Esotropia
Oculomotor Muscles
Strabismus
Accommodation, Ocular
Exotropia
Eyeglasses
Hyperopia
Amblyopia
Anti-Dyskinesia Agents
Refractive Errors
Nystagmus, Optokinetic
Duane Retraction Syndrome
Visual Acuity
Abducens Nerve Diseases
Diplopia
Nystagmus, Pathologic
Evoked Potentials, Visual
Oscillatory motion but not pattern reversal elicits monocular motion VEP biases in infantile esotropia. (1/204)
Patients with early disruptions of binocularity show cortical directional asymmetries in their steady state monocular VEP response to oscillatory motion. The VEP directional asymmetry is characterized by significant first harmonic components that show a 180 degrees difference in the response phase between the two eyes. By contrast, the normal response is dominated by even-order response harmonics, although some normal observers also have measurable responses at the first harmonic. Experiments and simulations were conducted to determine if the first harmonic in patients could reasonably be attributed to direction selective mechanisms. A secondary goal was to determine whether the first harmonic response of normals was also due to imbalances in direction selective mechanisms. Monocular steady state VEPs were elicited by oscillating 3 c/deg gratings presented at 6 and 10 Hz in normal observers and observers with infantile esotropia. Responses were also obtained to phase-reversing gratings of the same spatial and temporal frequencies. Phase reversal eliminated the majority of first harmonic responses which were recorded for normal observers to oscillatory motion. However, phase reversal did not elicit the cortical motion asymmetry in infantile esotropia. Modeling results suggest that the first harmonic response to oscillatory motion arises due to non-linearities in both direction selective and non-direction-selective mechanisms, with the latter being dominant in patients with early onset strabismus. (+info)Early retreatment of infantile esotropia: comparison of reoperation and botulinum toxin. (2/204)
AIM: To compare the efficacy of reoperation and botulinum toxin injection in treating infantile esotropes early after unsatisfactory surgical alignment. METHODS: 55 strabismic children who had been unsuccessfully operated for infantile esotropia were randomised to reoperation (28 patients) or botulinum toxin injection (27 patients). The motor outcomes (percentage of successful motor outcome and percentage change in deviation) were compared at 6 months, 1 year, and 3 years after retreatment, and the sensory outcomes (percentage with fusion ability and stereo perception) at the 3 year follow up visit. RESULTS: The motor and sensory outcomes and the stability of motor results were similar in patients reoperated and treated with botulinum injection. At the 3 year visit 67.8% and 59.2% of children were, respectively, within 8 prism dioptres of orthotropia (p=0.72). The frequency of fusion ability was, respectively, 60.7% and 51.8% (p=0.71), and the frequency of stereo perception (+info)Ophthalmological follow up of preterm infants: a population based, prospective study of visual acuity and strabismus. (3/204)
BACKGROUND/AIMS: Prematurely born infants are known to have an increased rate of ophthalmological morbidity. The aim of the present study was to investigate visual acuity and ocular alignment in a population of preterm infants in a geographical area, in infants with and without retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). METHODS: A prospective population based study of ophthalmological status of preterm infants with a birth weight of 1500 g or less was performed during 3.5 years, with examinations at 6, 18, 30, and 42 months of corrected age. Visual acuity was tested using linear optotypes. Multiple regression analyses were used to analyse independent risk factors for poor vision and strabismus. RESULTS: Poor vision (< 0.3) was detected in 2.5% (6/237) of the children. Of these, only two (0.8%) had a severe visual impairment (< 0.1). Strabismus occurred in 13.5% (31/229). Children with cryotreated ROP and neurological complications ran the highest risk of poor vision and strabismus, according to multiple regression analysis. Among children without a history of ROP or neurological complications, 34% had a visual acuity < 0.7 and 5.9% had strabismus, compared with 61% and 22%, respectively, among the children with ROP or neurological complications. CONCLUSIONS: The overall incidence of subnormal vision and strabismus in children born prematurely was higher than in a full term population of the same age. On the basis of this study, follow up of all preterm infants screened for ROP is recommended and general guidelines are suggested. (+info)Binocular depth-from-motion in infantile and late-onset esotropia patients with poor stereopsis. (4/204)
PURPOSE: There are at least two possible ways to detect motion-in-depth binocular without monocular cues: the binocular disparities at different times and a mechanism that detects interocular velocity differences. The perception of interocular velocity differences (Binocular depth-from-motion [BDFM]) depends on the relative velocity of the images on the retina of the left and right eyes, and this information can be experienced by normal and some strabismic patients. The purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of esotropic patients who have BDFM but have poor stereopsis. METHODS: Forty-one infantile and 28 late-onset esotropia patients with poor stereopsis were studied. Dynamic stereopsis and BDFM were tested with computer-generated random dot stereograms and kinematograms. The correlations between BDFM and other binocular functional tests were determined. RESULTS: A total of 31 (44.9%) patients, 15 (36.5%) of the infantile and 16 (57.1%) of the late-onset esotropia group, passed the BDFM test. None of these patients passed the random dot stereo test under static or dynamic conditions. Fusion of the Worth four dot test at near 0.3 m was correlated with the presence of BDFM. Three of the 15 infantile and 10 of the 16 late-onset esotropic patients with positive BDFM showed gross stereopsis as measured by the Titmus Fly. The angle of strabismus was significantly smaller in the patients with positive BDFM for the infantile and the late-onset esotropia groups. CONCLUSIONS: BDFM was present in about half of the esotropic patients who do not have fine stereopsis. Ocular alignment within 10 to 15 prism diopters is an important factor in obtaining BDFM. Strabismus surgery still provides some binocular benefit for infantile esotropia patients who were bypassed for early surgery. Separate mechanisms may underlie static stereopsis and BDFM. (+info)Motion VEPs, stereopsis, and bifoveal fusion in children with strabismus. (5/204)
