a blockage in an artery that supplies blood to the brain (ischemic stroke) or the rupture of a blood vessel in the brain (hemorrhagic stroke). A transient ischemic attack (TIA), also known as a "mini-stroke," is a temporary disruption of blood flow to the brain that lasts only a few minutes and does not cause permanent damage.

Symptoms of a stroke may include sudden weakness or numbness in the face, arm, or leg; difficulty speaking or understanding speech; vision problems; loss of balance or coordination; severe headache with no known cause; and confusion or disorientation. Immediate medical attention is crucial for stroke patients to receive appropriate treatment and prevent long-term complications.

Angioplasty is a medical procedure used to open narrowed or blocked blood vessels, often referred to as coronary angioplasty when it involves the heart's blood vessels (coronary arteries). The term "angio" refers to an angiogram, which is a type of X-ray image that reveals the inside of blood vessels.

The procedure typically involves the following steps:

1. A thin, flexible catheter (tube) is inserted into a blood vessel, usually through a small incision in the groin or arm.
2. The catheter is guided to the narrowed or blocked area using real-time X-ray imaging.
3. Once in place, a tiny balloon attached to the tip of the catheter is inflated to widen the blood vessel and compress any plaque buildup against the artery walls.
4. A stent (a small mesh tube) may be inserted to help keep the blood vessel open and prevent it from narrowing again.
5. The balloon is deflated, and the catheter is removed.

Angioplasty helps improve blood flow, reduce symptoms such as chest pain or shortness of breath, and lower the risk of heart attack in patients with blocked arteries. It's important to note that angioplasty is not a permanent solution for coronary artery disease, and lifestyle changes, medications, and follow-up care are necessary to maintain long-term cardiovascular health.

Cerebrovascular circulation refers to the network of blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood and nutrients to the brain tissue, and remove waste products. It includes the internal carotid arteries, vertebral arteries, circle of Willis, and the intracranial arteries that branch off from them.

The internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries merge to form the circle of Willis, a polygonal network of vessels located at the base of the brain. The anterior cerebral artery, middle cerebral artery, posterior cerebral artery, and communicating arteries are the major vessels that branch off from the circle of Willis and supply blood to different regions of the brain.

Interruptions or abnormalities in the cerebrovascular circulation can lead to various neurological conditions such as stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), and vascular dementia.

A carotid artery, internal, dissection is a medical condition that affects the internal carotid artery, which is a major blood vessel in the neck that supplies oxygenated blood to the brain. In this condition, there is a separation (dissection) of the layers of the artery wall, causing blood to accumulate in the space between the layers. This can lead to narrowing or blockage of the artery, reducing blood flow to the brain and increasing the risk of stroke. Internal carotid artery dissection can be caused by trauma, high blood pressure, connective tissue disorders, or spontaneously. Symptoms may include neck pain, headache, facial pain, visual disturbances, weakness or numbness in the arms or legs, difficulty speaking or understanding speech, and dizziness or loss of balance.

Angiography is a medical procedure in which an x-ray image is taken to visualize the internal structure of blood vessels, arteries, or veins. This is done by injecting a radiopaque contrast agent (dye) into the blood vessel using a thin, flexible catheter. The dye makes the blood vessels visible on an x-ray image, allowing doctors to diagnose and treat various medical conditions such as blockages, narrowing, or malformations of the blood vessels.

There are several types of angiography, including:

* Cardiac angiography (also called coronary angiography) - used to examine the blood vessels of the heart
* Cerebral angiography - used to examine the blood vessels of the brain
* Peripheral angiography - used to examine the blood vessels in the limbs or other parts of the body.

Angiography is typically performed by a radiologist, cardiologist, or vascular surgeon in a hospital setting. It can help diagnose conditions such as coronary artery disease, aneurysms, and peripheral arterial disease, among others.

The carotid body is a small chemoreceptor organ located near the bifurcation of the common carotid artery into the internal and external carotid arteries. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of respiration, blood pressure, and pH balance by detecting changes in the chemical composition of the blood, particularly oxygen levels, carbon dioxide levels, and hydrogen ion concentration (pH).

The carotid body contains specialized nerve endings called glomus cells that are sensitive to changes in these chemical parameters. When there is a decrease in oxygen or an increase in carbon dioxide or hydrogen ions, the glomus cells release neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and dopamine, which activate afferent nerve fibers leading to the brainstem's nucleus tractus solitarius. This information is then integrated with other physiological signals in the brainstem, resulting in appropriate adjustments in breathing rate, depth, and pattern, as well as changes in heart rate and blood vessel diameter to maintain homeostasis.

Dysfunction of the carotid body can lead to various disorders, such as hypertension, sleep apnea, and chronic lung disease. In some cases, overactivity of the carotid body may result in conditions like primary breathing pattern disorders or pseudohypoxia, where the body responds as if it is experiencing hypoxia despite normal oxygen levels.

Coronary artery bypass surgery, also known as coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), is a surgical procedure used to improve blood flow to the heart in patients with severe coronary artery disease. This condition occurs when the coronary arteries, which supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle, become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of fatty deposits, called plaques.

During CABG surgery, a healthy blood vessel from another part of the body is grafted, or attached, to the coronary artery, creating a new pathway for oxygen-rich blood to flow around the blocked or narrowed portion of the artery and reach the heart muscle. This bypass helps to restore normal blood flow and reduce the risk of angina (chest pain), shortness of breath, and other symptoms associated with coronary artery disease.

There are different types of CABG surgery, including traditional on-pump CABG, off-pump CABG, and minimally invasive CABG. The choice of procedure depends on various factors, such as the patient's overall health, the number and location of blocked arteries, and the presence of other medical conditions.

It is important to note that while CABG surgery can significantly improve symptoms and quality of life in patients with severe coronary artery disease, it does not cure the underlying condition. Lifestyle modifications, such as regular exercise, a healthy diet, smoking cessation, and medication therapy, are essential for long-term management and prevention of further progression of the disease.

Cerebral angiography is a medical procedure that involves taking X-ray images of the blood vessels in the brain after injecting a contrast dye into them. This procedure helps doctors to diagnose and treat various conditions affecting the blood vessels in the brain, such as aneurysms, arteriovenous malformations, and stenosis (narrowing of the blood vessels).

During the procedure, a catheter is inserted into an artery in the leg and threaded through the body to the blood vessels in the neck or brain. The contrast dye is then injected through the catheter, and X-ray images are taken to visualize the blood flow through the brain's blood vessels.

Cerebral angiography provides detailed images of the blood vessels in the brain, allowing doctors to identify any abnormalities or blockages that may be causing symptoms or increasing the risk of stroke. Based on the results of the cerebral angiography, doctors can develop a treatment plan to address these issues and prevent further complications.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Tunica intima, also known as the intima layer, is the innermost layer of a blood vessel, including arteries and veins. It is in direct contact with the flowing blood and is composed of simple squamous endothelial cells that form a continuous, non-keratinized, stratified epithelium. These cells play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by regulating the passage of molecules and immune cells between the blood and the vessel wall, as well as contributing to the maintenance of blood fluidity and preventing coagulation.

The tunica intima is supported by a thin layer of connective tissue called the basement membrane, which provides structural stability and anchorage for the endothelial cells. Beneath the basement membrane lies a loose network of elastic fibers and collagen, known as the internal elastic lamina, that separates the tunica intima from the middle layer, or tunica media.

In summary, the tunica intima is the innermost layer of blood vessels, primarily composed of endothelial cells and a basement membrane, which regulates various functions to maintain vascular homeostasis.

Arteriosclerosis is a general term that describes the hardening and stiffening of the artery walls. It's a progressive condition that can occur as a result of aging, or it may be associated with certain risk factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, smoking, and a sedentary lifestyle.

The process of arteriosclerosis involves the buildup of plaque, made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances, in the inner lining of the artery walls. Over time, this buildup can cause the artery walls to thicken and harden, reducing the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the body's organs and tissues.

Arteriosclerosis can affect any of the body's arteries, but it is most commonly found in the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, the cerebral arteries that supply blood to the brain, and the peripheral arteries that supply blood to the limbs. When arteriosclerosis affects the coronary arteries, it can lead to heart disease, angina, or heart attack. When it affects the cerebral arteries, it can lead to stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA). When it affects the peripheral arteries, it can cause pain, numbness, or weakness in the limbs, and in severe cases, gangrene and amputation.

Angioplasty, balloon refers to a medical procedure used to widen narrowed or obstructed blood vessels, particularly the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. This procedure is typically performed using a catheter-based technique, where a thin, flexible tube called a catheter is inserted into an artery, usually through the groin or wrist, and guided to the site of the narrowing or obstruction in the coronary artery.

Once the catheter reaches the affected area, a small balloon attached to the tip of the catheter is inflated, which compresses the plaque against the artery wall and stretches the artery, thereby restoring blood flow. The balloon is then deflated and removed, along with the catheter.

Balloon angioplasty is often combined with the placement of a stent, a small metal mesh tube that helps to keep the artery open and prevent it from narrowing again. This procedure is known as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary angioplasty and stenting.

Overall, balloon angioplasty is a relatively safe and effective treatment for coronary artery disease, although complications such as bleeding, infection, or re-narrowing of the artery can occur in some cases.

Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is a medical imaging technique used to visualize the blood vessels and blood flow within the body. It combines the use of X-ray technology with digital image processing to produce detailed images of the vascular system.

In DSA, a contrast agent is injected into the patient's bloodstream through a catheter, which is typically inserted into an artery in the leg and guided to the area of interest using fluoroscopy. As the contrast agent flows through the blood vessels, X-ray images are taken at multiple time points.

The digital subtraction process involves taking a baseline image without contrast and then subtracting it from subsequent images taken with contrast. This allows for the removal of background structures and noise, resulting in clearer images of the blood vessels. DSA can be used to diagnose and evaluate various vascular conditions, such as aneurysms, stenosis, and tumors, and can also guide interventional procedures such as angioplasty and stenting.

The carotid sinus is a small, dilated area located at the bifurcation (or fork) of the common carotid artery into the internal and external carotid arteries. It is a baroreceptor region, which means it contains specialized sensory nerve endings that can detect changes in blood pressure. When the blood pressure increases, the walls of the carotid sinus stretch, activating these nerve endings and sending signals to the brain. The brain then responds by reducing the heart rate and relaxing the blood vessels, which helps to lower the blood pressure back to normal.

The carotid sinus is an important part of the body's autonomic nervous system, which regulates various involuntary functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion. It plays a crucial role in maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis and preventing excessive increases in blood pressure that could potentially damage vital organs.

Blood flow velocity is the speed at which blood travels through a specific part of the vascular system. It is typically measured in units of distance per time, such as centimeters per second (cm/s) or meters per second (m/s). Blood flow velocity can be affected by various factors, including cardiac output, vessel diameter, and viscosity of the blood. Measuring blood flow velocity is important in diagnosing and monitoring various medical conditions, such as heart disease, stroke, and peripheral vascular disease.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Intracranial arteriosclerosis is a medical condition characterized by the thickening and hardening of the walls of the intracranial arteries, which are the blood vessels that supply blood to the brain. This process is caused by the buildup of plaque, made up of fat, cholesterol, and other substances, within the walls of the arteries.

Intracranial arteriosclerosis can lead to a narrowing or blockage of the affected arteries, reducing blood flow to the brain. This can result in various neurological symptoms, such as headaches, dizziness, seizures, and transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) or strokes.

The condition is more common in older adults, particularly those with a history of hypertension, diabetes, smoking, and high cholesterol levels. Intracranial arteriosclerosis can be diagnosed through imaging tests such as magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) or computed tomographic angiography (CTA). Treatment typically involves managing risk factors and may include medications to control blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and prevent blood clots. In severe cases, surgical procedures such as angioplasty and stenting may be necessary to open up the affected arteries.

Coronary angiography is a medical procedure that uses X-ray imaging to visualize the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart muscle. During the procedure, a thin, flexible catheter is inserted into an artery in the arm or groin and threaded through the blood vessels to the heart. A contrast dye is then injected through the catheter, and X-ray images are taken as the dye flows through the coronary arteries. These images can help doctors diagnose and treat various heart conditions, such as blockages or narrowing of the arteries, that can lead to chest pain or heart attacks. It is also known as coronary arteriography or cardiac catheterization.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

Retinal artery occlusion (RAO) is a medical condition characterized by the blockage or obstruction of the retinal artery, which supplies oxygenated blood to the retina. This blockage typically occurs due to embolism (a small clot or debris that travels to the retinal artery), thrombosis (blood clot formation in the artery), or vasculitis (inflammation of the blood vessels).

There are two types of retinal artery occlusions:

1. Central Retinal Artery Occlusion (CRAO): This type occurs when the main retinal artery is obstructed, affecting the entire inner layer of the retina. It can lead to severe and sudden vision loss in the affected eye.
2. Branch Retinal Artery Occlusion (BRAO): This type affects a branch of the retinal artery, causing visual field loss in the corresponding area. Although it is less severe than CRAO, it can still result in noticeable vision impairment.

Immediate medical attention is crucial for both types of RAO to improve the chances of recovery and minimize potential damage to the eye and vision. Treatment options may include medications, laser therapy, or surgery, depending on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition.

Acetazolamide is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. It works by decreasing the production of bicarbonate in the body, which helps to reduce the amount of fluid in the eye and brain, making it useful for treating conditions such as glaucoma and epilepsy.

In medical terms, acetazolamide can be defined as: "A carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that is used to treat glaucoma, epilepsy, altitude sickness, and other conditions. It works by decreasing the production of bicarbonate in the body, which helps to reduce the amount of fluid in the eye and brain."

Acetazolamide may also be used for other purposes not listed here, so it is important to consult with a healthcare provider for specific medical advice.

An intracranial embolism is a medical condition that occurs when a blood clot or other foreign material (embolus) forms elsewhere in the body and travels to the blood vessels within the brain. This embolus then blocks the flow of blood in the cerebral arteries, leading to potential damage or death of brain tissue. Common sources of intracranial emboli include heart conditions such as atrial fibrillation, valvular heart disease, or following a heart attack; or from large-vessel atherosclerosis in the carotid arteries. Symptoms can vary depending on the location and size of the obstruction, but may include sudden weakness or numbness, confusion, difficulty speaking, vision loss, severe headache, or even loss of consciousness. Immediate medical attention is required to diagnose and treat intracranial embolism, often involving anticoagulation therapy, endovascular procedures, or surgery.

The ophthalmic artery is the first branch of the internal carotid artery, which supplies blood to the eye and its adnexa. It divides into several branches that provide oxygenated blood to various structures within the eye, including the retina, optic nerve, choroid, iris, ciliary body, and cornea. Any blockage or damage to the ophthalmic artery can lead to serious vision problems or even blindness.

The tunica media is the middle layer of the wall of a blood vessel or hollow organ in the body. It is primarily composed of smooth muscle cells and elastic fibers, which allow the vessel or organ to expand and contract. This layer helps regulate the diameter of the lumen (the inner space) of the vessel or organ, thereby controlling the flow of fluids such as blood or lymph through it. The tunica media plays a crucial role in maintaining proper organ function and blood pressure regulation.

The Predictive Value of Tests, specifically the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), are measures used in diagnostic tests to determine the probability that a positive or negative test result is correct.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the proportion of patients with a positive test result who actually have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true positives divided by the total number of positive results (true positives + false positives). A higher PPV indicates that a positive test result is more likely to be a true positive, and therefore the disease is more likely to be present.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the proportion of patients with a negative test result who do not have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true negatives divided by the total number of negative results (true negatives + false negatives). A higher NPV indicates that a negative test result is more likely to be a true negative, and therefore the disease is less likely to be present.

The predictive value of tests depends on the prevalence of the disease in the population being tested, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the test. A test with high sensitivity and specificity will generally have higher predictive values than a test with low sensitivity and specificity. However, even a highly sensitive and specific test can have low predictive values if the prevalence of the disease is low in the population being tested.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Brain ischemia is the medical term used to describe a reduction or interruption of blood flow to the brain, leading to a lack of oxygen and glucose delivery to brain tissue. This can result in brain damage or death of brain cells, known as infarction. Brain ischemia can be caused by various conditions such as thrombosis (blood clot formation), embolism (obstruction of a blood vessel by a foreign material), or hypoperfusion (reduced blood flow). The severity and duration of the ischemia determine the extent of brain damage. Symptoms can range from mild, such as transient ischemic attacks (TIAs or "mini-strokes"), to severe, including paralysis, speech difficulties, loss of consciousness, and even death. Immediate medical attention is required for proper diagnosis and treatment to prevent further damage and potential long-term complications.

Pathological constriction refers to an abnormal narrowing or tightening of a body passage or organ, which can interfere with the normal flow of blood, air, or other substances through the area. This constriction can occur due to various reasons such as inflammation, scarring, or abnormal growths, and can affect different parts of the body, including blood vessels, airways, intestines, and ureters. Pathological constriction can lead to a range of symptoms and complications depending on its location and severity, and may require medical intervention to correct.

The term "asymptomatic disease" refers to a medical condition or infection that does not cause any obvious symptoms in an affected individual. Some people with asymptomatic diseases may never develop any signs or symptoms throughout their lives, while others may eventually go on to develop symptoms at a later stage. In some cases, asymptomatic diseases may still be detected through medical testing or screening, even if the person feels completely well. A classic example of an asymptomatic disease is a person who has a positive blood test for a latent viral infection, such as HIV or HSV (herpes simplex virus), but does not have any symptoms related to the infection at that time.

The femoral artery is the major blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the lower extremity of the human body. It is a continuation of the external iliac artery and becomes the popliteal artery as it passes through the adductor hiatus in the adductor magnus muscle of the thigh.

The femoral artery is located in the femoral triangle, which is bound by the sartorius muscle anteriorly, the adductor longus muscle medially, and the biceps femoris muscle posteriorly. It can be easily palpated in the groin region, making it a common site for taking blood samples, measuring blood pressure, and performing surgical procedures such as femoral artery catheterization and bypass grafting.

The femoral artery gives off several branches that supply blood to the lower limb, including the deep femoral artery, the superficial femoral artery, and the profunda femoris artery. These branches provide blood to the muscles, bones, skin, and other tissues of the leg, ankle, and foot.

The pulmonary artery is a large blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation. It divides into two main branches, the right and left pulmonary arteries, which further divide into smaller vessels called arterioles, and then into a vast network of capillaries in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. The thin walls of these capillaries allow oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out, making the blood oxygen-rich before it is pumped back to the left side of the heart through the pulmonary veins. This process is crucial for maintaining proper oxygenation of the body's tissues and organs.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

1. Intracranial Embolism: This is a medical condition that occurs when a blood clot or other particle (embolus) formed elsewhere in the body, travels through the bloodstream and lodges itself in the intracranial blood vessels, blocking the flow of blood to a part of the brain. This can lead to various neurological symptoms such as weakness, numbness, speech difficulties, or even loss of consciousness, depending on the severity and location of the blockage.

2. Intracranial Thrombosis: This is a medical condition that occurs when a blood clot (thrombus) forms within the intracranial blood vessels. The clot can partially or completely obstruct the flow of blood, leading to various symptoms such as headache, confusion, seizures, or neurological deficits, depending on the severity and location of the thrombosis. Intracranial thrombosis can occur due to various factors including atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, and other medical conditions that increase the risk of blood clot formation.

An embolism is a medical condition that occurs when a substance, such as a blood clot or an air bubble, blocks a blood vessel. This can happen in any part of the body, but it is particularly dangerous when it affects the brain (causing a stroke) or the lungs (causing a pulmonary embolism). Embolisms can cause serious harm by preventing oxygen and nutrients from reaching the tissues and organs that need them. They are often the result of underlying medical conditions, such as heart disease or deep vein thrombosis, and may require immediate medical attention to prevent further complications.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) is a measurement of the thickness of the inner two layers of the carotid artery, which are the intima and media layers. This measurement is used as a marker for assessing cardiovascular disease risk, particularly the risk of atherosclerosis, or the buildup of plaque in the arteries.

CIMT can be measured using ultrasound imaging, and it is typically measured at several points along the length of the common carotid artery, as well as at the bifurcation where the common carotid artery divides into the internal and external carotid arteries. Increased CIMT has been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular events such as heart attack and stroke.

It is important to note that while CIMT can provide valuable information about a person's cardiovascular health, it should not be used as the sole determinant of cardiovascular disease risk. Other factors, such as age, family history, smoking status, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and diabetes status, should also be taken into account when assessing cardiovascular disease risk.

Cerebral infarction, also known as a "stroke" or "brain attack," is the sudden death of brain cells caused by the interruption of their blood supply. It is most commonly caused by a blockage in one of the blood vessels supplying the brain (an ischemic stroke), but can also result from a hemorrhage in or around the brain (a hemorrhagic stroke).

Ischemic strokes occur when a blood clot or other particle blocks a cerebral artery, cutting off blood flow to a part of the brain. The lack of oxygen and nutrients causes nearby brain cells to die. Hemorrhagic strokes occur when a weakened blood vessel ruptures, causing bleeding within or around the brain. This bleeding can put pressure on surrounding brain tissues, leading to cell death.

Symptoms of cerebral infarction depend on the location and extent of the affected brain tissue but may include sudden weakness or numbness in the face, arm, or leg; difficulty speaking or understanding speech; vision problems; loss of balance or coordination; and severe headache with no known cause. Immediate medical attention is crucial for proper diagnosis and treatment to minimize potential long-term damage or disability.

Risk assessment in the medical context refers to the process of identifying, evaluating, and prioritizing risks to patients, healthcare workers, or the community related to healthcare delivery. It involves determining the likelihood and potential impact of adverse events or hazards, such as infectious diseases, medication errors, or medical devices failures, and implementing measures to mitigate or manage those risks. The goal of risk assessment is to promote safe and high-quality care by identifying areas for improvement and taking action to minimize harm.

The vertebral artery is a major blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the brain and upper spinal cord. It arises from the subclavian artery, then ascends through the transverse processes of several cervical vertebrae before entering the skull through the foramen magnum. Inside the skull, it joins with the opposite vertebral artery to form the basilar artery, which supplies blood to the brainstem and cerebellum. The vertebral artery also gives off several important branches that supply blood to various regions of the brainstem and upper spinal cord.

Carotid artery injuries refer to damages or traumas that affect the carotid arteries, which are a pair of major blood vessels located in the neck that supply oxygenated blood to the head and neck. These injuries can occur due to various reasons such as penetrating or blunt trauma, iatrogenic causes (during medical procedures), or degenerative diseases.

Carotid artery injuries can be categorized into three types:

1. Blunt carotid injury (BCI): This type of injury is caused by a sudden and severe impact to the neck, which can result in intimal tears, dissection, or thrombosis of the carotid artery. BCIs are commonly seen in motor vehicle accidents, sports-related injuries, and assaults.
2. Penetrating carotid injury: This type of injury is caused by a foreign object that penetrates the neck and damages the carotid artery. Examples include gunshot wounds, stab wounds, or other sharp objects that pierce the skin and enter the neck.
3. Iatrogenic carotid injury: This type of injury occurs during medical procedures such as endovascular interventions, surgical procedures, or the placement of central lines.

Symptoms of carotid artery injuries may include:

* Stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA)
* Neurological deficits such as hemiparesis, aphasia, or visual disturbances
* Bleeding from the neck or mouth
* Pulsatile mass in the neck
* Hypotension or shock
* Loss of consciousness

Diagnosis of carotid artery injuries may involve imaging studies such as computed tomography angiography (CTA), magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), or conventional angiography. Treatment options include endovascular repair, surgical repair, or anticoagulation therapy, depending on the severity and location of the injury.

Ultrasonography, Doppler, color is a type of diagnostic ultrasound technique that uses the Doppler effect to produce visual images of blood flow in vessels and the heart. The Doppler effect is the change in frequency or wavelength of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the source of the wave. In this context, it refers to the change in frequency of the ultrasound waves as they reflect off moving red blood cells.

In color Doppler ultrasonography, different colors are used to represent the direction and speed of blood flow. Red typically represents blood flowing toward the transducer (the device that sends and receives sound waves), while blue represents blood flowing away from the transducer. The intensity or brightness of the color is proportional to the velocity of blood flow.

Color Doppler ultrasonography is often used in conjunction with grayscale ultrasound imaging, which provides information about the structure and composition of tissues. Together, these techniques can help diagnose a wide range of conditions, including heart disease, blood clots, and abnormalities in blood flow.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

The renal artery is a pair of blood vessels that originate from the abdominal aorta and supply oxygenated blood to each kidney. These arteries branch into several smaller vessels that provide blood to the various parts of the kidneys, including the renal cortex and medulla. The renal arteries also carry nutrients and other essential components needed for the normal functioning of the kidneys. Any damage or blockage to the renal artery can lead to serious consequences, such as reduced kidney function or even kidney failure.

The basilar artery is a major blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the brainstem and cerebellum. It is formed by the union of two vertebral arteries at the lower part of the brainstem, near the junction of the medulla oblongata and pons.

The basilar artery runs upward through the center of the brainstem and divides into two posterior cerebral arteries at the upper part of the brainstem, near the midbrain. The basilar artery gives off several branches that supply blood to various parts of the brainstem, including the pons, medulla oblongata, and midbrain, as well as to the cerebellum.

The basilar artery is an important part of the circle of Willis, a network of arteries at the base of the brain that ensures continuous blood flow to the brain even if one of the arteries becomes blocked or narrowed.

Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of the blood vessels. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is given as two figures:

1. Systolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart pushes blood out into the arteries.
2. Diastolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart rests between beats, allowing it to fill with blood.

Normal blood pressure for adults is typically around 120/80 mmHg, although this can vary slightly depending on age, sex, and other factors. High blood pressure (hypertension) is generally considered to be a reading of 130/80 mmHg or higher, while low blood pressure (hypotension) is usually defined as a reading below 90/60 mmHg. It's important to note that blood pressure can fluctuate throughout the day and may be affected by factors such as stress, physical activity, and medication use.

Coronary vessels refer to the network of blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood and nutrients to the heart muscle, also known as the myocardium. The two main coronary arteries are the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery.

The left main coronary artery branches off into the left anterior descending artery (LAD) and the left circumflex artery (LCx). The LAD supplies blood to the front of the heart, while the LCx supplies blood to the side and back of the heart.

The right coronary artery supplies blood to the right lower part of the heart, including the right atrium and ventricle, as well as the back of the heart.

Coronary vessel disease (CVD) occurs when these vessels become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of plaque, leading to reduced blood flow to the heart muscle. This can result in chest pain, shortness of breath, or a heart attack.

Collateral circulation refers to the alternate blood supply routes that bypass an obstructed or narrowed vessel and reconnect with the main vascular system. These collateral vessels can develop over time as a result of the body's natural adaptation to chronic ischemia (reduced blood flow) caused by various conditions such as atherosclerosis, thromboembolism, or vasculitis.

The development of collateral circulation helps maintain adequate blood flow and oxygenation to affected tissues, minimizing the risk of tissue damage and necrosis. In some cases, well-developed collateral circulations can help compensate for significant blockages in major vessels, reducing symptoms and potentially preventing the need for invasive interventions like revascularization procedures. However, the extent and effectiveness of collateral circulation vary from person to person and depend on factors such as age, overall health status, and the presence of comorbidities.

Ultrasonography, Doppler refers to a non-invasive diagnostic medical procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to create real-time images of the movement of blood flow through vessels, tissues, or heart valves. The Doppler effect is used to measure the frequency shift of the ultrasound waves as they bounce off moving red blood cells, which allows for the calculation of the speed and direction of blood flow. This technique is commonly used to diagnose and monitor various conditions such as deep vein thrombosis, carotid artery stenosis, heart valve abnormalities, and fetal heart development during pregnancy. It does not use radiation or contrast agents and is considered safe with minimal risks.

Postoperative complications refer to any unfavorable condition or event that occurs during the recovery period after a surgical procedure. These complications can vary in severity and may include, but are not limited to:

1. Infection: This can occur at the site of the incision or inside the body, such as pneumonia or urinary tract infection.
2. Bleeding: Excessive bleeding (hemorrhage) can lead to a drop in blood pressure and may require further surgical intervention.
3. Blood clots: These can form in the deep veins of the legs (deep vein thrombosis) and can potentially travel to the lungs (pulmonary embolism).
4. Wound dehiscence: This is when the surgical wound opens up, which can lead to infection and further complications.
5. Pulmonary issues: These include atelectasis (collapsed lung), pneumonia, or respiratory failure.
6. Cardiovascular problems: These include abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), heart attack, or stroke.
7. Renal failure: This can occur due to various reasons such as dehydration, blood loss, or the use of certain medications.
8. Pain management issues: Inadequate pain control can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and decreased mobility.
9. Nausea and vomiting: These can be caused by anesthesia, opioid pain medication, or other factors.
10. Delirium: This is a state of confusion and disorientation that can occur in the elderly or those with certain medical conditions.

Prompt identification and management of these complications are crucial to ensure the best possible outcome for the patient.

The mesenteric arteries are the arteries that supply oxygenated blood to the intestines. There are three main mesenteric arteries: the superior mesenteric artery, which supplies blood to the small intestine (duodenum to two-thirds of the transverse colon) and large intestine (cecum, ascending colon, and the first part of the transverse colon); the inferior mesenteric artery, which supplies blood to the distal third of the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum; and the middle colic artery, which is a branch of the superior mesenteric artery that supplies blood to the transverse colon. These arteries are important in maintaining adequate blood flow to the intestines to support digestion and absorption of nutrients.

The subclavian artery is a major blood vessel that supplies the upper limb and important structures in the neck and head. It arises from the brachiocephalic trunk (in the case of the right subclavian artery) or directly from the aortic arch (in the case of the left subclavian artery).

The subclavian artery has several branches, including:

1. The vertebral artery, which supplies blood to the brainstem and cerebellum.
2. The internal thoracic artery (also known as the mammary artery), which supplies blood to the chest wall, breast, and anterior mediastinum.
3. The thyrocervical trunk, which gives rise to several branches that supply the neck, including the inferior thyroid artery, the suprascapular artery, and the transverse cervical artery.
4. The costocervical trunk, which supplies blood to the neck and upper back, including the posterior chest wall and the lower neck muscles.

The subclavian artery is a critical vessel in maintaining adequate blood flow to the upper limb, and any blockage or damage to this vessel can lead to significant morbidity, including arm pain, numbness, weakness, or even loss of function.

The brachial artery is a major blood vessel in the upper arm. It supplies oxygenated blood to the muscles and tissues of the arm, forearm, and hand. The brachial artery originates from the axillary artery at the level of the shoulder joint and runs down the medial (inner) aspect of the arm, passing through the cubital fossa (the depression on the anterior side of the elbow) where it can be palpated during a routine blood pressure measurement. At the lower end of the forearm, the brachial artery bifurcates into the radial and ulnar arteries, which further divide into smaller vessels to supply the hand and fingers.

The radial artery is a key blood vessel in the human body, specifically a part of the peripheral arterial system. Originating from the brachial artery in the upper arm, the radial artery travels down the arm and crosses over the wrist, where it can be palpated easily. It then continues into the hand, dividing into several branches to supply blood to the hand's tissues and digits.

The radial artery is often used for taking pulse readings due to its easy accessibility at the wrist. Additionally, in medical procedures such as coronary angiography or bypass surgery, the radial artery can be utilized as a site for catheter insertion. This allows healthcare professionals to examine the heart's blood vessels and assess cardiovascular health.

The iliac arteries are major branches of the abdominal aorta, the large artery that carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body. The iliac arteries divide into two branches, the common iliac arteries, which further bifurcate into the internal and external iliac arteries.

The internal iliac artery supplies blood to the lower abdomen, pelvis, and the reproductive organs, while the external iliac artery provides blood to the lower extremities, including the legs and feet. Together, the iliac arteries play a crucial role in circulating blood throughout the body, ensuring that all tissues and organs receive the oxygen and nutrients they need to function properly.

Patient selection, in the context of medical treatment or clinical research, refers to the process of identifying and choosing appropriate individuals who are most likely to benefit from a particular medical intervention or who meet specific criteria to participate in a study. This decision is based on various factors such as the patient's diagnosis, stage of disease, overall health status, potential risks, and expected benefits. The goal of patient selection is to ensure that the selected individuals will receive the most effective and safe care possible while also contributing to meaningful research outcomes.

Atherosclerosis is a medical condition characterized by the buildup of plaques, made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood, on the inner walls of the arteries. This process gradually narrows and hardens the arteries, reducing the flow of oxygen-rich blood to various parts of the body. Atherosclerosis can affect any artery in the body, including those that supply blood to the heart (coronary arteries), brain, limbs, and other organs. The progressive narrowing and hardening of the arteries can lead to serious complications such as coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and aneurysms, which can result in heart attacks, strokes, or even death if left untreated.

The exact cause of atherosclerosis is not fully understood, but it is believed to be associated with several risk factors, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, smoking, diabetes, obesity, physical inactivity, and a family history of the condition. Atherosclerosis can often progress without any symptoms for many years, but as the disease advances, it can lead to various signs and symptoms depending on which arteries are affected. Treatment typically involves lifestyle changes, medications, and, in some cases, surgical procedures to restore blood flow.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

Medical Definition:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed cross-sectional or three-dimensional images of the internal structures of the body. The patient lies within a large, cylindrical magnet, and the scanner detects changes in the direction of the magnetic field caused by protons in the body. These changes are then converted into detailed images that help medical professionals to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as tumors, injuries, or diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, joints, and other internal organs. MRI does not use radiation like computed tomography (CT) scans.

The mammary arteries are a set of blood vessels that supply oxygenated blood to the mammary glands, which are the structures in female breasts responsible for milk production during lactation. The largest mammary artery, also known as the internal thoracic or internal mammary artery, originates from the subclavian artery and descends along the inner side of the chest wall. It then branches into several smaller arteries that supply blood to the breast tissue. These include the anterior and posterior intercostal arteries, lateral thoracic artery, and pectoral branches. The mammary arteries are crucial in maintaining the health and function of the breast tissue, and any damage or blockage to these vessels can lead to various breast-related conditions or diseases.

A smooth muscle within the vascular system refers to the involuntary, innervated muscle that is found in the walls of blood vessels. These muscles are responsible for controlling the diameter of the blood vessels, which in turn regulates blood flow and blood pressure. They are called "smooth" muscles because their individual muscle cells do not have the striations, or cross-striped patterns, that are observed in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. Smooth muscle in the vascular system is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and by hormones, and can contract or relax slowly over a period of time.

Catheterization is a medical procedure in which a catheter (a flexible tube) is inserted into the body to treat various medical conditions or for diagnostic purposes. The specific definition can vary depending on the area of medicine and the particular procedure being discussed. Here are some common types of catheterization:

1. Urinary catheterization: This involves inserting a catheter through the urethra into the bladder to drain urine. It is often performed to manage urinary retention, monitor urine output in critically ill patients, or assist with surgical procedures.
2. Cardiac catheterization: A procedure where a catheter is inserted into a blood vessel, usually in the groin or arm, and guided to the heart. This allows for various diagnostic tests and treatments, such as measuring pressures within the heart chambers, assessing blood flow, or performing angioplasty and stenting of narrowed coronary arteries.
3. Central venous catheterization: A catheter is inserted into a large vein, typically in the neck, chest, or groin, to administer medications, fluids, or nutrition, or to monitor central venous pressure.
4. Peritoneal dialysis catheterization: A catheter is placed into the abdominal cavity for individuals undergoing peritoneal dialysis, a type of kidney replacement therapy.
5. Neurological catheterization: In some cases, a catheter may be inserted into the cerebrospinal fluid space (lumbar puncture) or the brain's ventricular system (ventriculostomy) to diagnose or treat various neurological conditions.

These are just a few examples of catheterization procedures in medicine. The specific definition and purpose will depend on the medical context and the particular organ or body system involved.

Coronary stenosis is a medical condition that refers to the narrowing of the coronary arteries, which supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. This narrowing is typically caused by the buildup of plaque, made up of fat, cholesterol, and other substances, on the inner walls of the arteries. Over time, as the plaque hardens and calcifies, it can cause the artery to become narrowed or blocked, reducing blood flow to the heart muscle.

Coronary stenosis can lead to various symptoms and complications, including chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, irregular heart rhythms (arrhythmias), and heart attacks. Treatment options for coronary stenosis may include lifestyle changes, medications, medical procedures such as angioplasty or bypass surgery, or a combination of these approaches. Regular check-ups and diagnostic tests, such as stress testing or coronary angiography, can help detect and monitor coronary stenosis over time.

The endothelium is a thin layer of simple squamous epithelial cells that lines the interior surface of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and heart chambers. The vascular endothelium, specifically, refers to the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels. These cells play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by regulating vasomotor tone, coagulation, platelet activation, inflammation, and permeability of the vessel wall. They also contribute to the growth and repair of the vascular system and are involved in various pathological processes such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and diabetes.

Myocardial infarction (MI), also known as a heart attack, is a medical condition characterized by the death of a segment of heart muscle (myocardium) due to the interruption of its blood supply. This interruption is most commonly caused by the blockage of a coronary artery by a blood clot formed on the top of an atherosclerotic plaque, which is a buildup of cholesterol and other substances in the inner lining of the artery.

The lack of oxygen and nutrients supply to the heart muscle tissue results in damage or death of the cardiac cells, causing the affected area to become necrotic. The extent and severity of the MI depend on the size of the affected area, the duration of the occlusion, and the presence of collateral circulation.

Symptoms of a myocardial infarction may include chest pain or discomfort, shortness of breath, nausea, lightheadedness, and sweating. Immediate medical attention is necessary to restore blood flow to the affected area and prevent further damage to the heart muscle. Treatment options for MI include medications, such as thrombolytics, antiplatelet agents, and pain relievers, as well as procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG).

Calcinosis is a medical condition characterized by the abnormal deposit of calcium salts in various tissues of the body, commonly under the skin or in the muscles and tendons. These calcium deposits can form hard lumps or nodules that can cause pain, inflammation, and restricted mobility. Calcinosis can occur as a complication of other medical conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, kidney disease, and hypercalcemia (high levels of calcium in the blood). In some cases, the cause of calcinosis may be unknown. Treatment for calcinosis depends on the underlying cause and may include medications to manage calcium levels, physical therapy, and surgical removal of large deposits.

An exercise test, also known as a stress test or an exercise stress test, is a medical procedure used to evaluate the heart's function and response to physical exertion. It typically involves walking on a treadmill or pedaling a stationary bike while being monitored for changes in heart rate, blood pressure, electrocardiogram (ECG), and sometimes other variables such as oxygen consumption or gas exchange.