PURPOSE: The link between nasal-temporal motion asymmetries and anomalous binocular sensory function in infantile esotropia (ET) has led to the idea that visual evoked potential responses to horizontal motion (mVE) is an alternative measure of sensory binocularity to stereopsis. A second hypothesis is that the mVEP response is a marker for bifoveal fusion. The purpose of this study was to directly evaluate these two hypotheses by examining the correspondence between the mVEP response and both stereoacuity and bifoveal fusion in a cohort of strabismic patients with variable binocular sensory function. METHODS: Motion VEPs, random dot stereopsis, and bifoveal fusion were measured in 94 children: 20 with infantile ET, 16 with infantile accommodative ET, 22 with late-onset accommodative ET, 10 with intermittent infantile strabismus, and 26 normal control participants. RESULTS: Patients with infantile ET and infantile accommodative ET had high concordance between mVEP responses and stereoacuity and mVEP responses and bifoveal fusion. Asymmetric mVEP responses were highly concordant with both no measurable stereopsis and an absence of fusional vergence. Patients with late-onset accommodative ET and intermittent infantile strabismus revealed discordance between the mVEP response and stereoacuity and high concordance between the mVEP response and bifoveal fusion. Asymmetric mVEP responses were highly concordant with the absence of bifoveal fusion and the minimum-size prism to elicit fusional vergence. CONCLUSIONS: The qualitative and quantitative relationship between the mVEP response and fusional vergence suggests that the mVEP response is an objective measure of bifoveal fusion. The availability of such a test will facilitate studies of normal development of bifoveal fusion and development of monofixation syndrome in strabismus. (+info)Early surgery for infantile esotropia. (6/204)
AIM: To investigate the postoperative eye alignment and binocular visual function after early surgery for infantile esotropia. METHODS: Both the postoperative eye position and stereopsis were reviewed using the Titmus stereo test in nine patients who received uniocular medial rectus recession and lateral rectus resection under general anaesthesia before 8 months of age and were followed up for a minimum of 4 years. RESULTS: Orthophoria was attained in three cases, whereas esotropia was found in four patients. Dissociated vertical deviation was noted in two other cases at the final examination. Static stereoacuity was achieved in five cases. These results also showed that most infants in whom stereopsis was attained had satisfactory eye alignment during the follow up period and at the final examination. Infants who did not achieve stereopsis still had deviation throughout the follow up period. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that early surgery in infantile esotropia is beneficial to achieve binocular visual function, but it is necessary to confirm a stable angle of deviation with accurate preoperative evaluation, and to maintain good postoperative eye alignment throughout the follow up period. (+info)Co-development of VEP motion response and binocular vision in normal infants and infantile esotropes. (7/204)
PURPOSE: To determine the maturational course of nasotemporal asymmetry in infantile esotropia and to define the relationships among the symmetry of the motion visual evoked potential (MVEP), eye alignment, fusion, and stereopsis. METHODS: Sixty healthy term infants and 34 infants with esotropia participated. Nasotemporal MVEP asymmetry was assessed by the presence of a significant F1 response component with an interocular phase difference of approximately 180 degrees and by an amplitude "asymmetry index." Fusion was evaluated using the 4 p.d. base out prism test. Random dot stereoacuity was assessed in infants with forced-choice preferential looking (FPL) using the Infant Random Dot Stereocards. Eye alignment was assessed by the alternate prism and cover or the modified Krimsky test. RESULTS: Normal infants 2 to 3 months of age exhibited marked nasotemporal MVEP asymmetry, which rapidly diminished by 6 to 8 months. Neonates did not exhibit MVEP asymmetry. There was good concordance between fusion and MVEP symmetry and between stereopsis and MVEP symmetry; the concordance between MVEP symmetry and orthoposition of the visual axes was significantly poorer. The same proportion of normal and young esotropic infants showed symmetrical MVEPs. Regardless of the age at surgery, most patients with infantile esotropia had asymmetrical MVEPs after surgery. CONCLUSIONS: These data support a strong link between fusion and MVEP symmetry during both normal maturation and in infantile esotropia. Furthermore, the finding that the youngest infants with esotropia do not differ significantly from normal suggests that the nasotemporal asymmetry found in older patients with infantile esotropia does not represent an arrest of maturation but, rather, a pathologic change of the motion pathways. (+info)Outcome in refractive accommodative esotropia. (8/204)
AIM: To examine outcome among children with refractive accommodative esotropia. METHODS: Children with accommodative esotropia associated with hyperopia were included in the study. The features studied were ocular alignment, amblyopia, and the response to treatment, binocular single vision, requirement for surgery, and the change in refraction with age. RESULTS: 103 children with refractive accommodative esotropia were identified. Mean follow up was 4.5 years (range 2-9.5 years). 41 children (39.8%) were fully accommodative (no manifest deviation with full hyperopic correction). The remaining 62 children (60.2%) were partially accommodative. At presentation 61.2% of children were amblyopic in one eye decreasing to 15.5% at the most recent examination. Stereopsis was demonstrated in 89.3% of children at the most recent examination. Mean cycloplegic refraction (dioptres, spherical equivalent) remained stable throughout the follow up period. The mean change in refraction per year was 0.005 dioptres (D) in right eyes (95% CL -0. 0098 to 0.02) and 0.001 D in left eyes (95% CL -0.018 to 0.021). No patients were able to discard their glasses and maintain alignment. CONCLUSIONS: Most children with refractive accommodative esotropia have an excellent outcome in terms of visual acuity and binocular single vision. Current management strategies for this condition result in a marked reduction in the prevalence of amblyopia compared with the prevalence at presentation. The degree of hyperopia, however, remains unchanged with poor prospects for discontinuing glasses wear. The possibility that long term full time glasses wear impedes emmetropisation must be considered. It is also conceivable, however, that these children may behave differently with normal and be predestined to remain hyperopic. (+info)Esotropia is a type of ocular misalignment, also known as strabismus, in which one eye turns inward toward the nose. This condition can be constant or intermittent and may result in double vision or loss of depth perception. Esotropia is often classified based on its cause, age of onset, and frequency. Common forms include congenital esotropia, acquired esotropia, and accommodative esotropia. Treatment typically involves corrective eyewear, eye exercises, or surgery to realign the eyes.
The oculomotor muscles are a group of extraocular muscles that control the movements of the eye. They include:
1. Superior rectus: This muscle is responsible for elevating the eye and helping with inward rotation (intorsion) when looking downwards.