During the test, the patient's symptoms, such as chest pain or shortness of breath, are also closely monitored. The exercise test can help diagnose coronary artery disease, assess the severity of heart-related symptoms, and evaluate the effectiveness of treatments for heart conditions. It may also be used to determine a person's safe level of physical activity and fitness.

There are different types of exercise tests, including treadmill stress testing, stationary bike stress testing, nuclear stress testing, and stress echocardiography. The specific type of test used depends on the patient's medical history, symptoms, and overall health status.

Angina pectoris is a medical term that describes chest pain or discomfort caused by an inadequate supply of oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. This condition often occurs due to coronary artery disease, where the coronary arteries become narrowed or blocked by the buildup of cholesterol, fatty deposits, and other substances, known as plaques. These blockages can reduce blood flow to the heart, causing ischemia (lack of oxygen) and leading to angina symptoms.

There are two primary types of angina: stable and unstable. Stable angina is predictable and usually occurs during physical exertion or emotional stress when the heart needs more oxygen-rich blood. The pain typically subsides with rest or after taking prescribed nitroglycerin medication, which helps widen the blood vessels and improve blood flow to the heart.

Unstable angina, on the other hand, is more severe and unpredictable. It can occur at rest, during sleep, or with minimal physical activity and may not be relieved by rest or nitroglycerin. Unstable angina is considered a medical emergency, as it could indicate an imminent heart attack.

Symptoms of angina pectoris include chest pain, pressure, tightness, or heaviness that typically radiates to the left arm, neck, jaw, or back. Shortness of breath, nausea, sweating, and fatigue may also accompany angina symptoms. Immediate medical attention is necessary if you experience chest pain or discomfort, especially if it's new, severe, or persistent, as it could be a sign of a more serious condition like a heart attack.

The Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA) is one of the main blood vessels that supplies oxygenated blood to the brain. It arises from the internal carotid artery and divides into several branches, which supply the lateral surface of the cerebral hemisphere, including the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.

The MCA is responsible for providing blood flow to critical areas of the brain, such as the primary motor and sensory cortices, Broca's area (associated with speech production), Wernicke's area (associated with language comprehension), and the visual association cortex.

Damage to the MCA or its branches can result in a variety of neurological deficits, depending on the specific location and extent of the injury. These may include weakness or paralysis on one side of the body, sensory loss, language impairment, and visual field cuts.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

Vasodilation is the widening or increase in diameter of blood vessels, particularly the involuntary relaxation of the smooth muscle in the tunica media (middle layer) of the arteriole walls. This results in an increase in blood flow and a decrease in vascular resistance. Vasodilation can occur due to various physiological and pathophysiological stimuli, such as local metabolic demands, neural signals, or pharmacological agents. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood pressure, tissue perfusion, and thermoregulation.

An aneurysm is a localized, balloon-like bulge in the wall of a blood vessel. It occurs when the pressure inside the vessel causes a weakened area to swell and become enlarged. Aneurysms can develop in any blood vessel, but they are most common in arteries at the base of the brain (cerebral aneurysm) and the main artery carrying blood from the heart to the rest of the body (aortic aneurysm).

Aneurysms can be classified as saccular or fusiform, depending on their shape. A saccular aneurysm is a round or oval bulge that projects from the side of a blood vessel, while a fusiform aneurysm is a dilated segment of a blood vessel that is uniform in width and involves all three layers of the arterial wall.

The size and location of an aneurysm can affect its risk of rupture. Generally, larger aneurysms are more likely to rupture than smaller ones. Aneurysms located in areas with high blood pressure or where the vessel branches are also at higher risk of rupture.

Ruptured aneurysms can cause life-threatening bleeding and require immediate medical attention. Symptoms of a ruptured aneurysm may include sudden severe headache, neck stiffness, nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, or loss of consciousness. Unruptured aneurysms may not cause any symptoms and are often discovered during routine imaging tests for other conditions.

Treatment options for aneurysms depend on their size, location, and risk of rupture. Small, unruptured aneurysms may be monitored with regular imaging tests to check for growth or changes. Larger or symptomatic aneurysms may require surgical intervention, such as clipping or coiling, to prevent rupture and reduce the risk of complications.

Hemodynamics is the study of how blood flows through the cardiovascular system, including the heart and the vascular network. It examines various factors that affect blood flow, such as blood volume, viscosity, vessel length and diameter, and pressure differences between different parts of the circulatory system. Hemodynamics also considers the impact of various physiological and pathological conditions on these variables, and how they in turn influence the function of vital organs and systems in the body. It is a critical area of study in fields such as cardiology, anesthesiology, and critical care medicine.

Regional blood flow (RBF) refers to the rate at which blood flows through a specific region or organ in the body, typically expressed in milliliters per minute per 100 grams of tissue (ml/min/100g). It is an essential physiological parameter that reflects the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues while removing waste products. RBF can be affected by various factors such as metabolic demands, neural regulation, hormonal influences, and changes in blood pressure or vascular resistance. Measuring RBF is crucial for understanding organ function, diagnosing diseases, and evaluating the effectiveness of treatments.

Logistic models, specifically logistic regression models, are a type of statistical analysis used in medical and epidemiological research to identify the relationship between the risk of a certain health outcome or disease (dependent variable) and one or more independent variables, such as demographic factors, exposure variables, or other clinical measurements.

In contrast to linear regression models, logistic regression models are used when the dependent variable is binary or dichotomous in nature, meaning it can only take on two values, such as "disease present" or "disease absent." The model uses a logistic function to estimate the probability of the outcome based on the independent variables.

Logistic regression models are useful for identifying risk factors and estimating the strength of associations between exposures and health outcomes, adjusting for potential confounders, and predicting the probability of an outcome given certain values of the independent variables. They can also be used to develop clinical prediction rules or scores that can aid in decision-making and patient care.

Emission-Computed Tomography, Single-Photon (SPECT) is a type of nuclear medicine imaging procedure that generates detailed, three-dimensional images of the distribution of radioactive pharmaceuticals within the body. It uses gamma rays emitted by a radiopharmaceutical that is introduced into the patient's body, and a specialized gamma camera to detect these gamma rays and create tomographic images. The data obtained from the SPECT imaging can be used to diagnose various medical conditions, evaluate organ function, and guide treatment decisions. It is commonly used to image the heart, brain, and bones, among other organs and systems.

Peripheral Arterial Disease (PAD) is a medical condition characterized by the narrowing or blockage of arteries that supply blood to the extremities, most commonly the legs. This results in reduced blood flow, leading to symptoms such as leg pain, cramping, numbness, or weakness during physical activity, and in severe cases, tissue damage or gangrene. PAD is often indicative of widespread atherosclerosis, which is the hardening and narrowing of arteries due to the buildup of fatty deposits called plaques. It's important to note that early detection and management can help prevent serious complications.

Regression analysis is a statistical technique used in medicine, as well as in other fields, to examine the relationship between one or more independent variables (predictors) and a dependent variable (outcome). It allows for the estimation of the average change in the outcome variable associated with a one-unit change in an independent variable, while controlling for the effects of other independent variables. This technique is often used to identify risk factors for diseases or to evaluate the effectiveness of medical interventions. In medical research, regression analysis can be used to adjust for potential confounding variables and to quantify the relationship between exposures and health outcomes. It can also be used in predictive modeling to estimate the probability of a particular outcome based on multiple predictors.

Coronary circulation refers to the circulation of blood in the coronary vessels, which supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle (myocardium) and drain deoxygenated blood from it. The coronary circulation system includes two main coronary arteries - the left main coronary artery and the right coronary artery - that branch off from the aorta just above the aortic valve. These arteries further divide into smaller branches, which supply blood to different regions of the heart muscle.

The left main coronary artery divides into two branches: the left anterior descending (LAD) artery and the left circumflex (LCx) artery. The LAD supplies blood to the front and sides of the heart, while the LCx supplies blood to the back and sides of the heart. The right coronary artery supplies blood to the lower part of the heart, including the right ventricle and the bottom portion of the left ventricle.

The veins that drain the heart muscle include the great cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, and the small cardiac vein, which merge to form the coronary sinus. The coronary sinus empties into the right atrium, allowing deoxygenated blood to enter the right side of the heart and be pumped to the lungs for oxygenation.

Coronary circulation is essential for maintaining the health and function of the heart muscle, as it provides the necessary oxygen and nutrients required for proper contraction and relaxation of the myocardium. Any disruption or blockage in the coronary circulation system can lead to serious consequences, such as angina, heart attack, or even death.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Vasodilator agents are pharmacological substances that cause the relaxation or widening of blood vessels by relaxing the smooth muscle in the vessel walls. This results in an increase in the diameter of the blood vessels, which decreases vascular resistance and ultimately reduces blood pressure. Vasodilators can be further classified based on their site of action:

1. Systemic vasodilators: These agents cause a generalized relaxation of the smooth muscle in the walls of both arteries and veins, resulting in a decrease in peripheral vascular resistance and preload (the volume of blood returning to the heart). Examples include nitroglycerin, hydralazine, and calcium channel blockers.
2. Arterial vasodilators: These agents primarily affect the smooth muscle in arterial vessel walls, leading to a reduction in afterload (the pressure against which the heart pumps blood). Examples include angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), and direct vasodilators like sodium nitroprusside.
3. Venous vasodilators: These agents primarily affect the smooth muscle in venous vessel walls, increasing venous capacitance and reducing preload. Examples include nitroglycerin and other organic nitrates.

Vasodilator agents are used to treat various cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension, heart failure, angina, and pulmonary arterial hypertension. It is essential to monitor their use carefully, as excessive vasodilation can lead to orthostatic hypotension, reflex tachycardia, or fluid retention.

Atherosclerotic plaque is a deposit of fatty (cholesterol and fat) substances, calcium, and other substances in the inner lining of an artery. This plaque buildup causes the artery to narrow and harden, reducing blood flow through the artery, which can lead to serious cardiovascular conditions such as coronary artery disease, angina, heart attack, or stroke. The process of atherosclerosis develops gradually over decades and can start in childhood.

Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) is a medical procedure that records the electrical activity of the heart. It provides a graphic representation of the electrical changes that occur during each heartbeat. The resulting tracing, called an electrocardiogram, can reveal information about the heart's rate and rhythm, as well as any damage to its cells or abnormalities in its conduction system.

During an ECG, small electrodes are placed on the skin of the chest, arms, and legs. These electrodes detect the electrical signals produced by the heart and transmit them to a machine that amplifies and records them. The procedure is non-invasive, painless, and quick, usually taking only a few minutes.

ECGs are commonly used to diagnose and monitor various heart conditions, including arrhythmias, coronary artery disease, heart attacks, and electrolyte imbalances. They can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of certain medications or treatments.

An intracranial aneurysm is a localized, blood-filled dilation or bulging in the wall of a cerebral artery within the skull (intracranial). These aneurysms typically occur at weak points in the arterial walls, often at branching points where the vessel divides into smaller branches. Over time, the repeated pressure from blood flow can cause the vessel wall to weaken and balloon out, forming a sac-like structure. Intracranial aneurysms can vary in size, ranging from a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter.

There are three main types of intracranial aneurysms:

1. Saccular (berry) aneurysm: This is the most common type, characterized by a round or oval shape with a narrow neck and a bulging sac. They usually develop at branching points in the arteries due to congenital weaknesses in the vessel wall.
2. Fusiform aneurysm: These aneurysms have a dilated segment along the length of the artery, forming a cigar-shaped or spindle-like structure. They are often caused by atherosclerosis and can affect any part of the cerebral arteries.
3. Dissecting aneurysm: This type occurs when there is a tear in the inner lining (intima) of the artery, allowing blood to flow between the layers of the vessel wall. It can lead to narrowing or complete blockage of the affected artery and may cause subarachnoid hemorrhage if it ruptures.

Intracranial aneurysms can be asymptomatic and discovered incidentally during imaging studies for other conditions. However, when they grow larger or rupture, they can lead to severe complications such as subarachnoid hemorrhage, stroke, or even death. Treatment options include surgical clipping, endovascular coiling, or flow diversion techniques to prevent further growth and potential rupture of the aneurysm.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

Cerebral revascularization is a surgical procedure aimed at restoring blood flow to the brain. This is often performed in cases where there is narrowing or blockage of the cerebral arteries, a condition known as cerebrovascular disease. The most common type of cerebral revascularization is called carotid endarterectomy, which involves removing plaque buildup from the carotid artery in the neck to improve blood flow to the brain. Another type is extracranial-intracranial bypass, where a new connection is created between an external carotid artery and an intracranial artery to bypass a blockage.

Myocardial ischemia is a condition in which the blood supply to the heart muscle (myocardium) is reduced or blocked, leading to insufficient oxygen delivery and potential damage to the heart tissue. This reduction in blood flow typically results from the buildup of fatty deposits, called plaques, in the coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygen-rich blood. The plaques can rupture or become unstable, causing the formation of blood clots that obstruct the artery and limit blood flow.

Myocardial ischemia may manifest as chest pain (angina pectoris), shortness of breath, fatigue, or irregular heartbeats (arrhythmias). In severe cases, it can lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack) if the oxygen supply is significantly reduced or cut off completely, causing permanent damage or death of the heart muscle. Early diagnosis and treatment of myocardial ischemia are crucial for preventing further complications and improving patient outcomes.

A carotid body tumor is a rare, usually noncancerous (benign) growth that develops in the carotid body, a small structure located near the bifurcation (fork) of the common carotid artery in the neck. The carotid body is part of the chemoreceptor system that helps regulate breathing and blood pressure by responding to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels in the blood.

Carotid body tumors are also known as carotid body paragangliomas or chemodectomas. They typically grow slowly and may not cause any symptoms for many years. However, as they enlarge, they can cause a visible or palpable mass in the neck, along with symptoms such as difficulty swallowing, hoarseness, or voice changes. In some cases, carotid body tumors can compress nearby nerves or blood vessels, leading to more serious complications like stroke or nerve damage.

Treatment for carotid body tumors typically involves surgical removal of the growth, which may be performed using traditional open surgery or minimally invasive techniques such as endovascular surgery or robotic-assisted surgery. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy are generally not effective in treating these tumors. Regular follow-up care is important to monitor for recurrence or development of new tumors.

Temporal arteries are the paired set of arteries that run along the temples on either side of the head. They are branches of the external carotid artery and play a crucial role in supplying oxygenated blood to the scalp and surrounding muscles. One of the most common conditions associated with temporal arteries is Temporal Arteritis (also known as Giant Cell Arteritis), which is an inflammation of these arteries that can lead to serious complications like vision loss if not promptly diagnosed and treated.

Hypertension is a medical term used to describe abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries, often defined as consistently having systolic blood pressure (the top number in a blood pressure reading) over 130 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number) over 80 mmHg. It is also commonly referred to as high blood pressure.

Hypertension can be classified into two types: primary or essential hypertension, which has no identifiable cause and accounts for about 95% of cases, and secondary hypertension, which is caused by underlying medical conditions such as kidney disease, hormonal disorders, or use of certain medications.

If left untreated, hypertension can lead to serious health complications such as heart attack, stroke, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease. Therefore, it is important for individuals with hypertension to manage their condition through lifestyle modifications (such as healthy diet, regular exercise, stress management) and medication if necessary, under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Ligation, in the context of medical terminology, refers to the process of tying off a part of the body, usually blood vessels or tissue, with a surgical suture or another device. The goal is to stop the flow of fluids such as blood or other substances within the body. It is commonly used during surgeries to control bleeding or to block the passage of fluids, gases, or solids in various parts of the body.

Coronary balloon angioplasty is a minimally invasive medical procedure used to widen narrowed or obstructed coronary arteries (the blood vessels that supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle) and improve blood flow to the heart. This procedure is typically performed in conjunction with the insertion of a stent, a small mesh tube that helps keep the artery open.

During coronary balloon angioplasty, a thin, flexible catheter with a deflated balloon at its tip is inserted into a blood vessel, usually through a small incision in the groin or arm. The catheter is then guided to the narrowed or obstructed section of the coronary artery. Once in position, the balloon is inflated to compress the plaque against the artery wall and widen the lumen (the inner space) of the artery. This helps restore blood flow to the heart muscle.

The procedure is typically performed under local anesthesia and conscious sedation to minimize discomfort. Coronary balloon angioplasty is a relatively safe and effective treatment for many people with coronary artery disease, although complications such as bleeding, infection, or re-narrowing of the artery (restenosis) can occur in some cases.

Hyperplasia is a medical term that refers to an abnormal increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue, leading to an enlargement of the affected area. It's a response to various stimuli such as hormones, chronic irritation, or inflammation. Hyperplasia can be physiological, like the growth of breast tissue during pregnancy, or pathological, like in the case of benign or malignant tumors. The process is generally reversible if the stimulus is removed. It's important to note that hyperplasia itself is not cancerous, but some forms of hyperplasia can increase the risk of developing cancer over time.

The splenic artery is the largest branch of the celiac trunk, which arises from the abdominal aorta. It supplies blood to the spleen and several other organs in the upper left part of the abdomen. The splenic artery divides into several branches that ultimately form a network of capillaries within the spleen. These capillaries converge to form the main venous outflow, the splenic vein, which drains into the hepatic portal vein.

The splenic artery is a vital structure in the human body, and any damage or blockage can lead to serious complications, including splenic infarction (reduced blood flow to the spleen) or splenic rupture (a surgical emergency that can be life-threatening).

The cavernous sinus is a venous structure located in the middle cranial fossa, which is a depression in the skull that houses several important nerves and blood vessels. The cavernous sinus is situated on either side of the sphenoid bone, near the base of the skull, and it contains several important structures:

* The internal carotid artery, which supplies oxygenated blood to the brain
* The abducens nerve (cranial nerve VI), which controls lateral movement of the eye
* The oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III), which controls most of the muscles that move the eye
* The trochlear nerve (cranial nerve IV), which controls one of the muscles that moves the eye
* The ophthalmic and maxillary divisions of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V), which transmit sensory information from the face and head

The cavernous sinus is an important structure because it serves as a conduit for several critical nerves and blood vessels. However, it is also vulnerable to various pathological conditions such as thrombosis (blood clots), infection, tumors, or aneurysms, which can lead to serious neurological deficits or even death.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Therapeutic embolization is a medical procedure that involves intentionally blocking or obstructing blood vessels to stop excessive bleeding or block the flow of blood to a tumor or abnormal tissue. This is typically accomplished by injecting small particles, such as microspheres or coils, into the targeted blood vessel through a catheter, which is inserted into a larger blood vessel and guided to the desired location using imaging techniques like X-ray or CT scanning. The goal of therapeutic embolization is to reduce the size of a tumor, control bleeding, or block off abnormal blood vessels that are causing problems.

Vasoconstriction is a medical term that refers to the narrowing of blood vessels due to the contraction of the smooth muscle in their walls. This process decreases the diameter of the lumen (the inner space of the blood vessel) and reduces blood flow through the affected vessels. Vasoconstriction can occur throughout the body, but it is most noticeable in the arterioles and precapillary sphincters, which control the amount of blood that flows into the capillary network.

The autonomic nervous system, specifically the sympathetic division, plays a significant role in regulating vasoconstriction through the release of neurotransmitters like norepinephrine (noradrenaline). Various hormones and chemical mediators, such as angiotensin II, endothelin-1, and serotonin, can also induce vasoconstriction.

Vasoconstriction is a vital physiological response that helps maintain blood pressure and regulate blood flow distribution in the body. However, excessive or prolonged vasoconstriction may contribute to several pathological conditions, including hypertension, stroke, and peripheral vascular diseases.

Renal artery obstruction is a medical condition that refers to the blockage or restriction of blood flow in the renal artery, which is the main vessel that supplies oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood to the kidneys. This obstruction can be caused by various factors, such as blood clots, atherosclerosis (the buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the artery walls), emboli (tiny particles or air bubbles that travel through the bloodstream and lodge in smaller vessels), or compressive masses like tumors.

The obstruction can lead to reduced kidney function, hypertension, and even kidney failure in severe cases. Symptoms may include high blood pressure, proteinuria (the presence of protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), and a decrease in kidney function as measured by serum creatinine levels. Diagnosis typically involves imaging studies like Doppler ultrasound, CT angiography, or magnetic resonance angiography to visualize the renal artery and assess the extent of the obstruction. Treatment options may include medications to control blood pressure and reduce kidney damage, as well as invasive procedures like angioplasty and stenting or surgical intervention to remove the obstruction and restore normal blood flow to the kidneys.

The hepatic artery is a branch of the celiac trunk or abdominal aorta that supplies oxygenated blood to the liver. It typically divides into two main branches, the right and left hepatic arteries, which further divide into smaller vessels to supply different regions of the liver. The hepatic artery also gives off branches to supply other organs such as the gallbladder, pancreas, and duodenum.

It's worth noting that there is significant variability in the anatomy of the hepatic artery, with some individuals having additional branches or variations in the origin of the vessel. This variability can have implications for surgical procedures involving the liver and surrounding organs.

Recurrence, in a medical context, refers to the return of symptoms or signs of a disease after a period of improvement or remission. It indicates that the condition has not been fully eradicated and may require further treatment. Recurrence is often used to describe situations where a disease such as cancer comes back after initial treatment, but it can also apply to other medical conditions. The likelihood of recurrence varies depending on the type of disease and individual patient factors.

The celiac artery, also known as the anterior abdominal aortic trunk, is a major artery that originates from the abdominal aorta and supplies oxygenated blood to the foregut, which includes the stomach, liver, spleen, pancreas, and upper part of the duodenum. It branches into three main branches: the left gastric artery, the splenic artery, and the common hepatic artery. The celiac artery plays a crucial role in providing blood to these vital organs, and any disruption or damage to it can lead to serious health consequences.

Dipyridamole is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called antiplatelet agents. It works by preventing platelets in your blood from sticking together to form clots. Dipyridamole is often used in combination with aspirin to prevent stroke and other complications in people who have had a heart valve replacement or a type of irregular heartbeat called atrial fibrillation.

Dipyridamole can also be used as a stress agent in myocardial perfusion imaging studies, which are tests used to evaluate blood flow to the heart. When used for this purpose, dipyridamole is given intravenously and works by dilating the blood vessels in the heart, allowing more blood to flow through them and making it easier to detect areas of reduced blood flow.

The most common side effects of dipyridamole include headache, dizziness, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting. In rare cases, dipyridamole can cause more serious side effects, such as allergic reactions, abnormal heart rhythms, or low blood pressure. It is important to take dipyridamole exactly as directed by your healthcare provider and to report any unusual symptoms or side effects promptly.

Vascular patency is a term used in medicine to describe the state of a blood vessel (such as an artery or vein) being open, unobstructed, and allowing for the normal flow of blood. It is an important concept in the treatment and management of various cardiovascular conditions, such as peripheral artery disease, coronary artery disease, and deep vein thrombosis.

Maintaining vascular patency can help prevent serious complications like tissue damage, organ dysfunction, or even death. This may involve medical interventions such as administering blood-thinning medications to prevent clots, performing procedures to remove blockages, or using devices like stents to keep vessels open. Regular monitoring of vascular patency is also crucial for evaluating the effectiveness of treatments and adjusting care plans accordingly.

Myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) is a non-invasive nuclear medicine test used to assess the blood flow to the heart muscle (myocardium). It typically involves the injection of a radioactive tracer, such as thallium-201 or technetium-99m sestamibi, into a vein. The tracer is taken up by healthy heart muscle in proportion to blood flow. A special camera then takes images of the distribution of the tracer within the heart, providing information about areas of reduced or blocked blood flow (ischemia) or scarred tissue (infarction). MPI can help diagnose coronary artery disease, assess the effectiveness of treatments, and determine prognosis.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

The jugular veins are a pair of large, superficial veins that carry blood from the head and neck to the heart. They are located in the neck and are easily visible when looking at the side of a person's neck. The external jugular vein runs along the surface of the muscles in the neck, while the internal jugular vein runs within the carotid sheath along with the carotid artery and the vagus nerve.

The jugular veins are important in clinical examinations because they can provide information about a person's cardiovascular function and intracranial pressure. For example, distention of the jugular veins may indicate heart failure or increased intracranial pressure, while decreased venous pulsations may suggest a low blood pressure or shock.

It is important to note that medical conditions such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT) can also affect the jugular veins and can lead to serious complications if not treated promptly.

The Thoracic Arteries are branches of the aorta that supply oxygenated blood to the thoracic region of the body. The pair of arteries originate from the descending aorta and divide into several smaller branches, including intercostal arteries that supply blood to the muscles between the ribs, and posterior intercostal arteries that supply blood to the back and chest wall. Other branches of the thoracic arteries include the superior phrenic arteries, which supply blood to the diaphragm, and the bronchial arteries, which supply blood to the lungs. These arteries play a crucial role in maintaining the health and function of the chest and respiratory system.

Myocardial revascularization is a medical term that refers to the restoration of blood flow to the heart muscle (myocardium), typically through a surgical or interventional procedure. This is often performed in patients with coronary artery disease, where the buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries restricts blood flow to the heart muscle, causing symptoms such as chest pain (angina) or shortness of breath, and increasing the risk of a heart attack (myocardial infarction).

There are two main types of myocardial revascularization:

1. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG): This is a surgical procedure in which a healthy blood vessel from another part of the body is used to create a detour around the blocked or narrowed coronary artery, allowing blood to flow more freely to the heart muscle.
2. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), also known as angioplasty and stenting: This is a minimally invasive procedure in which a thin catheter is inserted into an artery in the groin or arm and threaded up to the blocked or narrowed coronary artery. A balloon is then inflated to widen the artery, and a stent may be placed to keep it open.

Both procedures aim to improve symptoms, reduce the risk of heart attack, and prolong survival in appropriately selected patients with coronary artery disease.

Echocardiography is a medical procedure that uses sound waves to produce detailed images of the heart's structure, function, and motion. It is a non-invasive test that can help diagnose various heart conditions, such as valve problems, heart muscle damage, blood clots, and congenital heart defects.

During an echocardiogram, a transducer (a device that sends and receives sound waves) is placed on the chest or passed through the esophagus to obtain images of the heart. The sound waves produced by the transducer bounce off the heart structures and return to the transducer, which then converts them into electrical signals that are processed to create images of the heart.

There are several types of echocardiograms, including:

* Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE): This is the most common type of echocardiogram and involves placing the transducer on the chest.
* Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE): This type of echocardiogram involves passing a specialized transducer through the esophagus to obtain images of the heart from a closer proximity.
* Stress echocardiography: This type of echocardiogram is performed during exercise or medication-induced stress to assess how the heart functions under stress.
* Doppler echocardiography: This type of echocardiogram uses sound waves to measure blood flow and velocity in the heart and blood vessels.

Echocardiography is a valuable tool for diagnosing and managing various heart conditions, as it provides detailed information about the structure and function of the heart. It is generally safe, non-invasive, and painless, making it a popular choice for doctors and patients alike.

Blood vessel prosthesis implantation is a surgical procedure in which an artificial blood vessel, also known as a vascular graft or prosthetic graft, is inserted into the body to replace a damaged or diseased native blood vessel. The prosthetic graft can be made from various materials such as Dacron (polyester), PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene), or bovine/human tissue.

The implantation of a blood vessel prosthesis is typically performed to treat conditions that cause narrowing or blockage of the blood vessels, such as atherosclerosis, aneurysms, or traumatic injuries. The procedure may be used to bypass blocked arteries in the legs (peripheral artery disease), heart (coronary artery bypass surgery), or neck (carotid endarterectomy). It can also be used to replace damaged veins for hemodialysis access in patients with kidney failure.

The success of blood vessel prosthesis implantation depends on various factors, including the patient's overall health, the location and extent of the vascular disease, and the type of graft material used. Possible complications include infection, bleeding, graft thrombosis (clotting), and graft failure, which may require further surgical intervention or endovascular treatments.

Pulsatile flow is a type of fluid flow that occurs in a rhythmic, wave-like pattern, typically seen in the cardiovascular system. It refers to the periodic variation in the volume or velocity of a fluid (such as blood) that is caused by the regular beating of the heart. In pulsatile flow, there are periods of high flow followed by periods of low or no flow, which creates a distinct pattern on a graph or tracing. This type of flow is important for maintaining proper function and health in organs and tissues throughout the body.

Thallium radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes or variants of the element thallium (Tl), which decays and emits radiation. Thallium has several radioisotopes, with the most commonly used being thallium-201 (^201Tl). This radioisotope is used in medical imaging, specifically in myocardial perfusion scintigraphy, to evaluate blood flow to the heart muscle. It decays by electron capture and emits gamma radiation with a half-life of 73 hours, making it suitable for diagnostic procedures.

It's important to note that handling and using radioisotopes require proper training and safety measures due to their ionizing radiation properties.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

In medical terms, compliance refers to the degree to which a patient follows the recommendations or instructions of their healthcare provider. This may include taking prescribed medications as directed, following a treatment plan, making lifestyle changes, or attending follow-up appointments. Good compliance is essential for achieving the best possible health outcomes and can help prevent complications or worsening of medical conditions. Factors that can affect patient compliance include forgetfulness, lack of understanding of the instructions, cost of medications or treatments, and side effects of medications. Healthcare providers can take steps to improve patient compliance by providing clear and concise instructions, discussing potential barriers to compliance, and involving patients in their care plan.

Balloon occlusion is a medical procedure that involves the use of a small, deflated balloon at the end of a catheter, which can be inserted into a blood vessel or other tubular structure in the body. Once the balloon is in position, it is inflated with a fluid or gas to create a blockage or obstruction in the vessel. This can be used for various medical purposes, such as:

1. Controlling bleeding: By inflating the balloon in a blood vessel, doctors can temporarily stop the flow of blood to a specific area, allowing them to treat injuries or abnormalities that are causing excessive bleeding.
2. Vessel narrowing or blockage assessment: Balloon occlusion can be used to assess the severity of narrowing or blockages in blood vessels. By inflating the balloon and measuring the pressure differences upstream and downstream, doctors can determine the extent of the obstruction and plan appropriate treatment.
3. Embolization therapy: In some cases, balloon occlusion is used to deliver embolic agents (such as coils, particles, or glue) that block off blood flow to specific areas. This can be useful in treating conditions like tumors, arteriovenous malformations, or aneurysms.
4. Temporary vessel occlusion during surgery: During certain surgical procedures, it may be necessary to temporarily stop the flow of blood to a specific area. Balloon occlusion can be used to achieve this quickly and safely.
5. Assisting in the placement of stents or other devices: Balloon occlusion can help position and deploy stents or other medical devices by providing temporary support or blocking off blood flow during the procedure.

It is important to note that balloon occlusion procedures carry potential risks, such as vessel injury, infection, or embolism (the blockage of a blood vessel by a clot or foreign material). These risks should be carefully weighed against the benefits when considering this type of treatment.

Vascular surgical procedures are operations that are performed to treat conditions and diseases related to the vascular system, which includes the arteries, veins, and capillaries. These procedures can be invasive or minimally invasive and are often used to treat conditions such as peripheral artery disease, carotid artery stenosis, aortic aneurysms, and venous insufficiency.

Some examples of vascular surgical procedures include:

* Endarterectomy: a procedure to remove plaque buildup from the inside of an artery
* Bypass surgery: creating a new path for blood to flow around a blocked or narrowed artery
* Angioplasty and stenting: using a balloon to open a narrowed artery and placing a stent to keep it open
* Aneurysm repair: surgically repairing an aneurysm, a weakened area in the wall of an artery that has bulged out and filled with blood
* Embolectomy: removing a blood clot from a blood vessel
* Thrombectomy: removing a blood clot from a vein

These procedures are typically performed by vascular surgeons, who are trained in the diagnosis and treatment of vascular diseases.

The thoracic aorta is the segment of the largest artery in the human body (the aorta) that runs through the chest region (thorax). The thoracic aorta begins at the aortic arch, where it branches off from the ascending aorta, and extends down to the diaphragm, where it becomes the abdominal aorta.

The thoracic aorta is divided into three parts: the ascending aorta, the aortic arch, and the descending aorta. The ascending aorta rises from the left ventricle of the heart and is about 2 inches (5 centimeters) long. The aortic arch curves backward and to the left, giving rise to the brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid artery, and the left subclavian artery. The descending thoracic aorta runs downward through the chest, passing through the diaphragm to become the abdominal aorta.

The thoracic aorta supplies oxygenated blood to the upper body, including the head, neck, arms, and chest. It plays a critical role in maintaining blood flow and pressure throughout the body.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

The Chi-square distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is often used in statistical hypothesis testing. It is the distribution of a sum of squares of k independent standard normal random variables. The resulting quantity follows a chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom, denoted as χ²(k).

The probability density function (pdf) of the Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom is given by:

f(x; k) = (1/ (2^(k/2) * Γ(k/2))) \* x^((k/2)-1) \* e^(-x/2), for x > 0 and 0, otherwise.

Where Γ(k/2) is the gamma function evaluated at k/2. The mean and variance of a Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom are k and 2k, respectively.

The Chi-square distribution has various applications in statistical inference, including testing goodness-of-fit, homogeneity of variances, and independence in contingency tables.

Cardiac catheterization is a medical procedure used to diagnose and treat cardiovascular conditions. In this procedure, a thin, flexible tube called a catheter is inserted into a blood vessel in the arm or leg and threaded up to the heart. The catheter can be used to perform various diagnostic tests, such as measuring the pressure inside the heart chambers and assessing the function of the heart valves.

Cardiac catheterization can also be used to treat certain cardiovascular conditions, such as narrowed or blocked arteries. In these cases, a balloon or stent may be inserted through the catheter to open up the blood vessel and improve blood flow. This procedure is known as angioplasty or percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).

Cardiac catheterization is typically performed in a hospital cardiac catheterization laboratory by a team of healthcare professionals, including cardiologists, radiologists, and nurses. The procedure may be done under local anesthesia with sedation or general anesthesia, depending on the individual patient's needs and preferences.

Overall, cardiac catheterization is a valuable tool in the diagnosis and treatment of various heart conditions, and it can help improve symptoms, reduce complications, and prolong life for many patients.

Multivariate analysis is a statistical method used to examine the relationship between multiple independent variables and a dependent variable. It allows for the simultaneous examination of the effects of two or more independent variables on an outcome, while controlling for the effects of other variables in the model. This technique can be used to identify patterns, associations, and interactions among multiple variables, and is commonly used in medical research to understand complex health outcomes and disease processes. Examples of multivariate analysis methods include multiple regression, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and discriminant analysis.

The superior mesenteric artery (SMA) is a major artery that supplies oxygenated blood to the intestines, specifically the lower part of the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, ascending colon, and the first and second parts of the transverse colon. It originates from the abdominal aorta, located just inferior to the pancreas, and passes behind the neck of the pancreas before dividing into several branches to supply the intestines. The SMA is an essential vessel in the digestive system, providing blood flow for nutrient absorption and overall gut function.

Peripheral Vascular Diseases (PVD) refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the blood vessels outside of the heart and brain. These diseases are characterized by a narrowing or blockage of the peripheral arteries, which can lead to reduced blood flow to the limbs, particularly the legs.

The primary cause of PVD is atherosclerosis, a buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the walls of the arteries, forming plaques that restrict blood flow. Other risk factors include smoking, diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol levels, and a family history of vascular disease.

Symptoms of PVD can vary depending on the severity of the condition but may include leg pain or cramping during exercise (claudication), numbness or tingling in the legs, coldness or discoloration of the feet, sores or wounds that heal slowly or not at all, and in severe cases, gangrene.

PVD can increase the risk of heart attack and stroke, so it is essential to diagnose and treat the condition as early as possible. Treatment options include lifestyle changes such as quitting smoking, exercising regularly, and maintaining a healthy diet, medications to control symptoms and reduce the risk of complications, and surgical procedures such as angioplasty or bypass surgery to restore blood flow.

The umbilical arteries are a pair of vessels that develop within the umbilical cord during fetal development. They carry oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood from the mother to the developing fetus through the placenta. These arteries arise from the internal iliac arteries in the fetus and pass through the umbilical cord to connect with the two umbilical veins within the placenta. After birth, the umbilical arteries become ligaments (the medial umbilical ligaments) that run along the inner abdominal wall.

Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) is a rare condition that affects the arterial walls, primarily in the medium and large-sized arteries. According to the American Heart Association, FMD is characterized by uneven growth or damage to the cells in the artery wall, leading to the formation of fibrous tissue and areas with narrowing (stenosis) or ballooning (aneurysm) of the artery.

FMD most commonly affects the renal (kidney) and carotid (neck) arteries but can also occur in other arteries, such as those in the abdomen, arms, and legs. The exact cause of FMD is unknown, but genetic factors and hormonal influences are believed to play a role.

Symptoms of FMD depend on which arteries are affected and may include high blood pressure, headaches, neck pain, dizziness, visual disturbances, or kidney problems. Diagnosis typically involves imaging tests like ultrasound, CT angiography, or magnetic resonance angiography (MRA). Treatment options for FMD include medications to manage symptoms and control high blood pressure, as well as various interventions such as angioplasty or stenting to open narrowed arteries.

Intra-arterial injection is a type of medical procedure where a medication or contrast agent is delivered directly into an artery. This technique is used for various therapeutic and diagnostic purposes.

For instance, intra-arterial chemotherapy may be used to deliver cancer drugs directly to the site of a tumor, while intra-arterial thrombolysis involves the administration of clot-busting medications to treat arterial blockages caused by blood clots. Intra-arterial injections are also used in diagnostic imaging procedures such as angiography, where a contrast agent is injected into an artery to visualize the blood vessels and identify any abnormalities.

It's important to note that intra-arterial injections require precise placement of the needle or catheter into the artery, and are typically performed by trained medical professionals using specialized equipment.

A false aneurysm, also known as a pseudoaneurysm, is a type of aneurysm that occurs when there is a leakage or rupture of blood from a blood vessel into the surrounding tissues, creating a pulsating hematoma or collection of blood. Unlike true aneurysms, which involve a localized dilation or bulging of the blood vessel wall, false aneurysms do not have a complete covering of all three layers of the arterial wall (intima, media, and adventitia). Instead, they are typically covered by only one or two layers, such as the intima and adventitia, or by surrounding tissues like connective tissue or fascia.

False aneurysms can result from various factors, including trauma, infection, iatrogenic causes (such as medical procedures), or degenerative changes in the blood vessel wall. They are more common in arteries than veins and can occur in any part of the body. If left untreated, false aneurysms can lead to serious complications such as rupture, thrombosis, distal embolization, or infection. Treatment options for false aneurysms include surgical repair, endovascular procedures, or observation with regular follow-up imaging.

Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per unit of time, often expressed as beats per minute (bpm). It can vary significantly depending on factors such as age, physical fitness, emotions, and overall health status. A resting heart rate between 60-100 bpm is generally considered normal for adults, but athletes and individuals with high levels of physical fitness may have a resting heart rate below 60 bpm due to their enhanced cardiovascular efficiency. Monitoring heart rate can provide valuable insights into an individual's health status, exercise intensity, and response to various treatments or interventions.

Platelet aggregation inhibitors are a class of medications that prevent platelets (small blood cells involved in clotting) from sticking together and forming a clot. These drugs work by interfering with the ability of platelets to adhere to each other and to the damaged vessel wall, thereby reducing the risk of thrombosis (blood clot formation).

Platelet aggregation inhibitors are often prescribed for people who have an increased risk of developing blood clots due to various medical conditions such as atrial fibrillation, coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, stroke, or a history of heart attack. They may also be used in patients undergoing certain medical procedures, such as angioplasty and stenting, to prevent blood clot formation in the stents.

Examples of platelet aggregation inhibitors include:

1. Aspirin: A nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that irreversibly inhibits the enzyme cyclooxygenase, which is involved in platelet activation and aggregation.
2. Clopidogrel (Plavix): A P2Y12 receptor antagonist that selectively blocks ADP-induced platelet activation and aggregation.
3. Prasugrel (Effient): A third-generation thienopyridine P2Y12 receptor antagonist, similar to clopidogrel but with faster onset and greater potency.
4. Ticagrelor (Brilinta): A direct-acting P2Y12 receptor antagonist that does not require metabolic activation and has a reversible binding profile.
5. Dipyridamole (Persantine): An antiplatelet agent that inhibits platelet aggregation by increasing cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) levels in platelets, which leads to decreased platelet reactivity.
6. Iloprost (Ventavis): A prostacyclin analogue that inhibits platelet aggregation and causes vasodilation, often used in the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension.
7. Cilostazol (Pletal): A phosphodiesterase III inhibitor that increases cAMP levels in platelets, leading to decreased platelet activation and aggregation, as well as vasodilation.
8. Ticlopidine (Ticlid): An older P2Y12 receptor antagonist with a slower onset of action and more frequent side effects compared to clopidogrel or prasugrel.

Observer variation, also known as inter-observer variability or measurement agreement, refers to the difference in observations or measurements made by different observers or raters when evaluating the same subject or phenomenon. It is a common issue in various fields such as medicine, research, and quality control, where subjective assessments are involved.

In medical terms, observer variation can occur in various contexts, including:

1. Diagnostic tests: Different radiologists may interpret the same X-ray or MRI scan differently, leading to variations in diagnosis.
2. Clinical trials: Different researchers may have different interpretations of clinical outcomes or adverse events, affecting the consistency and reliability of trial results.
3. Medical records: Different healthcare providers may document medical histories, physical examinations, or treatment plans differently, leading to inconsistencies in patient care.
4. Pathology: Different pathologists may have varying interpretations of tissue samples or laboratory tests, affecting diagnostic accuracy.

Observer variation can be minimized through various methods, such as standardized assessment tools, training and calibration of observers, and statistical analysis of inter-rater reliability.

In medical terms, constriction refers to the narrowing or tightening of a body part or passageway. This can occur due to various reasons such as spasms of muscles, inflammation, or abnormal growths. It can lead to symptoms like difficulty in breathing, swallowing, or blood flow, depending on where it occurs. For example, constriction of the airways in asthma, constriction of blood vessels in hypertension, or constriction of the esophagus in certain digestive disorders.

Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA) infarction is a type of ischemic stroke that occurs when there is an obstruction in the blood supply to the middle cerebral artery, which is one of the major blood vessels that supplies oxygenated blood to the brain. The MCA supplies blood to a large portion of the brain, including the motor and sensory cortex, parts of the temporal and parietal lobes, and the basal ganglia.

An infarction is the death of tissue due to the lack of blood supply, which can lead to damage or loss of function in the affected areas of the brain. Symptoms of MCA infarction may include weakness or numbness on one side of the body, difficulty speaking or understanding speech, vision problems, and altered levels of consciousness.

MCA infarctions can be caused by various factors, including embolism (a blood clot that travels to the brain from another part of the body), thrombosis (a blood clot that forms in the MCA itself), or stenosis (narrowing of the artery due to atherosclerosis or other conditions). Treatment for MCA infarction may include medications to dissolve blood clots, surgery to remove the obstruction, or rehabilitation to help regain lost function.

The popliteal artery is the continuation of the femoral artery that passes through the popliteal fossa, which is the area behind the knee. It is the major blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to the lower leg and foot. The popliteal artery divides into the anterior tibial artery and the tibioperoneal trunk at the lower border of the popliteus muscle. Any damage or blockage to this artery can result in serious health complications, including reduced blood flow to the leg and foot, which may lead to pain, cramping, numbness, or even tissue death (gangrene) if left untreated.

LDL, or low-density lipoprotein, is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol. It is one of the lipoproteins that helps carry cholesterol throughout your body. High levels of LDL cholesterol can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Cholesterol is a type of fat (lipid) that is found in the cells of your body. Your body needs some cholesterol to function properly, but having too much can lead to health problems. LDL cholesterol is one of the two main types of cholesterol; the other is high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or "good" cholesterol.

It's important to keep your LDL cholesterol levels in a healthy range to reduce your risk of developing heart disease and stroke. A healthcare professional can help you determine what your target LDL cholesterol level should be based on your individual health status and risk factors.

Dobutamine is a synthetic catecholamine used in medical treatment, specifically as a positive inotrope and vasodilator. It works by stimulating the beta-1 adrenergic receptors of the heart, thereby increasing its contractility and stroke volume. This results in an improved cardiac output, making dobutamine beneficial in treating heart failure, cardiogenic shock, and other conditions where heart function is compromised.

It's important to note that dobutamine should be administered under strict medical supervision due to its potential to cause adverse effects such as arrhythmias, hypotension, or hypertension. The dosage, frequency, and duration of administration are determined by the patient's specific condition and response to treatment.

Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a clot forms in an artery, it can cut off the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues served by that artery, leading to damage or tissue death. If a thrombus forms in the heart, it can cause a heart attack. If a thrombus breaks off and travels through the bloodstream, it can lodge in a smaller vessel, causing blockage and potentially leading to damage in the organ that the vessel supplies. This is known as an embolism.

Thrombosis can occur due to various factors such as injury to the blood vessel wall, abnormalities in blood flow, or changes in the composition of the blood. Certain medical conditions, medications, and lifestyle factors can increase the risk of thrombosis. Treatment typically involves anticoagulant or thrombolytic therapy to dissolve or prevent further growth of the clot, as well as addressing any underlying causes.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

Contrast media are substances that are administered to a patient in order to improve the visibility of internal body structures or processes in medical imaging techniques such as X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, and ultrasounds. These media can be introduced into the body through various routes, including oral, rectal, or intravenous administration.

Contrast media work by altering the appearance of bodily structures in imaging studies. For example, when a patient undergoes an X-ray examination, contrast media can be used to highlight specific organs, tissues, or blood vessels, making them more visible on the resulting images. In CT and MRI scans, contrast media can help to enhance the differences between normal and abnormal tissues, allowing for more accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.

There are several types of contrast media available, each with its own specific properties and uses. Some common examples include barium sulfate, which is used as a contrast medium in X-ray studies of the gastrointestinal tract, and iodinated contrast media, which are commonly used in CT scans to highlight blood vessels and other structures.

While contrast media are generally considered safe, they can sometimes cause adverse reactions, ranging from mild symptoms such as nausea or hives to more serious complications such as anaphylaxis or kidney damage. As a result, it is important for healthcare providers to carefully evaluate each patient's medical history and individual risk factors before administering contrast media.

A feasibility study is a preliminary investigation or analysis conducted to determine the viability of a proposed project, program, or product. In the medical field, feasibility studies are often conducted before implementing new treatments, procedures, equipment, or facilities. These studies help to assess the practicality and effectiveness of the proposed intervention, as well as its potential benefits and risks.

Feasibility studies in healthcare typically involve several steps:

1. Problem identification: Clearly define the problem that the proposed project, program, or product aims to address.
2. Objectives setting: Establish specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) objectives for the study.
3. Literature review: Conduct a thorough review of existing research and best practices related to the proposed intervention.
4. Methodology development: Design a methodology for data collection and analysis that will help answer the research questions and achieve the study's objectives.
5. Resource assessment: Evaluate the availability and adequacy of resources, including personnel, time, and finances, required to carry out the proposed intervention.
6. Risk assessment: Identify potential risks and challenges associated with the implementation of the proposed intervention and develop strategies to mitigate them.
7. Cost-benefit analysis: Estimate the costs and benefits of the proposed intervention, including direct and indirect costs, as well as short-term and long-term benefits.
8. Stakeholder engagement: Engage relevant stakeholders, such as patients, healthcare providers, administrators, and policymakers, to gather their input and support for the proposed intervention.
9. Decision-making: Based on the findings of the feasibility study, make an informed decision about whether or not to proceed with the proposed project, program, or product.

Feasibility studies are essential in healthcare as they help ensure that resources are allocated efficiently and effectively, and that interventions are evidence-based, safe, and beneficial for patients.

The brachiocephalic trunk, also known as the brachiocephalic artery or innominate artery, is a large vessel that branches off the aorta and divides into the right common carotid artery and the right subclavian artery. It supplies blood to the head, neck, and arms on the right side of the body.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

In medicine, elasticity refers to the ability of a tissue or organ to return to its original shape after being stretched or deformed. This property is due to the presence of elastic fibers in the extracellular matrix of the tissue, which can stretch and recoil like rubber bands.

Elasticity is an important characteristic of many tissues, particularly those that are subjected to repeated stretching or compression, such as blood vessels, lungs, and skin. For example, the elasticity of the lungs allows them to expand and contract during breathing, while the elasticity of blood vessels helps maintain normal blood pressure by allowing them to expand and constrict in response to changes in blood flow.

In addition to its role in normal physiology, elasticity is also an important factor in the diagnosis and treatment of various medical conditions. For example, decreased elasticity in the lungs can be a sign of lung disease, while increased elasticity in the skin can be a sign of aging or certain genetic disorders. Medical professionals may use techniques such as pulmonary function tests or skin biopsies to assess elasticity and help diagnose these conditions.

Interventional ultrasonography is a medical procedure that involves the use of real-time ultrasound imaging to guide minimally invasive diagnostic and therapeutic interventions. This technique combines the advantages of ultrasound, such as its non-ionizing nature (no radiation exposure), relatively low cost, and portability, with the ability to perform precise and targeted procedures.

In interventional ultrasonography, a specialized physician called an interventional radiologist or an interventional sonographer uses high-frequency sound waves to create detailed images of internal organs and tissues. These images help guide the placement of needles, catheters, or other instruments used during the procedure. Common interventions include biopsies (tissue sampling), fluid drainage, tumor ablation, and targeted drug delivery.

The real-time visualization provided by ultrasonography allows for increased accuracy and safety during these procedures, minimizing complications and reducing recovery time compared to traditional surgical approaches. Additionally, interventional ultrasonography can be performed on an outpatient basis, further contributing to its appeal as a less invasive alternative in many clinical scenarios.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation or infection in the body. It is named after its ability to bind to the C-polysaccharide of pneumococcus, a type of bacteria. CRP levels can be measured with a simple blood test and are often used as a marker of inflammation or infection. Elevated CRP levels may indicate a variety of conditions, including infections, tissue damage, and chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. However, it is important to note that CRP is not specific to any particular condition, so additional tests are usually needed to make a definitive diagnosis.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Diabetic angiopathies refer to a group of vascular complications that occur due to diabetes mellitus. Prolonged exposure to high blood sugar levels can damage the blood vessels, leading to various types of angiopathies such as:

1. Diabetic retinopathy: This is a condition where the small blood vessels in the retina get damaged due to diabetes, leading to vision loss or blindness if left untreated.
2. Diabetic nephropathy: In this condition, the kidneys' glomeruli (the filtering units) become damaged due to diabetes, leading to protein leakage and eventually kidney failure if not managed properly.
3. Diabetic neuropathy: This is a type of nerve damage caused by diabetes that can affect various parts of the body, including the legs, feet, and hands, causing numbness, tingling, or pain.
4. Diabetic cardiomyopathy: This is a condition where the heart muscle becomes damaged due to diabetes, leading to heart failure.
5. Diabetic peripheral arterial disease (PAD): In this condition, the blood vessels that supply the legs and feet become narrowed or blocked due to diabetes, leading to pain, cramping, or even gangrene in severe cases.

Overall, diabetic angiopathies are serious complications of diabetes that can significantly impact a person's quality of life and overall health. Therefore, it is crucial for individuals with diabetes to manage their blood sugar levels effectively and undergo regular check-ups to detect any early signs of these complications.

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) cholesterol is often referred to as "good" cholesterol. It is a type of lipoprotein that helps remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body. High levels of HDL cholesterol have been associated with a lower risk of heart disease and stroke.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a class of diseases that affect the heart and blood vessels. They are the leading cause of death globally, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). The term "cardiovascular disease" refers to a group of conditions that include:

1. Coronary artery disease (CAD): This is the most common type of heart disease and occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the heart become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of cholesterol, fat, and other substances in the walls of the arteries. This can lead to chest pain, shortness of breath, or a heart attack.
2. Heart failure: This occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood efficiently to meet the body's needs. It can be caused by various conditions, including coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, and cardiomyopathy.
3. Stroke: A stroke occurs when the blood supply to a part of the brain is interrupted or reduced, often due to a clot or a ruptured blood vessel. This can cause brain damage or death.
4. Peripheral artery disease (PAD): This occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the limbs become narrowed or blocked, leading to pain, numbness, or weakness in the legs or arms.
5. Rheumatic heart disease: This is a complication of untreated strep throat and can cause damage to the heart valves, leading to heart failure or other complications.
6. Congenital heart defects: These are structural problems with the heart that are present at birth. They can range from mild to severe and may require medical intervention.
7. Cardiomyopathy: This is a disease of the heart muscle that makes it harder for the heart to pump blood efficiently. It can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, and certain medications.
8. Heart arrhythmias: These are abnormal heart rhythms that can cause the heart to beat too fast, too slow, or irregularly. They can lead to symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, or fainting.
9. Valvular heart disease: This occurs when one or more of the heart valves become damaged or diseased, leading to problems with blood flow through the heart.
10. Aortic aneurysm and dissection: These are conditions that affect the aorta, the largest artery in the body. An aneurysm is a bulge in the aorta, while a dissection is a tear in the inner layer of the aorta. Both can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

It's important to note that many of these conditions can be managed or treated with medical interventions such as medications, surgery, or lifestyle changes. If you have any concerns about your heart health, it's important to speak with a healthcare provider.

In medical terms, the heart is a muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity that functions as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body. It's responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. The human heart is divided into four chambers: two atria on the top and two ventricles on the bottom. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the rest of the body. The heart's rhythmic contractions and relaxations are regulated by a complex electrical conduction system.

Neointima is a term used in pathology and refers to the layer of tissue that forms inside a blood vessel as part of the healing process after an injury, such as angioplasty or stenting. This new tissue is composed mainly of smooth muscle cells and extracellular matrix and can grow inward, potentially causing restenosis (re-narrowing) of the vessel lumen.

In simpler terms, Neointima is a type of scar tissue that forms inside blood vessels as part of the healing process after an injury, but its growth can sometimes cause problems by narrowing the vessel and restricting blood flow.

The aorta is the largest artery in the human body, which originates from the left ventricle of the heart and carries oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. It can be divided into several parts, including the ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending aorta. The ascending aorta gives rise to the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. The aortic arch gives rise to the brachiocephalic, left common carotid, and left subclavian arteries, which supply blood to the head, neck, and upper extremities. The descending aorta travels through the thorax and abdomen, giving rise to various intercostal, visceral, and renal arteries that supply blood to the chest wall, organs, and kidneys.

A blood vessel prosthesis is a medical device that is used as a substitute for a damaged or diseased natural blood vessel. It is typically made of synthetic materials such as polyester, Dacron, or ePTFE (expanded polytetrafluoroethylene) and is designed to mimic the function of a native blood vessel by allowing the flow of blood through it.

Blood vessel prostheses are used in various surgical procedures, including coronary artery bypass grafting, peripheral arterial reconstruction, and the creation of arteriovenous fistulas for dialysis access. The choice of material and size of the prosthesis depends on several factors, such as the location and diameter of the vessel being replaced, the patient's age and overall health status, and the surgeon's preference.

It is important to note that while blood vessel prostheses can be effective in restoring blood flow, they may also carry risks such as infection, thrombosis (blood clot formation), and graft failure over time. Therefore, careful patient selection, surgical technique, and postoperative management are crucial for the success of these procedures.

The Ulnar Artery is a major blood vessel that supplies the forearm, hand, and fingers with oxygenated blood. It originates from the brachial artery in the upper arm and travels down the medial (towards the body's midline) side of the forearm, passing through the Guyon's canal at the wrist before branching out to supply the hand and fingers.

The ulnar artery provides blood to the palmar aspect of the hand and the ulnar side of the little finger and half of the ring finger. It also contributes to the formation of the deep palmar arch, which supplies blood to the deep structures of the hand. The ulnar artery is an important structure in the circulatory system, providing critical blood flow to the upper limb.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Computer-assisted image processing is a medical term that refers to the use of computer systems and specialized software to improve, analyze, and interpret medical images obtained through various imaging techniques such as X-ray, CT (computed tomography), MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), ultrasound, and others.

The process typically involves several steps, including image acquisition, enhancement, segmentation, restoration, and analysis. Image processing algorithms can be used to enhance the quality of medical images by adjusting contrast, brightness, and sharpness, as well as removing noise and artifacts that may interfere with accurate diagnosis. Segmentation techniques can be used to isolate specific regions or structures of interest within an image, allowing for more detailed analysis.

Computer-assisted image processing has numerous applications in medical imaging, including detection and characterization of lesions, tumors, and other abnormalities; assessment of organ function and morphology; and guidance of interventional procedures such as biopsies and surgeries. By automating and standardizing image analysis tasks, computer-assisted image processing can help to improve diagnostic accuracy, efficiency, and consistency, while reducing the potential for human error.

Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors, also known as statins, are a class of cholesterol-lowering medications. They work by inhibiting the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which plays a central role in the production of cholesterol in the liver. By blocking this enzyme, the liver is stimulated to take up more low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol from the bloodstream, leading to a decrease in LDL cholesterol levels and a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease.

Examples of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors include atorvastatin, simvastatin, pravastatin, rosuvastatin, and fluvastatin. These medications are commonly prescribed to individuals with high cholesterol levels, particularly those who are at risk for or have established cardiovascular disease.

It's important to note that while HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors can be effective in reducing LDL cholesterol levels and the risk of cardiovascular events, they should be used as part of a comprehensive approach to managing high cholesterol, which may also include lifestyle modifications such as dietary changes, exercise, and weight management.

Stress echocardiography is a medical test that uses ultrasound imaging to assess how well your heart muscles are pumping blood and how well they respond to stress. It can help diagnose and evaluate coronary artery disease, valvular heart disease, and other cardiac conditions.

During the test, you will be asked to exercise on a treadmill or stationary bike while your heart rate and blood pressure are monitored. At peak exercise, a healthcare professional will take ultrasound images of your heart to evaluate its structure and function. If you are unable to exercise, medication may be given to simulate the effects of exercise on your heart.

The test can help identify areas of your heart that aren't receiving enough oxygen-rich blood due to blocked or narrowed arteries. It can also assess how well your heart valves are functioning and whether there are any structural abnormalities in your heart. Your healthcare provider will use the results of the test to develop a treatment plan tailored to your individual needs.

The Ankle-Brachial Index (ABI) is a medical test used to diagnose and evaluate peripheral artery disease (PAD), a condition characterized by narrowing or blockage of the blood vessels outside of the heart. The ABI measures the ratio of blood pressure in the ankles to the blood pressure in the arms, which can indicate whether there is reduced blood flow to the legs due to PAD.

To perform the test, healthcare professionals measure the blood pressure in both arms and ankles using a blood pressure cuff and a Doppler ultrasound device. The systolic blood pressure (the higher number) is used for the calculation. The ABI value is obtained by dividing the highest ankle pressure by the highest arm pressure.

In healthy individuals, the ABI values typically range from 0.9 to 1.3. Values below 0.9 suggest that there may be narrowed or blocked blood vessels in the legs, indicating PAD. The lower the ABI value, the more severe the blockage is likely to be. Additionally, an ABI of 1.4 or higher may indicate calcification of the arteries, which can also affect blood flow.

In summary, the Ankle-Brachial Index (ABI) is a medical test that measures the ratio of blood pressure in the ankles to the blood pressure in the arms, providing valuable information about peripheral artery disease and overall circulatory health.

Technetium Tc 99m Sestamibi is a radiopharmaceutical compound used in medical imaging, specifically in myocardial perfusion scintigraphy. It is a technetium-labeled isonitrile chelate that is taken up by mitochondria in cells with high metabolic activity, such as cardiomyocytes (heart muscle cells).

Once injected into the patient's body, Technetium Tc 99m Sestamibi emits gamma rays, which can be detected by a gamma camera. This allows for the creation of images that reflect the distribution and function of the radiopharmaceutical within the heart muscle. The images can help identify areas of reduced blood flow or ischemia, which may indicate coronary artery disease.

The uptake of Technetium Tc 99m Sestamibi in other organs, such as the breast and thyroid, can also be used for imaging purposes, although its primary use remains in cardiac imaging.

The maxillary artery is a branch of the external carotid artery that supplies the deep structures of the face and head. It originates from the external carotid artery just below the neck of the mandible and passes laterally to enter the parotid gland. Within the gland, it gives off several branches, including the deep auricular, anterior tympanic, and middle meningeal arteries.

After leaving the parotid gland, the maxillary artery travels through the infratemporal fossa, where it gives off several more branches, including the inferior alveolar, buccinator, and masseteric arteries. These vessels supply blood to the teeth, gums, and muscles of mastication.

The maxillary artery also gives off the sphenopalatine artery, which supplies the nasal cavity, nasopharynx, and palate. Additionally, it provides branches that supply the meninges, dura mater, and brain. Overall, the maxillary artery plays a critical role in providing blood flow to many structures in the head and neck region.

Disease progression is the worsening or advancement of a medical condition over time. It refers to the natural course of a disease, including its development, the severity of symptoms and complications, and the impact on the patient's overall health and quality of life. Understanding disease progression is important for developing appropriate treatment plans, monitoring response to therapy, and predicting outcomes.

The rate of disease progression can vary widely depending on the type of medical condition, individual patient factors, and the effectiveness of treatment. Some diseases may progress rapidly over a short period of time, while others may progress more slowly over many years. In some cases, disease progression may be slowed or even halted with appropriate medical interventions, while in other cases, the progression may be inevitable and irreversible.

In clinical practice, healthcare providers closely monitor disease progression through regular assessments, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. This information is used to guide treatment decisions and adjust care plans as needed to optimize patient outcomes and improve quality of life.

The bronchial arteries are a pair of arteries that originate from the descending thoracic aorta and supply oxygenated blood to the bronchi, bronchioles, and connected tissues within the lungs. They play a crucial role in providing nutrients and maintaining the health of the airways in the respiratory system. The bronchial arteries also help in the defense mechanism of the lungs by delivering immune cells and participating in the process of angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels) during lung injury or repair.

Nitroglycerin, also known as glyceryl trinitrate, is a medication used primarily for the treatment of angina pectoris (chest pain due to coronary artery disease) and hypertensive emergencies (severe high blood pressure). It belongs to a class of drugs called nitrates or organic nitrites.

Nitroglycerin works by relaxing and dilating the smooth muscle in blood vessels, which leads to decreased workload on the heart and increased oxygen delivery to the myocardium (heart muscle). This results in reduced symptoms of angina and improved cardiac function during hypertensive emergencies.

The drug is available in various forms, including sublingual tablets, sprays, transdermal patches, ointments, and intravenous solutions. The choice of formulation depends on the specific clinical situation and patient needs. Common side effects of nitroglycerin include headache, dizziness, and hypotension (low blood pressure).

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

The vasomotor system is a part of the autonomic nervous system that controls the diameter of blood vessels, particularly the smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles and precapillary sphincters. It regulates blood flow to different parts of the body by constricting or dilating these vessels. The vasomotor center located in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem controls the system, receiving input from various sensory receptors and modulating the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems' activity. Vasoconstriction decreases blood flow, while vasodilation increases it.

Hypercholesterolemia is a medical term that describes a condition characterized by high levels of cholesterol in the blood. Specifically, it refers to an abnormally elevated level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, also known as "bad" cholesterol, which can contribute to the development of fatty deposits in the arteries called plaques. Over time, these plaques can narrow and harden the arteries, leading to atherosclerosis, a condition that increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular complications.

Hypercholesterolemia can be caused by various factors, including genetics, lifestyle choices, and underlying medical conditions. In some cases, it may not cause any symptoms until serious complications arise. Therefore, regular cholesterol screening is essential for early detection and management of hypercholesterolemia. Treatment typically involves lifestyle modifications, such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, and weight management, along with medication if necessary.

The odds ratio (OR) is a statistical measure used in epidemiology and research to estimate the association between an exposure and an outcome. It represents the odds that an event will occur in one group versus the odds that it will occur in another group, assuming that all other factors are held constant.

In medical research, the odds ratio is often used to quantify the strength of the relationship between a risk factor (exposure) and a disease outcome. An OR of 1 indicates no association between the exposure and the outcome, while an OR greater than 1 suggests that there is a positive association between the two. Conversely, an OR less than 1 implies a negative association.

It's important to note that the odds ratio is not the same as the relative risk (RR), which compares the incidence rates of an outcome in two groups. While the OR can approximate the RR when the outcome is rare, they are not interchangeable and can lead to different conclusions about the association between an exposure and an outcome.

Diabetes complications refer to a range of health issues that can develop as a result of poorly managed diabetes over time. These complications can affect various parts of the body and can be classified into two main categories: macrovascular and microvascular.

Macrovascular complications include:

* Cardiovascular disease (CVD): People with diabetes are at an increased risk of developing CVD, including coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and stroke.
* Peripheral arterial disease (PAD): This condition affects the blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the limbs, particularly the legs. PAD can cause pain, numbness, or weakness in the legs and may increase the risk of amputation.

Microvascular complications include:

* Diabetic neuropathy: This is a type of nerve damage that can occur due to prolonged high blood sugar levels. It commonly affects the feet and legs, causing symptoms such as numbness, tingling, or pain.
* Diabetic retinopathy: This condition affects the blood vessels in the eye and can cause vision loss or blindness if left untreated.
* Diabetic nephropathy: This is a type of kidney damage that can occur due to diabetes. It can lead to kidney failure if not managed properly.

Other complications of diabetes include:

* Increased risk of infections, particularly skin and urinary tract infections.
* Slow healing of wounds, which can increase the risk of infection and amputation.
* Gum disease and other oral health problems.
* Hearing impairment.
* Sexual dysfunction.

Preventing or managing diabetes complications involves maintaining good blood sugar control, regular monitoring of blood glucose levels, following a healthy lifestyle, and receiving routine medical care.

Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.

The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.

It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.

Cardiovascular agents are a class of medications that are used to treat various conditions related to the cardiovascular system, which includes the heart and blood vessels. These agents can be further divided into several subcategories based on their specific mechanisms of action and therapeutic effects. Here are some examples:

1. Antiarrhythmics: These drugs are used to treat abnormal heart rhythms or arrhythmias. They work by stabilizing the electrical activity of the heart and preventing irregular impulses from spreading through the heart muscle.
2. Antihypertensives: These medications are used to lower high blood pressure, also known as hypertension. There are several classes of antihypertensive drugs, including diuretics, beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors.
3. Anticoagulants: These drugs are used to prevent blood clots from forming or growing larger. They work by interfering with the coagulation cascade, which is a series of chemical reactions that lead to the formation of a blood clot.
4. Antiplatelet agents: These medications are used to prevent platelets in the blood from sticking together and forming clots. They work by inhibiting the aggregation of platelets, which are small cells in the blood that help form clots.
5. Lipid-lowering agents: These drugs are used to lower cholesterol and other fats in the blood. They work by reducing the production or absorption of cholesterol in the body or increasing the removal of cholesterol from the bloodstream. Examples include statins, bile acid sequestrants, and PCSK9 inhibitors.
6. Vasodilators: These medications are used to widen blood vessels and improve blood flow. They work by relaxing the smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels, causing them to dilate or widen. Examples include nitrates, calcium channel blockers, and ACE inhibitors.
7. Inotropes: These drugs are used to increase the force of heart contractions. They work by increasing the sensitivity of heart muscle cells to calcium ions, which are necessary for muscle contraction.

These are just a few examples of cardiovascular medications that are used to treat various conditions related to the heart and blood vessels. It is important to note that these medications can have side effects and should be taken under the guidance of a healthcare provider.

Gerbillinae is a subfamily of rodents that includes gerbils, jirds, and sand rats. These small mammals are primarily found in arid regions of Africa and Asia. They are characterized by their long hind legs, which they use for hopping, and their long, thin tails. Some species have adapted to desert environments by developing specialized kidneys that allow them to survive on minimal water intake.

Cerebral arterial diseases refer to conditions that affect the blood vessels supplying the brain. These diseases can result in reduced blood flow, blockages, or bleeding in the brain. The most common cerebral arterial diseases include:

1. Atherosclerosis: A buildup of plaque made up of fat, cholesterol, and other substances in the inner lining of an artery, which can lead to narrowing or blockage of the artery.
2. Embolism: A blood clot or other particle that forms elsewhere in the body and travels to the brain, where it blocks a cerebral artery.
3. Thrombosis: The formation of a blood clot within a cerebral artery.
4. Aneurysm: A weakened area in the wall of an artery that bulges out and can rupture, causing bleeding in the brain.
5. Arteriovenous malformation (AVM): An abnormal tangle of blood vessels in the brain that can cause bleeding or reduced blood flow to surrounding tissue.
6. Vasculitis: Inflammation of the blood vessels in the brain, which can lead to narrowing, blockage, or weakening of the vessel walls.

These conditions can lead to serious complications such as stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA), or vascular dementia. Treatment options include medications, surgery, and lifestyle changes to manage risk factors.

Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter, a type of chemical messenger that transmits signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. It is involved in both peripheral and central nervous system functions.

In the peripheral nervous system, acetylcholine acts as a neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction, where it transmits signals from motor neurons to activate muscles. Acetylcholine also acts as a neurotransmitter in the autonomic nervous system, where it is involved in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

In the central nervous system, acetylcholine plays a role in learning, memory, attention, and arousal. Disruptions in cholinergic neurotransmission have been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and myasthenia gravis.

Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl-CoA by the enzyme choline acetyltransferase and is stored in vesicles at the presynaptic terminal of the neuron. When a nerve impulse arrives, the vesicles fuse with the presynaptic membrane, releasing acetylcholine into the synapse. The acetylcholine then binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, triggering a response in the target cell. Acetylcholine is subsequently degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, which terminates its action and allows for signal transduction to be repeated.

Cranial nerve injuries refer to damages or trauma to one or more of the twelve cranial nerves (CN I through CN XII). These nerves originate from the brainstem and are responsible for transmitting sensory information (such as vision, hearing, smell, taste, and balance) and controlling various motor functions (like eye movement, facial expressions, swallowing, and speaking).

Cranial nerve injuries can result from various causes, including head trauma, tumors, infections, or neurological conditions. The severity of the injury may range from mild dysfunction to complete loss of function, depending on the extent of damage to the nerve. Treatment options vary based on the type and location of the injury but often involve a combination of medical management, physical therapy, surgical intervention, or rehabilitation.

Auscultation is a medical procedure in which a healthcare professional uses a stethoscope to listen to the internal sounds of the body, such as heart, lung, or abdominal sounds. These sounds can provide important clues about a person's health and help diagnose various medical conditions, such as heart valve problems, lung infections, or digestive issues.

During auscultation, the healthcare professional places the stethoscope on different parts of the body and listens for any abnormal sounds, such as murmurs, rubs, or wheezes. They may also ask the person to perform certain movements, such as breathing deeply or coughing, to help identify any changes in the sounds.

Auscultation is a simple, non-invasive procedure that can provide valuable information about a person's health. It is an essential part of a physical examination and is routinely performed by healthcare professionals during regular checkups and hospital visits.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

A Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve is a graphical representation used in medical decision-making and statistical analysis to illustrate the performance of a binary classifier system, such as a diagnostic test or a machine learning algorithm. It's a plot that shows the tradeoff between the true positive rate (sensitivity) and the false positive rate (1 - specificity) for different threshold settings.

The x-axis of an ROC curve represents the false positive rate (the proportion of negative cases incorrectly classified as positive), while the y-axis represents the true positive rate (the proportion of positive cases correctly classified as positive). Each point on the curve corresponds to a specific decision threshold, with higher points indicating better performance.

The area under the ROC curve (AUC) is a commonly used summary measure that reflects the overall performance of the classifier. An AUC value of 1 indicates perfect discrimination between positive and negative cases, while an AUC value of 0.5 suggests that the classifier performs no better than chance.

ROC curves are widely used in healthcare to evaluate diagnostic tests, predictive models, and screening tools for various medical conditions, helping clinicians make informed decisions about patient care based on the balance between sensitivity and specificity.

Intraoperative complications refer to any unforeseen problems or events that occur during the course of a surgical procedure, once it has begun and before it is completed. These complications can range from minor issues, such as bleeding or an adverse reaction to anesthesia, to major complications that can significantly impact the patient's health and prognosis.

Examples of intraoperative complications include:

1. Bleeding (hemorrhage) - This can occur due to various reasons such as injury to blood vessels or organs during surgery.
2. Infection - Surgical site infections can develop if the surgical area becomes contaminated during the procedure.
3. Anesthesia-related complications - These include adverse reactions to anesthesia, difficulty maintaining the patient's airway, or cardiovascular instability.
4. Organ injury - Accidental damage to surrounding organs can occur during surgery, leading to potential long-term consequences.
5. Equipment failure - Malfunctioning surgical equipment can lead to complications and compromise the safety of the procedure.
6. Allergic reactions - Patients may have allergies to certain medications or materials used during surgery, causing an adverse reaction.
7. Prolonged operative time - Complications may arise if a surgical procedure takes longer than expected, leading to increased risk of infection and other issues.

Intraoperative complications require prompt identification and management by the surgical team to minimize their impact on the patient's health and recovery.

"Sex factors" is a term used in medicine and epidemiology to refer to the differences in disease incidence, prevalence, or response to treatment that are observed between males and females. These differences can be attributed to biological differences such as genetics, hormones, and anatomy, as well as social and cultural factors related to gender.

For example, some conditions such as autoimmune diseases, depression, and osteoporosis are more common in women, while others such as cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer are more prevalent in men. Additionally, sex differences have been observed in the effectiveness and side effects of various medications and treatments.

It is important to consider sex factors in medical research and clinical practice to ensure that patients receive appropriate and effective care.

Chest pain is a discomfort or pain that you feel in the chest area. The pain can be sharp, dull, burning, crushing, heaviness, or tightness. It may be accompanied by other symptoms such as shortness of breath, sweating, nausea, dizziness, or pain that radiates to the arm, neck, jaw, or back.

Chest pain can have many possible causes, including heart-related conditions such as angina or a heart attack, lung conditions such as pneumonia or pleurisy, gastrointestinal problems such as acid reflux or gastritis, musculoskeletal issues such as costochondritis or muscle strain, and anxiety or panic attacks.

It is important to seek immediate medical attention if you experience chest pain that is severe, persistent, or accompanied by other concerning symptoms, as it may be a sign of a serious medical condition. A healthcare professional can evaluate your symptoms, perform tests, and provide appropriate treatment.

Embolic protection devices are medical instruments used during certain surgical procedures, such as angioplasty and stenting, to prevent the displacement or dislodgement of plaque or other debris from the treatment site, which can travel downstream and cause blockages or embolisms in smaller vessels.

These devices typically consist of a filter or a balloon that is positioned distal to the treatment site to capture any debris that may break off during the procedure. Once the procedure is complete, the device is removed, along with the captured debris, reducing the risk of downstream complications such as stroke or tissue damage.

Embolic protection devices are commonly used in procedures involving the carotid arteries, peripheral arteries, and the heart, particularly during transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) procedures.

Vasoconstrictor agents are substances that cause the narrowing of blood vessels by constricting the smooth muscle in their walls. This leads to an increase in blood pressure and a decrease in blood flow. They work by activating the sympathetic nervous system, which triggers the release of neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and epinephrine that bind to alpha-adrenergic receptors on the smooth muscle cells of the blood vessel walls, causing them to contract.

Vasoconstrictor agents are used medically for a variety of purposes, including:

* Treating hypotension (low blood pressure)
* Controlling bleeding during surgery or childbirth
* Relieving symptoms of nasal congestion in conditions such as the common cold or allergies

Examples of vasoconstrictor agents include phenylephrine, oxymetazoline, and epinephrine. It's important to note that prolonged use or excessive doses of vasoconstrictor agents can lead to rebound congestion and other adverse effects, so they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Aspirin is the common name for acetylsalicylic acid, which is a medication used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and lower fever. It works by inhibiting the activity of an enzyme called cyclooxygenase (COX), which is involved in the production of prostaglandins, hormone-like substances that cause inflammation and pain. Aspirin also has an antiplatelet effect, which means it can help prevent blood clots from forming. This makes it useful for preventing heart attacks and strokes.

Aspirin is available over-the-counter in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and chewable tablets. It is also available in prescription strengths for certain medical conditions. As with any medication, aspirin should be taken as directed by a healthcare provider, and its use should be avoided in children and teenagers with viral infections due to the risk of Reye's syndrome, a rare but serious condition that can affect the liver and brain.

Vertebrobasilar insufficiency (VBI) is a medical condition characterized by inadequate blood flow to the vertebral and basilar arteries, which supply oxygenated blood to the brainstem and cerebellum. These arteries arise from the subclavian arteries and merge to form the basilar artery, which supplies critical structures in the posterior circulation of the brain.