2. Inferior rectus: It depresses the eye and helps with outward rotation (extorsion) when looking upwards.
3. Medial rectus: This muscle adducts, or moves, the eye towards the midline of the face.
4. Inferior oblique: The inferior oblique muscle intorts and elevates the eye.
5. Superior oblique: It extorts and depresses the eye.
These muscles work together to allow for smooth and precise movements of the eyes, enabling tasks such as tracking moving objects, reading, and maintaining visual fixation on a single point in space.
Ophthalmologic surgical procedures refer to various types of surgeries performed on the eye and its surrounding structures by trained medical professionals called ophthalmologists. These procedures aim to correct or improve vision, diagnose and treat eye diseases or injuries, and enhance the overall health and functionality of the eye. Some common examples of ophthalmologic surgical procedures include:
1. Cataract Surgery: This procedure involves removing a cloudy lens (cataract) from the eye and replacing it with an artificial intraocular lens (IOL).
2. LASIK (Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis): A type of refractive surgery that uses a laser to reshape the cornea, correcting nearsightedness, farsightedness, and astigmatism.
3. Glaucoma Surgery: Several surgical options are available for treating glaucoma, including laser trabeculoplasty, traditional trabeculectomy, and various drainage device implantations. These procedures aim to reduce intraocular pressure (IOP) and prevent further optic nerve damage.
4. Corneal Transplant: This procedure involves replacing a damaged or diseased cornea with a healthy donor cornea to restore vision and improve the eye's appearance.
5. Vitreoretinal Surgery: These procedures focus on treating issues within the vitreous humor (gel-like substance filling the eye) and the retina, such as retinal detachment, macular holes, or diabetic retinopathy.
6. Strabismus Surgery: This procedure aims to correct misalignment of the eyes (strabismus) by adjusting the muscles responsible for eye movement.
7. Oculoplastic Surgery: These procedures involve reconstructive, cosmetic, and functional surgeries around the eye, such as eyelid repair, removal of tumors, or orbital fracture repairs.
8. Pediatric Ophthalmologic Procedures: Various surgical interventions are performed on children to treat conditions like congenital cataracts, amblyopia (lazy eye), or blocked tear ducts.
These are just a few examples of ophthalmic surgical procedures. The specific treatment plan will depend on the individual's condition and overall health.
Strabismus is a condition of the ocular muscles where the eyes are not aligned properly and point in different directions. One eye may turn inward, outward, upward, or downward while the other one remains fixed and aligns normally. This misalignment can occur occasionally or constantly. Strabismus is also commonly referred to as crossed eyes or walleye. The condition can lead to visual impairments such as amblyopia (lazy eye) and depth perception problems if not treated promptly and effectively, usually through surgery, glasses, or vision therapy.
Ocular accommodation is the process by which the eye changes optical power to maintain a clear image or focus on an object as its distance varies. This is primarily achieved by the lens of the eye changing shape through the action of the ciliary muscles inside the eye. When you look at something far away, the lens becomes flatter, and when you look at something close up, the lens thickens. This ability to adjust focus allows for clear vision at different distances.
Exotropia is a type of ocular misalignment or strabismus, where one eye turns outward (towards the ear) while the other eye remains aligned straight ahead. This condition can be constant or intermittent and may result in limited or absent depth perception, double vision, and in some cases, amblyopia (lazy eye). Exotropia is typically diagnosed during childhood through a comprehensive eye examination by an optometrist or ophthalmologist. Treatment options include eyeglasses, prism lenses, vision therapy, or surgery, depending on the severity and frequency of the misalignment.
Eyeglasses are a medical device used to correct vision problems. Also known as spectacles, they consist of frames that hold one or more lenses through which a person looks to see clearly. The lenses may be made of glass or plastic and are designed to compensate for various visual impairments such as nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism, or presbyopia. Eyeglasses can be custom-made to fit an individual's face and prescription, and they come in a variety of styles, colors, and materials. Some people wear eyeglasses all the time, while others may only need to wear them for certain activities such as reading or driving.
Binocular vision refers to the ability to use both eyes together to create a single, three-dimensional image of our surroundings. This is achieved through a process called binocular fusion, where the images from each eye are aligned and combined in the brain to form a unified perception.
The term "binocular vision" specifically refers to the way that our visual system integrates information from both eyes to create depth perception and enhance visual clarity. When we view an object with both eyes, they focus on the same point in space and send slightly different images to the brain due to their slightly different positions. The brain then combines these images to create a single, three-dimensional image that allows us to perceive depth and distance.
Binocular vision is important for many everyday activities, such as driving, reading, and playing sports. Disorders of binocular vision can lead to symptoms such as double vision, eye strain, and difficulty with depth perception.
Hyperopia, also known as farsightedness, is a refractive error in which the eye does not focus light directly on the retina when looking at a distant object. Instead, light is focused behind the retina, causing close-up objects to appear blurry. This condition usually results from the eyeball being too short or the cornea having too little curvature. It can be corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery.
Amblyopia is a medical condition that affects the visual system, specifically the way the brain and eyes work together. It is often referred to as "lazy eye" and is characterized by reduced vision in one or both eyes that is not correctable with glasses or contact lenses alone. This occurs because the brain favors one eye over the other, causing the weaker eye to become neglected and underdeveloped.
Amblyopia can result from various conditions such as strabismus (eye misalignment), anisometropia (significant difference in prescription between the two eyes), or deprivation (such as a cataract that blocks light from entering the eye). Treatment for amblyopia typically involves correcting any underlying refractive errors, patching or blurring the stronger eye to force the weaker eye to work, and/or vision therapy. Early intervention is crucial to achieve optimal visual outcomes.
Depth perception is the ability to accurately judge the distance or separation of an object in three-dimensional space. It is a complex visual process that allows us to perceive the world in three dimensions and to understand the spatial relationships between objects.
Depth perception is achieved through a combination of monocular cues, which are visual cues that can be perceived with one eye, and binocular cues, which require input from both eyes. Monocular cues include perspective (the relative size of objects), texture gradients (finer details become smaller as distance increases), and atmospheric perspective (colors become less saturated and lighter in value as distance increases). Binocular cues include convergence (the degree to which the eyes must turn inward to focus on an object) and retinal disparity (the slight difference in the images projected onto the two retinas due to the slightly different positions of the eyes).