VBI is often caused by atherosclerosis, or the buildup of plaque in the arterial walls, leading to narrowing (stenosis) or occlusion of these vessels. Other causes include embolism, arterial dissection, and vasculitis. The decreased blood flow can result in various neurological symptoms, such as dizziness, vertigo, imbalance, difficulty swallowing, slurred speech, visual disturbances, and even transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) or strokes.

Diagnosis of VBI typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies like MRA or CTA, and sometimes cerebral angiography to assess the extent and location of vascular narrowing or occlusion. Treatment options may include lifestyle modifications, medications to manage risk factors (such as hypertension, diabetes, or high cholesterol), antiplatelet therapy, or surgical interventions like endarterectomy or stenting in severe cases.

Cardiovascular models are simplified representations or simulations of the human cardiovascular system used in medical research, education, and training. These models can be physical, computational, or mathematical and are designed to replicate various aspects of the heart, blood vessels, and blood flow. They can help researchers study the structure and function of the cardiovascular system, test new treatments and interventions, and train healthcare professionals in diagnostic and therapeutic techniques.

Physical cardiovascular models may include artificial hearts, blood vessels, or circulation systems made from materials such as plastic, rubber, or silicone. These models can be used to study the mechanics of heart valves, the effects of different surgical procedures, or the impact of various medical devices on blood flow.

Computational and mathematical cardiovascular models use algorithms and equations to simulate the behavior of the cardiovascular system. These models may range from simple representations of a single heart chamber to complex simulations of the entire circulatory system. They can be used to study the electrical activity of the heart, the biomechanics of blood flow, or the distribution of drugs in the body.

Overall, cardiovascular models play an essential role in advancing our understanding of the human body and improving patient care.

In medical terms, the "neck" is defined as the portion of the body that extends from the skull/head to the thorax or chest region. It contains 7 cervical vertebrae, muscles, nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and glands (such as the thyroid gland). The neck is responsible for supporting the head, allowing its movement in various directions, and housing vital structures that enable functions like respiration and circulation.

The uterine artery is a paired branch of the internal iliac (hip) artery that supplies blood to the uterus and vagina. It anastomoses (joins) with the ovarian artery to form a rich vascular network that nourishes the female reproductive organs. The right and left uterine arteries run along the sides of the uterus, where they divide into several branches to supply oxygenated blood and nutrients to the myometrium (uterine muscle), endometrium (lining), and cervix. These arteries undergo significant changes in size and structure during pregnancy to accommodate the growing fetus and placenta, making them crucial for maintaining a healthy pregnancy.

A ruptured aneurysm is a serious medical condition that occurs when the wall of an artery or a blood vessel weakens and bulges out, forming an aneurysm, which then bursts, causing bleeding into the surrounding tissue. This can lead to internal hemorrhage, organ damage, and even death, depending on the location and severity of the rupture.

Ruptured aneurysms are often caused by factors such as high blood pressure, smoking, aging, and genetic predisposition. They can occur in any part of the body but are most common in the aorta (the largest artery in the body) and the cerebral arteries (in the brain).

Symptoms of a ruptured aneurysm may include sudden and severe pain, weakness or paralysis, difficulty breathing, confusion, loss of consciousness, and shock. Immediate medical attention is required to prevent further complications and increase the chances of survival. Treatment options for a ruptured aneurysm may include surgery, endovascular repair, or medication to manage symptoms and prevent further bleeding.

The axillary artery is a major blood vessel in the upper limb. It is the continuation of the subclavian artery and begins at the lateral border of the first rib, where it becomes the brachial artery. The axillary artery supplies oxygenated blood to the upper extremity, chest wall, and breast.

The axillary artery is divided into three parts based on the surrounding structures:

1. First part: From its origin at the lateral border of the first rib to the medial border of the pectoralis minor muscle. It lies deep to the clavicle and is covered by the scalene muscles, the anterior and middle scalene being the most important. The branches arising from this portion are the superior thoracic artery and the thyrocervical trunk.
2. Second part: Behind the pectoralis minor muscle. The branches arising from this portion are the lateral thoracic artery and the subscapular artery.
3. Third part: After leaving the lower border of the pectoralis minor muscle, it becomes the brachial artery. The branches arising from this portion are the anterior circumflex humeral artery and the posterior circumflex humeral artery.

The axillary artery is a common site for surgical interventions such as angioplasty and stenting to treat peripheral arterial disease, as well as for bypass grafting in cases of severe atherosclerosis or occlusion.

Chemoreceptor cells are specialized sensory neurons that detect and respond to chemical changes in the internal or external environment. They play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis within the body by converting chemical signals into electrical impulses, which are then transmitted to the central nervous system for further processing and response.

There are two main types of chemoreceptor cells:

1. Oxygen Chemoreceptors: These cells are located in the carotid bodies near the bifurcation of the common carotid artery and in the aortic bodies close to the aortic arch. They monitor the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH in the blood and respond to decreases in oxygen concentration or increases in carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions (indicating acidity) by increasing their firing rate. This signals the brain to increase respiratory rate and depth, thereby restoring normal oxygen levels.

2. Taste Cells: These chemoreceptor cells are found within the taste buds of the tongue and other areas of the oral cavity. They detect specific tastes (salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami) by interacting with molecules from food. When a tastant binds to receptors on the surface of a taste cell, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to the generation of an action potential. This information is then relayed to the brain, where it is interpreted as taste sensation.

In summary, chemoreceptor cells are essential for maintaining physiological balance by detecting and responding to chemical stimuli in the body. They play a critical role in regulating vital functions such as respiration and digestion.

Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) is a type of computed tomography (CT) scan that uses multiple rows of detectors to acquire several slices of images simultaneously, thereby reducing the total time required for the scan and improving the spatial resolution. This technology allows for faster scanning of moving organs, such as the heart, and provides high-resolution images with detailed information about various body structures, including bones, soft tissues, and blood vessels. MDCT has numerous applications in diagnostic imaging, interventional procedures, and cancer staging and treatment follow-up.

Comorbidity is the presence of one or more additional health conditions or diseases alongside a primary illness or condition. These co-occurring health issues can have an impact on the treatment plan, prognosis, and overall healthcare management of an individual. Comorbidities often interact with each other and the primary condition, leading to more complex clinical situations and increased healthcare needs. It is essential for healthcare professionals to consider and address comorbidities to provide comprehensive care and improve patient outcomes.

Cholesterol is a type of lipid (fat) molecule that is an essential component of cell membranes and is also used to make certain hormones and vitamins in the body. It is produced by the liver and is also obtained from animal-derived foods such as meat, dairy products, and eggs.

Cholesterol does not mix with blood, so it is transported through the bloodstream by lipoproteins, which are particles made up of both lipids and proteins. There are two main types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol: low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), also known as "good" cholesterol.

High levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. On the other hand, high levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with a lower risk of these conditions because HDL helps remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for disposal.

It is important to maintain healthy levels of cholesterol through a balanced diet, regular exercise, and sometimes medication if necessary. Regular screening is also recommended to monitor cholesterol levels and prevent health complications.

Aortic diseases refer to conditions that affect the aorta, which is the largest and main artery in the body. The aorta carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Aortic diseases can weaken or damage the aorta, leading to various complications. Here are some common aortic diseases with their medical definitions:

1. Aortic aneurysm: A localized dilation or bulging of the aortic wall, which can occur in any part of the aorta but is most commonly found in the abdominal aorta (abdominal aortic aneurysm) or the thoracic aorta (thoracic aortic aneurysm). Aneurysms can increase the risk of rupture, leading to life-threatening bleeding.
2. Aortic dissection: A separation of the layers of the aortic wall due to a tear in the inner lining, allowing blood to flow between the layers and potentially cause the aorta to rupture. This is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.
3. Aortic stenosis: A narrowing of the aortic valve opening, which restricts blood flow from the heart to the aorta. This can lead to shortness of breath, chest pain, and other symptoms. Severe aortic stenosis may require surgical or transcatheter intervention to replace or repair the aortic valve.
4. Aortic regurgitation: Also known as aortic insufficiency, this condition occurs when the aortic valve does not close properly, allowing blood to leak back into the heart. This can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, shortness of breath, and palpitations. Treatment may include medication or surgical repair or replacement of the aortic valve.
5. Aortitis: Inflammation of the aorta, which can be caused by various conditions such as infections, autoimmune diseases, or vasculitides. Aortitis can lead to aneurysms, dissections, or stenosis and may require medical treatment with immunosuppressive drugs or surgical intervention.
6. Marfan syndrome: A genetic disorder that affects the connective tissue, including the aorta. People with Marfan syndrome are at risk of developing aortic aneurysms and dissections, and may require close monitoring and prophylactic surgery to prevent complications.

Hyperlipidemias are a group of disorders characterized by an excess of lipids (fats) or lipoproteins in the blood. These include elevated levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, or both. Hyperlipidemias can be inherited (primary) or caused by other medical conditions (secondary). They are a significant risk factor for developing cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.

There are two main types of lipids that are commonly measured in the blood: low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, often referred to as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, known as "good" cholesterol. High levels of LDL cholesterol can lead to the formation of plaques in the arteries, which can narrow or block them and increase the risk of heart attack or stroke. On the other hand, high levels of HDL cholesterol are protective because they help remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream.

Triglycerides are another type of lipid that can be measured in the blood. Elevated triglyceride levels can also contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease, particularly when combined with high LDL cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol levels.

Hyperlipidemias are typically diagnosed through a blood test that measures the levels of various lipids and lipoproteins in the blood. Treatment may include lifestyle changes, such as following a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, losing weight, and quitting smoking, as well as medication to lower lipid levels if necessary.

The abdominal aorta is the portion of the aorta, which is the largest artery in the body, that runs through the abdomen. It originates from the thoracic aorta at the level of the diaphragm and descends through the abdomen, where it branches off into several smaller arteries that supply blood to the pelvis, legs, and various abdominal organs. The abdominal aorta is typically divided into four segments: the suprarenal, infrarenal, visceral, and parietal portions. Disorders of the abdominal aorta can include aneurysms, atherosclerosis, and dissections, which can have serious consequences if left untreated.

A dissecting aneurysm is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that occurs when there is a tear in the inner layer of the artery wall, allowing blood to flow between the layers of the artery wall. This can cause the artery to bulge or balloon out, leading to a dissection aneurysm.

Dissecting aneurysms can occur in any artery, but they are most commonly found in the aorta, which is the largest artery in the body. When a dissecting aneurysm occurs in the aorta, it is often referred to as a "dissecting aortic aneurysm."

Dissecting aneurysms can be caused by various factors, including high blood pressure, atherosclerosis (hardening and narrowing of the arteries), genetic disorders that affect the connective tissue, trauma, or illegal drug use (such as cocaine).

Symptoms of a dissecting aneurysm may include sudden severe chest or back pain, which can feel like ripping or tearing, shortness of breath, sweating, lightheadedness, or loss of consciousness. If left untreated, a dissecting aneurysm can lead to serious complications, such as rupture of the artery, stroke, or even death.

Treatment for a dissecting aneurysm typically involves surgery or endovascular repair to prevent further damage and reduce the risk of rupture. The specific treatment approach will depend on various factors, including the location and size of the aneurysm, the patient's overall health, and their medical history.

The Doppler effect, also known as the Doppler shift, is a change in frequency or wavelength of a wave in relation to an observer who is moving relative to the source of the wave. It was first described by Austrian physicist Christian Doppler in 1842.

In the context of medical ultrasound, the Doppler effect is used to measure the velocity of blood flow in the body. When the ultrasound waves encounter moving red blood cells, the frequency of the reflected waves changes due to the Doppler effect. This change in frequency can be used to calculate the speed and direction of blood flow.

Doppler ultrasound is commonly used in medical imaging to assess conditions such as heart valve function, blood clots, and narrowed or blocked blood vessels. It can also be used to monitor fetal heart rate and blood flow during pregnancy.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Mechanical stress, in the context of physiology and medicine, refers to any type of force that is applied to body tissues or organs, which can cause deformation or displacement of those structures. Mechanical stress can be either external, such as forces exerted on the body during physical activity or trauma, or internal, such as the pressure changes that occur within blood vessels or other hollow organs.

Mechanical stress can have a variety of effects on the body, depending on the type, duration, and magnitude of the force applied. For example, prolonged exposure to mechanical stress can lead to tissue damage, inflammation, and chronic pain. Additionally, abnormal or excessive mechanical stress can contribute to the development of various musculoskeletal disorders, such as tendinitis, osteoarthritis, and herniated discs.

In order to mitigate the negative effects of mechanical stress, the body has a number of adaptive responses that help to distribute forces more evenly across tissues and maintain structural integrity. These responses include changes in muscle tone, joint positioning, and connective tissue stiffness, as well as the remodeling of bone and other tissues over time. However, when these adaptive mechanisms are overwhelmed or impaired, mechanical stress can become a significant factor in the development of various pathological conditions.

Meningeal arteries refer to the branches of the major cerebral arteries that supply blood to the meninges, which are the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. These arteries include:

1. The middle meningeal artery, a branch of the maxillary artery, which supplies the dura mater in the cranial cavity.
2. The anterior and posterior meningeal arteries, branches of the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, respectively, that supply blood to the dura mater in the anterior and posterior cranial fossae.
3. The vasorum nervorum, small arteries that arise from the spinal branch of the ascending cervical artery and supply the spinal meninges.

These arteries play a crucial role in maintaining the health and integrity of the meninges and the central nervous system they protect.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Linear Models" is actually a term from the field of statistics and machine learning, rather than medicine. A linear model is a type of statistical model that is used to analyze the relationship between two or more variables. In a linear model, the relationship between the dependent variable (the outcome or result) and the independent variable(s) (the factors being studied) is assumed to be linear, meaning that it can be described by a straight line on a graph.

The equation for a simple linear model with one independent variable (x) and one dependent variable (y) looks like this:

y = β0 + β1*x + ε

In this equation, β0 is the y-intercept or the value of y when x equals zero, β1 is the slope or the change in y for each unit increase in x, and ε is the error term or the difference between the actual values of y and the predicted values of y based on the linear model.

Linear models are widely used in medical research to study the relationship between various factors (such as exposure to a risk factor or treatment) and health outcomes (such as disease incidence or mortality). They can also be used to adjust for confounding variables, which are factors that may influence both the independent variable and the dependent variable, and thus affect the observed relationship between them.

Systole is the phase of the cardiac cycle during which the heart muscle contracts to pump blood out of the heart. Specifically, it refers to the contraction of the ventricles, the lower chambers of the heart. This is driven by the action of the electrical conduction system of the heart, starting with the sinoatrial node and passing through the atrioventricular node and bundle branches to the Purkinje fibers.

During systole, the pressure within the ventricles increases as they contract, causing the aortic and pulmonary valves to open and allowing blood to be ejected into the systemic and pulmonary circulations, respectively. The duration of systole is typically shorter than that of diastole, the phase during which the heart muscle relaxes and the chambers fill with blood.

In clinical settings, the terms "systolic" and "diastolic" are often used to describe blood pressure measurements, with the former referring to the pressure exerted on the artery walls when the ventricles contract and eject blood, and the latter referring to the pressure when the ventricles are relaxed and filling with blood.

Stroke volume is a term used in cardiovascular physiology and medicine. It refers to the amount of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart during each contraction (systole). Specifically, it is the difference between the volume of blood in the left ventricle at the end of diastole (when the ventricle is filled with blood) and the volume at the end of systole (when the ventricle has contracted and ejected its contents into the aorta).

Stroke volume is an important measure of heart function, as it reflects the ability of the heart to pump blood effectively to the rest of the body. A low stroke volume may indicate that the heart is not pumping efficiently, while a high stroke volume may suggest that the heart is working too hard. Stroke volume can be affected by various factors, including heart disease, high blood pressure, and physical fitness level.

The formula for calculating stroke volume is:

Stroke Volume = End-Diastolic Volume - End-Systolic Volume

Where end-diastolic volume (EDV) is the volume of blood in the left ventricle at the end of diastole, and end-systolic volume (ESV) is the volume of blood in the left ventricle at the end of systole.

Unstable angina is a term used in cardiology to describe chest pain or discomfort that occurs suddenly and unexpectedly, often at rest or with minimal physical exertion. It is caused by an insufficient supply of oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle due to reduced blood flow, typically as a result of partial or complete blockage of the coronary arteries.

Unlike stable angina, which tends to occur predictably during physical activity and can be relieved with rest or nitroglycerin, unstable angina is more severe, unpredictable, and may not respond to traditional treatments. It is considered a medical emergency because it can be a sign of an impending heart attack or other serious cardiac event.

Unstable angina is often treated in the hospital with medications such as nitroglycerin, beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and antiplatelet agents to improve blood flow to the heart and prevent further complications. In some cases, more invasive treatments such as coronary angioplasty or bypass surgery may be necessary to restore blood flow to the affected areas of the heart.

Horner syndrome, also known as Horner's syndrome or oculosympathetic palsy, is a neurological disorder characterized by the interruption of sympathetic nerve pathways that innervate the head and neck, leading to a constellation of signs affecting the eye and face on one side of the body.

The classic triad of symptoms includes:

1. Ptosis (drooping) of the upper eyelid: This is due to the weakness or paralysis of the levator palpebrae superioris muscle, which is responsible for elevating the eyelid.
2. Miosis (pupillary constriction): The affected pupil becomes smaller in size compared to the other side, and it may not react as robustly to light.
3. Anhydrosis (decreased sweating): There is reduced or absent sweating on the ipsilateral (same side) of the face, particularly around the forehead and upper eyelid.

Horner syndrome can be caused by various underlying conditions, such as brainstem stroke, tumors, trauma, or certain medical disorders affecting the sympathetic nervous system. The diagnosis typically involves a thorough clinical examination, pharmacological testing, and sometimes imaging studies to identify the underlying cause. Treatment is directed towards managing the underlying condition responsible for Horner syndrome.

The saphenous vein is a term used in anatomical description to refer to the great or small saphenous veins, which are superficial veins located in the lower extremities of the human body.

The great saphenous vein (GSV) is the longest vein in the body and originates from the medial aspect of the foot, ascending along the medial side of the leg and thigh, and drains into the femoral vein at the saphenofemoral junction, located in the upper third of the thigh.

The small saphenous vein (SSV) is a shorter vein that originates from the lateral aspect of the foot, ascends along the posterior calf, and drains into the popliteal vein at the saphenopopliteal junction, located in the popliteal fossa.

These veins are often used as conduits for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery due to their consistent anatomy and length.

Spontaneous rupture in medical terms refers to the sudden breaking or tearing of an organ, tissue, or structure within the body without any identifiable trauma or injury. This event can occur due to various reasons such as weakening of the tissue over time because of disease or degeneration, or excessive pressure on the tissue.

For instance, a spontaneous rupture of the appendix is called an "appendiceal rupture," which can lead to peritonitis, a serious inflammation of the abdominal cavity. Similarly, a spontaneous rupture of a blood vessel, like an aortic aneurysm, can result in life-threatening internal bleeding.

Spontaneous ruptures are often medical emergencies and require immediate medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment.

A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.

In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.

Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging in medicine refers to the use of technologies and techniques that generate a 3D representation of internal body structures, organs, or tissues. This is achieved by acquiring and processing data from various imaging modalities such as X-ray computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, or confocal microscopy. The resulting 3D images offer a more detailed visualization of the anatomy and pathology compared to traditional 2D imaging techniques, allowing for improved diagnostic accuracy, surgical planning, and minimally invasive interventions.

In 3D imaging, specialized software is used to reconstruct the acquired data into a volumetric model, which can be manipulated and viewed from different angles and perspectives. This enables healthcare professionals to better understand complex anatomical relationships, detect abnormalities, assess disease progression, and monitor treatment response. Common applications of 3D imaging include neuroimaging, orthopedic surgery planning, cancer staging, dental and maxillofacial reconstruction, and interventional radiology procedures.

Pressoreceptors are specialized sensory nerve endings found in the walls of blood vessels, particularly in the carotid sinus and aortic arch. They respond to changes in blood pressure by converting the mechanical stimulus into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain. This information helps regulate cardiovascular function and maintain blood pressure homeostasis.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is not inherently a medical term, but it is a chemical compound with significant uses in the medical field. Medically, PTFE is often referred to by its brand name, Teflon. It is a synthetic fluoropolymer used in various medical applications due to its unique properties such as high resistance to heat, electrical and chemical interaction, and exceptional non-reactivity with body tissues.

PTFE can be found in medical devices like catheters, where it reduces friction, making insertion easier and minimizing trauma. It is also used in orthopedic and dental implants, drug delivery systems, and sutures due to its biocompatibility and non-adhesive nature.

Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose (or sugar) levels resulting from the body's inability to produce sufficient amounts of insulin or effectively use the insulin it produces. This form of diabetes usually develops gradually over several years and is often associated with older age, obesity, physical inactivity, family history of diabetes, and certain ethnicities.

In Type 2 diabetes, the body's cells become resistant to insulin, meaning they don't respond properly to the hormone. As a result, the pancreas produces more insulin to help glucose enter the cells. Over time, the pancreas can't keep up with the increased demand, leading to high blood glucose levels and diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes is managed through lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, regular exercise, and a healthy diet. Medications, including insulin therapy, may also be necessary to control blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications associated with the disease, such as heart disease, nerve damage, kidney damage, and vision loss.

Neck injuries refer to damages or traumas that occur in any part of the neck, including soft tissues (muscles, ligaments, tendons), nerves, bones (vertebrae), and joints (facet joints, intervertebral discs). These injuries can result from various incidents such as road accidents, falls, sports-related activities, or work-related tasks. Common neck injuries include whiplash, strain or sprain of the neck muscles, herniated discs, fractured vertebrae, and pinched nerves, which may cause symptoms like pain, stiffness, numbness, tingling, or weakness in the neck, shoulders, arms, or hands. Immediate medical attention is necessary for proper diagnosis and treatment to prevent further complications and ensure optimal recovery.

Graft occlusion in the context of vascular surgery refers to the complete or partial blockage of a blood vessel that has been surgically replaced or repaired with a graft. The graft can be made from either synthetic materials or autologous tissue (taken from another part of the patient's body).

Graft occlusion can occur due to various reasons, including:

1. Thrombosis: Formation of a blood clot within the graft, which can obstruct blood flow.
2. Intimal hyperplasia: Overgrowth of the inner lining (intima) of the graft or the adjacent native vessel, causing narrowing of the lumen and reducing blood flow.
3. Atherosclerosis: Deposition of cholesterol and other substances in the walls of the graft, leading to hardening and narrowing of the vessel.
4. Infection: Bacterial or fungal infection of the graft can cause inflammation, weakening, and ultimately occlusion of the graft.
5. Mechanical factors: Kinking, twisting, or compression of the graft can lead to obstruction of blood flow.

Graft occlusion is a significant complication following vascular surgery, as it can result in reduced perfusion to downstream tissues and organs, leading to ischemia (lack of oxygen supply) and potential tissue damage or loss.

Hemorheology is the study of the flow properties of blood and its components, including red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. Specifically, it examines how these components interact with each other and with the walls of blood vessels to affect the flow characteristics of blood under different conditions. Hemorheological factors can influence blood viscosity, which is a major determinant of peripheral vascular resistance and cardiac workload. Abnormalities in hemorheology have been implicated in various diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, diabetes, and sickle cell disease.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a molecule made up of one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom. In the body, it is a crucial signaling molecule involved in various physiological processes such as vasodilation, immune response, neurotransmission, and inhibition of platelet aggregation. It is produced naturally by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) from the amino acid L-arginine. Inhaled nitric oxide is used medically to treat pulmonary hypertension in newborns and adults, as it helps to relax and widen blood vessels, improving oxygenation and blood flow.

Left ventricular function refers to the ability of the left ventricle (the heart's lower-left chamber) to contract and relax, thereby filling with and ejecting blood. The left ventricle is responsible for pumping oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Its function is evaluated by measuring several parameters, including:

1. Ejection fraction (EF): This is the percentage of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle with each heartbeat. A normal ejection fraction ranges from 55% to 70%.
2. Stroke volume (SV): The amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle in one contraction. A typical SV is about 70 mL/beat.
3. Cardiac output (CO): The total volume of blood that the left ventricle pumps per minute, calculated as the product of stroke volume and heart rate. Normal CO ranges from 4 to 8 L/minute.

Assessment of left ventricular function is crucial in diagnosing and monitoring various cardiovascular conditions such as heart failure, coronary artery disease, valvular heart diseases, and cardiomyopathies.

Left ventricular dysfunction (LVD) is a condition characterized by the impaired ability of the left ventricle of the heart to pump blood efficiently during contraction. The left ventricle is one of the four chambers of the heart and is responsible for pumping oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

LVD can be caused by various underlying conditions, such as coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, or hypertension. These conditions can lead to structural changes in the left ventricle, including remodeling, hypertrophy, and dilation, which ultimately impair its contractile function.

The severity of LVD is often assessed by measuring the ejection fraction (EF), which is the percentage of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle during each contraction. A normal EF ranges from 55% to 70%, while an EF below 40% is indicative of LVD.

LVD can lead to various symptoms, such as shortness of breath, fatigue, fluid retention, and decreased exercise tolerance. It can also increase the risk of complications, such as heart failure, arrhythmias, and cardiac arrest. Treatment for LVD typically involves managing the underlying cause, along with medications to improve contractility, reduce fluid buildup, and control heart rate. In severe cases, devices such as implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs) or left ventricular assist devices (LVADs) may be required.

The vasa vasorum are small blood vessels that supply larger blood vessels, such as the arteries and veins, with oxygen and nutrients. They are located in the outer layers (the adventitia and media) of these larger vessels and form a network of vessels that surround and penetrate the walls of the larger vessels. The vasa vasorum are particularly important in supplying blood to the thicker walls of larger arteries, such as the aorta, where diffusion from the lumen may not be sufficient to meet the metabolic needs of the vessel wall.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

Vascular diseases are medical conditions that affect the circulatory system, specifically the blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries). These diseases can include conditions such as:

1. Atherosclerosis: The buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances in and on the walls of the arteries, which can restrict blood flow.
2. Peripheral Artery Disease (PAD): A condition caused by atherosclerosis where there is narrowing or blockage of the peripheral arteries, most commonly in the legs. This can lead to pain, numbness, and cramping.
3. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD): Atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. This can lead to chest pain, shortness of breath, or a heart attack.
4. Carotid Artery Disease: Atherosclerosis of the carotid arteries in the neck that supply blood to the brain. This can increase the risk of stroke.
5. Cerebrovascular Disease: Conditions that affect blood flow to the brain, including stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA or "mini-stroke").
6. Aneurysm: A weakened area in the wall of a blood vessel that causes it to bulge outward and potentially rupture.
7. Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT): A blood clot that forms in the deep veins, usually in the legs, which can cause pain, swelling, and increased risk of pulmonary embolism if the clot travels to the lungs.
8. Varicose Veins: Swollen, twisted, and often painful veins that have filled with an abnormal collection of blood, usually appearing in the legs.
9. Vasculitis: Inflammation of the blood vessels, which can cause damage and narrowing, leading to reduced blood flow.
10. Raynaud's Phenomenon: A condition where the small arteries that supply blood to the skin become narrowed, causing decreased blood flow, typically in response to cold temperatures or stress.

These are just a few examples of vascular conditions that fall under the umbrella term "cerebrovascular disease." Early diagnosis and treatment can significantly improve outcomes for many of these conditions.

The Kaplan-Meier estimate is a statistical method used to calculate the survival probability over time in a population. It is commonly used in medical research to analyze time-to-event data, such as the time until a patient experiences a specific event like disease progression or death. The Kaplan-Meier estimate takes into account censored data, which occurs when some individuals are lost to follow-up before experiencing the event of interest.

The method involves constructing a survival curve that shows the proportion of subjects still surviving at different time points. At each time point, the survival probability is calculated as the product of the conditional probabilities of surviving from one time point to the next. The Kaplan-Meier estimate provides an unbiased and consistent estimator of the survival function, even when censoring is present.

In summary, the Kaplan-Meier estimate is a crucial tool in medical research for analyzing time-to-event data and estimating survival probabilities over time while accounting for censored observations.

Smooth muscle myocytes are specialized cells that make up the contractile portion of non-striated, or smooth, muscles. These muscles are found in various organs and structures throughout the body, including the walls of blood vessels, the digestive system, the respiratory system, and the reproductive system.

Smooth muscle myocytes are smaller than their striated counterparts (skeletal and cardiac muscle cells) and have a single nucleus. They lack the distinctive banding pattern seen in striated muscles and instead have a uniform appearance of actin and myosin filaments. Smooth muscle myocytes are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, which allows them to contract and relax involuntarily.

These cells play an essential role in many physiological processes, such as regulating blood flow, moving food through the digestive tract, and facilitating childbirth. They can also contribute to various pathological conditions, including hypertension, atherosclerosis, and gastrointestinal disorders.

Stable angina is a type of chest pain or discomfort that typically occurs during physical exertion or emotional stress. It is caused by reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, which can occur when the coronary arteries become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of cholesterol and other substances (a condition known as atherosclerosis).

The symptoms of stable angina are usually predictable and may include chest pain or discomfort that is:

* Described as a squeezing, pressure, heaviness, or tightness in the chest
* Typically located in the center of the chest, but may radiate to the shoulders, arms, neck, jaw, or back
* Lasts for a few minutes and is usually relieved by rest or nitroglycerin

Stable angina is considered "stable" because the symptoms tend to occur predictably and can be managed with medication, lifestyle changes, and sometimes medical procedures such as angioplasty or bypass surgery. However, it is still a serious condition that requires proper diagnosis and treatment to prevent complications such as heart attack or stroke.

'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' is a type of bacteria that can cause respiratory infections in humans. It is the causative agent of a form of pneumonia known as "atypical pneumonia," which is characterized by milder symptoms and a slower onset than other types of pneumonia.

The bacteria are transmitted through respiratory droplets, such as those produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' infections can occur throughout the year, but they are more common in the fall and winter months.

Symptoms of a 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' infection may include cough, chest pain, fever, fatigue, and difficulty breathing. The infection can also cause other respiratory symptoms, such as sore throat, headache, and muscle aches. In some cases, the infection may spread to other parts of the body, causing complications such as ear infections or inflammation of the heart or brain.

Diagnosis of 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' infection typically involves testing a sample of respiratory secretions, such as sputum or nasal swabs, for the presence of the bacteria. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, such as azithromycin or doxycycline, which are effective against 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae'.

It's important to note that while 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' infections can cause serious respiratory illness, they are generally not as severe as other types of bacterial pneumonia. However, if left untreated, the infection can lead to complications and worsening symptoms.

Preoperative care refers to the series of procedures, interventions, and preparations that are conducted before a surgical operation. The primary goal of preoperative care is to ensure the patient's well-being, optimize their physical condition, reduce potential risks, and prepare them mentally and emotionally for the upcoming surgery.

Preoperative care typically includes:

1. Preoperative assessment: A thorough evaluation of the patient's overall health status, including medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and diagnostic imaging, to identify any potential risk factors or comorbidities that may impact the surgical procedure and postoperative recovery.
2. Informed consent: The process of ensuring the patient understands the nature of the surgery, its purpose, associated risks, benefits, and alternative treatment options. The patient signs a consent form indicating they have been informed and voluntarily agree to undergo the surgery.
3. Preoperative instructions: Guidelines provided to the patient regarding their diet, medication use, and other activities in the days leading up to the surgery. These instructions may include fasting guidelines, discontinuing certain medications, or arranging for transportation after the procedure.
4. Anesthesia consultation: A meeting with the anesthesiologist to discuss the type of anesthesia that will be used during the surgery and address any concerns related to anesthesia risks, side effects, or postoperative pain management.
5. Preparation of the surgical site: Cleaning and shaving the area where the incision will be made, as well as administering appropriate antimicrobial agents to minimize the risk of infection.
6. Medical optimization: Addressing any underlying medical conditions or correcting abnormalities that may negatively impact the surgical outcome. This may involve adjusting medications, treating infections, or managing chronic diseases such as diabetes.
7. Emotional and psychological support: Providing counseling, reassurance, and education to help alleviate anxiety, fear, or emotional distress related to the surgery.
8. Preoperative holding area: The patient is transferred to a designated area near the operating room where they are prepared for surgery by changing into a gown, having intravenous (IV) lines inserted, and receiving monitoring equipment.

By following these preoperative care guidelines, healthcare professionals aim to ensure that patients undergo safe and successful surgical procedures with optimal outcomes.

Proportional hazards models are a type of statistical analysis used in medical research to investigate the relationship between covariates (predictor variables) and survival times. The most common application of proportional hazards models is in the Cox regression model, which is named after its developer, Sir David Cox.

In a proportional hazards model, the hazard rate or risk of an event occurring at a given time is assumed to be proportional to the hazard rate of a reference group, after adjusting for the covariates. This means that the ratio of the hazard rates between any two individuals remains constant over time, regardless of their survival times.

Mathematically, the hazard function h(t) at time t for an individual with a set of covariates X can be expressed as:

h(t|X) = h0(t) \* exp(β1X1 + β2X2 + ... + βpXp)

where h0(t) is the baseline hazard function, X1, X2, ..., Xp are the covariates, and β1, β2, ..., βp are the regression coefficients that represent the effect of each covariate on the hazard rate.

The assumption of proportionality is crucial in the interpretation of the results from a Cox regression model. If the assumption is violated, then the estimated regression coefficients may be biased and misleading. Therefore, it is important to test for the proportional hazards assumption before interpreting the results of a Cox regression analysis.

In the context of medicine, risk is the probability or likelihood of an adverse health effect or the occurrence of a negative event related to treatment or exposure to certain hazards. It is usually expressed as a ratio or percentage and can be influenced by various factors such as age, gender, lifestyle, genetics, and environmental conditions. Risk assessment involves identifying, quantifying, and prioritizing risks to make informed decisions about prevention, mitigation, or treatment strategies.

Endovascular procedures are minimally invasive medical treatments that involve accessing and repairing blood vessels or other interior parts of the body through small incisions or punctures. These procedures typically use specialized catheters, wires, and other tools that are inserted into the body through an artery or vein, usually in the leg or arm.

Endovascular procedures can be used to treat a wide range of conditions, including aneurysms, atherosclerosis, peripheral artery disease, carotid artery stenosis, and other vascular disorders. Some common endovascular procedures include angioplasty, stenting, embolization, and thrombectomy.

The benefits of endovascular procedures over traditional open surgery include smaller incisions, reduced trauma to surrounding tissues, faster recovery times, and lower risks of complications such as infection and bleeding. However, endovascular procedures may not be appropriate for all patients or conditions, and careful evaluation and consideration are necessary to determine the best treatment approach.

Veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart. They have a lower pressure than arteries and contain valves to prevent the backflow of blood. Veins have a thin, flexible wall with a larger lumen compared to arteries, allowing them to accommodate more blood volume. The color of veins is often blue or green due to the absorption characteristics of light and the reduced oxygen content in the blood they carry.

Vascular resistance is a measure of the opposition to blood flow within a vessel or a group of vessels, typically expressed in units of mmHg/(mL/min) or sometimes as dynes*sec/cm^5. It is determined by the diameter and length of the vessels, as well as the viscosity of the blood flowing through them. In general, a decrease in vessel diameter, an increase in vessel length, or an increase in blood viscosity will result in an increase in vascular resistance, while an increase in vessel diameter, a decrease in vessel length, or a decrease in blood viscosity will result in a decrease in vascular resistance. Vascular resistance is an important concept in the study of circulation and cardiovascular physiology because it plays a key role in determining blood pressure and blood flow within the body.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Vascular stiffness, also known as arterial stiffness, refers to the reduced elasticity of the blood vessels, particularly the arteries. This results in less efficient pumping of the heart and increased force on the artery walls during each heartbeat. Vascular stiffness can contribute to various cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension, atherosclerosis, and heart failure. It is often assessed through measurements such as pulse wave velocity (PWV) or augmentation index (AI).

Takayasu arteritis is a rare inflammatory disease that affects the large blood vessels in the body, most commonly the aorta and its main branches. It's also known as pulseless disease or aortic arch syndrome. The condition primarily affects young to middle-aged women, although it can occur in anyone at any age.

The inflammation caused by Takayasu arteritis can lead to narrowing, thickening, and weakening of the affected blood vessels' walls, which can result in reduced blood flow to various organs and tissues. This can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the severity and location of the vessel involvement.

Common symptoms include:

* Weak or absent pulses in the arms and/or legs
* High blood pressure (hypertension)
* Dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting spells due to reduced blood flow to the brain
* Headaches
* Visual disturbances
* Fatigue
* Weight loss
* Night sweats
* Fever

Diagnosis of Takayasu arteritis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment usually includes corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive medications to control inflammation and maintain remission. Regular follow-up with a healthcare provider is essential to monitor disease activity and adjust treatment as necessary.

Moyamoya Disease is a rare, progressive cerebrovascular disorder characterized by the narrowing or occlusion (blockage) of the internal carotid artery and its main branches. The name "moyamoya" means "puff of smoke" in Japanese and describes the look of the tangle of tiny vessels formed to compensate for the blockage. Over time, these fragile vessels can become less effective or rupture, leading to transient ischemic attacks (mini-strokes), strokes, bleeding in the brain, or cognitive decline. The exact cause of moyamoya disease is unknown, but it may be associated with genetic factors and certain medical conditions such as Down syndrome, neurofibromatosis type 1, and sickle cell anemia. Treatment options include surgical procedures to improve blood flow to the brain.

Homocysteine is an amino acid that is formed in the body during the metabolism of another amino acid called methionine. It's an important intermediate in various biochemical reactions, including the synthesis of proteins, neurotransmitters, and other molecules. However, elevated levels of homocysteine in the blood (a condition known as hyperhomocysteinemia) have been linked to several health issues, such as cardiovascular disease, stroke, and cognitive decline.

Homocysteine can be converted back to methionine with the help of vitamin B12 and a cofactor called betaine, or it can be converted to another amino acid called cystathionine with the help of vitamin B6 and folate (vitamin B9). Imbalances in these vitamins and other factors can lead to an increase in homocysteine levels.

It is crucial to maintain normal homocysteine levels for overall health, as high levels may contribute to the development of various diseases. Regular monitoring and maintaining a balanced diet rich in folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 can help regulate homocysteine levels and reduce the risk of related health issues.

Surgical anastomosis is a medical procedure that involves the connection of two tubular structures, such as blood vessels or intestines, to create a continuous passage. This technique is commonly used in various types of surgeries, including vascular, gastrointestinal, and orthopedic procedures.

During a surgical anastomosis, the ends of the two tubular structures are carefully prepared by removing any damaged or diseased tissue. The ends are then aligned and joined together using sutures, staples, or other devices. The connection must be secure and leak-free to ensure proper function and healing.

The success of a surgical anastomosis depends on several factors, including the patient's overall health, the location and condition of the structures being joined, and the skill and experience of the surgeon. Complications such as infection, bleeding, or leakage can occur, which may require additional medical intervention or surgery.

Proper postoperative care is also essential to ensure the success of a surgical anastomosis. This may include monitoring for signs of complications, administering medications to prevent infection and promote healing, and providing adequate nutrition and hydration.

A pulse is a medical term that refers to the tactile sensation of the heartbeat that can be felt in various parts of the body, most commonly at the wrist, neck, or groin. It is caused by the surge of blood through an artery as the heart pushes blood out into the body during systole (contraction). The pulse can provide important information about a person's heart rate, rhythm, and strength, which are all crucial vital signs that help healthcare professionals assess a patient's overall health and identify any potential medical issues.

In summary, a pulse is a palpable manifestation of the heartbeat felt in an artery due to the ejection of blood by the heart during systole.

Pathologic dilatation refers to an abnormal and excessive widening or enlargement of a body cavity or organ, which can result from various medical conditions. This abnormal dilation can occur in different parts of the body, including the blood vessels, digestive tract, airways, or heart chambers.

In the context of the cardiovascular system, pathologic dilatation may indicate a weakening or thinning of the heart muscle, leading to an enlarged chamber that can no longer pump blood efficiently. This condition is often associated with various heart diseases, such as cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, or long-standing high blood pressure.

In the gastrointestinal tract, pathologic dilatation may occur due to mechanical obstruction, neuromuscular disorders, or inflammatory conditions that affect the normal motility of the intestines. Examples include megacolon in Hirschsprung's disease, toxic megacolon in ulcerative colitis, or volvulus (twisting) of the bowel.

Pathologic dilatation can lead to various complications, such as reduced organ function, impaired circulation, and increased risk of infection or perforation. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may involve medications, surgery, or other interventions to address the root problem and prevent further enlargement.

Organotechnetium compounds are chemical substances that contain carbon-technetium bonds, where technetium is an element with the symbol Tc and atomic number 43. These types of compounds are primarily used in medical imaging as radioactive tracers due to the ability of technetium-99m to emit gamma rays. The organotechnetium compounds help in localizing specific organs, tissues, or functions within the body, making them useful for diagnostic purposes in nuclear medicine.

It is important to note that most organotechnetium compounds are synthesized from technetium-99m, which is generated from the decay of molybdenum-99. The use of these compounds requires proper handling and administration by trained medical professionals due to their radioactive nature.

Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) due to absolute or relative deficiency in insulin secretion and/or insulin action. There are two main types: Type 1 diabetes, which results from the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to insulin deficiency, and Type 2 diabetes, which is associated with insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.

Type 1 diabetes typically presents in childhood or young adulthood, while Type 2 diabetes tends to occur later in life, often in association with obesity and physical inactivity. Both types of diabetes can lead to long-term complications such as damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and cardiovascular system if left untreated or not well controlled.

The diagnosis of diabetes is usually made based on fasting plasma glucose levels, oral glucose tolerance tests, or hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels. Treatment typically involves lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise, along with medications to lower blood glucose levels and manage associated conditions.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

Vascular calcification is a pathological process characterized by the deposition of calcium phosphate crystals in the blood vessels, particularly in the tunica intima (the innermost layer) of the arterial wall. This condition can lead to the stiffening and hardening of the arteries, which can impair their ability to expand and contract with each beat of the heart. Vascular calcification is often associated with various cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and aging. It can contribute to an increased risk of cardiovascular events such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and peripheral artery disease.

Arteritis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the arteries. It is also known as vasculitis of the arteries. The inflammation can cause the walls of the arteries to thicken and narrow, reducing blood flow to affected organs or tissues. There are several types of arteritis, including:

1. Giant cell arteritis (GCA): Also known as temporal arteritis, it is a condition that mainly affects the large and medium-sized arteries in the head and neck. The inflammation can cause headaches, jaw pain, scalp tenderness, and vision problems.
2. Takayasu's arteritis: This type of arteritis affects the aorta and its major branches, mainly affecting young women. Symptoms include fever, weight loss, fatigue, and decreased pulse in the arms or legs.
3. Polyarteritis nodosa (PAN): PAN is a rare systemic vasculitis that can affect medium-sized arteries throughout the body. It can cause a wide range of symptoms, including fever, rash, abdominal pain, and muscle weakness.
4. Kawasaki disease: This is a type of arteritis that mainly affects children under the age of 5. It causes inflammation in the blood vessels throughout the body, leading to fever, rash, swollen lymph nodes, and red eyes.

The exact cause of arteritis is not fully understood, but it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, where the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own tissues. Treatment for arteritis typically involves medications to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system.

Intraoperative monitoring (IOM) is the practice of using specialized techniques to monitor physiological functions or neural structures in real-time during surgical procedures. The primary goal of IOM is to provide continuous information about the patient's status and the effects of surgery on neurological function, allowing surgeons to make informed decisions and minimize potential risks.

IOM can involve various methods such as:

1. Electrophysiological monitoring: This includes techniques like somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP), motor evoked potentials (MEP), and electroencephalography (EEG) to assess the integrity of neural pathways and brain function during surgery.
2. Neuromonitoring: Direct electrical stimulation of nerves or spinal cord structures can help identify critical neuroanatomical structures, evaluate their functional status, and guide surgical interventions.
3. Hemodynamic monitoring: Measuring blood pressure, heart rate, cardiac output, and oxygen saturation helps assess the patient's overall physiological status during surgery.
4. Imaging modalities: Intraoperative imaging techniques like ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can provide real-time visualization of anatomical structures and surgical progress.

The specific IOM methods employed depend on the type of surgery, patient characteristics, and potential risks involved. Intraoperative monitoring is particularly crucial in procedures where there is a risk of neurological injury, such as spinal cord or brain surgeries, vascular interventions, or tumor resections near critical neural structures.

Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body, and they're found in the food we eat. They're carried in the bloodstream to provide energy to the cells in our body. High levels of triglycerides in the blood can increase the risk of heart disease, especially in combination with other risk factors such as high LDL (bad) cholesterol, low HDL (good) cholesterol, and high blood pressure.

It's important to note that while triglycerides are a type of fat, they should not be confused with cholesterol, which is a waxy substance found in the cells of our body. Both triglycerides and cholesterol are important for maintaining good health, but high levels of either can increase the risk of heart disease.

Triglyceride levels are measured through a blood test called a lipid panel or lipid profile. A normal triglyceride level is less than 150 mg/dL. Borderline-high levels range from 150 to 199 mg/dL, high levels range from 200 to 499 mg/dL, and very high levels are 500 mg/dL or higher.

Elevated triglycerides can be caused by various factors such as obesity, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, and certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypothyroidism, and kidney disease. Medications such as beta-blockers, steroids, and diuretics can also raise triglyceride levels.

Lifestyle changes such as losing weight, exercising regularly, eating a healthy diet low in saturated and trans fats, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and quitting smoking can help lower triglyceride levels. In some cases, medication may be necessary to reduce triglycerides to recommended levels.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Japan" is not a medical term. Japan is the name of a country, officially known as Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku in Japanese, and is located in East Asia. It is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean with a population of about 126 million people.

If you have any medical questions or terms that you would like me to define, please let me know!

Spiral Computed Tomography (CT), also known as Helical CT, is a type of computed tomography scan in which the X-ray tube and detector rotate around the patient in a spiral path, capturing data as the table moves the patient through the scanner. This continuous spiral motion allows for faster and more detailed volumetric imaging of internal organs and structures, reducing the need for multiple slices and providing improved image reconstruction. It is commonly used to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, including cancer, heart disease, and trauma injuries.

Epistaxis is the medical term for nosebleed. It refers to the bleeding from the nostrils or nasal cavity, which can be caused by various factors such as dryness, trauma, inflammation, high blood pressure, or use of blood-thinning medications. Nosebleeds can range from minor nuisances to potentially life-threatening emergencies, depending on the severity and underlying cause. If you are experiencing a nosebleed that does not stop after 20 minutes of applying direct pressure, or if you are coughing up or vomiting blood, seek medical attention immediately.

A subarachnoid hemorrhage is a type of stroke that results from bleeding into the space surrounding the brain, specifically within the subarachnoid space which contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This space is located between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater, two of the three layers that make up the meninges, the protective covering of the brain and spinal cord.

The bleeding typically originates from a ruptured aneurysm, a weakened area in the wall of a cerebral artery, or less commonly from arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) or head trauma. The sudden influx of blood into the CSF-filled space can cause increased intracranial pressure, irritation to the brain, and vasospasms, leading to further ischemia and potential additional neurological damage.

Symptoms of a subarachnoid hemorrhage may include sudden onset of severe headache (often described as "the worst headache of my life"), neck stiffness, altered mental status, nausea, vomiting, photophobia, and focal neurological deficits. Rapid diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent further complications and improve the chances of recovery.

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is a protein involved in the metabolism of lipids, particularly cholesterol. It is produced primarily by the liver and is a component of several types of lipoproteins, including very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).

ApoE plays a crucial role in the transport and uptake of lipids in the body. It binds to specific receptors on cell surfaces, facilitating the delivery of lipids to cells for energy metabolism or storage. ApoE also helps to clear cholesterol from the bloodstream and is involved in the repair and maintenance of tissues.

There are three major isoforms of ApoE, designated ApoE2, ApoE3, and ApoE4, which differ from each other by only a few amino acids. These genetic variations can have significant effects on an individual's risk for developing certain diseases, particularly cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's disease. For example, individuals who inherit the ApoE4 allele have an increased risk of developing Alzheimer's disease, while those with the ApoE2 allele may have a reduced risk.

In summary, Apolipoprotein E is a protein involved in lipid metabolism and transport, and genetic variations in this protein can influence an individual's risk for certain diseases.

Intra-arterial infusion is a medical procedure in which a liquid medication or fluid is delivered directly into an artery. This technique is used to deliver drugs directly to a specific organ or region of the body, bypassing the usual systemic circulation and allowing for higher concentrations of the drug to reach the target area. It is often used in cancer treatment to deliver chemotherapeutic agents directly to tumors, as well as in other conditions such as severe infections or inflammation.

Intra-arterial infusions are typically administered through a catheter that is inserted into an artery, usually under the guidance of imaging techniques such as fluoroscopy, CT, or MRI. The procedure requires careful monitoring and precise control to ensure proper placement of the catheter and accurate delivery of the medication.

It's important to note that intra-arterial infusions are different from intra venous (IV) infusions, where medications are delivered into a vein instead of an artery. The choice between intra-arterial and intra-venous infusion depends on various factors such as the type of medication being used, the location of the target area, and the patient's overall medical condition.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Polyethylene Terephthalates" is not a medical term. It is a type of polymer used in the manufacturing of various products, such as plastic bottles and textile fibers. Medically, you might encounter the abbreviation "PET" or "PET scan," which stands for "Positron Emission Tomography." A PET scan is a type of medical imaging that provides detailed pictures of the body's interior. If you have any medical terms you would like defined, I'd be happy to help!

Interventional radiography is a subspecialty of radiology that uses imaging guidance (such as X-ray fluoroscopy, ultrasound, CT, or MRI) to perform minimally invasive diagnostic and therapeutic procedures. These procedures typically involve the insertion of needles, catheters, or other small instruments through the skin or a natural body opening, allowing for targeted treatment with reduced risk, trauma, and recovery time compared to traditional open surgeries.

Examples of interventional radiography procedures include:

1. Angiography: Imaging of blood vessels to diagnose and treat conditions like blockages, narrowing, or aneurysms.
2. Biopsy: The removal of tissue samples for diagnostic purposes.
3. Drainage: The removal of fluid accumulations (e.g., abscesses, cysts) or the placement of catheters to drain fluids continuously.
4. Embolization: The blocking of blood vessels to control bleeding, tumor growth, or reduce the size of an aneurysm.
5. Stenting and angioplasty: The widening of narrowed or blocked vessels using stents (small mesh tubes) or balloon catheters.
6. Radiofrequency ablation: The use of heat to destroy tumors or abnormal tissues.
7. Cryoablation: The use of extreme cold to destroy tumors or abnormal tissues.

Interventional radiologists are medical doctors who have completed specialized training in both diagnostic imaging and interventional procedures, allowing them to provide comprehensive care for patients requiring image-guided treatments.

The double-blind method is a study design commonly used in research, including clinical trials, to minimize bias and ensure the objectivity of results. In this approach, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group the participants are assigned to, whether it be the experimental group or the control group. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or placebo, thus reducing the potential for bias in the evaluation of outcomes. The assignment of participants to groups is typically done by a third party not involved in the study, and the codes are only revealed after all data have been collected and analyzed.

A registry in the context of medicine is a collection or database of standardized information about individuals who share a certain condition or attribute, such as a disease, treatment, exposure, or demographic group. These registries are used for various purposes, including:

* Monitoring and tracking the natural history of diseases and conditions
* Evaluating the safety and effectiveness of medical treatments and interventions
* Conducting research and generating hypotheses for further study
* Providing information to patients, clinicians, and researchers
* Informing public health policy and decision-making

Registries can be established for a wide range of purposes, including disease-specific registries (such as cancer or diabetes registries), procedure-specific registries (such as joint replacement or cardiac surgery registries), and population-based registries (such as birth defects or cancer registries). Data collected in registries may include demographic information, clinical data, laboratory results, treatment details, and outcomes.

Registries can be maintained by a variety of organizations, including hospitals, clinics, academic medical centers, professional societies, government agencies, and industry. Participation in registries is often voluntary, although some registries may require informed consent from participants. Data collected in registries are typically de-identified to protect the privacy of individuals.

Smoking is not a medical condition, but it's a significant health risk behavior. Here is the definition from a public health perspective:

Smoking is the act of inhaling and exhaling the smoke of burning tobacco that is commonly consumed through cigarettes, pipes, and cigars. The smoke contains over 7,000 chemicals, including nicotine, tar, carbon monoxide, and numerous toxic and carcinogenic substances. These toxins contribute to a wide range of diseases and health conditions, such as lung cancer, heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and various other cancers, as well as adverse reproductive outcomes and negative impacts on the developing fetus during pregnancy. Smoking is highly addictive due to the nicotine content, which makes quitting smoking a significant challenge for many individuals.

Hyperemia is a medical term that refers to an increased flow or accumulation of blood in certain capillaries or vessels within an organ or tissue, resulting in its redness and warmth. This can occur due to various reasons such as physical exertion, emotional excitement, local injury, or specific medical conditions.

There are two types of hyperemia: active and passive. Active hyperemia is a physiological response where the blood flow increases as a result of the metabolic demands of the organ or tissue. For example, during exercise, muscles require more oxygen and nutrients, leading to an increase in blood flow. Passive hyperemia, on the other hand, occurs when there is a blockage in the venous outflow, causing the blood to accumulate in the affected area. This can result from conditions like thrombosis or vasoconstriction.

It's important to note that while hyperemia itself is not a disease, it can be a symptom of various underlying medical conditions and should be evaluated by a healthcare professional if it persists or is accompanied by other symptoms.

Medical survival rate is a statistical measure used to determine the percentage of patients who are still alive for a specific period of time after their diagnosis or treatment for a certain condition or disease. It is often expressed as a five-year survival rate, which refers to the proportion of people who are alive five years after their diagnosis. Survival rates can be affected by many factors, including the stage of the disease at diagnosis, the patient's age and overall health, the effectiveness of treatment, and other health conditions that the patient may have. It is important to note that survival rates are statistical estimates and do not necessarily predict an individual patient's prognosis.

Genetic predisposition to disease refers to an increased susceptibility or vulnerability to develop a particular illness or condition due to inheriting specific genetic variations or mutations from one's parents. These genetic factors can make it more likely for an individual to develop a certain disease, but it does not guarantee that the person will definitely get the disease. Environmental factors, lifestyle choices, and interactions between genes also play crucial roles in determining if a genetically predisposed person will actually develop the disease. It is essential to understand that having a genetic predisposition only implies a higher risk, not an inevitable outcome.

Heart disease is a broad term for a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels. It's often used to refer to conditions that include:

1. Coronary artery disease (CAD): This is the most common type of heart disease. It occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the heart become hardened and narrowed due to the buildup of cholesterol and other substances, which can lead to chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, or a heart attack.

2. Heart failure: This condition occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood efficiently to meet the body's needs. It can be caused by various conditions, including coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, and cardiomyopathy.

3. Arrhythmias: These are abnormal heart rhythms, which can be too fast, too slow, or irregular. They can lead to symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, and fainting.

4. Valvular heart disease: This involves damage to one or more of the heart's four valves, which control blood flow through the heart. Damage can be caused by various conditions, including infection, rheumatic fever, and aging.

5. Cardiomyopathy: This is a disease of the heart muscle that makes it harder for the heart to pump blood efficiently. It can be caused by various factors, including genetics, viral infections, and drug abuse.

6. Pericardial disease: This involves inflammation or other problems with the sac surrounding the heart (pericardium). It can cause chest pain and other symptoms.

7. Congenital heart defects: These are heart conditions that are present at birth, such as a hole in the heart or abnormal blood vessels. They can range from mild to severe and may require medical intervention.

8. Heart infections: The heart can become infected by bacteria, viruses, or parasites, leading to various symptoms and complications.

It's important to note that many factors can contribute to the development of heart disease, including genetics, lifestyle choices, and certain medical conditions. Regular check-ups and a healthy lifestyle can help reduce the risk of developing heart disease.

Fibrinolytic agents are medications that dissolve or break down blood clots by activating plasminogen, which is converted into plasmin. Plasmin is a proteolytic enzyme that degrades fibrin, the structural protein in blood clots. Fibrinolytic agents are used medically to treat conditions such as acute ischemic stroke, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and myocardial infarction (heart attack) by restoring blood flow in occluded vessels. Examples of fibrinolytic agents include alteplase, reteplase, and tenecteplase. It is important to note that these medications carry a risk of bleeding complications and should be administered with caution.

Equipment design, in the medical context, refers to the process of creating and developing medical equipment and devices, such as surgical instruments, diagnostic machines, or assistive technologies. This process involves several stages, including:

1. Identifying user needs and requirements
2. Concept development and brainstorming
3. Prototyping and testing
4. Design for manufacturing and assembly
5. Safety and regulatory compliance
6. Verification and validation
7. Training and support

The goal of equipment design is to create safe, effective, and efficient medical devices that meet the needs of healthcare providers and patients while complying with relevant regulations and standards. The design process typically involves a multidisciplinary team of engineers, clinicians, designers, and researchers who work together to develop innovative solutions that improve patient care and outcomes.

Vertebral artery dissection is a medical condition that involves a tear in the inner lining (the tunica intima) of the vertebral artery, one of the major blood vessels supplying oxygenated blood to the brain. This tear allows blood to enter the vessel wall, creating a false lumen and leading to narrowing or blockage of the true lumen. The dissection can occur spontaneously or following trauma to the neck, and it can result in decreased blood flow to the brainstem and cerebellum, potentially causing symptoms such as headache, neck pain, dizziness, vertigo, double vision, difficulty swallowing, slurred speech, and weakness or numbness on one side of the body. Vertebral artery dissection is a serious condition that requires prompt medical attention and management to prevent potential complications such as stroke.

Computer-assisted image interpretation is the use of computer algorithms and software to assist healthcare professionals in analyzing and interpreting medical images. These systems use various techniques such as pattern recognition, machine learning, and artificial intelligence to help identify and highlight abnormalities or patterns within imaging data, such as X-rays, CT scans, MRI, and ultrasound images. The goal is to increase the accuracy, consistency, and efficiency of image interpretation, while also reducing the potential for human error. It's important to note that these systems are intended to assist healthcare professionals in their decision making process and not to replace them.

Coronary restenosis is the re-narrowing or re-occlusion of a coronary artery after a previous successful procedure to open or widen the artery, such as angioplasty or stenting. This narrowing is usually caused by the excessive growth of scar tissue or smooth muscle cells in the artery lining, which can occur spontaneously or as a response to the initial procedure. Restenosis can lead to recurrent symptoms of coronary artery disease, such as chest pain or shortness of breath, and may require additional medical intervention.

Cranial nerve diseases refer to conditions that affect the cranial nerves, which are a set of 12 pairs of nerves that originate from the brainstem and control various functions in the head and neck. These functions include vision, hearing, taste, smell, movement of the eyes and face, and sensation in the face.

Diseases of the cranial nerves can result from a variety of causes, including injury, infection, inflammation, tumors, or degenerative conditions. The specific symptoms that a person experiences will depend on which cranial nerve is affected and how severely it is damaged.

For example, damage to the optic nerve (cranial nerve II) can cause vision loss or visual disturbances, while damage to the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) can result in weakness or paralysis of the face. Other common symptoms of cranial nerve diseases include pain, numbness, tingling, and hearing loss.

Treatment for cranial nerve diseases varies depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. In some cases, medication or surgery may be necessary to treat the underlying cause and relieve symptoms. Physical therapy or rehabilitation may also be recommended to help individuals regain function and improve their quality of life.

Thallium is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic number 81. It is a soft, malleable, silver-like metal that is highly toxic. In the context of medicine, thallium may be used as a component in medical imaging tests, such as thallium stress tests, which are used to evaluate blood flow to the heart and detect coronary artery disease. Thallium-201 is a radioactive isotope of thallium that is used as a radiopharmaceutical in these tests. When administered to a patient, it is taken up by heart muscle tissue in proportion to its blood flow, allowing doctors to identify areas of the heart that may not be receiving enough oxygen-rich blood. However, due to concerns about its potential toxicity and the availability of safer alternatives, thallium stress tests are less commonly used today than they were in the past.

A Carotid-Cavernous Sinus Fistula (CCSF) is an abnormal connection between the carotid artery and the cavernous sinus, a venous structure in the skull. This connection can be either direct or indirect. Direct CCSFs are caused by trauma or rupture of an aneurysm, while indirect CCSFs are usually spontaneous and associated with conditions such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, or connective tissue disorders.

Symptoms of a CCSF may include headache, eye redness, protrusion of the eyeball, double vision, hearing disturbances, and pulsatile tinnitus (a rhythmic sound in the ear). The severity of symptoms can vary depending on the size of the fistula and the pressure within the cavernous sinus.

Treatment options for CCSF include endovascular repair with stenting or coiling, surgical closure, or observation, depending on the type and size of the fistula and the presence of symptoms.

Diastole is the phase of the cardiac cycle during which the heart muscle relaxes and the chambers of the heart fill with blood. It follows systole, the phase in which the heart muscle contracts and pumps blood out to the body. In a normal resting adult, diastole lasts for approximately 0.4-0.5 seconds during each heartbeat. The period of diastole is divided into two phases: early diastole and late diastole. During early diastole, the ventricles fill with blood due to the pressure difference between the atria and ventricles. During late diastole, the atrioventricular valves close, and the ventricles continue to fill with blood due to the relaxation of the ventricular muscle and the compliance of the ventricular walls. The duration and pressure changes during diastole are important for maintaining adequate cardiac output and blood flow to the body.

Cineangiography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize the blood flow in the heart and cardiovascular system. It involves the injection of a contrast agent into the bloodstream while X-ray images are taken in quick succession, creating a movie-like sequence that shows the movement of the contrast through the blood vessels and chambers of the heart. This technique is often used to diagnose and evaluate various heart conditions, such as coronary artery disease, valvular heart disease, and congenital heart defects.

The procedure typically involves threading a catheter through a blood vessel in the arm or leg and guiding it to the heart. Once in place, the contrast agent is injected, and X-ray images are taken using a specialized X-ray machine called a fluoroscope. The images captured during cineangiography can help doctors identify areas of narrowing or blockage in the coronary arteries, abnormalities in heart valves, and other cardiovascular problems.

Cineangiography is an invasive procedure that carries some risks, such as bleeding, infection, and reactions to the contrast agent. However, it can provide valuable information for diagnosing and treating heart conditions, and may be recommended when other diagnostic tests have been inconclusive.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Nitric Oxide Synthase (NOS) is a group of enzymes that catalyze the production of nitric oxide (NO) from L-arginine. There are three distinct isoforms of NOS, each with different expression patterns and functions:

1. Neuronal Nitric Oxide Synthase (nNOS or NOS1): This isoform is primarily expressed in the nervous system and plays a role in neurotransmission, synaptic plasticity, and learning and memory processes.
2. Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS or NOS2): This isoform is induced by various stimuli such as cytokines, lipopolysaccharides, and hypoxia in a variety of cells including immune cells, endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells. iNOS produces large amounts of NO, which functions as a potent effector molecule in the immune response, particularly in the defense against microbial pathogens.
3. Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS or NOS3): This isoform is constitutively expressed in endothelial cells and produces low levels of NO that play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by regulating vasodilation, inhibiting platelet aggregation, and preventing smooth muscle cell proliferation.

Overall, NOS plays an essential role in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, immune response, cardiovascular function, and respiratory regulation. Dysregulation of NOS activity has been implicated in several pathological conditions such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, and inflammatory disorders.

Emission computed tomography (ECT) is a type of tomographic imaging technique in which an emission signal from within the body is detected to create cross-sectional images of that signal's distribution. In Emission-Computed Tomography (ECT), a radionuclide is introduced into the body, usually through injection, inhalation or ingestion. The radionuclide emits gamma rays that are then detected by external gamma cameras.

The data collected from these cameras is then used to create cross-sectional images of the distribution of the radiopharmaceutical within the body. This allows for the identification and quantification of functional information about specific organs or systems within the body, such as blood flow, metabolic activity, or receptor density.

One common type of Emission-Computed Tomography is Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), which uses a single gamma camera that rotates around the patient to collect data from multiple angles. Another type is Positron Emission Tomography (PET), which uses positron-emitting radionuclides and detects the coincident gamma rays emitted by the annihilation of positrons and electrons.

Overall, ECT is a valuable tool in medical imaging for diagnosing and monitoring various diseases, including cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders.

Nitric Oxide Synthase Type III (NOS-III), also known as endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS), is an enzyme responsible for the production of nitric oxide (NO) in the endothelium, the lining of blood vessels. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of L-arginine to L-citrulline, producing NO as a byproduct. The release of NO from eNOS plays an important role in regulating vascular tone and homeostasis, including the relaxation of smooth muscle cells in the blood vessel walls, inhibition of platelet aggregation, and modulation of immune function. Mutations or dysfunction in NOS-III can contribute to various cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, and erectile dysfunction.

Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that is primarily produced in the adrenal glands and is released into the bloodstream in response to stress or physical activity. It plays a crucial role in the "fight-or-flight" response by preparing the body for action through increasing heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and glucose availability.

As a neurotransmitter, norepinephrine is involved in regulating various functions of the nervous system, including attention, perception, motivation, and arousal. It also plays a role in modulating pain perception and responding to stressful or emotional situations.

In medical settings, norepinephrine is used as a vasopressor medication to treat hypotension (low blood pressure) that can occur during septic shock, anesthesia, or other critical illnesses. It works by constricting blood vessels and increasing heart rate, which helps to improve blood pressure and perfusion of vital organs.

Anoxia is a medical condition that refers to the absence or complete lack of oxygen supply in the body or a specific organ, tissue, or cell. This can lead to serious health consequences, including damage or death of cells and tissues, due to the vital role that oxygen plays in supporting cellular metabolism and energy production.

Anoxia can occur due to various reasons, such as respiratory failure, cardiac arrest, severe blood loss, carbon monoxide poisoning, or high altitude exposure. Prolonged anoxia can result in hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy, a serious condition that can cause brain damage and long-term neurological impairments.

Medical professionals use various diagnostic tests, such as blood gas analysis, pulse oximetry, and electroencephalography (EEG), to assess oxygen levels in the body and diagnose anoxia. Treatment for anoxia typically involves addressing the underlying cause, providing supplemental oxygen, and supporting vital functions, such as breathing and circulation, to prevent further damage.

A chronic disease is a long-term medical condition that often progresses slowly over a period of years and requires ongoing management and care. These diseases are typically not fully curable, but symptoms can be managed to improve quality of life. Common chronic diseases include heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). They are often associated with advanced age, although they can also affect children and younger adults. Chronic diseases can have significant impacts on individuals' physical, emotional, and social well-being, as well as on healthcare systems and society at large.

Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) is a term used to describe a range of conditions associated with sudden, reduced blood flow to the heart muscle. This reduction in blood flow, commonly caused by blood clots forming in coronary arteries, can lead to damage or death of the heart muscle and is often characterized by symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath, and fatigue.

There are three main types of ACS:

1. Unstable Angina: This occurs when there is reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, causing chest pain or discomfort, but the heart muscle is not damaged. It can be a warning sign for a possible future heart attack.
2. Non-ST Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction (NSTEMI): This type of heart attack occurs when there is reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, causing damage or death of some of the muscle cells. However, the electrical activity of the heart remains relatively normal.
3. ST Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction (STEMI): This is a serious and life-threatening type of heart attack that occurs when there is a complete blockage in one or more of the coronary arteries, causing extensive damage to the heart muscle. The electrical activity of the heart is significantly altered, which can lead to dangerous heart rhythms and even cardiac arrest.

Immediate medical attention is required for anyone experiencing symptoms of ACS, as prompt treatment can help prevent further damage to the heart muscle and reduce the risk of complications or death. Treatment options may include medications, lifestyle changes, and procedures such as angioplasty or bypass surgery.

An arteriovenous fistula is an abnormal connection or passageway between an artery and a vein. This connection causes blood to flow directly from the artery into the vein, bypassing the capillary network that would normally distribute the oxygen-rich blood to the surrounding tissues.

Arteriovenous fistulas can occur as a result of trauma, disease, or as a planned surgical procedure for patients who require hemodialysis, a treatment for advanced kidney failure. In hemodialysis, the arteriovenous fistula serves as a site for repeated access to the bloodstream, allowing for efficient removal of waste products and excess fluids.

The medical definition of an arteriovenous fistula is:

"An abnormal communication between an artery and a vein, usually created by surgical means for hemodialysis access or occurring as a result of trauma, congenital defects, or disease processes such as vasculitis or neoplasm."

'Alloys' is not a medical term. It is a term used in materials science and engineering to describe a mixture or solid solution composed of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. The components are typically present in significant amounts (>1% by weight). The properties of alloys, such as their strength, durability, and corrosion resistance, often differ from those of the constituent elements.

While not directly related to medicine, some alloys do have medical applications. For example, certain alloys are used in orthopedic implants, dental restorations, and other medical devices due to their desirable properties such as biocompatibility, strength, and resistance to corrosion.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Prosthesis design is a specialized field in medical device technology that involves creating and developing artificial substitutes to replace a missing body part, such as a limb, tooth, eye, or internal organ. The design process typically includes several stages: assessment of the patient's needs, selection of appropriate materials, creation of a prototype, testing and refinement, and final fabrication and fitting of the prosthesis.

The goal of prosthesis design is to create a device that functions as closely as possible to the natural body part it replaces, while also being comfortable, durable, and aesthetically pleasing for the patient. The design process may involve collaboration between medical professionals, engineers, and designers, and may take into account factors such as the patient's age, lifestyle, occupation, and overall health.

Prosthesis design can be highly complex, particularly for advanced devices such as robotic limbs or implantable organs. These devices often require sophisticated sensors, actuators, and control systems to mimic the natural functions of the body part they replace. As a result, prosthesis design is an active area of research and development in the medical field, with ongoing efforts to improve the functionality, comfort, and affordability of these devices for patients.

Life tables are statistical tools used in actuarial science, demography, and public health to estimate the mortality rate and survival rates of a population. They provide a data-driven representation of the probability that individuals of a certain age will die before their next birthday (the death rate) or live to a particular age (the survival rate).

Life tables are constructed using data on the number of deaths and the size of the population in specific age groups over a given period. These tables typically include several columns representing different variables, such as:

1. Age group or interval: The age range for which the data is being presented (e.g., 0-1 year, 1-5 years, 5-10 years, etc.).
2. Number of people in the population: The size of the population within each age group.
3. Number of deaths: The number of individuals who died during the study period within each age group.
4. Death rate: The probability that an individual in a given age group will die before their next birthday. It is calculated as the number of deaths divided by the size of the population for that age group.
5. Survival rate: The probability that an individual in a given age group will survive to a specific age or older. It is calculated using the death rates from earlier age groups.
6. Life expectancy: The average number of years a person is expected to live, based on their current age and mortality rates for each subsequent age group.

Life tables are essential in various fields, including insurance, pension planning, social security administration, and healthcare policy development. They help researchers and policymakers understand the health status and demographic trends of populations, allowing them to make informed decisions about resource allocation, program development, and public health interventions.

The cervical plexus is a network of nerves that arises from the ventral rami (anterior divisions) of the first four cervical spinal nerves (C1-C4) and a portion of C5. These nerves form a series of loops and anastomoses (connections) that give rise to several major and minor branches.

The main functions of the cervical plexus include providing sensory innervation to the skin on the neck, shoulder, and back of the head, as well as supplying motor innervation to some of the muscles in the neck and shoulders, such as the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.

Some of the major branches of the cervical plexus include:

* The lesser occipital nerve (C2), which provides sensory innervation to the skin over the back of the head and neck.
* The great auricular nerve (C2-C3), which provides sensory innervation to the skin over the ear and lower part of the face.
* The transverse cervical nerve (C2-C3), which provides sensory innervation to the skin over the anterior and lateral neck.
* The supraclavicular nerves (C3-C4), which provide sensory innervation to the skin over the shoulder and upper chest.
* The phrenic nerve (C3-C5), which supplies motor innervation to the diaphragm, the major muscle of respiration.

Overall, the cervical plexus plays a crucial role in providing sensory and motor innervation to the neck, head, and shoulders, allowing for normal movement and sensation in these areas.

nitroprusside (ni-troe-rus-ide)

A rapid-acting vasodilator used in the management of severe hypertension, acute heart failure, and to reduce afterload in patients undergoing cardiac surgery. It is a potent arterial and venous dilator that decreases preload and afterload, thereby reducing myocardial oxygen demand. Nitroprusside is metabolized to cyanide, which must be monitored closely during therapy to prevent toxicity.

Pharmacologic class: Peripheral vasodilators

Therapeutic class: Antihypertensives, Vasodilators

Medical Categories: Cardiovascular Drugs, Hypertension Agents

The postoperative period is the time following a surgical procedure during which the patient's response to the surgery and anesthesia is monitored, and any complications or adverse effects are managed. This period can vary in length depending on the type of surgery and the individual patient's needs, but it typically includes the immediate recovery phase in the post-anesthesia care unit (PACU) or recovery room, as well as any additional time spent in the hospital for monitoring and management of pain, wound healing, and other aspects of postoperative care.

The goals of postoperative care are to ensure the patient's safety and comfort, promote optimal healing and rehabilitation, and minimize the risk of complications such as infection, bleeding, or other postoperative issues. The specific interventions and treatments provided during this period will depend on a variety of factors, including the type and extent of surgery performed, the patient's overall health and medical history, and any individualized care plans developed in consultation with the patient and their healthcare team.

Survival analysis is a branch of statistics that deals with the analysis of time to event data. It is used to estimate the time it takes for a certain event of interest to occur, such as death, disease recurrence, or treatment failure. The event of interest is called the "failure" event, and survival analysis estimates the probability of not experiencing the failure event until a certain point in time, also known as the "survival" probability.

Survival analysis can provide important information about the effectiveness of treatments, the prognosis of patients, and the identification of risk factors associated with the event of interest. It can handle censored data, which is common in medical research where some participants may drop out or be lost to follow-up before the event of interest occurs.

Survival analysis typically involves estimating the survival function, which describes the probability of surviving beyond a certain time point, as well as hazard functions, which describe the instantaneous rate of failure at a given time point. Other important concepts in survival analysis include median survival times, restricted mean survival times, and various statistical tests to compare survival curves between groups.

Drug-eluting stents (DES) are medical devices used in the treatment of coronary artery disease. They are small, flexible tubes that are coated with a medication that is slowly released (eluted) over time to prevent the formation of scar tissue and reduce the risk of renarrowing (restenosis) of the artery after it has been treated with angioplasty and stenting.

The stent is typically placed in a narrowed or blocked coronary artery during a percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) procedure, such as angioplasty, to open up the blood vessel and improve blood flow to the heart muscle. The medication on the DES helps to prevent the growth of smooth muscle cells and the formation of scar tissue in the artery, which can cause restenosis and require additional treatments.

The most commonly used medications on DES are sirolimus, paclitaxel, zotarolimus, and everolimus. These drugs work by inhibiting the growth of smooth muscle cells and reducing inflammation in the artery. While DES have been shown to reduce the risk of restenosis compared to bare-metal stents, they also carry a small increased risk of late stent thrombosis (blood clots forming in the stent), which can lead to serious complications such as heart attack or stroke. Therefore, patients who receive DES are typically prescribed long-term antiplatelet therapy to reduce this risk.

Coronary artery bypass, off-pump refers to a surgical procedure used to treat coronary artery disease (CAD), which is the narrowing or blockage of the coronary arteries due to the buildup of fatty deposits called plaques. This procedure is also known as off-pump coronary artery bypass (OPCAB) or beating heart bypass surgery.

In a coronary artery bypass, off-pump procedure, the surgeon creates a new pathway for blood to flow around the blocked or narrowed portion of the coronary artery using a healthy blood vessel from another part of the body, such as the chest wall (internal mammary artery) or the leg (saphenous vein). This allows oxygen-rich blood to bypass the blockage and reach the heart muscle directly.

The key difference between on-pump and off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery is that in an off-pump procedure, the heart continues to beat during the operation, and no heart-lung machine (cardiopulmonary bypass) is used. This approach has several potential advantages over on-pump CABG, including reduced risks of bleeding, stroke, and kidney failure. However, it may not be suitable for all patients, particularly those with complex or extensive coronary artery disease.

Overall, coronary artery bypass, off-pump surgery is a safe and effective treatment option for many patients with CAD, and can help improve symptoms, quality of life, and long-term outcomes.

Cardiotonic agents are a type of medication that have a positive inotropic effect on the heart, meaning they help to improve the contractility and strength of heart muscle contractions. These medications are often used to treat heart failure, as they can help to improve the efficiency of the heart's pumping ability and increase cardiac output.