Deficits in depth perception can occur due to a variety of factors, including eye disorders, brain injuries, or developmental delays. These deficits can result in difficulties with tasks such as driving, sports, or navigating complex environments. Treatment for depth perception deficits may include vision therapy, corrective lenses, or surgery.
Anti-dyskinetic agents are a class of medications that are used to treat or manage dyskinesias, which are involuntary movements or abnormal muscle contractions. These medications work by blocking or reducing the activity of dopamine, a neurotransmitter in the brain that is involved in movement control.
Dyskinetic symptoms can occur as a side effect of long-term use of levodopa therapy in patients with Parkinson's disease. Anti-dyskinetic agents such as amantadine, anticholinergics, and dopamine agonists may be used to manage these symptoms.
Amantadine works by increasing the release of dopamine and blocking its reuptake, which can help reduce dyskinesias. Anticholinergic medications such as trihexyphenidyl and benztropine work by blocking the action of acetylcholine, another neurotransmitter that can contribute to dyskinesias. Dopamine agonists such as pramipexole and ropinirole mimic the effects of dopamine in the brain and can help reduce dyskinesias by reducing the dose of levodopa required for symptom control.
It is important to note that anti-dyskinetic agents may have side effects, and their use should be carefully monitored by a healthcare provider.
Refractive errors are a group of vision conditions that include nearsightedness (myopia), farsightedness (hyperopia), astigmatism, and presbyopia. These conditions occur when the shape of the eye prevents light from focusing directly on the retina, causing blurred or distorted vision.
Myopia is a condition where distant objects appear blurry while close-up objects are clear. This occurs when the eye is too long or the cornea is too curved, causing light to focus in front of the retina instead of directly on it.
Hyperopia, on the other hand, is a condition where close-up objects appear blurry while distant objects are clear. This happens when the eye is too short or the cornea is not curved enough, causing light to focus behind the retina.
Astigmatism is a condition that causes blurred vision at all distances due to an irregularly shaped cornea or lens.
Presbyopia is a natural aging process that affects everyone as they get older, usually around the age of 40. It causes difficulty focusing on close-up objects and can be corrected with reading glasses, bifocals, or progressive lenses.
Refractive errors can be diagnosed through a comprehensive eye exam and are typically corrected with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or refractive surgery such as LASIK.
Optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) is a type of involuntary eye movement that occurs in response to large moving visual patterns. It serves as a mechanism for stabilizing the image on the retina during head movement and helps in maintaining visual fixation.
In OKN, there are two phases of eye movement: a slow phase where the eyes follow or track the moving pattern, and a fast phase where the eyes quickly reset to the starting position. This results in a back-and-forth or "to-and-fro" motion of the eyes.
Optokinetic nystagmus can be elicited by observing a large moving object or a series of alternating visual stimuli, such as stripes on a rotating drum. It is often used in clinical settings to assess various aspects of the visual system, including oculomotor function and visual acuity.
Abnormalities in OKN can indicate problems with the vestibular system, brainstem, or cerebellum, and may be associated with conditions such as brain injury, multiple sclerosis, or cerebral palsy.
Duane Retraction Syndrome (DRS) is a congenital eye movement disorder, characterized by limited abduction (lateral movement away from the nose) of the affected eye, and on attempted adduction (movement towards the nose), the eye retracts into the orbit and the lid narrows. It is often accompanied by other eye alignment or vision anomalies. The exact cause is not known, but it is believed to be a result of abnormal development of the cranial nerves that control eye movement during fetal development. DRS is usually idiopathic, but it can also be associated with other congenital anomalies. It is typically diagnosed in early childhood and managed with a combination of observation, prism glasses, and/or surgery, depending on the severity and impact on vision.
Visual acuity is a measure of the sharpness or clarity of vision. It is usually tested by reading an eye chart from a specific distance, such as 20 feet (6 meters). The standard eye chart used for this purpose is called the Snellen chart, which contains rows of letters that decrease in size as you read down the chart.
Visual acuity is typically expressed as a fraction, with the numerator representing the testing distance and the denominator indicating the smallest line of type that can be read clearly. For example, if a person can read the line on the eye chart that corresponds to a visual acuity of 20/20, it means they have normal vision at 20 feet. If their visual acuity is 20/40, it means they must be as close as 20 feet to see what someone with normal vision can see at 40 feet.
It's important to note that visual acuity is just one aspect of overall vision and does not necessarily reflect other important factors such as peripheral vision, depth perception, color vision, or contrast sensitivity.
The abducens nerve, also known as the sixth cranial nerve, is responsible for controlling the lateral rectus muscle of the eye, which enables the eye to move outward. Abducens nerve diseases refer to conditions that affect this nerve and can result in various symptoms, primarily affecting eye movement.
Here are some medical definitions related to abducens nerve diseases:
1. Abducens Nerve Palsy: A condition characterized by weakness or paralysis of the abducens nerve, causing difficulty in moving the affected eye outward. This results in double vision (diplopia), especially when gazing towards the side of the weakened nerve. Abducens nerve palsy can be congenital, acquired, or caused by various factors such as trauma, tumors, aneurysms, infections, or diseases like diabetes and multiple sclerosis.
2. Sixth Nerve Palsy: Another term for abducens nerve palsy, referring to the weakness or paralysis of the sixth cranial nerve.
3. Internuclear Ophthalmoplegia (INO): A neurological condition affecting eye movement, often caused by a lesion in the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF), a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the abducens nucleus with the oculomotor nucleus. INO results in impaired adduction (inward movement) of the eye on the side of the lesion and nystagmus (involuntary eye movements) of the abducting eye on the opposite side when attempting to look towards the side of the lesion.
4. One-and-a-Half Syndrome: A rare neurological condition characterized by a combination of INO and internuclear ophthalmoplegia with horizontal gaze palsy on the same side, caused by damage to both the abducens nerve and the paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF). This results in limited or no ability to move the eyes towards the side of the lesion and impaired adduction of the eye on the opposite side.