Cardiotonic agents work by increasing the levels of calcium ions inside heart muscle cells during each heartbeat, which in turn enhances the force of contraction. Some common examples of cardiotonic agents include digitalis glycosides (such as digoxin), which are derived from the foxglove plant, and synthetic medications such as dobutamine and milrinone.

While cardiotonic agents can be effective in improving heart function, they can also have potentially serious side effects, including arrhythmias, electrolyte imbalances, and digestive symptoms. As a result, they are typically used under close medical supervision and their dosages may need to be carefully monitored to minimize the risk of adverse effects.

Heptanoic acid, also known as enanthic acid, is an organic compound with the formula CH3(CH2)5COOH. It is a fatty acid with a 7-carbon chain, and it is a colorless liquid that is slightly soluble in water and fully miscible with ether and ethanol.

Heptanoic acid is not typically considered a medical term, as it is not a substance that is directly related to human health or disease. However, like other fatty acids, heptanoic acid can be metabolized in the body for energy and used in various physiological processes. Abnormal levels of certain fatty acids, including heptanoic acid, may be associated with various medical conditions, such as metabolic disorders or genetic diseases that affect fatty acid metabolism.

It's important to note that Heptanoic Acid is not a common term in medicine, and it's more related to chemistry and biochemistry fields.

Low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad cholesterol," are a type of lipoprotein that carry cholesterol and other fats from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL in the blood can lead to the buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of proteins (apolipoproteins) and lipids (cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids) that are responsible for transporting fat molecules around the body in the bloodstream. LDL is one type of lipoprotein, along with high-density lipoproteins (HDL), very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), and chylomicrons.

LDL particles are smaller than HDL particles and can easily penetrate the artery walls, leading to the formation of plaques that can narrow or block the arteries. Therefore, maintaining healthy levels of LDL in the blood is essential for preventing cardiovascular disease.

Radiopharmaceuticals are defined as pharmaceutical preparations that contain radioactive isotopes and are used for diagnosis or therapy in nuclear medicine. These compounds are designed to interact specifically with certain biological targets, such as cells, tissues, or organs, and emit radiation that can be detected and measured to provide diagnostic information or used to destroy abnormal cells or tissue in therapeutic applications.

The radioactive isotopes used in radiopharmaceuticals have carefully controlled half-lives, which determine how long they remain radioactive and how long the pharmaceutical preparation remains effective. The choice of radioisotope depends on the intended use of the radiopharmaceutical, as well as factors such as its energy, range of emission, and chemical properties.

Radiopharmaceuticals are used in a wide range of medical applications, including imaging, cancer therapy, and treatment of other diseases and conditions. Examples of radiopharmaceuticals include technetium-99m for imaging the heart, lungs, and bones; iodine-131 for treating thyroid cancer; and samarium-153 for palliative treatment of bone metastases.

The use of radiopharmaceuticals requires specialized training and expertise in nuclear medicine, as well as strict adherence to safety protocols to minimize radiation exposure to patients and healthcare workers.

Coronary vasospasm refers to a sudden constriction (narrowing) of the coronary arteries, which supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. This constriction can reduce or block blood flow, leading to symptoms such as chest pain (angina) or, in severe cases, a heart attack (myocardial infarction). Coronary vasospasm can occur spontaneously or be triggered by various factors, including stress, smoking, and certain medications. It is also associated with conditions such as coronary artery disease and variant angina. Prolonged or recurrent vasospasms can cause damage to the heart muscle and increase the risk of cardiovascular events.

Image enhancement in the medical context refers to the process of improving the quality and clarity of medical images, such as X-rays, CT scans, MRI scans, or ultrasound images, to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions. Image enhancement techniques may include adjusting contrast, brightness, or sharpness; removing noise or artifacts; or applying specialized algorithms to highlight specific features or structures within the image.

The goal of image enhancement is to provide clinicians with more accurate and detailed information about a patient's anatomy or physiology, which can help inform medical decision-making and improve patient outcomes.

Adenosine is a purine nucleoside that is composed of a sugar (ribose) and the base adenine. It plays several important roles in the body, including serving as a precursor for the synthesis of other molecules such as ATP, NAD+, and RNA.

In the medical context, adenosine is perhaps best known for its use as a pharmaceutical agent to treat certain cardiac arrhythmias. When administered intravenously, it can help restore normal sinus rhythm in patients with paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT) by slowing conduction through the atrioventricular node and interrupting the reentry circuit responsible for the arrhythmia.

Adenosine can also be used as a diagnostic tool to help differentiate between narrow-complex tachycardias of supraventricular origin and those that originate from below the ventricles (such as ventricular tachycardia). This is because adenosine will typically terminate PSVT but not affect the rhythm of VT.

It's worth noting that adenosine has a very short half-life, lasting only a few seconds in the bloodstream. This means that its effects are rapidly reversible and generally well-tolerated, although some patients may experience transient symptoms such as flushing, chest pain, or shortness of breath.

Brain infarction, also known as cerebral infarction, is a type of stroke that occurs when blood flow to a part of the brain is blocked, often by a blood clot. This results in oxygen and nutrient deprivation to the brain tissue, causing it to become damaged or die. The effects of a brain infarction depend on the location and extent of the damage, but can include weakness, numbness, paralysis, speech difficulties, memory loss, and other neurological symptoms.

Brain infarctions are often caused by underlying medical conditions such as atherosclerosis, atrial fibrillation, or high blood pressure. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the blockage, administering medications to dissolve clots or prevent further clotting, and providing supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

In medical terms, dissection refers to the separation of the layers of a biological tissue or structure by cutting or splitting. It is often used to describe the process of surgically cutting through tissues, such as during an operation to separate organs or examine their internal structures.

However, "dissection" can also refer to a pathological condition in which there is a separation of the layers of a blood vessel wall by blood, creating a false lumen or aneurysm. This type of dissection is most commonly seen in the aorta and can be life-threatening if not promptly diagnosed and treated.

In summary, "dissection" has both surgical and pathological meanings related to the separation of tissue layers, and it's essential to consider the context in which the term is used.

The sphenoid bone is a complex, irregularly shaped bone located in the middle cranial fossa and forms part of the base of the skull. It articulates with several other bones, including the frontal, parietal, temporal, ethmoid, palatine, and zygomatic bones. The sphenoid bone has two main parts: the body and the wings.

The body of the sphenoid bone is roughly cuboid in shape and contains several important structures, such as the sella turcica, which houses the pituitary gland, and the sphenoid sinuses, which are air-filled cavities within the bone. The greater wings of the sphenoid bone extend laterally from the body and form part of the skull's lateral walls. They contain the superior orbital fissure, through which important nerves and blood vessels pass between the cranial cavity and the orbit of the eye.

The lesser wings of the sphenoid bone are thin, blade-like structures that extend anteriorly from the body and form part of the floor of the anterior cranial fossa. They contain the optic canal, which transmits the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery between the brain and the orbit of the eye.

Overall, the sphenoid bone plays a crucial role in protecting several important structures within the skull, including the pituitary gland, optic nerves, and ophthalmic arteries.

Anticholesteremic agents are a class of medications that are used to lower the levels of cholesterol and other fats called lipids in the blood. These medications work by reducing the production of cholesterol in the body, increasing the removal of cholesterol from the bloodstream, or preventing the absorption of cholesterol in the digestive tract.

There are several types of anticholesteremic agents, including:

1. Statins: These medications work by blocking a liver enzyme that is necessary for the production of cholesterol. Examples of statins include atorvastatin, simvastatin, and rosuvastatin.
2. Bile acid sequestrants: These medications bind to bile acids in the digestive tract and prevent them from being reabsorbed into the bloodstream. This causes the liver to produce more bile acids, which in turn lowers cholesterol levels. Examples of bile acid sequestrants include cholestyramine and colesevelam.
3. Nicotinic acid: Also known as niacin, this medication works by reducing the production of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) in the liver, which are a major source of bad cholesterol.
4. Fibrates: These medications work by increasing the removal of cholesterol from the bloodstream and reducing the production of VLDL in the liver. Examples of fibrates include gemfibrozil and fenofibrate.
5. PCSK9 inhibitors: These are a newer class of medications that work by blocking the action of a protein called PCSK9, which helps regulate the amount of cholesterol in the blood. By blocking PCSK9, these medications increase the number of LDL receptors on the surface of liver cells, which leads to increased removal of LDL from the bloodstream.

Anticholesteremic agents are often prescribed for people who have high cholesterol levels and are at risk for heart disease or stroke. By lowering cholesterol levels, these medications can help reduce the risk of heart attack, stroke, and other cardiovascular events.

Inflammation is a complex biological response of tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by the following signs: rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), calor (heat), dolor (pain), and functio laesa (loss of function). The process involves the activation of the immune system, recruitment of white blood cells, and release of inflammatory mediators, which contribute to the elimination of the injurious stimuli and initiation of the healing process. However, uncontrolled or chronic inflammation can also lead to tissue damage and diseases.

Platelet aggregation is the clumping together of platelets (thrombocytes) in the blood, which is an essential step in the process of hemostasis (the stopping of bleeding) after injury to a blood vessel. When the inner lining of a blood vessel is damaged, exposure of subendothelial collagen and tissue factor triggers platelet activation. Activated platelets change shape, become sticky, and release the contents of their granules, which include ADP (adenosine diphosphate).

ADP then acts as a chemical mediator to attract and bind additional platelets to the site of injury, leading to platelet aggregation. This forms a plug that seals the damaged vessel and prevents further blood loss. Platelet aggregation is also a crucial component in the formation of blood clots (thrombosis) within blood vessels, which can have pathological consequences such as heart attacks and strokes if they obstruct blood flow to vital organs.

A syndrome, in medical terms, is a set of symptoms that collectively indicate or characterize a disease, disorder, or underlying pathological process. It's essentially a collection of signs and/or symptoms that frequently occur together and can suggest a particular cause or condition, even though the exact physiological mechanisms might not be fully understood.

For example, Down syndrome is characterized by specific physical features, cognitive delays, and other developmental issues resulting from an extra copy of chromosome 21. Similarly, metabolic syndromes like diabetes mellitus type 2 involve a group of risk factors such as obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels that collectively increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

It's important to note that a syndrome is not a specific diagnosis; rather, it's a pattern of symptoms that can help guide further diagnostic evaluation and management.

The heart ventricles are the two lower chambers of the heart that receive blood from the atria and pump it to the lungs or the rest of the body. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. Both ventricles have thick, muscular walls to generate the pressure necessary to pump blood through the circulatory system.

Phenylephrine is a medication that belongs to the class of drugs known as sympathomimetic amines. It primarily acts as an alpha-1 adrenergic receptor agonist, which means it stimulates these receptors, leading to vasoconstriction (constriction of blood vessels). This effect can be useful in various medical situations, such as:

1. Nasal decongestion: When applied topically in the nose, phenylephrine causes constriction of the blood vessels in the nasal passages, which helps to relieve congestion and swelling. It is often found in over-the-counter (OTC) cold and allergy products.
2. Ocular circulation: In ophthalmology, phenylephrine is used to dilate the pupils before eye examinations. The increased pressure from vasoconstriction helps to open up the pupil, allowing for a better view of the internal structures of the eye.
3. Hypotension management: In some cases, phenylephrine may be given intravenously to treat low blood pressure (hypotension) during medical procedures like spinal anesthesia or septic shock. The vasoconstriction helps to increase blood pressure and improve perfusion of vital organs.

It is essential to use phenylephrine as directed, as improper usage can lead to adverse effects such as increased heart rate, hypertension, arrhythmias, and rebound congestion (when used as a nasal decongestant). Always consult with a healthcare professional for appropriate guidance on using this medication.

Hemorrhage is defined in the medical context as an excessive loss of blood from the circulatory system, which can occur due to various reasons such as injury, surgery, or underlying health conditions that affect blood clotting or the integrity of blood vessels. The bleeding may be internal, external, visible, or concealed, and it can vary in severity from minor to life-threatening, depending on the location and extent of the bleeding. Hemorrhage is a serious medical emergency that requires immediate attention and treatment to prevent further blood loss, organ damage, and potential death.

Subclavian Steal Syndrome is a medical condition that occurs when there is a narrowing or blockage (stenosis) in the subclavian artery, usually at or near its origin from the aorta. This stenosis causes reduced blood flow to the ipsilateral upper extremity. The decreased blood supply to the arm leads to reversal of flow in the vertebral artery, which normally supplies blood to the brain and neck structures. As a result, the brain may receive insufficient blood flow, causing symptoms such as dizziness, lightheadedness, syncope (fainting), or transient ischemic attacks (TIAs or "mini-strokes").

The syndrome is called 'subclavian steal' because the vertebral artery essentially "steals" blood from the circle of Willis (the network of arteries at the base of the brain) to compensate for the reduced flow in the subclavian artery. The condition most commonly affects the left subclavian artery, but it can also occur on the right side or both sides.

Subclavian Steal Syndrome is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and imaging tests such as Doppler ultrasound, CT angiography (CTA), or magnetic resonance angiography (MRA). Treatment options include surgical bypass, endovascular stenting, or medication to manage symptoms and reduce the risk of stroke.

Fractional Flow Reserve (Myocardial) is a medical term used to describe the ratio of maximum blood flow through a stenosed (narrowed) coronary artery to the maximum flow that could be achieved if the artery were completely normal. It is a pressure-based index, which is measured during cardiac catheterization using a special wire that can measure pressure differences across a stenosis.

The FFR value ranges from 0 (no flow) to 1 (normal flow). An FFR value less than or equal to 0.80 is generally considered indicative of functionally significant coronary artery disease, which may benefit from revascularization (such as angioplasty or bypass surgery).

FFR is used in clinical practice to help guide decisions regarding the management of patients with coronary artery disease and has been shown to improve patient outcomes.

Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are a class of medications that are commonly used to treat various cardiovascular conditions, such as hypertension (high blood pressure), heart failure, and diabetic nephropathy (kidney damage in people with diabetes).

ACE inhibitors work by blocking the action of angiotensin-converting enzyme, an enzyme that converts the hormone angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor, meaning it narrows blood vessels and increases blood pressure. By inhibiting the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, ACE inhibitors cause blood vessels to relax and widen, which lowers blood pressure and reduces the workload on the heart.

Some examples of ACE inhibitors include captopril, enalapril, lisinopril, ramipril, and fosinopril. These medications are generally well-tolerated, but they can cause side effects such as cough, dizziness, headache, and elevated potassium levels in the blood. It is important for patients to follow their healthcare provider's instructions carefully when taking ACE inhibitors and to report any unusual symptoms or side effects promptly.

Ticlopidine is defined as a platelet aggregation inhibitor drug, which works by preventing certain types of blood cells (platelets) from sticking together to form clots. It is used to reduce the risk of stroke and heart attack in patients who have already had a stroke or have peripheral arterial disease.

Ticlopidine is a thienopyridine derivative that selectively inhibits platelet activation and aggregation by blocking the ADP (adenosine diphosphate) receptor on the platelet surface. This action prevents the formation of platelet plugs, which can lead to the development of blood clots in the arteries.

Ticlopidine is available in oral form as tablets and is typically taken twice daily. Common side effects include diarrhea, skin rash, and itching. More serious side effects, such as neutropenia (low white blood cell count), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), and aplastic anemia, are rare but can be life-threatening.

Due to the risk of serious side effects, ticlopidine is usually reserved for use in patients who cannot tolerate or have failed other antiplatelet therapies, such as aspirin or clopidogrel. It is important to monitor patients taking ticlopidine closely for signs of adverse reactions and to follow the prescribing instructions carefully.

A reoperation is a surgical procedure that is performed again on a patient who has already undergone a previous operation for the same or related condition. Reoperations may be required due to various reasons, such as inadequate initial treatment, disease recurrence, infection, or complications from the first surgery. The nature and complexity of a reoperation can vary widely depending on the specific circumstances, but it often carries higher risks and potential complications compared to the original operation.

Rheology is not a term that is specific to medicine, but rather it is a term used in the field of physics to describe the flow and deformation of matter. It specifically refers to the study of how materials flow or deform under various stresses or strains. This concept can be applied to various medical fields such as studying the flow properties of blood (hematology), understanding the movement of tissues and organs during surgical procedures, or analyzing the mechanical behavior of biological materials like bones and cartilages.

Adrenergic beta-antagonists, also known as beta blockers, are a class of medications that block the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline (also known as epinephrine and norepinephrine) on beta-adrenergic receptors. These receptors are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the heart, lungs, and blood vessels.

Beta blockers work by binding to these receptors and preventing the activation of certain signaling pathways that lead to increased heart rate, force of heart contractions, and relaxation of blood vessels. As a result, beta blockers can lower blood pressure, reduce heart rate, and decrease the workload on the heart.

Beta blockers are used to treat a variety of medical conditions, including hypertension (high blood pressure), angina (chest pain), heart failure, irregular heart rhythms, migraines, and certain anxiety disorders. Some common examples of beta blockers include metoprolol, atenolol, propranolol, and bisoprolol.

It is important to note that while beta blockers can have many benefits, they can also cause side effects such as fatigue, dizziness, and shortness of breath. Additionally, sudden discontinuation of beta blocker therapy can lead to rebound hypertension or worsening chest pain. Therefore, it is important to follow the dosing instructions provided by a healthcare provider carefully when taking these medications.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that is naturally present in the Earth's atmosphere. It is a normal byproduct of cellular respiration in humans, animals, and plants, and is also produced through the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

In medical terms, carbon dioxide is often used as a respiratory stimulant and to maintain the pH balance of blood. It is also used during certain medical procedures, such as laparoscopic surgery, to insufflate (inflate) the abdominal cavity and create a working space for the surgeon.

Elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the body can lead to respiratory acidosis, a condition characterized by an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and a decrease in pH. This can occur in conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, or other lung diseases that impair breathing and gas exchange. Symptoms of respiratory acidosis may include shortness of breath, confusion, headache, and in severe cases, coma or death.

A single-blind method in medical research is a study design where the participants are unaware of the group or intervention they have been assigned to, but the researchers conducting the study know which participant belongs to which group. This is done to prevent bias from the participants' expectations or knowledge of their assignment, while still allowing the researchers to control the study conditions and collect data.

In a single-blind trial, the participants do not know whether they are receiving the active treatment or a placebo (a sham treatment that looks like the real thing but has no therapeutic effect), whereas the researcher knows which participant is receiving which intervention. This design helps to ensure that the participants' responses and outcomes are not influenced by their knowledge of the treatment assignment, while still allowing the researchers to assess the effectiveness or safety of the intervention being studied.

Single-blind methods are commonly used in clinical trials and other medical research studies where it is important to minimize bias and control for confounding variables that could affect the study results.

The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall, composed of specialized cardiac muscle cells that are responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. It forms the thickest part of the heart wall and is divided into two sections: the left ventricle, which pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and the right ventricle, which pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

The myocardium contains several types of cells, including cardiac muscle fibers, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. The muscle fibers are arranged in a highly organized pattern that allows them to contract in a coordinated manner, generating the force necessary to pump blood through the heart and circulatory system.

Damage to the myocardium can occur due to various factors such as ischemia (reduced blood flow), infection, inflammation, or genetic disorders. This damage can lead to several cardiac conditions, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and cardiomyopathy.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is a type of genetic variation that occurs when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the DNA sequence is altered. This alteration must occur in at least 1% of the population to be considered a SNP. These variations can help explain why some people are more susceptible to certain diseases than others and can also influence how an individual responds to certain medications. SNPs can serve as biological markers, helping scientists locate genes that are associated with disease. They can also provide information about an individual's ancestry and ethnic background.

Vascular system injuries refer to damages or disruptions to the body's vascular system, which is made up of the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. These injuries can occur due to various reasons such as trauma, disease, or surgical complications. They may result in bleeding, blockage of blood flow, or formation of blood clots, leading to serious consequences like tissue damage, organ failure, or even death if not treated promptly and appropriately.

Traumatic injuries to the vascular system can include cuts, tears, or bruises to the blood vessels, which can lead to internal or external bleeding. Blunt trauma can also cause damage to the blood vessels, leading to blockages or aneurysms.

Diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, and inflammatory conditions can weaken the blood vessels and make them more prone to injury. Surgical complications, such as accidental cuts to blood vessels during operations, can also lead to vascular system injuries.

Treatment for vascular system injuries may include surgery, medication, or lifestyle changes, depending on the severity and location of the injury.

Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that constitutes about 21% of the earth's atmosphere. It is a crucial element for human and most living organisms as it is vital for respiration. Inhaled oxygen enters the lungs and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, which carries it to tissues throughout the body where it is used to convert nutrients into energy and carbon dioxide, a waste product that is exhaled.

Medically, supplemental oxygen therapy may be provided to patients with conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia, heart failure, or other medical conditions that impair the body's ability to extract sufficient oxygen from the air. Oxygen can be administered through various devices, including nasal cannulas, face masks, and ventilators.

Aging is a complex, progressive and inevitable process of bodily changes over time, characterized by the accumulation of cellular damage and degenerative changes that eventually lead to increased vulnerability to disease and death. It involves various biological, genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that contribute to the decline in physical and mental functions. The medical field studies aging through the discipline of gerontology, which aims to understand the underlying mechanisms of aging and develop interventions to promote healthy aging and extend the human healthspan.

Internal mammary-coronary artery anastomosis is a surgical procedure in which the internal mammary artery (IMA) is connected to the coronary artery of the heart. This type of surgery, also known as internal thoracic artery-coronary artery bypass grafting (ITA CABG), is performed to improve blood flow to the heart muscle and reduce symptoms of coronary artery disease such as angina and shortness of breath.

The IMA is a small artery that branches off the subclavian artery and runs along the inside of the chest wall. It has several advantages over other conduits used for bypass grafting, including its size, length, and excellent long-term patency rates. The procedure involves harvesting the IMA through a small incision in the chest wall and then sewing it to the coronary artery using fine sutures.

The internal mammary-coronary artery anastomosis can be performed as a single bypass graft or in combination with other conduits such as the saphenous vein. The choice of conduit and number of grafts depends on various factors, including the location and severity of coronary artery disease, patient's age and overall health status.

Overall, internal mammary-coronary artery anastomosis is a safe and effective surgical procedure that has been shown to improve symptoms, quality of life, and survival in patients with coronary artery disease.

Microcirculation is the circulation of blood in the smallest blood vessels, including arterioles, venules, and capillaries. It's responsible for the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and the removal of waste products. The microcirculation plays a crucial role in maintaining tissue homeostasis and is regulated by various physiological mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system activity, local metabolic factors, and hormones.

Impairment of microcirculation can lead to tissue hypoxia, inflammation, and organ dysfunction, which are common features in several diseases, including diabetes, hypertension, sepsis, and ischemia-reperfusion injury. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of the microcirculation is essential for developing new therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

Fibrinogen is a soluble protein present in plasma, synthesized by the liver. It plays an essential role in blood coagulation. When an injury occurs, fibrinogen gets converted into insoluble fibrin by the action of thrombin, forming a fibrin clot that helps to stop bleeding from the injured site. Therefore, fibrinogen is crucial for hemostasis, which is the process of stopping bleeding and starting the healing process after an injury.

Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple proteins and lipids (fats) that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fat molecules in the body. They consist of an outer shell of phospholipids, free cholesterols, and apolipoproteins, enclosing a core of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters.

There are several types of lipoproteins, including:

1. Chylomicrons: These are the largest lipoproteins and are responsible for transporting dietary lipids from the intestines to other parts of the body.
2. Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL): Produced by the liver, VLDL particles carry triglycerides to peripheral tissues for energy storage or use.
3. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL): Often referred to as "bad cholesterol," LDL particles transport cholesterol from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL in the blood can lead to plaque buildup in artery walls and increase the risk of heart disease.
4. High-density lipoproteins (HDL): Known as "good cholesterol," HDL particles help remove excess cholesterol from cells and transport it back to the liver for excretion or recycling. Higher levels of HDL are associated with a lower risk of heart disease.

Understanding lipoproteins and their roles in the body is essential for assessing cardiovascular health and managing risks related to heart disease and stroke.

Blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transport blood throughout the body. They form a network of tubes that carry blood to and from the heart, lungs, and other organs. The main types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the rest of the body, while veins return deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Capillaries connect arteries and veins and facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste materials between the blood and the body's tissues.

Blood platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small, colorless cell fragments in our blood that play an essential role in normal blood clotting. They are formed in the bone marrow from large cells called megakaryocytes and circulate in the blood in an inactive state until they are needed to help stop bleeding. When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets become activated and change shape, releasing chemicals that attract more platelets to the site of injury. These activated platelets then stick together to form a plug, or clot, that seals the wound and prevents further blood loss. In addition to their role in clotting, platelets also help to promote healing by releasing growth factors that stimulate the growth of new tissue.

Endothelial cells are the type of cells that line the inner surface of blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and heart chambers. They play a crucial role in maintaining vascular homeostasis by controlling vasomotor tone, coagulation, platelet activation, and inflammation. Endothelial cells also regulate the transport of molecules between the blood and surrounding tissues, and contribute to the maintenance of the structural integrity of the vasculature. They are flat, elongated cells with a unique morphology that allows them to form a continuous, nonthrombogenic lining inside the vessels. Endothelial cells can be isolated from various tissues and cultured in vitro for research purposes.

Filtration in the medical context refers to a process used in various medical treatments and procedures, where a substance is passed through a filter with the purpose of removing impurities or unwanted components. The filter can be made up of different materials such as paper, cloth, or synthetic membranes, and it works by trapping particles or molecules based on their size, shape, or charge.

For example, filtration is commonly used in kidney dialysis to remove waste products and excess fluids from the blood. In this case, the patient's blood is pumped through a special filter called a dialyzer, which separates waste products and excess fluids from the blood based on size differences between these substances and the blood cells. The clean blood is then returned to the patient's body.

Filtration is also used in other medical applications such as water purification, air filtration, and tissue engineering. In each case, the goal is to remove unwanted components or impurities from a substance, making it safer or more effective for use in medical treatments and procedures.

An animal model in medicine refers to the use of non-human animals in experiments to understand, predict, and test responses and effects of various biological and chemical interactions that may also occur in humans. These models are used when studying complex systems or processes that cannot be easily replicated or studied in human subjects, such as genetic manipulation or exposure to harmful substances. The choice of animal model depends on the specific research question being asked and the similarities between the animal's and human's biological and physiological responses. Examples of commonly used animal models include mice, rats, rabbits, guinea pigs, and non-human primates.

Heart failure is a pathophysiological state in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood to meet the metabolic demands of the body or do so only at the expense of elevated filling pressures. It can be caused by various cardiac disorders, including coronary artery disease, hypertension, valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmias. Symptoms may include shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. Heart failure is often classified based on the ejection fraction (EF), which is the percentage of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle during each contraction. A reduced EF (less than 40%) is indicative of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), while a preserved EF (greater than or equal to 50%) is indicative of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). There is also a category of heart failure with mid-range ejection fraction (HFmrEF) for those with an EF between 40-49%.

Blood volume refers to the total amount of blood present in an individual's circulatory system at any given time. It is the combined volume of both the plasma (the liquid component of blood) and the formed elements (such as red and white blood cells and platelets) in the blood. In a healthy adult human, the average blood volume is approximately 5 liters (or about 1 gallon). However, blood volume can vary depending on several factors, including age, sex, body weight, and overall health status.

Blood volume plays a critical role in maintaining proper cardiovascular function, as it affects blood pressure, heart rate, and the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues throughout the body. Changes in blood volume can have significant impacts on an individual's health and may be associated with various medical conditions, such as dehydration, hemorrhage, heart failure, and liver disease. Accurate measurement of blood volume is essential for diagnosing and managing these conditions, as well as for guiding treatment decisions in clinical settings.

Heart transplantation is a surgical procedure where a diseased, damaged, or failing heart is removed and replaced with a healthy donor heart. This procedure is usually considered as a last resort for patients with end-stage heart failure or severe coronary artery disease who have not responded to other treatments. The donor heart typically comes from a brain-dead individual whose family has agreed to donate their loved one's organs for transplantation. Heart transplantation is a complex and highly specialized procedure that requires a multidisciplinary team of healthcare professionals, including cardiologists, cardiac surgeons, anesthesiologists, perfusionists, nurses, and other support staff. The success rates for heart transplantation have improved significantly over the past few decades, with many patients experiencing improved quality of life and increased survival rates. However, recipients of heart transplants require lifelong immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection of the donor heart, which can increase the risk of infections and other complications.

A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a type of clinical study in which participants are randomly assigned to receive either the experimental intervention or the control condition, which may be a standard of care, placebo, or no treatment. The goal of an RCT is to minimize bias and ensure that the results are due to the intervention being tested rather than other factors. This design allows for a comparison between the two groups to determine if there is a significant difference in outcomes. RCTs are often considered the gold standard for evaluating the safety and efficacy of medical interventions, as they provide a high level of evidence for causal relationships between the intervention and health outcomes.

Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of lipids, particularly low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or "bad" cholesterol. ApoB is a component of LDL particles and serves as a ligand for the LDL receptor, which is responsible for the clearance of LDL from the bloodstream.

There are two main forms of ApoB: ApoB-100 and ApoB-48. ApoB-100 is found in LDL particles, very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) particles, and chylomicrons, while ApoB-48 is only found in chylomicrons, which are produced in the intestines and responsible for transporting dietary lipids.

Elevated levels of ApoB are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), as they indicate a higher concentration of LDL particles in the bloodstream. Therefore, measuring ApoB levels can provide additional information about CVD risk beyond traditional lipid profile tests that only measure total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "pilot projects" is not a medical term per se. Instead, it is a general term used in various fields, including healthcare and medicine, to describe a small-scale initiative that is implemented on a temporary basis to evaluate its feasibility, effectiveness, or impact before deciding whether to expand or continue it.

In the context of healthcare, pilot projects might involve testing new treatment protocols, implementing innovative care models, or introducing technology solutions in a limited setting to assess their potential benefits and drawbacks. The results of these projects can help inform decisions about broader implementation and provide valuable insights for improving the quality and efficiency of healthcare services.

Antihypertensive agents are a class of medications used to treat high blood pressure (hypertension). They work by reducing the force and rate of heart contractions, dilating blood vessels, or altering neurohormonal activation to lower blood pressure. Examples include diuretics, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, calcium channel blockers, and direct vasodilators. These medications may be used alone or in combination to achieve optimal blood pressure control.

Peripheral catheterization is a medical procedure that involves the insertion of a thin, flexible tube (catheter) into a peripheral vein, which is a blood vessel located outside of the chest and abdomen. This type of catheterization is typically performed to administer medications, fluids, or nutritional support, or to monitor various physiological parameters such as central venous pressure.

Peripheral catheters are usually inserted into veins in the hands or arms, although they can also be placed in other peripheral veins. The procedure is typically performed using aseptic technique to minimize the risk of infection. Once the catheter is in place, it may be secured with a dressing or suture to prevent movement and dislodgement.

Peripheral catheterization is a relatively safe and common procedure that is routinely performed in hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare settings. However, like any medical procedure, it carries a small risk of complications such as infection, bleeding, or damage to the vein or surrounding tissues.

Ischemia is the medical term used to describe a lack of blood flow to a part of the body, often due to blocked or narrowed blood vessels. This can lead to a shortage of oxygen and nutrients in the tissues, which can cause them to become damaged or die. Ischemia can affect many different parts of the body, including the heart, brain, legs, and intestines. Symptoms of ischemia depend on the location and severity of the blockage, but they may include pain, cramping, numbness, weakness, or coldness in the affected area. In severe cases, ischemia can lead to tissue death (gangrene) or organ failure. Treatment for ischemia typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the blocked blood flow, such as through medication, surgery, or lifestyle changes.

Gadolinium DTPA (Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid) is a type of gadolinium-based contrast agent (GBCA) used in medical imaging, particularly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA). It functions as a paramagnetic substance that enhances the visibility of internal body structures during these imaging techniques.

The compound Gadolinium DTPA is formed when gadolinium ions are bound to diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid, a chelating agent. This binding helps to make the gadolinium ion safer for use in medical imaging by reducing its toxicity and improving its stability in the body.

Gadolinium DTPA is eliminated from the body primarily through the kidneys, making it important to monitor renal function before administering this contrast agent. In some cases, Gadolinium DTPA may cause adverse reactions, including allergic-like responses and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) in patients with impaired kidney function.

The pericardium is the double-walled sac that surrounds the heart. It has an outer fibrous layer and an inner serous layer, which further divides into two parts: the parietal layer lining the fibrous pericardium and the visceral layer (epicardium) closely adhering to the heart surface.

The space between these two layers is filled with a small amount of lubricating serous fluid, allowing for smooth movement of the heart within the pericardial cavity. The pericardium provides protection, support, and helps maintain the heart's normal position within the chest while reducing friction during heart contractions.

Doppler echocardiography is a type of ultrasound test that uses high-frequency sound waves to produce detailed images of the heart and its blood vessels. It measures the direction and speed of blood flow in the heart and major blood vessels leading to and from the heart. This helps to evaluate various conditions such as valve problems, congenital heart defects, and heart muscle diseases.

In Doppler echocardiography, a small handheld device called a transducer is placed on the chest, which emits sound waves that bounce off the heart and blood vessels. The transducer then picks up the returning echoes, which are processed by a computer to create moving images of the heart.

The Doppler effect is used to measure the speed and direction of blood flow. This occurs when the frequency of the sound waves changes as they bounce off moving objects, such as red blood cells. By analyzing these changes, the ultrasound machine can calculate the velocity and direction of blood flow in different parts of the heart.

Doppler echocardiography is a non-invasive test that does not require any needles or dyes. It is generally safe and painless, although patients may experience some discomfort from the pressure applied by the transducer on the chest. The test usually takes about 30 to 60 minutes to complete.

Aortography is a medical procedure that involves taking X-ray images of the aorta, which is the largest blood vessel in the body. The procedure is usually performed to diagnose or assess various conditions related to the aorta, such as aneurysms, dissections, or blockages.

To perform an aortography, a contrast dye is injected into the aorta through a catheter that is inserted into an artery, typically in the leg or arm. The contrast dye makes the aorta visible on X-ray images, allowing doctors to see its structure and any abnormalities that may be present.

The procedure is usually performed in a hospital or outpatient setting and may require sedation or anesthesia. While aortography can provide valuable diagnostic information, it also carries some risks, such as allergic reactions to the contrast dye, damage to blood vessels, or infection. Therefore, it is typically reserved for situations where other diagnostic tests have been inconclusive or where more invasive treatment may be required.

"Evaluation studies" is a broad term that refers to the systematic assessment or examination of a program, project, policy, intervention, or product. The goal of an evaluation study is to determine its merits, worth, and value by measuring its effects, efficiency, and impact. There are different types of evaluation studies, including formative evaluations (conducted during the development or implementation of a program to provide feedback for improvement), summative evaluations (conducted at the end of a program to determine its overall effectiveness), process evaluations (focusing on how a program is implemented and delivered), outcome evaluations (assessing the short-term and intermediate effects of a program), and impact evaluations (measuring the long-term and broad consequences of a program).

In medical contexts, evaluation studies are often used to assess the safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of new treatments, interventions, or technologies. These studies can help healthcare providers make informed decisions about patient care, guide policymakers in developing evidence-based policies, and promote accountability and transparency in healthcare systems. Examples of evaluation studies in medicine include randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compare the outcomes of a new treatment to those of a standard or placebo treatment, observational studies that examine the real-world effectiveness and safety of interventions, and economic evaluations that assess the costs and benefits of different healthcare options.

Anticoagulants are a class of medications that work to prevent the formation of blood clots in the body. They do this by inhibiting the coagulation cascade, which is a series of chemical reactions that lead to the formation of a clot. Anticoagulants can be given orally, intravenously, or subcutaneously, depending on the specific drug and the individual patient's needs.

There are several different types of anticoagulants, including:

1. Heparin: This is a naturally occurring anticoagulant that is often used in hospitalized patients who require immediate anticoagulation. It works by activating an enzyme called antithrombin III, which inhibits the formation of clots.
2. Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH): LMWH is a form of heparin that has been broken down into smaller molecules. It has a longer half-life than standard heparin and can be given once or twice daily by subcutaneous injection.
3. Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs): These are newer oral anticoagulants that work by directly inhibiting specific clotting factors in the coagulation cascade. Examples include apixaban, rivaroxaban, and dabigatran.
4. Vitamin K antagonists: These are older oral anticoagulants that work by inhibiting the action of vitamin K, which is necessary for the formation of clotting factors. Warfarin is an example of a vitamin K antagonist.

Anticoagulants are used to prevent and treat a variety of conditions, including deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism (PE), atrial fibrillation, and prosthetic heart valve thrombosis. It is important to note that anticoagulants can increase the risk of bleeding, so they must be used with caution and regular monitoring of blood clotting times may be required.

Thrombolytic therapy, also known as thrombolysis, is a medical treatment that uses medications called thrombolytics or fibrinolytics to dissolve or break down blood clots (thrombi) in blood vessels. These clots can obstruct the flow of blood to vital organs such as the heart, lungs, or brain, leading to serious conditions like myocardial infarction (heart attack), pulmonary embolism, or ischemic stroke.

The goal of thrombolytic therapy is to restore blood flow as quickly and efficiently as possible to prevent further damage to the affected organ and potentially save lives. Commonly used thrombolytic drugs include alteplase (tPA), reteplase, and tenecteplase. It's essential to administer these medications as soon as possible after the onset of symptoms for optimal treatment outcomes. However, there are risks associated with thrombolytic therapy, such as an increased chance of bleeding complications, which must be carefully weighed against its benefits in each individual case.

"Pyrroles" is not a medical term in and of itself, but "pyrrole" is an organic compound that contains one nitrogen atom and four carbon atoms in a ring structure. In the context of human health, "pyrroles" often refers to a group of compounds called pyrrol derivatives or pyrrole metabolites.

In clinical settings, "pyrroles" is sometimes used to refer to a urinary metabolite called "pyrrole-protein conjugate," which contains a pyrrole ring and is excreted in the urine. Elevated levels of this compound have been associated with certain psychiatric and behavioral disorders, such as schizophrenia and mood disorders. However, the relationship between pyrroles and these conditions is not well understood, and more research is needed to establish a clear medical definition or diagnostic criteria for "pyrrole disorder" or "pyroluria."

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) Coronary artery disease (CAD) Atherosclerotic aortic aneurysm (AAA) Two or more of the ... The carotid artery divides into the internal carotid artery and the external carotid artery. The internal carotid artery ... At the throat it forks into the internal carotid artery and the external carotid artery. The internal carotid artery supplies ... Carotid arteries Section of carotid artery with plaque. Blood flows from the common carotid artery(bottom), and divides into ...
"Unilateral visual loss in bright light may indicate ipsilateral carotid artery occlusive disease and may reflect the inability ... An unusual symptom of carotid artery occlusive disease". Arch. Neurol. 36 (11): 675-6. doi:10.1001/archneur.1979.00500470045007 ... The most common source of these athero-emboli is an atherosclerotic carotid artery. However, a severely atherosclerotic carotid ... "some of the more frequent causes include atheromatous disease of the internal carotid or ophthalmic artery, vasospasm, optic ...
Relationship between periodontal disease, tooth loss, and carotid artery plaque". Stroke. 34 (9): 2120-5. doi:10.1161/01.STR. ... Diseases may cause periodontal disease or bone loss to prompt tooth loss. Consequently, periodontal disease may cause increased ... The main method of preventing tooth loss is prevention of oral diseases. Tooth loss can be due to tooth decay and gum disease. ... Diseases commonly related to tooth loss include, but are not limited to: cardiovascular disease, cancer, osteoporosis and ...
Estol CJ (March 1996). "Dr C. Miller Fisher and the history of carotid artery disease". Stroke. 27 (3): 559-66. doi:10.1161/01. ... He contributed greatly to the understanding of stroke, more specifically carotid artery disease and lacunar infarcts and their ... He made a number of contributions to the understanding of Cervical artery dissection (carotid artery dissection and vertebral ... He also showed the relationship between stroke and carotid artery stenosis, which made preventive surgery possible and greatly ...
SAIP/SCAI/SIR/SNIS/SVM/SVS Guideline on the Management of Patients With Extracranial Carotid and Vertebral Artery Disease: ... Carotid endarterectomy is used to reduce the risk of strokes caused by carotid artery stenosis over time. Carotid stenosis can ... Carotid endarterectomy is a surgical procedure used to reduce the risk of stroke from carotid artery stenosis (narrowing the ... The lumen of the internal carotid artery is opened, and the atheromatous plaque substance removed. The artery is closed using ...
"Carotid Stent Placement for Extracranial Carotid Artery Disease: Current State of the Art". Catheterization and Cardiovascular ... becoming a member of the team that largely influenced the application of carotid artery stenting for stroke prevention. He also ... Gomez, C.R. (1998). "The Role of Carotid Angioplasty and Stenting". Seminars in Neurology. 18 (4): 501-511. doi:10.1055/s-2008- ... Gomez, C.R. (2000). "Carotid Angioplasty and Stenting: New Horizons". Current Atherosclerosis Reports. 2 (2): 151-159. doi: ...
"Cytomegalovirus Immunoglobulin G Antibody Is Associated With Subclinical Carotid Artery Disease Among HIV-Infected Women". ... The WIHS is funded primarily by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), with additional co-funding ... sexually transmitted diseases, and reproductive function. Thus, WIHS funding was augmented in 2001 to empower the study to ... was established in August 1993 to investigate the impact and progression of HIV disease in women. The WIHS enrolls both HIV- ...
Atherosclerosis can lead to coronary artery disease, carotid artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and aneurysms. Standing ... The authors also found that men with carotid stenosis or ischemic heart disease were at greater risk for the progression of ... "Diseases and Conditions: Varicose veins". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved December 22, 2015. "Society of Interventional Radiology- ... 2000) the authors examined the relationship between standing at work and the progression of carotid atherosclerosis in men. ...
"A common VLDLR polymorphism interacts with APOE genotype in the prediction of carotid artery disease risk". J. Lipid Res. 49 (3 ... In addition, being that apoE, a major ligand of VLDLR, is a leading genetic risk factor for Alzheimer's disease, VLDLR may play ... VLDLR has also been shown to reduce the chances of premature heart disease and stroke because VLDLR clears out lipoprotein A ( ... Mutations of this gene may lead to a variety of symptoms and diseases, which include type I lissencephaly, cerebellar ...
... correlation with cerebral collaterals in internal carotid artery occlusive disease". Journal of Neurology. 253 (10): 1285-1291 ... The anterior communicating artery connects the two anterior cerebral arteries across the commencement of the longitudinal ... In case of narrowing of other arteries of the circle of Willis or the arteries supplying the circle, the anterior communicating ... Anatomical variations of the anterior communicating artery are relatively common. The artery is sometimes duplicated, ...
HVLA is also contraindicated in patients with vascular disease such as aneurysms, or disease of the carotid arteries or ... "Chronic Disease Management - Individual Allied Health Services under Medicare - Provider Information". Medicare Australia. " ... Other practitioners had a similar argument, labeling osteopathic medicine as unfounded, passive, and dangerous to a disease- ... This soft tissue can become restricted due to psychogenic disease, overuse, trauma, infectious agents, or inactivity, often ...
... of clot formation process by treatment with the low-molecular-weight heparin nadroparin in patients with carotid artery disease ...
Carotid atherosclerosis involves the major branch arteries that provide blood to the brain. Carotid artery disease incurs an ... Carotid artery disease can be typically addressed with open surgical techniques (carotid endarterectomy) or though endovascular ... "Peripheral artery disease and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease: Insights from the Heart ... patients with peripheral arterial disease have an increased risk of coronary artery disease, and severe peripheral artery ...
Doppler ultrasound of the carotid artery. This test is often ordered to look for any disease or narrowing of the carotid artery ... The most common condition associated with appearance of a Hollenhorst plaque is carotid artery disease, including carotid ... In his study of patients with carotid artery disease, he noticed that the plaques occurred on the same side as the affected ... For this reason, a negative carotid artery Doppler ultrasound cannot rule out the possibility of atherosclerotic disease. This ...
... there is plausibility and initial evidence to support snoring as an independent source of carotid artery/cardiovascular disease ... Vibration of the carotid artery with snoring also lends itself as a potential mechanism for atherosclerotic plaque rupture and ... Amatoury J, Howitt L, Wheatley JR, Avolio AP, Amis TC (May 2006). "Snoring-related energy transmission to the carotid artery in ... Studies have associated loud snoring with the development of carotid artery atherosclerosis. Amatoury et al. demonstrated that ...
Madan SA, John F, Pyrsopoulos N, Pitchumoni CS (2015). "Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and carotid artery atherosclerosis in ... Variations in IMT between different locations (e.g. the common carotid artery, the carotid bulb and the internal carotid artery ... The carotid artery is the usual site of measurement of IMT and consensus statements for carotid IMT have been published for ... Often, carotid IMT is measured in three locations: in the common carotid artery (typically at one cm proximal to the flow ...
... carotid artery disease and venous disease.[citation needed] His research on how progressive narrowing of the carotid artery ... His research on carotid artery disease contributed to the introduction of minimally invasive carotid artery stenting as an ... He has participated in writing the guidelines that are used for treating carotid artery disease in the US. He is now leading ... These findings are leading to a shift on how this disease is viewed. Even without causing a stroke, the carotid disease leads ...
Correlation with cerebral collaterals in internal carotid artery occlusive disease". Journal of Neurology. 253 (10): 1285-1291 ... The left and right internal carotid arteries arise from the left and right common carotid arteries. The posterior communicating ... Anterior cerebral artery (left and right) at their A1 segments Anterior communicating artery Internal carotid artery (left and ... The vertebral arteries arise from the subclavian arteries. The anterior communicating artery connects the two anterior cerebral ...
... and accurate diagnostic imaging modality used to evaluate diseases of the carotid arteries. It is most often used to diagnose ... Internal carotid artery (ICA) is located posterolateral, and larger when compared to the external carotid artery (ECA). ICA has ... Carotid artery stenosis is a major risk factor for stroke, and risk assessment of atherosclerotic carotid plaques is a critical ... Carotid duplex and contrast-enhanced ultrasound are two of the most common imaging techniques used to evaluate carotid artery ...
Carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase deficiency Carnosinase deficiency Carnosinemia Caroli disease Carotenemia Carotid artery ... Marie-Tooth disease type 1A Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1B Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1C Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease ... Marie-Tooth disease type 2C Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 2D Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 4A Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease ... Tooth disease Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease deafness dominant type Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease ...
... for research and for management of patients with carotid artery disease. (.). This has evolved to the use of 3-D plaque volume ... in high-risk patients with narrowing of the carotid arteries, the process of "Treating Arteries" was associated with a >80% ... With Maria Dicicco, RVT, he pioneered the measurement of total plaque area (TPA) in a patient's carotid artery using ultrasound ... The effect of drug therapies on carotid plaque volume can now be evaluated in a very cost-effective way. Development of ...
... carotid artery diseases MeSH C10.228.140.300.200.331 - carotid artery thrombosis MeSH C10.228.140.300.200.345 - carotid artery ... carotid artery injuries MeSH C10.900.250.300.300 - carotid artery, internal, dissection MeSH C10.900.250.300.400 - carotid- ... carotid artery injuries MeSH C10.228.140.300.350.500.300 - carotid artery, internal, dissection MeSH C10.228.140.300.350.500. ... carotid artery, internal, dissection MeSH C10.228.140.300.200.360 - carotid stenosis MeSH C10.228.140.300.200.490 - carotid- ...
... carotid artery and peripheral artery disease or 50 years and older with diabetes and additional risk factors for cardiovascular ... and established cardiovascular disease or diabetes and two or more additional risk factors for cardiovascular disease. It is ... Hu Y, Hu FB, Manson JE (October 2019). "Marine Omega-3 Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease: An Updated Meta-Analysis of ... People must also have either established cardiovascular disease alone or diabetes along with two or more additional risk ...
... carotid artery disease and problems of the cervical and lumbar spine. During his surgical internship, he met and married ... "Patient Selection for Carotid Endarterectomy." In: Bederson JB, Tuhrim S, (eds), Treatment of Carotid Disease: A Practitioner's ... Bederson is co-author of Treatment of Carotid Disease: A Practitioner's Manual (ISBN 1-879284-55-3), 12 chapters and 53 peer- ... "Carotid Endarterectomy: Description, Complications, and Adjuncts." In: Bederson JB, Tuhrim S (eds), Treatment of Carotid ...
... may also be contraindicated in patients with cerebrovascular disease, carotid artery stenosis, and ... but patients with pre-existing cardiovascular disease limiting myocardial function (such as angina pectoris) may not. Applying ...
"Effect of comprehensive cardiovascular disease risk management on longitudinal changes in carotid artery intima-media thickness ... O'Leary DH, Polak JF, Kronmal RA, Manolio TA, Burke GL, Wolfson SK (January 1999). "Carotid-artery intima and media thickness ... Testing for plaque includes a carotid intima-media thickness test, (CIMT), which measures blood flow through the arteries and ... Doneen AL, Bale BF (March 2013). "Carotid intima-media thickness testing as an asymptomatic cardiovascular disease identifier ...
The retinal arteries may show spontaneous pulsations.[citation needed] If carotid occlusive disease results in ophthalmic ... The syndrome has been associated with occlusion of the common carotid artery, internal carotid artery, and less frequently the ... Retinal artery occlusion (such as central retinal artery occlusion or branch retinal artery occlusion) leads to rapid death of ... such as coronary artery disease and especially carotid atherosclerosis). Consequently, those with transient blurring of vision ...
... and the global epidemiological estimates for peripheral artery disease (PAD), carotid atherosclerosis and chronic obstructive ... and national prevalence and risk factors for peripheral artery disease in 2015: an updated systematic review and analysis". The ... "Comparison of global estimates of prevalence and risk factors for peripheral artery disease in 2000 and 2010: a systematic ... Igor Rudan co-led the discovery of the SLC2A9 gene variants that were associated with uric acid levels and gout disease. In ...
... and myocardial infarction Carotid artery stenosis - any narrowing of the carotid arteries Peripheral artery disease - occurs ... Renal artery stenosis - the narrowing of renal arteries that carry blood to the kidneys from the aorta. Buerger's disease - ... Treatment varies based on the type of vascular disease being treated. In treating renal artery disease, a 2014 study indicates ... Coronary artery disease - the most common of the cardiovascular diseases, types include angina, ...
These vessels are the ACA (anterior cerebral artery), MCA (middle cerebral artery), and ICA (internal carotid artery). The ... such as the external carotid artery or the superficial temporal artery to replace its circulation. The arteries are either sewn ... The disease causes constrictions primarily in the internal carotid artery, and often extends to the middle and anterior ... cerebral arteries, branches of the internal carotid artery inside the skull. When the internal carotid artery becomes ...
Carotid artery disease develops when the arteries that carry blood to the brain get narrower or clogged due to plaque buildup. ... Carotid artery disease is not the same as coronary artery disease, although they stem from the same issue. Both diseases occur ... However, carotid artery disease is a buildup of plaque in the arteries leading to the brain, whereas coronary artery disease is ... Carotid artery disease occurs when plaque builds up inside the carotid arteries. These arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to the ...
Carotid artery disease is a condition where plaque builds up in the carotid arteries, which supply blood to the brain. This can ... Carotid Artery Disease Carotid artery disease is a condition where plaque builds up in the carotid arteries, which supply blood ...
Carotid artery disease is when blood flow through your carotid artery is blocked. Without enough oxygen from blood, your eyes ... Treatment of carotid artery disease. Your doctors will work as a team to treat carotid artery disease. Your treatment may ... There are two carotid arteries in your neck: one on the right side and one on the left side. Carotid artery disease is when ... Vision problems may be warning signs of carotid artery disease. Know the warning signs of a possible blocked carotid artery. If ...
Atherosclerosis is a degenerative disease of the arteries resulting in plaques consisting of necrotic cells, lipids, and ... encoded search term (Atherosclerotic Disease of the Carotid Artery) and Atherosclerotic Disease of the Carotid Artery What to ... Carotid artery stenting has increased risk of external carotid artery occlusion compared with carotid endarterectomy. J Vasc ... Carotid artery exposed prior to carotid endarterectomy (coil present in internal carotid artery). ...
... nurses and a full support staff at Tufts Medical Center in Boston treat Carotid Artery Disease. ... Carotid Artery Disease Program. The Carotid Artery Disease Program at Tufts MC in Boston provides minimally invasive treatments ... The carotid arteries are two main arteries in the neck. When these arteries narrow due to cholesterol, its called carotid ... for patients with narrowed carotid arteries due to atherosclerosis. More information about programs and services ...
... of the carotid arteries occurs when fatty deposits, or plaques, adhere to the walls of the arteries that supply blood to the ... Carotid Artery Disease Stenosis, or stiffening, of the carotid arteries occurs when fatty deposits, or plaques, adhere to the ... Carotid Artery Disease. Stenosis, or stiffening, of the carotid arteries occurs when fatty deposits, or plaques, adhere to the ... Peripheral Aneurysmal Disease. Carotid Artery Disease. Dialysis Access. Wound Care. Vascular Lab. Giant Cell Arteritis. ...
Our cardiovascular doctors offer personalized carotid artery disease treatment in Sacramento. ... Carotid Artery Disease Causes & Symptoms. Carotid artery disease is caused by the buildup of fatty plaques on the walls of the ... Treating & Preventing Carotid Artery Disease with Dignity Health. Our advanced carotid artery disease treatment and prevention ... Many people do not experience any signs and symptoms of carotid artery disease until the disease is advanced. A transient ...
... refers to the narrowing of the carotid arteries, most commonly from fatty deposits called plaque ... The carotid artery is responsible for supplying blood to the brain. ... The carotid artery is responsible for supplying blood to the brain.. Carotid artery disease refers to the narrowing of the ... There are several things that can increase your risk of carotid artery disease. They include:. *Age (if you are older than 50 ...
Carotid Artery Disease flashcards from Mollie O's class online, or in Brainscape's iPhone or Android app. ✓ Learn ... 6] Carotid Artery Disease Flashcards Preview Vascular [20] , [6] Carotid Artery Disease , Flashcards ... Why are Duplex ultrasound scans good for screening asymptomatic patients for carotid artery disease? ... What is the use of Duplex ultrasound scans in carotid artery disease? ...
Rivaroxaban with or without aspirin in patients with stable peripheral or carotid artery disease: an international, randomised ... reduced cardiovascular events in patients with stable peripheral or carotid artery disease, but increased the risk of major ... reduced cardiovascular events in patients with stable peripheral or carotid artery disease, but increased the risk of major ... People with peripheral vascular disease are at high risk of vascular events and major adverse limb events. Use of antiplatelet ...
Symptoms of Carotid Artery Disease. "Sometimes its silent," said Malgor.. In its early stages, carotid artery disease often ... Carotid Artery Disease Risk Factors. Factors that increase your risk of carotid artery disease include: ... Carotid Artery Surgery. Severe carotid artery disease can be treated with surgery or stenting and the process has changed over ... Your risk of carotid artery disease is higher if a relative has atherosclerosis or coronary artery disease. ...
Magnetic resonance imaging plaque hemorrhage for risk stratification in carotid artery disease with moderate risk under current ... Magnetic resonance imaging plaque hemorrhage for risk stratification in carotid artery disease with moderate risk under current ... Results-Fifty-five participants showed MRIPH+ve; 47 had low, 36 intermediate, and 5 high carotid artery risk scores. Cox ... Methods-One-hundred fifty-one symptomatic patients with 30% to 99% carotid artery stenosis (median age: 77, 60.5% men) ...
The carotid arteries provide the main blood supply to the brain. They are located on each side of your neck. You can feel their ... The carotid arteries provide the main blood supply to the brain. They are located on each side of your neck. You can feel their ... Having carotid artery disease puts you at risk for stroke. If you think you have symptoms of stroke, go to the emergency room ... Carotid artery stenosis occurs when the carotid arteries become narrowed or blocked. This can lead to stroke. ...
"Utility of noninvasive studies in the evaluation of patients with carotid artery disease." Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2, no. 1 ( ... "Utility of noninvasive studies in the evaluation of patients with carotid artery disease." Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep, vol. 2, no ... Utility of noninvasive studies in the evaluation of patients with carotid artery disease.. Publication , Journal Article ... Utility of noninvasive studies in the evaluation of patients with carotid artery disease. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2002 Jan;2( ...
keywords = "Betacoronavirus, Carotid Artery Diseases, Carotid Stenosis, Coronavirus Infections, Endarterectomy, Humans, ... Preventing stroke in symptomatic carotid artery disease during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2020 Aug;72( ... Preventing stroke in symptomatic carotid artery disease during the COVID-19 pandemic. In: Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2020 ; ... Preventing stroke in symptomatic carotid artery disease during the COVID-19 pandemic. / Hellegering, Joyce; van der Laan, ...
... peripheral artery disease (PAD), varicose veins, and more from this WebMD slideshow. ... See pictures of vein and artery problems and learn about the causes and symptoms of conditions like coronary artery disease, ... Carotid Artery Disease. 5/16. The carotid arteries run along either side of your neck. They supply blood to your brain, face, ... "What is Carotid Artery Disease?". SecondsCount.org: "Peripheral Vascular Disease: How Problems With Arteries & Veins Affect ...
Carotid artery disease occurs when fatty deposits called plaques clog your carotid arteries. Your carotid arteries are a pair ... The buildup of plaques in these arteries blocks the blood supply to your brain and increases your risk of stroke. ... Carotid artery disease occurs when fatty deposits called plaques clog your carotid arteries. Your carotid arteries are a pair ... Carotid artery disease occurs when fatty deposits called plaques clog your carotid arteries. Your carotid arteries are a pair ...
... peripheral artery disease (PAD), varicose veins, and more from this WebMD slideshow. ... See pictures of vein and artery problems and learn about the causes and symptoms of conditions like coronary artery disease, ... Carotid Artery Disease. The carotid arteries run along either side of your neck. They supply blood to your brain, face, and ... "What is Carotid Artery Disease?". *SecondsCount.org: "Peripheral Vascular Disease: How Problems With Arteries & Veins Affect ...
Association Between Blood Pressure, Internal Carotid Artery Flow Parameters And Age-related White Matter Disease. In: Stroke. ... Association Between Blood Pressure, Internal Carotid Artery Flow Parameters And Age-related White Matter Disease. Stroke. 2013 ... Association Between Blood Pressure, Internal Carotid Artery Flow Parameters And Age-related White Matter Disease. / Aribisala, ... title = "Association Between Blood Pressure, Internal Carotid Artery Flow Parameters And Age-related White Matter Disease", ...
What is carotid artery disease?. The carotid arteries can get blockages just like the heart or legs. Smoking, high blood ... How do you address carotid artery disease?. Obviously, if they have a stroke or a mini-stroke and they have blockages in the ... An open procedure (carotid endarterectomy) is where you make an incision in the neck and actually clean out the carotid artery ... and high cholesterol are the biggest risk factors for carotid arteries. Patients dont always know that they have carotid ...
Vascular Disease and Surgery. View all - Vascular Disease and Surgery Aortic Disease - General Aneurysm Carotid Artery Disease ... View all - Prevention & Chronic Conditions Angina Coronary Artery Disease and Myocardial Infarction Atherosclerosis and ...
Newell has 25+ years of experience helping patients with Carotid Artery Disease. The carotid arteries are two large blood ... Carotid Artery Disease. The carotid arteries are two large blood vessels that deliver blood to your brain. Carotid artery ... which could indicate carotid artery disease. There are other specialized tests that can be used to diagnose carotid disease, ... Carotid Endarterectomy (CEA). Carotid endarterectomy is the removal of plaque from the carotid artery through an incision in ...
The pathogenetic mechanisms that lead to PVD are similar to those of coronary artery disease (CAD). ... Peripheral vascular disease (PVD), or atherosclerosis of peripheral vessels, is the most common cause of symptomatic stenosis ... Carotid artery disease. A diagnosis of carotid artery disease by means of physical examination alone is probably inaccurate. ... and Carotid Artery Disease. Subclavian and brachiocephalic artery disease. Patients with atherosclerotic disease of an upper ...
Turn to DMC Medical Group to diagnose and treat carotid artery disease. Visit our website to learn more about our approach and ... Carotid Artery Disease. DMC Medical Group offer advanced treatment options for cardiovascular disease including carotid artery ... Understanding Carotid Artery Disease. The carotid arteries are two major blood vessels that transport blood to the brain and ... Carotid artery disease causes these vital arteries to narrow and eventually become blocked due to a gradual buildup of plaque ...
Carotid Artery Disease. []    Brott Thomas G., Hobson Robert W., Howard George, et al. Stenting versus endarterectomy for ... Aspirin vs anticoagulation in carotid artery dissection: a study of 298 patients. Neurology.  2009;72:1810â€"1815. ...     Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid stenosis. North American ... treatment of carotid-artery stenosis. The New England journal of medicine.  2010;363:11â€"23. ...
Vascular Cures: Carotid Artery Disease. Information on carotid artery disease including symptoms, risk factors, diagnosis, ... Society for Vascular Surgery: Carotid Artery Disease. Provides an overview of carotid artery disease including symptoms, causes ... Carotid Artery Disease and the Procedures to Repair Blocked Neck Arteries (Michigan Medicine). Scroll down until find the above ... Carotid Artery Disease: Home. Other Names: • CAD • Ischemic (is-KE-mik) heart disease ...
Peter Vale provides treatment for carotid artery disease in Wollstonecraft NSW. Check this link for more info. ... Home // Vascular // Vascular Conditions // Carotid Artery Disease. Carotid Artery Disease. Carotid arteries are a pair of large ... When these arteries get blocked, it leads to a condition known as carotid artery disease. In this disease, the arteries become ... Carotid endarterectomy is a standard surgery to treat individuals with carotid artery disease. It helps to remove plaque from ...
Hyderabad has treat patients with mainly carotid arteries diseases (CAD), Stroke usually occurs mainly due ... Angiocare hospital at KPHB Coloney, Kukatpally, Hyderabad has treat patients with mainly carotid arteries diseases (CAD), ... usually due to blockages in the carotid arteries.Atherosclerosis usually lead to serious problems like heart attack, brain ... Puneeth Joopalli suggests is males and people with a family history of premature cardiovascular disease have an increased risk ...
... the large artery on either side of your neck, becomes blocked ... artery disease is a condition that happens when your carotid ... Types of Carotid Artery Disease. Carotid artery disease, also known as carotid artery stenosis, refers to the narrowing or ... Carotid Artery Disease or Carotid artery stenosis is a condition that happens when your carotid artery, the large artery on ... Causes of Carotid Artery Disease. Carotid artery disease, or carotid artery stenosis, is primarily caused by atherosclerosis, ...
Looking for the BEST carotid artery disease surgeons in Houston, TX? Look no further! Schedule your appointment now for the ... What Causes Carotid Artery Disease?. Carotid artery disease seems to start when damage occurs to the inner layers of the ... Carotid artery disease is a disease in which a waxy substance called plaque builds up inside the carotid arteries. ... Carotid artery disease is a major cause of stroke in the United States. Over time, plaque hardens and narrows the arteries. ...
  • Arteriogram of carotid stenosis. (medscape.com)
  • Stenosis, or stiffening, of the carotid arteries occurs when fatty deposits, or plaques, adhere to the walls of the arteries that supply blood to the brain. (southnassau.org)
  • Vascular ultrasound can also confirm the presence and severity of carotid stenosis (narrowing). (dignityhealth.org)
  • Background and Purpose-Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-defined carotid plaque hemorrhage (MRIPH) can predict recurrent cerebrovascular ischemic events in severe symptomatic carotid stenosis. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • Methods-One-hundred fifty-one symptomatic patients with 30% to 99% carotid artery stenosis (median age: 77, 60.5% men) clinically deemed to not benefit from endarterectomy were prospectively recruited to undergo MRI and clinical follow-up (mean, 22 months). (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • Conclusions-The study confirms MRIPH to be a powerful risk marker in symptomatic carotid stenosis with added value over current risk scores. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • For patients undergoing current secondary prevention medication with clinically uncertain benefit from recanalization, that is, those with moderate degree stenosis and intermediate carotid artery risk scores, MRIPH offers additional risk stratification. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • Carotid artery stenosis occurs when the carotid arteries become narrowed or blocked. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Management of recurrent carotid stenosis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Endarterectomy reduces the risk of stroke in selected patients with carotid artery stenosis, and the benefit is related to the degree of stenosis. (duke.edu)
  • Peripheral vascular disease (PVD ), or atherosclerosis of peripheral vessels, is the most common cause of symptomatic stenosis in the human vascular tree. (medscape.com)
  • Carotid duplex ultrasonography (US) is a noninvasive means by which to estimate the degree of cervical carotid stenosis. (medscape.com)
  • Superficial femoral artery stenosis causing claudication. (medscape.com)
  • Left subclavian artery stenosis. (medscape.com)
  • Left renal artery stenosis. (medscape.com)
  • Percutaneous transluminal angioplasty of superficial femoral artery stenosis, performed with a long balloon via a contralateral femoral approach. (medscape.com)
  • Stenting versus endarterectomy for treatment of carotid-artery stenosis. (strokeprevent.org)
  • 10-year stroke prevention after successful carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic stenosis (ACST-1): a multicentre randomised trial. (strokeprevent.org)
  • Â Â Â Â Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid stenosis. (strokeprevent.org)
  • Carotid Artery Disease or Carotid artery stenosis is a condition that happens when your carotid artery, the large artery on either side of your neck, becomes blocked. (diseasesdic.com)
  • You can develop carotid artery stenosis in either of the two arteries in your neck or in both. (diseasesdic.com)
  • Carotid artery disease, also known as carotid artery stenosis, refers to the narrowing or blockage of the carotid arteries, which are the major blood vessels that supply oxygen-rich blood to the brain. (diseasesdic.com)
  • In these cases, there might be a significant degree of stenosis or plaque buildup in the carotid arteries, but the patient does not experience any noticeable symptoms. (diseasesdic.com)
  • Total internal carotid artery occlusion results from thrombosis in the setting of chronic stenosis. (diseasesdic.com)
  • Carotid artery disease, or carotid stenosis, is a narrowing or constriction of the inner surface (lumen) of the carotid artery. (emoryhealthcare.org)
  • Carotid artery disease treatment is based on the severity of the stenosis found in the carotid artery. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • Carotid artery stenosis or carotid atherosclerosis life insurance approvals are easy to get once you know the facts. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • The key to this and any other life insurance approval with cardiovascular conditions is to work with someone who is familiar with carotid stenosis like us. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Here are the key components to getting the best life insurance rates with carotid stenosis. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • What is the underlying cause of the carotid artery stenosis? (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Underwriters will look at the severity of carotid stenosis based on the sonogram and blood flow estimates, and less than 50% stenosis is ideal. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • What is your Carotid Stenosis Treatment and Followup? (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • With carotid stenosis doctors usually prescribe aggressive anti platelet therapy, using medications like aggrenox, plavix or aspirin. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • From the time of the diagnosis, if the stenosis was greater than 50% then you should have annual ultrasounds until the carotid stenosis is stable. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • You can get approved for life insurance with carotid artery stenosis! (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • How is carotid artery stenosis treated? (ntxsurgical.com)
  • Carotid artery stenosis is a narrowing or constriction of any part of the carotid arteries, usually caused by atherosclerosis. (wikipedia.org)
  • In asymptomatic individuals with a carotid stenosis, the risk of developing a stroke is increased above those without a stenosis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The plaque build-up can narrow or constrict the artery lumen, a condition called stenosis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Two large randomized clinical trials have demonstrated that carotid surgery done with a 30-day stroke and death risk of 3% or less will benefit asymptomatic people with ≥60% stenosis who are expected to live at least 5 years after surgery. (wikipedia.org)
  • The atherosclerotic plaque is the dark mass on the left Carotid artery stenosis is usually diagnosed by color flow duplex ultrasound scan of the carotid arteries in the neck. (wikipedia.org)
  • Typically duplex ultrasound scan is the only investigation required for decision making in carotid stenosis as it is widely available and rapidly performed. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, further imaging can be required if the stenosis is not near the bifurcation of the carotid artery. (wikipedia.org)
  • Early risk of stroke was not affected by the degree of internal carotid artery stenosis. (ox.ac.uk)
  • We sought to determine differences with cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) in the morphology and composition of the carotid arteries between individuals with angiographically-defined obstructive coronary artery disease (CAD, ≥ 50% stenosis, cases) and those with angiographically normal coronaries (no lumen irregularities, controls). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Methods Single-center technical report of the first four consecutive cases of carotid artery stenting for the treatment of severe symptomatic carotid stenosis utilizing the CorPath GRX Robotic System (Corindus Inc, Waltham, MA). (bmj.com)
  • There is no consensus, however, on how to treat concomitant extracranial carotid artery stenosis after EVT. (lu.se)
  • Angiogram obtained after percutaneous transluminal angiography for superficial femoral artery stenosis. (medscape.com)
  • Atherosclerotic plaque removed at time of carotid endarterectomy (areas of ulceration with thrombus and intraplaque hemorrhage are present). (medscape.com)
  • Carotid endarterectomy is the removal of plaque from the carotid artery through an incision in the neck. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • An open procedure (carotid endarterectomy) is where you make an incision in the neck and actually clean out the carotid artery. (memorialheartvascular.org)
  • Lessons from carotid endarterectomy and stenting trials. (strokeprevent.org)
  • North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. (strokeprevent.org)
  • Provides information on carotid endarterectomy including why it's done, how to prepare and what to expect after treatment. (umich.edu)
  • Carotid endarterectomy is a standard surgery to treat individuals with carotid artery disease. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • Common treatments include lifestyle changes (diet, exercise, smoking cessation), medications to manage risk factors (cholesterol-lowering drugs, antiplatelet medications), and, in severe cases, surgical procedures such as carotid endarterectomy or carotid artery stenting to remove or bypass the blockage. (diseasesdic.com)
  • Carotid endarterectomy is the surgical procedure for removing the buildup in the carotid arteries that can prevent new strokes from occurring. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • Prior to TCAR, the main treatment option for severe carotid artery disease was an open surgical procedure called carotid endarterectomy or CEA," Vang says. (baycareclinic.com)
  • The next treatment is an operation called a carotid endarterectomy (CEA) where the artery is cut open and the waxy plaque is removed. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Carotid Endarterectomy: This surgical procedure involves removing plaque from the carotid arteries to restore normal blood flow. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • Interventional options include surgery (carotid endarterectomy) to clean out the disease and carotid artery stenting. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • The procedure to remove plaques is called carotid endarterectomy. (mayoclinic.org)
  • A surgery called carotid endarterectomy (CEA) is one way to remove blockages to the normal flow of blood and to minimize your risk of a stroke. (healthline.com)
  • North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Group None. (ox.ac.uk)
  • METHODS: Using patient data from the medical arm of the North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial, we calculated the risk of ipsilateral stroke in the territory of the symptomatic internal carotid artery within 2 and 90 days after a first-recorded hemispheric TIA. (ox.ac.uk)
  • The aim of this study was to evaluate the outcome in patients treated with carotid endarterectomy (CEA) after EVT, comparing complication rates among patients undergoing CEA for stroke without previous EVT. (lu.se)
  • Your risk of carotid artery disease is higher if a relative has atherosclerosis or coronary artery disease. (cumedicine.us)
  • Just like in coronary artery disease, plaque narrows the arteries and leaves less room for blood to flow through. (webmd.com)
  • Having a family history of atherosclerosis or coronary artery disease increases your risk of developing these conditions, as well. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • The pathogenetic mechanisms that lead to PVD are similar to those of coronary artery disease (CAD). (medscape.com)
  • Predict coronary artery disease by measuring the thickness of the carotid artery and evaluating the characteristics of a plaque. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Coronary artery disease-related genetic variant on chromosome 10q11 is associated with carotid intima-media thickness and atherosclerosis. (ox.ac.uk)
  • METHODS AND RESULTS: Variation on chromosome 10q11.21 has been consistently associated with coronary artery disease. (ox.ac.uk)
  • The diagnosis of Coronary Artery Disease (CAD), Myocardial Infarction (MI) and carotid atherosclerosis is of paramount importance, as these cardiovascular diseases may cause medical complications and large number of death. (shu.ac.uk)
  • Overview of Coronary Artery Disease Coronary artery disease (CAD) involves impairment of blood flow through the coronary arteries, most commonly by atheromas. (msdmanuals.com)
  • OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether chromosome 10q11.21 influences common carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) and atherosclerosis and whether it is associated with stromal cell-derived factor-1α (SDF-1α) plasma levels. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Ultrasound Evaluation of Carotid Artery Intima-Media Thickness: Effective Early Marker of Carotid Artery Disease in Adult Head and Neck Cancer Patients After Neck Radiation? (advancedpractitioner.com)
  • This integrative literature review assesses the use of ultrasound measured carotid artery intima-media thickness (IMT) as an early marker of CAD in adult HNC patients after neck radiation. (advancedpractitioner.com)
  • We studied the association of lipoproteins measured by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy with carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) in apparently healthy individuals (N = 5538, 38% White, 28% African American, 22% Hispanic, 12% Chinese). (nih.gov)
  • METHODS: A systematic review was conducted according to the PRISMA statement of the English literature involving WRS and carotid artery intima media thickness (CIMT). (cdc.gov)
  • The external and internal carotid arteries are separated from the surrounding tissues. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • The internal carotid arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to your brain, while the external carotid arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to your face, scalp, and neck. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • This fork is a common site for atherosclerosis, an inflammatory build-up of atheromatous plaque inside the common carotid artery, or the internal carotid arteries that causes them to narrow. (wikipedia.org)
  • Males with obstructive CAD compared to male controls had carotid bulbs and internal carotid arteries with smaller total vessel and lumen areas, and an increased prevalence of lipid-rich necrotic core. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Flow velocity and pulsatility index were measured in the middle cerebral, basilar and intracranial internal carotid arteries of a sample of 141 diabetic patients with no other risk factors, and 132 age- and sex-matched healthy controls. (who.int)
  • A narrowed artery poses a serious risk, as it may reduce or block the blood flow to the brain, which could cause a stroke. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Diagnosing carotid artery disease as early as possible is important to prevent potentially life threatening complications, such as stroke. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This could be due to a temporary blockage in your carotid artery, called a TIA (transient ischemic attack, or "mini-stroke") . (aao.org)
  • These narrowed arteries can cause health problems like stroke and the deterioration of brain tissue due to oxygen deprivation. (dignityhealth.org)
  • A transient ischemic attack (TIA or "mini-stroke") or stroke may be the first sign you have carotid artery disease. (dignityhealth.org)
  • Carotid arteries are the major vessels running from your heart to the brain and are responsible for up to a third of all strokes, "They are one of the most common causes of a stroke because these arteries can fill with plaque," Explained Dr. Emily Malgor , a vascular surgeon at CU Medicine Vascular Surgery - Highlands Ranch . (cumedicine.us)
  • Seeing a doctor early increases your chances that carotid artery disease will be found and treated before a stroke occurs. (cumedicine.us)
  • A stent is then placed in the artery to stabilize plaque and minimize the likelihood of a future stroke. (cumedicine.us)
  • In addition to that, lifestyle changes to lower your blood pressure, cholesterol, and diabetes risk will reduce your risk of carotid artery disease and stroke. (cumedicine.us)
  • Having carotid artery disease puts you at risk for stroke. (medlineplus.gov)
  • They include stroke, narrowed blood vessels, aneurysms (weakened arteries), and abnormal clusters of blood vessels called vascular malformations. (webmd.com)
  • The buildup of plaques in these arteries blocks the blood supply to your brain and increases your risk of stroke . (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • Because carotid artery disease develops slowly and often goes unnoticed, the first outward clue that you have the condition may be a stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA ), also called a ministroke. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • The most serious complication of carotid artery disease is stroke. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • There are often no symptoms of carotid artery disease until you have a TIA (mini-stroke) or a stroke. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • Carotid CT angiography (CTA) is a commonly performed imaging study in stroke centers. (medscape.com)
  • Obviously, if they have a stroke or a mini-stroke and they have blockages in the carotid arteries that would be something that we need to fix. (memorialheartvascular.org)
  • Since carotid artery disease progresses over time, symptoms may not manifest until a stroke or a transient ischemic attack, TIA, take place. (dmcmedicalgroup.com)
  • Some of the risk factors that can cause carotid artery disease include obesity, high blood pressure and cholesterol levels, family history of stroke, smoking, drug abuse, kidney diseases, diabetes, and excessive alcohol consumption. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • Narrowing of the artery causes stroke and transient ischemic attack (TIA) which includes symptoms such as blurred vision, loss of memory and sensation, problems in speech and language, and weakness in one part of the body. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • Physical inactivity can increase your risk of stroke, heart disease, overweight/obesity, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol and diabetes. (angiocare.in)
  • When plaque blocks the normal flow of blood through your carotid artery, you're at a higher risk of stroke. (diseasesdic.com)
  • Transient Ischemic Attacks (mini-strokes) or a stroke are caused by carotid artery disease. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • This disease is noticed when the brain is deprived of blood and resulting into TIA (Transient Ischemic Attacks) or s stroke. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • If left untreated, carotid artery disease can often lead to stroke. (baycareclinic.com)
  • Because of its low stroke risk and faster patient recovery, I believe TCAR provides another great option for carotid repair. (baycareclinic.com)
  • It's all about stroke risk, and often times your outlying medical history will be a bigger concern to life insurance underwriters than the carotid artery disease. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Stroke: If a significant blockage or clot occurs in the carotid arteries, it can result in a stroke, which may cause sudden weakness, paralysis, confusion, trouble speaking, or vision problems. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • Carotid artery disease is a major cause of stroke in the United States. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • If plaque builds up in the carotid arteries, a stroke can occur. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • Carotid (ka-ROT-id) artery disease, which can lead to a stroke, is a condition in which a fatty material called plaque (plak) builds up inside the carotid arteries. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • Carotid artery disease can be very serious because it can cause a stroke, or "brain attack. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • The goals of treatment are to stop the disease from getting worse and to prevent a stroke. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • Taking action to control your risk factors can help prevent or delay carotid artery disease and stroke. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • Carotid and vertebral artery disease affects a large segment of the population with the potential of causing severe disability from a major stroke. (nshealth.ca)