5. Brainstem Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brainstem, which can affect the abducens nerve and other cranial nerves, leading to various neurological symptoms such as diplopia (double vision), ataxia (loss of balance and coordination), and facial weakness. Brainstem encephalitis can be caused by infectious agents, autoimmune disorders, or paraneoplastic syndromes.
6. Multiple Sclerosis (MS): An autoimmune disorder characterized by inflammation and demyelination of the central nervous system, including the brainstem and optic nerves. MS can cause various neurological symptoms, such as diplopia, nystagmus, and INO, due to damage to the abducens nerve and other cranial nerves.
7. Wernicke's Encephalopathy: A neurological disorder caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency, often seen in alcoholics or individuals with malnutrition. Wernicke's encephalopathy can affect the brainstem and cause various symptoms such as diplopia, ataxia, confusion, and oculomotor abnormalities.
8. Pontine Glioma: A rare type of brain tumor that arises from the glial cells in the pons (a part of the brainstem). Pontine gliomas can cause various neurological symptoms such as diplopia, facial weakness, and difficulty swallowing due to their location in the brainstem.
9. Brainstem Cavernous Malformation: A benign vascular lesion that arises from the small blood vessels in the brainstem. Brainstem cavernous malformations can cause various neurological symptoms such as diplopia, ataxia, and facial weakness due to their location in the brainstem.
10. Pituitary Adenoma: A benign tumor that arises from the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain. Large pituitary adenomas can compress the optic nerves and cause various visual symptoms such as diplopia, visual field defects, and decreased vision.
11. Craniopharyngioma: A benign tumor that arises from the remnants of the Rathke's pouch, a structure that gives rise to the anterior pituitary gland. Craniopharyngiomas can cause various neurological and endocrine symptoms such as diplopia, visual field defects, headaches, and hormonal imbalances due to their location near the optic nerves and pituitary gland.
12. Meningioma: A benign tumor that arises from the meninges, the protective covering of the brain and spinal cord. Meningiomas can cause various neurological symptoms such as diplopia, headaches, and seizures depending on their location in the brain or spinal cord.
13. Chordoma: A rare type of malignant tumor that arises from the remnants of the notochord, a structure that gives rise to the spine during embryonic development. Chordomas can cause various neurological and endocrine symptoms such as diplopia, visual field defects, headaches, and hormonal imbalances due to their location near the brainstem and spinal cord.
14. Metastatic Brain Tumors: Malignant tumors that spread from other parts of the body to the brain. Metastatic brain tumors can cause various neurological symptoms such as diplopia, headaches, seizures, and cognitive impairment depending on their location in the brain.
15. Other Rare Brain Tumors: There are many other rare types of brain tumors that can cause diplopia or other neurological symptoms, including gliomas, ependymomas, pineal region tumors, and others. These tumors require specialized diagnosis and treatment by neuro-oncologists and neurosurgeons with expertise in these rare conditions.
In summary, diplopia can be caused by various brain tumors, including pituitary adenomas, meningiomas, chordomas, metastatic brain tumors, and other rare types of tumors. It is important to seek medical attention promptly if you experience diplopia or other neurological symptoms, as early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes and quality of life.
Eye movements, also known as ocular motility, refer to the voluntary or involuntary motion of the eyes that allows for visual exploration of our environment. There are several types of eye movements, including:
1. Saccades: rapid, ballistic movements that quickly shift the gaze from one point to another.
2. Pursuits: smooth, slow movements that allow the eyes to follow a moving object.
3. Vergences: coordinated movements of both eyes in opposite directions, usually in response to a three-dimensional stimulus.
4. Vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR): automatic eye movements that help stabilize the gaze during head movement.
5. Optokinetic nystagmus (OKN): rhythmic eye movements that occur in response to large moving visual patterns, such as when looking out of a moving vehicle.
Abnormalities in eye movements can indicate neurological or ophthalmological disorders and are often assessed during clinical examinations.
Ocular convergence is the normal, inward movement of both eyes towards each other to focus on a nearby object. This coordinated action allows for single, clear vision (binocular vision) of the object. It is an important component of visual function and is controlled by the brain receiving input from the muscles that move the eyes.
Convergence insufficiency is a common condition where the eyes have difficulty maintaining alignment during close work, such as reading or using a computer. This can result in eye strain, double vision, and difficulty concentrating. Treatment for convergence insufficiency may include vision therapy, exercises to improve convergence ability, and/or the use of prism lenses.
Diplopia is a medical term that refers to the condition where a person sees two images of a single object. It is commonly known as double vision. This can occur due to various reasons, such as nerve damage or misalignment of the eyes. Diplopia can be temporary or chronic and can affect one or both eyes. If you're experiencing diplopia, it's essential to consult an eye care professional for proper evaluation and treatment.
Anisometropia is a medical term that refers to a condition where there is a significant difference in the refractive power between the two eyes. In other words, one eye has a significantly different optical prescription compared to the other eye. This condition can cause issues with binocular vision and depth perception, and can sometimes lead to amblyopia (lazy eye) if not corrected early in life. It is typically diagnosed through a comprehensive eye examination and can be corrected with glasses or contact lenses.
Ocular refraction is a medical term that refers to the bending of light as it passes through the optical media of the eye, including the cornea and lens. This process allows the eye to focus light onto the retina, creating a clear image. The refractive power of the eye is determined by the curvature and transparency of these structures.
In a normal eye, light rays are bent or refracted in such a way that they converge at a single point on the retina, producing a sharp and focused image. However, if the curvature of the cornea or lens is too steep or too flat, the light rays may not converge properly, resulting in a refractive error such as myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), or astigmatism.
Ocular refraction can be measured using a variety of techniques, including retinoscopy, automated refraction, and subjective refraction. These measurements are used to determine the appropriate prescription for corrective lenses such as eyeglasses or contact lenses. In some cases, ocular refractive errors may be corrected surgically through procedures such as LASIK or PRK.
Pathological nystagmus is an abnormal, involuntary movement of the eyes that can occur in various directions (horizontal, vertical, or rotatory) and can be rhythmical or arrhythmic. It is typically a result of a disturbance in the vestibular system, central nervous system, or ocular motor pathways. Pathological nystagmus can cause visual symptoms such as blurred vision, difficulty with fixation, and oscillopsia (the sensation that one's surroundings are moving). The type, direction, and intensity of the nystagmus may vary depending on the underlying cause, which can include conditions such as brainstem or cerebellar lesions, multiple sclerosis, drug toxicity, inner ear disorders, and congenital abnormalities.
Vision tests are a series of procedures used to assess various aspects of the visual system, including visual acuity, accommodation, convergence, divergence, stereopsis, color vision, and peripheral vision. These tests help healthcare professionals diagnose and manage vision disorders, such as nearsightedness, farsightedness, astigmatism, amblyopia, strabismus, and eye diseases like glaucoma, cataracts, and macular degeneration. Common vision tests include:
1. Visual acuity test (Snellen chart or letter chart): Measures the sharpness of a person's vision at different distances.
2. Refraction test: Determines the correct lens prescription for glasses or contact lenses by assessing how light is bent as it passes through the eye.
3. Color vision test: Evaluates the ability to distinguish between different colors and color combinations, often using pseudoisochromatic plates or Ishihara tests.
4. Stereopsis test: Assesses depth perception and binocular vision by presenting separate images to each eye that, when combined, create a three-dimensional effect.
5. Cover test: Examines eye alignment and the presence of strabismus (crossed eyes or turned eyes) by covering and uncovering each eye while observing eye movements.
6. Ocular motility test: Assesses the ability to move the eyes in various directions and coordinate both eyes during tracking and convergence/divergence movements.
7. Accommodation test: Evaluates the ability to focus on objects at different distances by using lenses, prisms, or dynamic retinoscopy.
8. Pupillary response test: Examines the size and reaction of the pupils to light and near objects.
9. Visual field test: Measures the peripheral (side) vision using automated perimetry or manual confrontation techniques.
10. Slit-lamp examination: Inspects the structures of the front part of the eye, such as the cornea, iris, lens, and anterior chamber, using a specialized microscope.
These tests are typically performed by optometrists, ophthalmologists, or other vision care professionals during routine eye examinations or when visual symptoms are present.
Evoked potentials, visual, also known as visually evoked potentials (VEPs), are electrical responses recorded from the brain following the presentation of a visual stimulus. These responses are typically measured using electroencephalography (EEG) and can provide information about the functioning of the visual pathways in the brain.
There are several types of VEPs, including pattern-reversal VEPs and flash VEPs. Pattern-reversal VEPs are elicited by presenting alternating checkerboard patterns, while flash VEPs are elicited by flashing a light. The responses are typically analyzed in terms of their latency (the time it takes for the response to occur) and amplitude (the size of the response).
VEPs are often used in clinical settings to help diagnose and monitor conditions that affect the visual system, such as multiple sclerosis, optic neuritis, and brainstem tumors. They can also be used in research to study the neural mechanisms underlying visual perception.
Monocular vision refers to the ability to see and process visual information using only one eye. It is the type of vision that an individual has when they are using only one eye to look at something, while the other eye may be covered or not functioning. This can be contrasted with binocular vision, which involves the use of both eyes working together to provide depth perception and a single, combined visual field.
Monocular vision is important for tasks that only require the use of one eye, such as when looking through a microscope or using a telescope. However, it does not provide the same level of depth perception and spatial awareness as binocular vision. In some cases, individuals may have reduced visual acuity or other visual impairments in one eye, leading to limited monocular vision in that eye. It is important for individuals with monocular vision to have regular eye exams to monitor their eye health and ensure that any visual impairments are detected and treated promptly.
Esotropia
Infantile esotropia
Blepharophimosis-ptosis-esotropia-syndactyly-short stature syndrome
Muscle imbalance
Monofixation syndrome
Eugene R. Folk
Strabismus
Management of strabismus
Exotropia
Anisometropia
Pseudomyopia
Rory Hayes
Maria DÄ…browska
Esophoria
Botulinum toxin therapy of strabismus
Dissociated vertical deviation
Prader-Willi syndrome
Binocular vision
Sixth nerve palsy
Hirschberg test
Emmetropia
Polymicrogyria
Botulinum toxin
Optic papillitis
Turner syndrome
George Whitefield
PMM2 deficiency
Stereopsis recovery
Daniel Mojon
Visual impairment in art
Esotropia - Wikipedia
Accommodative Esotropia: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
Case Studies: Sudden onset esotropia
The natural history of infantile esotropia during the first six months of life. Pediatric Eye Disease Investigator Group
Distance esotropia in the elderly | British Journal of Ophthalmology
Full or partial hypermetropic correction for accommodative esotropia: does it matter? | British Journal of Ophthalmology
Blepharophimosis-ptosis-esotropia-syndactyly-short stature syndrome - Getting a Diagnosis - Genetic and Rare Diseases...
Complications of Botulinum Toxin-A for Treatment of Esotropia in Children | IOVS | ARVO Journals
Esotropia | Profiles RNS
Articles, images, and people related to Esotropia
Strabismus | Exotropia - Esotropia | Cover test | Geeky Medics
Corpus callosum in infantile esotropia | Eye News
Phospholine Iodide Dosage Guide - Drugs.com
Esotropia: Third-world reminders at The Medical Dictionary
Long-term results of bilateral medial rectus recession for congenital esotropia - Amplify EyeCare
Long-term evolution of age-related distance esotropia - Institutional Repository University of Antwerp
Management of a case of undercorrection following surgery for infantile esotropia<...
Tatalaksana consecutive esotropia post surgical repair sensory exotropia - Perpustakaan Pusat Mata Nasional Rumah Sakit Mata...
10. Why does accommodative esotropia often present at around the age of 3 years old? - EyeTools
strabismus Archives - Optometrists.org
Extraocular muscle resection, recession length and surgery outcome modelling in strabismus treatment: a pilot study | BMJ Open...
Article - Billing and Coding: Botulinum Toxins (A57715)
Stereo vision and strabismus | Eye
The efficacy of botulinum toxin type A treatment and surgery for acute acquired comitant esotropia. | Front Med (Lausanne);10:...