  • Contributions from many interrelated specialties, including cerebrovascular physiology, pathology, neuro-radiology, neuro-interventions, stroke-neurology and vascular surgery significantly enhance our knowledge of carotid and vertebral artery disease. (nshealth.ca)
  • A piece of this material can break off and travel (embolize) up through the internal carotid artery into the brain, where it blocks circulation, and can cause death of the brain tissue, a condition referred to as ischemic stroke. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pieces of plaque can break off and block the small arteries above in the brain, which causes a stroke. (wikipedia.org)
  • A carotid ultrasound tests for blocked or narrowed carotid arteries, which can increase the risk of stroke. (mayoclinic.org)
  • An ischemic stroke occurs when a blood clot, known as a thrombus, blocks or plugs an artery leading to the brain. (mayoclinic.org)
  • A carotid ultrasound is done to look for for narrowed carotid arteries, which increase the risk of stroke. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Early diagnosis and treatment of a narrowed carotid artery can decrease stroke risk. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Your health care provider orders a carotid ultrasound if you have a transient ischemic attack (TIA), also called a mini-stroke, or other types of strokes. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Monitor carotid artery blood flow during aortic heart valve surgery to assess the risk of a stroke. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Carotid artery disease can lead to a stroke. (healthline.com)
  • CEA is considered a reasonably safe procedure that can greatly reduce the risk of stroke if you have carotid artery disease. (healthline.com)
  • Early risk of stroke after a transient ischemic attack in patients with internal carotid artery disease. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Our objective was to quantify the early risk of stroke after a TIA in patients with internal carotid artery disease. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Infarct on brain imaging (adjusted hazard ratio 2.1, 95% CI 1.5-3.0) and the presence of intracranial major-artery disease (adjusted hazard ratio 1.9, 95% CI 1.3-2.7) doubled the early risk of stroke in patients with a hemispheric TIA. (ox.ac.uk)
  • INTERPRETATION: Patients who had a hemispheric TIA related to internal carotid artery disease had a high risk of stroke in the first few days after the TIA. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Too much plaque in a carotid artery can cause a stroke . (daviddarling.info)
  • A bruit can mean that there's a partial blockage in the carotid artery that could lead to a stroke. (daviddarling.info)
  • Sometimes carotid ultrasound is used as a preventive screening test in people who have medical conditions that increase their risk of stroke, including high blood pressure and diabetes . (daviddarling.info)
  • If the carotid arteries are narrowed by plaque, the patient may be at risk for having a stroke. (daviddarling.info)
  • To reduce the patient's risk for stroke, his or her doctor may recommend medical or surgical treatments to reduce or remove the plaque buildup in the carotid arteries. (daviddarling.info)
  • One of the most dangerous presentations of cardiovascular disease is stroke. (lu.se)
  • Stroke, like many other cardiovascular diseases, can be influenced by modifiable lifestyle factors, such as diet. (lu.se)
  • There are two large common carotid arteries, one on each side of the neck. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • During a physical examination, the doctor will place a stethoscope on the neck near the carotid arteries and listen for a slight "whooshing" sound. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Carotid arteries are the main blood vessels in your neck that send blood to your eyes and brain. (aao.org)
  • There are two carotid arteries in your neck: one on the right side and one on the left side. (aao.org)
  • The carotid arteries are two main arteries in the neck. (tuftsmedicalcenter.org)
  • The carotid arteries are blood vessels that run along both sides of your neck and deliver oxygen-rich blood to your brain. (dignityhealth.org)
  • The carotid arteries run along either side of your neck. (webmd.com)
  • Your doctor may listen to the arteries in your neck with a stethoscope. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • One of the newer procedures that we do is a stent placement where we cut down on the carotid artery at the lower portion of the neck and actually deliver a stent right through there. (memorialheartvascular.org)
  • Both divide into an internal carotid artery - which carries blood to the brain - and an external carotid artery - which carries blood to the face and neck. (dmcmedicalgroup.com)
  • Carotid arteries are a pair of large blood vessels present in the neck. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • Other diagnostic tests such as ultrasound of the carotid arteries, carotid or cerebral angiography, magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), computerized tomographic angiography (CTA) are done to examine the blood vessels of the neck and brain. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • It helps to remove plaque from the artery of the neck and restore the proper blood flow to the brain. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • In this procedure, incision is made in the neck and a catheter, flexible tube is inserted through which blood will flow to the blocked artery. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • You have two carotid arteries one on each side of your neck. (diseasesdic.com)
  • The carotid artery is the large artery whose pulse can be felt on both sides of the neck under the jaw. (emoryhealthcare.org)
  • These arteries are located on each side of the neck and are very crucial as they are responsible for supplying blood to the big front portion of the brain. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • This is meant for those people who have large blockages in their neck arteries. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • Carotid artery disease is a form of atherosclerosis, or a buildup of plaque, in the two main arteries in the neck that supply oxygen-rich blood to the brain. (baycareclinic.com)
  • Your carotid arteries lie on both sides of your neck. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Whenever you see a doctor on one of those emergency room TV dramas check someone's pulse around the neck, they checking via the carotid artery. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • You have two common carotid arteries, one on each side of your neck, that each divide into internal and external carotid arteries. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • Figure A shows the location of the right carotid artery in the head and neck. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • This disease affects the arteries in the neck that supply blood to the brain causing the arteries that carry blood to the brain to narrow. (integrisok.com)
  • One carotid artery is located on each side of the neck. (mayoclinic.org)
  • It can occur in the carotid artery of the neck as well as other arteries. (mayoclinic.org)
  • The carotid arteries, which are located on either side of your neck, provide your face and brain with the oxygen-rich blood they need to function properly. (healthline.com)
  • The artery that's being cleared will be clamped during the surgery, but blood will still reach the brain through the carotid artery on the other side of your neck. (healthline.com)
  • Once the blockage is removed, the artery is stitched or patched back together and unclamped, and the opening in your neck is closed with stitches. (healthline.com)
  • Carotid IMT, measured by ultrasound, was significantly increased after neck radiation in all reviewed publications. (advancedpractitioner.com)
  • Carotid ultrasound is a painless and harmless test that uses high-frequency sound waves (see also ultrasound scanning ) to create images of the insides of the two large arteries in the neck . (daviddarling.info)
  • A doctor can hear a carotid bruit with the help of a stethoscope put on the neck over the carotid artery. (daviddarling.info)
  • A technician or doctor puts a gel on the patient's neck where the carotid arteries are located. (daviddarling.info)
  • The artery wall is opened and the blockage will be cleared. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • This refers to cases where the narrowing or blockage of the carotid artery leads to symptoms such as transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) or strokes. (diseasesdic.com)
  • Carotid Artery Disease (CAD), characterized by the narrowing or blockage of the carotid arteries supplying blood to the brain, is a prevalent condition primarily affecting older adults, with prevalence rising notably beyond the age of 65. (diseasesdic.com)
  • When there is blockage or narrowing of the carotid artery caused by the accumulation of the plaque is known as carotid artery disease. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • However some sort of head or vertebral trauma could also cause the artery blockage. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Usually the % of blockage on a carotid imaging study is presented as a wide range. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Symptoms indicate a loss of blood flow to the brain and this is when most people find out they have a blockage of their carotid artery. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Carotid Artery Disease typically results from atherosclerosis, a process in which fatty deposits, cholesterol, and other substances accumulate in the carotid arteries, leading to the narrowing or blockage of these vital blood vessels. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • Carotid Ultrasound: This non-invasive imaging test uses sound waves to create images of the carotid arteries, allowing physicians to assess the degree of narrowing or blockage. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • This X-ray of the arteries and veins detects blockage or narrowing. (integrisok.com)
  • In this procedure, your surgeon will cut into the artery and remove the blockage. (healthline.com)
  • Peripheral Artery Disease, commonly referred to as PAD, is a chronic condition. (southnassau.org)
  • Your carotid arteries carry oxygen- and nutrient-rich blood to your cerebral cortex and other vital brain structures, which are responsible for your day-to-day functioning. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • A piece of a plaque may break off and flow to smaller arteries in your brain (cerebral arteries). (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • Cerebral angiography (carotid angiogram) - This procedure is considered the gold standard for imaging the carotid arteries. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • Cerebral angiography allows the doctor to see narrowing or blockages on a live X-ray screen as contrast dye is injected in the carotid arteries. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • Cerebroarterial pulsatility has been reported to be significantly increased in patients with cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD). (ui.ac.id)
  • The main reason to postpone CEA was an infarct larger than one third of the middle cerebral artery territory. (lu.se)
  • La angiografía cerebral muestra las colaterales en humo de cigarrillo (moyamoya) en la base del cráneo. (bvsalud.org)
  • This study assessed its validity in determining cerebral small vessel disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. (who.int)
  • Transcranial doppler may be useful in early diagnosis of cerebral small vessel disease in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. (who.int)
  • DMC Medical Group offer advanced treatment options for cardiovascular disease including carotid artery disease. (dmcmedicalgroup.com)
  • If you know you are at risk of carotid artery disease or other forms of cardiovascular disease, it is important to discuss your preferences for medical treatment in the event of an emergency. (dmcmedicalgroup.com)
  • What Dr. Puneeth Joopalli suggests is males and people with a family history of premature cardiovascular disease have an increased risk of atherosclerosis. (angiocare.in)
  • African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans might face a higher risk, and CAD frequently coexists with other cardiovascular diseases. (diseasesdic.com)
  • University Hospitals Harrington Heart & Vascular Institute has partnered with Boston Scientific to educate people about vascular disease and eliminate disparities in cardiovascular care. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Cardiovascular Magnetic resonance (CMR) is a non-invasive imaging modality that has enabled the assessment of both the morphological [ 1 ] and compositional characteristics of the carotid arterial wall. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The association between work-related stress (WRS) and cardiovascular disease has been established in a number of epidemiological studies. (cdc.gov)
  • These measures will allow researchers to assess the effects of shift work and extended work hours on officer stress and fatigue, and examine the effects of work-related stress and fatigue on cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk. (cdc.gov)
  • BACKGROUND: Despite evidence supporting a role for the gut bacteria in multitude of human diseases including type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cardiovascular disease (CVD), causal- and mechanistic evidence in humans is limited, and prospective studies are lacking. (lu.se)
  • BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a known risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), and CVD is a major cause of mortality in patients with T2D. (bvsalud.org)
  • My research interest over the past few years focused on increasing the amount of evidence exploring the link between sugar consumption and disease development (particularly cardiovascular disease) in the context of nutritional recommendations. (lu.se)
  • Cardiovascular disease remains one of the greatest causes of disease and mortality worldwide. (lu.se)
  • Many cardiovascular diseases evolve from a phenomenon called atherosclerosis. (lu.se)
  • This marker measures the thickness of the wall of the carotid arteries and can predict the possibility of developing cardiovascular diseases later on in life. (lu.se)
  • In this article, learn more about the symptoms of carotid artery disease, as well as the risk factors and treatment options. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Many people with carotid artery disease do not have any symptoms at first. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Carotid artery disease generally starts causing noticeable symptoms as the condition gets worse. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Some people may not experience symptoms of carotid artery disease until they have a transient ischemic attack (TIA). (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Many people do not experience any signs and symptoms of carotid artery disease until the disease is advanced. (dignityhealth.org)
  • Dr. Emily Malgor, a vascular surgeon at CU Medicine Vascular Surgery - Highlands Ranch outlines the risk factors, symptoms, prevention, and surgical techniques related to carotid artery disease. (cumedicine.us)
  • We talked with her about risk factors, symptoms, and prevention of carotid artery disease. (cumedicine.us)
  • In its early stages, carotid artery disease often doesn't produce any signs or symptoms. (cumedicine.us)
  • Provides an overview of carotid artery disease including symptoms, causes, diagnosis, treatment and staying healthy. (umich.edu)
  • Diseases Treatments Dictionary This is complete solution to read all diseases treatments Which covers Prevention, Causes, Symptoms, Medical Terms, Drugs, Prescription, Natural Remedies with cures and Treatments. (diseasesdic.com)
  • There are no symptoms of carotid artery disease in its early stages. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • Do you have symptoms associated with carotid artery disease? (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • This is most common, however sometimes an abnormal sound (called a carotid buit) is detected by a doctor's stethoscope with no symptoms at all. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Carotid artery disease may not cause signs or symptoms until it severely narrows or blocks the carotid arteries. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • Less common symptoms are artery sounds (bruits), or ringing in the ears (tinnitus). (wikipedia.org)
  • Some types of vascular disease have obvious symptoms and others are more difficult to identify. (integrisok.com)
  • Officers with higher post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms had a nearly two-fold reduction in brachial artery flow-mediated dilation, indicating greater impairment of endothelial function (physiologic dysfunction of the normal biochemical processes carried out by the cells which line the inner surface of blood vessels) than officers with fewer PTSD symptoms. (cdc.gov)
  • symptoms vary by artery affected. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Currently however, transcarotid artery revascularization (TCAR) is the first-line therapy for carotid artery surgery at CU Medicine Vascular Surgery and is kind of a combination of the other two methods. (cumedicine.us)
  • Drs. Jeanette H. Man and Steven Vang, surgeons with Aurora BayCare General & Vascular Surgery, are treating carotid artery disease and preventing potential strokes by using an innovative procedure called transcarotid artery revascularization. (baycareclinic.com)
  • Both open carotid surgery and stent placement using minimally invasive methods are available to patients and involve some risk. (cumedicine.us)
  • One of the older ways to do a stent would be from a groin artery, but we're getting more away from that now as we are able to put the stent straight through the carotid artery itself. (memorialheartvascular.org)
  • Stent is a mesh-like tube which is made up of stainless-steel that has the ability to expand inside the blocked artery. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • This stent is inserted into the blocked artery, as the balloon inflates the stent will expand by keeping the artery open. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • Surgeons then filter the blood before returning it to a vein in the groin, and a stent is implanted directly into the carotid artery to stabilize the plaque and prevent future strokes. (baycareclinic.com)
  • Have you ever had surgery, a carotid endartectomy (CEA), a carotid artery stent or been hospitalized because of your carotid arteries? (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Evaluate the placement and effectiveness of a stent, a mesh tube used to improve blood flow through an artery. (mayoclinic.org)
  • If a patient had a procedure called carotid stenting , the doctor may order a carotid ultrasound afterward to check the position of the stent put in the carotid artery. (daviddarling.info)
  • The stent, a small mesh tube, helps prevent the artery from becoming narrowed or blocked again. (daviddarling.info)
  • It starts from the aorta as the common carotid artery, and at the throat it forks into the internal carotid artery and the external carotid artery. (emoryhealthcare.org)
  • Atherosclerosis causes plaque to form within the carotid artery walls, usually at the fork where the common carotid artery divides into the internal and external carotid artery. (wikipedia.org)
  • The common carotid artery is the large vertical artery in red. (wikipedia.org)
  • Blood flows from the common carotid artery(bottom), and divides into the internal carotid artery (left) and external carotid artery (right). (wikipedia.org)
  • This study aims to describe RI of internal carotid artery (ICA) and common carotid artery (CCA) in CSVD. (ui.ac.id)
  • This study aims to describe RI of internal carotid artery (ICA) and common carotid artery (CCA) in CSVD.Methods: This retrospective study evaluated the registry in Neurosonology Lab, between January and June of 2020. (ui.ac.id)
  • Count on the leading expertise of the Dignity Health Heart and Vascular Institute of Greater Sacramento for the care and treatment of carotid artery disease in Sacramento, CA and surrounding areas. (dignityhealth.org)
  • Treatment of carotid artery disease usually involves a combination of lifestyle changes, medications and, in some cases, surgery or a stenting procedure. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • The treatment of carotid artery disease includes certain lifestyle changes along with the surgery. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) - This imaging technique uses a powerful magnet (an MRI) to gather accurate information about the brain and arteries. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • Both symptomatic and asymptomatic carotid artery disease can be diagnosed through imaging tests like carotid ultrasound, Doppler ultrasound, magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), and computed tomography angiography (CTA). (diseasesdic.com)
  • Magnetic Resonance Angiography (MRA) or Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA): These imaging techniques provide detailed images of the carotid arteries without invasive procedures. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • The atherosclerotic process may gradually progress to complete occlusion of medium-sized and large arteries. (medscape.com)
  • Rupture of the plaque can release atherosclerotic debris or blood clots into the artery. (wikipedia.org)
  • Among the different methods available for diagnosing atherosclerotic disease, color Doppler examination may be considered the "gold standard. (bvsalud.org)
  • Atherosclerosis has a predilection for certain arteries, including the extracranial carotid artery. (medscape.com)
  • This article describes the history and impact of this process as it occurs in the extracranial carotid artery. (medscape.com)
  • This book places emphasis on the medical, endovascular and surgical approaches in managing patients with extracranial carotid and vertebral artery disease following pertinent diagnostic studies. (nshealth.ca)
  • Extracranial Carotid and Vertebral Artery Disease: Contemporary Management provides an comprehensive and state-of-the-art approach to managing complex arterial reconstructions. (nshealth.ca)
  • An angiography is an imaging test that uses a special dye to make the arteries show up clearly in the image. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Computerized tomography angiography (CTA) - More detailed than an X-ray, a CT uses X-rays and computer technology to produce cross-sectional images of the carotid arteries. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • Angiography: A contrast dye is injected into the carotid arteries, and X-ray images are taken to provide a detailed view of the blood vessels. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • Carotid angiography. (healthline.com)
  • Your doctors will work as a team to treat carotid artery disease. (aao.org)
  • Making certain changes to your diet and exercise habits can help treat carotid artery disease. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cardiogenic embolization to a normal carotid bifurcation or carotid dissection may also cause total occlusion of the internal carotid artery occlusion. (diseasesdic.com)
  • A noninflammatory, progressive occlusion of the intracranial CAROTID ARTERIES and the formation of netlike collateral arteries arising from the CIRCLE OF WILLIS. (bvsalud.org)
  • Carotid artery surgery also helps prevent a transient ischemic attack (TIA) . (healthline.com)
  • Carotid artery disease, also known as carotid atherosclerosis, occurs when there is a buildup of plaque in these arteries. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • Carotid artery disease causes these vital arteries to narrow and eventually become blocked due to a gradual buildup of plaque and fatty deposits. (dmcmedicalgroup.com)
  • This condition is usually caused by the buildup of plaque, a combination of cholesterol, fat, calcium, and other substances, on the inner walls of the arteries. (diseasesdic.com)
  • This type occurs when the carotid arteries become narrowed due to the buildup of plaque on their walls. (diseasesdic.com)
  • This fork is a common site for atherosclerosis, an inflammatory buildup of plaque that can narrow the common or internal artery. (emoryhealthcare.org)
  • The buildup of plaque or blood clots can severely narrow or block the carotid arteries. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • Narrowing of the artery because of the buildup of plaque. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • Carotid arteries are usually narrowed by a buildup of plaque - made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium and other substances that circulate in the bloodstream. (mayoclinic.org)
  • A carotid ultrasound can show whether buildup of plaque has narrowed one or both of the carotid arteries and reduced blood flow to the brain. (daviddarling.info)
  • The aorta is the largest artery in the body. (southnassau.org)
  • On the right side it starts from the brachiocephalic artery (a branch of the aorta), and on the left side the artery comes directly off the aortic arch. (wikipedia.org)
  • The blood supply to the carotid artery starts at the arch of the aorta (bottom). (wikipedia.org)
  • Plaque can also build up at the origin of the carotid artery at the aorta. (wikipedia.org)
  • This year, with the publication of the 2017 ESC Guidelines on Peripheral Arterial Diseases, the Council of Cardiology Practice together with the Working Group on Aorta and Peripheral Vascular Disease attempted to better understand the commitment of cardiologists in the management of patients with PVDs. (medscape.com)
  • This asymptomatic carotid artery disease is easier to underwrite with a better health class. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Biller J, Schneck MJ, Ruland S. Ischemic cerebrovascular disease. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Goldstein LB. Ischemic cerebrovascular disease. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cerebrovascular disease: decision making including medical therapy. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Cerebrovascular diseases limit your brain's blood supply. (webmd.com)
  • Atherosclerosis is a diffuse, degenerative disease of the arteries that results in the formation of plaques composed of necrotic cells, lipids, and cholesterol crystals. (medscape.com)
  • Carotid artery disease is caused by the buildup of fatty plaques on the walls of the arteries. (dignityhealth.org)
  • Our advanced carotid artery disease treatment and prevention at Dignity Health will usually focus on reducing the buildup of fatty plaques that clog these important blood vessels. (dignityhealth.org)
  • Carotid artery disease occurs when fatty deposits called plaques clog your carotid arteries. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • Over time, however, the carotid arteries can become stiff and narrow due to a gradual accumulation of plaques, a process called atherosclerosis. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • Plaques consist of clumps of cholesterol, calcium, fibrous tissue and other cellular debris that gather at microscopic injury sites within the artery. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • When a lot of these plaques accumulate, narrowing the carotid artery and substantially restricting blood flow, doctors label this as carotid artery disease. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • It looks for plaques and blood clots and determines whether the arteries are narrowed or blocked. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • A blood clot often forms in arteries damaged by a buildup of plaques, known as atherosclerosis. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Evaluate blood flow through the artery after surgery to remove plaques. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Atherosclerosis is characterized by patchy intimal plaques (atheromas) that encroach on the lumen of medium-sized and large arteries. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The Carotid Artery Disease Program at Tufts MC in Boston provides minimally invasive treatments for patients with narrowed carotid arteries due to atherosclerosis. (tuftsmedicalcenter.org)
  • The clinical carotid artery risk score could be evaluated in 88 patients. (nottingham.ac.uk)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: Utility of noninvasive studies in the evaluation of patients with carotid artery disease. (duke.edu)
  • Patients don't always know that they have carotid arteries unless they have a family history. (memorialheartvascular.org)
  • Aspirin vs anticoagulation in carotid artery dissection: a study of 298 patients. (strokeprevent.org)
  • Surgery is the only effective way to treat patients with carotid artery disease. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • Its a unique center with state of the art facilities, exclusively dedicated to our patients having arterial and venous diseases. (angiocare.in)
  • The procedure, often referred to as TCAR, is a clinically-proven, minimally-invasive approach for patients requiring carotid artery treatment. (baycareclinic.com)
  • We designed the C arotid A therosclerosis ( M RI) P rogression S tudy (CAMPS) to evaluate the presence and progression of carotid atherosclerosis measured by CMR over 2 years in patients with and without obstructive CAD. (biomedcentral.com)
  • La vitesse d'écoulement du flux sanguin et l'index de pulsatilité ont été mesurés dans les artères carotides internes intercrâniennes, les artères basilaires et cérébrales moyennes d'un échantillon de 141 patients diabétiques sans autre facteur de risque et de 132 témoins en bonne santé appariés pour l'âge et le sexe. (who.int)
  • Les patients ont été répartis en deux groupes : 73 patients souffrant d'un diabète compliqué dans le premier groupe et 68 patients atteints d'un diabète non compliqué dans le deuxième groupe. (who.int)
  • However, patients with PVDs in Europe are managed by a variety of specialists, according to the affected territory e.g. venous diseases, lower-extremity arterial disease (LEAD) or carotid disease, and the country. (medscape.com)
  • Overall these results show the important role of cardiologists in the management of patients with vascular diseases in our continent. (medscape.com)
  • Bruit (pronounced "broo-EE") is a characteristic whooshing sound from narrowed carotid arteries as your cardiologist or doctor listens with a stethoscope. (dignityhealth.org)
  • A bruit is a whooshing sound your doctor may hear while listening to your carotid arteries with a stethoscope. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • When damage is caused to the inner layers of the carotid arteries results in carotid artery disease. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • Carotid artery disease seems to start when damage occurs to the inner layers of the carotid arteries. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • These are large arteries that bring blood to your brain, face and head. (diseasesdic.com)
  • An aneurysm is a bulging of the artery caused by the weakening of the walls of the artery. (southnassau.org)
  • Giant cell arteritis is inflammation of the walls of the arteries, most commonly in the arteries in the head. (southnassau.org)
  • Excess pressure on artery walls can weaken them and make them more vulnerable to damage. (cumedicine.us)
  • You have this condition when sticky fat called plaque builds up in the walls of your coronary arteries -- vessels that supply your heart with blood. (webmd.com)
  • In PAD, plaque builds up in artery walls. (webmd.com)
  • Excess pressure on the walls of your arteries can weaken them and leave them more vulnerable to damage. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • The transducer gives off ultrasound waves and detects their echoes after they bounce off the artery walls and blood cells. (daviddarling.info)
  • Atherosclerosis is a process by which fatty materials accumulate on the walls of the arteries reducing their diameter, which decreases blood flow to organs. (lu.se)
  • While participants with a higher sugar consumption tended to have thicker artery walls, this finding would need to be studied further to confirm an association. (lu.se)
  • Has an abnormal sound in the carotid artery called a carotid bruit. (daviddarling.info)
  • What % of ischaemic strokes are due to carotid artery disease? (brainscape.com)
  • How can carotid artery disease cause ischaemic strokes? (brainscape.com)
  • Up to a third of strokes are caused by carotid artery disease. (baycareclinic.com)
  • Transcranial Doppler and carotid artery disease strokes: more than just risk stratification. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Carotid artery disease refers to the narrowing of the carotid arteries, most commonly from fatty deposits called plaque building up within the artery. (umms.org)
  • With age these arteries harden and become lined with fatty deposits or plaque. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • If you are concerned that you may be at risk for developing blockages in your carotid artery, you should speak with your physician about the possibility of being screened to look for blockages in the carotid artery. (umms.org)
  • You may also have imaging tests done to see if the blockages in your carotid arteries are becoming worse. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Carotid artery disease occurs when plaque builds up inside the carotid arteries. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Carotid artery disease is a condition where plaque builds up in the carotid arteries, which supply blood to the brain. (centerwatch.com)
  • If you have carotid artery disease, plaque builds up and narrows these arteries, so less blood gets through. (webmd.com)
  • Atherosclerosis: The primary factor behind CAD, atherosclerosis occurs when plaque builds up within the carotid arteries over time. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • Carotid artery disease is a disease in which a waxy substance called plaque builds up inside the carotid arteries. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • For example, if plaque builds up in the coronary (heart) arteries, a heart attack can occur. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • Carotid artery disease is a condition in which a fatty material called plaque builds up inside the carotid arteries. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • These arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to the brain. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Each of these arteries separates into an external and internal carotid artery leading up to the brain. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The carotid artery is responsible for supplying blood to the brain. (umms.org)
  • The carotid arteries provide the main blood supply to the brain. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Your carotid arteries are a pair of blood vessels that deliver blood to your brain and head. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • You and your doctor may not know you have carotid artery disease until it's serious enough to deprive your brain of blood. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • A carotid artery may become so narrowed by atherosclerosis that not enough blood is able to reach portions of your brain. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • The carotid arteries are two large blood vessels that deliver blood to your brain. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • Then, the artery is sewn back together, allowing improved blood flow to the brain. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • The carotid arteries are two major blood vessels that transport blood to the brain and head. (dmcmedicalgroup.com)
  • where part of the circulation to the brain is cut off, usually due to blockages in the carotid arteries.Atherosclerosis usually lead to serious problems like heart attack, brain stoke mostly leading to death if untreated early. (angiocare.in)
  • In this type, the carotid artery becomes completely blocked, usually by a blood clot or a piece of plaque that breaks off from the artery wall and lodges farther downstream, blocking blood flow to a portion of the brain. (diseasesdic.com)
  • The internal carotid artery supplies the brain, and the external carotid artery supplies the face. (emoryhealthcare.org)
  • Carotid arteries are responsible for carrying oxygen rich blood from the heart to the brain and heart. (medicalindiatourism.com)
  • During a TCAR procedure, a tube inserted into the carotid artery is connected to a system that temporarily directs blood flow away from the brain to protect against dangerous debris from reaching the brain during the procedure. (baycareclinic.com)
  • CEA removes plaque from inside the carotid artery to restore normal blood flow to the brain, but the incision leaves a visible scar and carries risks of surgical complications such as bleeding, infection, heart attack and more. (baycareclinic.com)
  • The internal carotid carries blood brimming with oxygen to the brain, and the external carotid keeps your cheeks rosy red. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • In these rare cases, the trauma pulls a flap of the artery wall away decreasing blood flow to the brain. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • Carotid Artery Disease (CAD) is a common vascular condition that affects the carotid arteries, which are responsible for supplying oxygen-rich blood to the brain. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • Plaque narrows the carotid arteries and limits blood flow to the brain. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • The internal carotid artery supplies the brain. (wikipedia.org)
  • The carotid arteries deliver blood to the brain and head. (mayoclinic.org)
  • These arteries deliver blood from the heart to the brain. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Pieces of this plaque may break loose and travel to a smaller artery in the brain. (healthline.com)
  • These arteries, called carotid arteries , supply the brain with blood . (daviddarling.info)
  • A piece of the blood clot can break off and get stuck in the artery, blocking blood flow to the brain. (daviddarling.info)
  • This buildup eventually narrows or hardens the arteries. (aao.org)
  • Plaque narrows the arteries, slowing blood flow to the heart. (webmd.com)
  • Over time, plaque hardens and narrows the arteries. (ntxsurgical.com)
  • If you have carotid artery disease, a substance called plaque - which is composed of compounds such as fat, cholesterol, and calcium - builds up in your carotid artery and narrows the artery. (healthline.com)
  • A bruit is a sound present in the arteries of some people with carotid artery disease. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Bruit may suggest that the person has reduced blood flow through the artery due to atherosclerosis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • If doctors listen to the arteries and hear a bruit, they will order additional tests. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • If an abnormal sound, called a bruit, is heard over an artery, it may reflect turbulent blood flow, which could indicate carotid artery disease. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • it is estimated that 1% of persons older than 50 years in the United States have pulmonary arterial disease or chronic limb ischemia. (medscape.com)
  • 34747 - the veteran has established the causal connection between smoking tobacco products and VEA service for carotid arterial disease. (dva.gov.au)
  • 34751 - the veteran has established the causal connection between smoking tobacco products and eligible service for the clinical onset of carotid arterial disease. (dva.gov.au)
  • 34749 - the veteran has established the causal connection between smoking tobacco products and VEA service for the clinical worsening of carotid arterial disease. (dva.gov.au)
  • 34752 - the veteran has established the causal connection between smoking tobacco products and operational service for the clinical worsening of carotid arterial disease. (dva.gov.au)
  • the veteran smoked at least fifteen pack years of cigarettes or the equivalent thereof in other tobacco products before the clinical onset of carotid arterial disease and, where smoking has ceased, the clinical onset of carotid arterial disease occurred within 30 years of cessation. (dva.gov.au)
  • smoking as a causal result of operational service made a material contribution to the Statement of Principles requirements for the clinical onset of carotid arterial disease. (dva.gov.au)
  • the veteran's smoking of at least 15 pack years of cigarettes or the equivalent thereof in other tobacco products before the clinical worsening of the condition under consideration took place after the clinical onset of carotid arterial disease. (dva.gov.au)
  • In the study described herein, we evaluated baseline data from this cohort and tested the hypothesis that individuals with and without obstructive CAD differ in their carotid arterial wall morphology and composition as identified by high spatial resolution carotid CMR. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The management of peripheral vascular diseases (PVDs, including arterial and venous diseases) is part of the ESC core curriculum. (medscape.com)
  • One out of ten cardiologists do not look for possible peripheral arterial diseases (PADs). (medscape.com)
  • Screening for peripheral arterial diseases by cardiologists. (medscape.com)
  • Considering the type of arterial and venous disease, most cardiologists manage LEAD, carotid disease, and venous disease (Figure 2). (medscape.com)
  • Interest of cardiologists for the new 2017 ESC Guidelines on peripheral arterial diseases. (medscape.com)
  • Plaque buildups narrow the arteries and make it more difficult for blood to get through them. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Although the components of plaque exist in the blood itself, they are more likely to gather in microscopic areas of damage in the arteries. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • If the doctor feels that a person may be at risk for carotid artery disease, they may run a physical exam or order other tests to check the person's blood health. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Carotid artery disease is when blood flow through your carotid artery is blocked. (aao.org)
  • Those scans can show how well blood is flowing through your carotid arteries. (aao.org)
  • Our Neurovascular Surgery Program treats various diseases that occur within the blood vessels. (tuftsmedicalcenter.org)
  • Carotid duplex ultrasound: An ultrasound that measures the velocity of blood flow in the carotid arteries. (southnassau.org)
  • Arteries carry blood loaded with oxygen from your heart to the rest of your body. (webmd.com)
  • Sometimes your arteries or veins get narrowed or blocked, and blood can't go through them as easily. (webmd.com)
  • When a piece of plaque breaks off and lodges in an artery, it can block blood flow completely and cause a heart attack. (webmd.com)
  • Peripheral arteries send blood to your arms and legs. (webmd.com)
  • It can slow blood flow through your arteries and veins. (webmd.com)
  • Normal, healthy carotid arteries - like any other healthy artery - are smooth and flexible and provide a clear pathway for blood flow. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • High blood pressure is an important risk factor for carotid artery disease. (lynchspharmacy.com)
  • It is an invasive procedure that lets a doctor see blood flow through the carotid arteries in real time. (seattleneurosciences.com)
  • Smoking, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol are the biggest risk factors for carotid arteries. (memorialheartvascular.org)
  • The balloon is then inflated which will push the plaque against the artery wall and allows more space to increase the blood flow. (vascularspecialist.com.au)
  • Stopping the blood flow with a blood clot crammed into an artery lined with plaque. (heartlifeinsurance.com)
  • High Blood Pressure: Uncontrolled hypertension can damage the inner lining of the arteries, making them more susceptible to plaque buildup. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • Doppler Ultrasound: Similar to carotid ultrasound, this test measures blood flow within the carotid arteries and can detect any abnormalities. (sanarhospitals.com)
  • It also makes it more likely that blood clots will form in the carotid arteries. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • Blood clots can partly or fully block a carotid artery. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • Over time, the plaque may crack and cause blood clots to form in the arteries. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • Blood cells called platelets stick to the injured lining of the artery and may clump together to form blood clots. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • Figure B is a cross-section of a normal carotid artery that has normal blood flow. (lonestarcardiology.com)
  • When your heart beats it pumps blood through your body through arteries and veins. (integrisok.com)
  • The arteries carry blood away from the heart and the veins carry blood back to the heart. (integrisok.com)
  • This reduces blood flow to major arteries in the body, which can cause serious health issues. (integrisok.com)
  • This disease affects arteries that supply blood to muscles in the legs, where blood flow is due to plaque build-up. (integrisok.com)
  • To compensate, the body reroutes blood through smaller arteries but that is a temporary solution as it can only work when a person is at rest. (integrisok.com)
  • The smaller arteries aren't able to supply enough blood when a person is active, thus causing leg pain or tiredness. (integrisok.com)
  • This disease affects the arteries that supply blood to the kidneys. (integrisok.com)
  • The carotid arteries are a pair of blood vessels. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Carotid (kuh-ROT-id) ultrasound is a safe, noninvasive, painless procedure that uses sound waves to examine the blood flow through the carotid arteries. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Detect other carotid artery problems that may disrupt blood flow. (mayoclinic.org)
  • The ultrasound technician may use a Doppler ultrasound, which shows blood flowing through the arteries. (mayoclinic.org)
  • These blockages can be caused by plaque or by a blood clot that has clogged the artery. (healthline.com)
  • Sound waves are used to create a picture of the artery and measure the blood flow. (healthline.com)
  • A tube might also be used to reroute the blood flow around the artery receiving surgery. (healthline.com)
  • Figure B is a color ultrasound image showing blood flow (the red color in the image) in the carotid artery. (daviddarling.info)
  • Figure C is a waveform image showing the sound of flowing blood in the carotid artery. (daviddarling.info)
  • The plaque can slow down or block the flow of blood through the artery, allowing a blood clot to form. (daviddarling.info)
  • A doctor often will need results from both types of ultrasound to fully assess if there is a problem with blood flow through the carotid arteries. (daviddarling.info)
  • A carotid ultrasound also may be done to see whether carotid artery surgery has restored normal blood flow. (daviddarling.info)
  • That risk depends on how much of the artery is blocked and how much blood flow is restricted. (daviddarling.info)
  • The clinical examination includes a series of questionnaires, which measure demographic, lifestyle, and psychological factors (e.g., depression, post-traumatic stress), DEXA measurements to record bone density and body composition, ultrasounds of the brachial and carotid arteries, 18 salivary cortisol samples throughout the day and in response to a series of challenges, and blood samples. (cdc.gov)
  • The carotid artery divides into the internal carotid artery and the external carotid artery. (wikipedia.org)
  • Talk to your doctor if you have risk factors for carotid artery disease. (cumedicine.us)
  • The current main research interests of Orho-Melanders´research group are related to prediction and prevention of cardiometabolic diseases with main focus in genetic and circulating biomarkers, diet, gut microbiota and causal risk factors in population based cohorts. (lu.se)