Related Articles | Annals Singapore
Reply to 'Results of conservative management for consecutive esotropia after intermittent exotropia surgery' - (Eye Journal AOP...
Eye Movement Disorders | Nystagmus | Strabismus | MedlinePlus
Dr. Brian Campolattaro, MD, Ophthalmology Specialist - New York, NY | Sharecare
Infantile11
- Birch EE, Wang J. Stereoacuity Outcomes After Treatment of Infantile and Accommodative Esotropia. (medscape.com)
- The natural history of infantile esotropia during the first six months of life. (nih.gov)
- The present study addresses the natural history ocular alignment in infantile esotropia that presents at 2 to 4 months of age. (nih.gov)
- Variables associated with the incidence of infantile esotropia. (ouhsc.edu)
- Factors associated with horizontal reoperation in infantile esotropia. (ouhsc.edu)
- Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) imaging was undertaken with four infantile esotropia (IE) patients and nine controls. (uk.com)
- Cortical visual connections via the corpus callosum are asymmetrical in human infantile esotropia. (uk.com)
- Congenital esotropia , or infantile esotropia , is a variation that occurs very early in life, generally developing within the first three months of an infant's life. (the-medical-dictionary.com)
- Infantile esotropia, where the eye turns inward. (fortworth2020.com)
- [55] Botulinum toxins have been used off-label for several pediatric conditions, including infantile esotropia . (wikipedia.org)
- Forbes BJ, Khazaeni LM: Evaluation and management of an infantile esotropia. (msdmanuals.com)
Strabismus9
- Esotropia is a form of strabismus in which one or both eyes turns inward. (wikipedia.org)
- Concomitant esotropia - that is, an inward squint that does not vary with the direction of gaze - mostly sets in before 12 months of age (this constitutes 40% of all strabismus cases) or at the age of three or four. (wikipedia.org)
- Esotropia is a type of strabismus characterized by an inward deviation of one eye relative to the other eye. (medscape.com)
- Available at https://www.aao.org/disease-review/strabismus-nonaccommodative-comitant-esotropia . (medscape.com)
- Olitsky SE, Chan EW, Farzavandi S. Strabismus: Accommodative Esotropia. (medscape.com)
- Outcomes of strabismus surgery for esotropia in children with Down syndrome compared with matched controls. (ouhsc.edu)
- Dr. Campolattaro has experience treating conditions like Strabismus, Exotropia and Esotropia among other conditions at varying frequencies. (sharecare.com)
- Strabismus involves a misalignment of the eyes, and esotropia is a kind of strabismus, one that invo. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
- Strabismus is of four types based on the direction the eye turns including esotropia, exotropia, hypertropia, hypotropia. (pharmiweb.com)
Esodeviation3
- Accommodative esotropia is an esodeviation due to normal accommodation in uncorrected hyperopia. (medscape.com)
- Results Distance esodeviation varied from 2-18 prism dioptres (PD) esotropia (ET). (bmj.com)
- Median distance esodeviation was 6(Delta) esotropia at initial examination (range, 2(Delta)-12(Delta) esotropia) and 8(Delta) eostropia at final examination (range, 2(Delta)-25(Delta) esotropia). (uantwerpen.be)
Amblyopia5
- Amblyopia can, however, arise as a result of esotropia occurring in childhood: In order to relieve symptoms of diplopia or double vision, the child's brain will ignore or "suppress" the image from the esotropic eye, which when allowed to continue untreated will lead to the development of amblyopia. (wikipedia.org)
- Accommodative esotropia is frequently associated with amblyopia. (medscape.com)
- or, more commonly in the setting of accommodative esotropia, amblyopia can occur. (medscape.com)
- She was first seen at UIHC around 12 months of age and was diagnosed with amblyopia and esotropia OD secondary to PFV in this eye. (uiowa.edu)
- At 24 months, he had an ophthalmologic exam which showed left eye esotropia and amblyopia and anomalous optic nerves with the left being smaller than the right. (hindawi.com)
Residual esotropia5
- A patient with partially accommodative esotropia will show a reduction in the angle of esotropia with glasses, however a residual esotropia in the setting of full hyperopic correction persists. (medscape.com)
- Rates of reoperation for residual esotropia, consecutive exotropia, oblique muscle overaction, or dissociated vertical deviation were determined. (amplifyeye.care)
- Forty-five (21%) patients underwent surgery for residual esotropia, 32 (15%) underwent surgery for consecutive exotropia or dissociated horizontal deviation, and 39 (18%) underwent surgery for oblique muscle overaction and dissociated vertical deviation. (amplifyeye.care)
- Prism adaption is done by prescribing base-out prism for the residual esotropia after prescribing gul hypermetropic correction. (laparoscopyhospital.com)
- The amount of surgery recommended is controversial with some recommending operating for the residual esotropia and other surgeons recommending an augmented approach. (laparoscopyhospital.com)
Partially accommodative esotropia2
- Types of accommodative esotropia include refractive accommodative esotropia, high AC/A (accommodative convergence/accommodation) ratio accommodative esotropia, and partially accommodative esotropia. (medscape.com)
- It is important to find and correct all the hyperopia to prevent a fully accommodative esotropia converting to a partially accommodative esotropia. (eyetools.co.uk)
Intermittent esotropias2
- Intermittent esotropia Intermittent esotropias, again as the name implies, are not always present. (wikipedia.org)
- However, the vast majority of intermittent esotropias are accommodative in origin. (wikipedia.org)
Comitant Esotropia3
- Pennock E. Nonaccommodative Comitant Esotropia. (medscape.com)
- The efficacy of botulinum toxin type A treatment and surgery for acute acquired comitant esotropia. (bvsalud.org)
- To compare the long-term efficiency of botulinum toxin type A (BTXA) injection and surgery on acute acquired comitant esotropia (AACE). (bvsalud.org)
Bilateral medial rectus recession1
- This study assessed the long-term results of orthophoria obtained with bilateral medial rectus recession for congenital esotropia. (amplifyeye.care)
Congenital4
- 80 infants were enrolled in a prospective study at the Retina Foundation of the Southwest (RFSW), and 41 infants were reviewed retrospectively as a pilot study for the Early Surgery for Congenital Esotropia (ESCET) multicenter trial. (nih.gov)
- Children with congenital esotropia usually cross fixate, meaning that they use either eye to look in the opposite direction, and often show preference by fixating with the dominant eye. (the-medical-dictionary.com)
- True congenital esotropia is best treated by early aggressive surgery, often repeated a second or even third time. (the-medical-dictionary.com)
- To maintain long-term alignment of congenital esotropia, additional surgical procedures may be required. (amplifyeye.care)
Exotropia surgery2
- Conclusion In our study, we propose four mathematical models as potential instruments for EOM RsL, EOM RcL and PAD modelling in esotropia and exotropia surgery. (bmj.com)
- Four mathematical models as potential instruments for extraocular muscle (EOM) resection length, EOM recession length and postoperative angle of deviation modelling in esotropia and exotropia surgery were developed. (bmj.com)
Binocular4
- The over-convergence associated with the extra accommodation required to overcome a hyperopic refractive error can precipitate a loss of binocular control and lead to the development of esotropia. (wikipedia.org)
- However, where the degree of error is small enough to allow the child to generate clear vision by over-accommodation, but large enough to disrupt their binocular control, esotropia will result. (wikipedia.org)
- Studies have demonstrated binocular fusion (peripherally) in approximately 70% of patients with accommodative esotropia. (medscape.com)
- This amount of esotropia prevents binocular visual development. (laparoscopyhospital.com)
Hyperopia4
- The chances of an esotropia developing in a hyperopic child will depend to some degree on the amount of hyperopia present. (wikipedia.org)
- Where the degree of hyperopia is large, the child may not be able to produce clear vision no matter how much extra-accommodation is exerted and thus no incentive exists for the over-accommodation and convergence that can give rise to the onset of esotropia. (wikipedia.org)
- Refractive accommodative esotropia requires a patient with uncorrected hyperopia to accommodate to clear a blurred retinal image. (medscape.com)
- Although refractive error in high AC/A ratio accommodative esotropia has minimal hyperopia, it can also present in patients with a normal or high hyperopia as well as myopia. (medscape.com)
Refractive error2
- Where the esotropia is solely a consequence of uncorrected hyperopic refractive error, providing the child with the correct glasses and ensuring that these are worn all the time, is often enough to control the deviation. (wikipedia.org)
- Donders first described accommodative esotropia in the 19th century, 1 so why then, almost 150 years later, does the question even arise as to the best way of correcting the hypermetropic refractive error associated with an accommodative esotropia? (bmj.com)
Squint2
- Many adults with childhood esotropias of this type make use of contact lenses to control their 'squint. (wikipedia.org)
- My son 3.5 years old now is having squint (esotropia) since he was 2. (abchomeopathy.com)
Concomitant3
- Most patients with "early-onset" concomitant esotropia are emmetropic, whereas most of the "later-onset" patients are hyperopic. (wikipedia.org)
- Concomitant esotropia can itself be subdivided into esotropias that are either constant, or intermittent. (wikipedia.org)
- General management of cases presenting to the ophthalmologist and orthoptist with acute acquired concomitant esotropia is described. (nih.gov)
Onset2
- This article focuses on two patients who presented with a recent onset esotropia, both linked to extraocular muscle malfunction. (opticianonline.net)
- Pursuit eye movement in late-onset esotropia. (bvsalud.org)
Complications3
- To report operative complications in children treated for esotropia by botulinum toxin A (BTX-A) injection. (arvojournals.org)
- Complications of BTX-A injection were encountered in this small cohort of children with esotropia. (arvojournals.org)
- RÉSUMÉ Le diagnostic et la prise en charge précoces d'un strabisme sont nécessaires pour éviter les complications telles qu'une amblyopie. (who.int)
Convergence5
- A second type of accommodative esotropia also exists, known as 'convergence excess esotropia. (wikipedia.org)
- Even though they are exerting a normal amount of accommodative or 'focusing' effort, the amount of convergence associated with this effort is excessive, thus giving rise to esotropia. (wikipedia.org)
- High AC/A ratio accommodative esotropia is generated by an increased convergence response for the amount of accommodation (focusing effort). (medscape.com)
- An understanding of accommodation, convergence, hypermetropia and their relationship to one another is crucial to the appropriate management of accommodative esotropia. (bmj.com)
- The extra accommodative effort will also drive convergence (because of the near vision triad) and this is what causes the esotropia. (eyetools.co.uk)
Hypermetropic correction2
Divergence1
- Progressive cerebellar tonsillar herniation with recurrent divergence insufficiency esotropia. (ouhsc.edu)
Prisms1
- Treatment options for esotropia include glasses to correct refractive errors (see accommodative esotropia below), the use of prisms, orthoptic exercises, or eye muscle surgery. (wikipedia.org)
Stereopsis1
- Stereopsis is also more likely if the patient's esotropia is treated before it becomes constant and they did not require bifocals or surgery. (medscape.com)
Angle1
- Resolution to orthophoria was noted in a few infants who initially had small angle or variable angle esotropia. (nih.gov)
Surgery1
- And then there was the 20-year-old who had muscle surgery to correct his 70D esotropia. (the-medical-dictionary.com)
MeSH1
- Esotropia" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicine's controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) . (ouhsc.edu)
Surgical1
- Taken together, these results suggest that infants who present at 2 to 4 months of age with constant esotropia of 40 PD or greater are valid candidates for surgical treatment. (nih.gov)
Eyes2
- If glasses are worn faithfully and fusional patterns are established, many patients with refractive esotropia can maintain straight eyes without wearing glasses by the time they are teenagers. (medscape.com)
- Young children with esotropia cannot use their eyes together. (fortworth2020.com)
Horizontal2
- PURPOSE To evaluate the evolution of horizontal deviation and fusional amplitudes both at distance and at near in patients with age-related distance esotropia (ARDET). (uantwerpen.be)
- L'étude des dossiers médicaux de 265 patients a mis en évidence une déviation verticale simple chez 19,2 % et un strabisme horizontal et vertical chez 80,8 % d'entre eux. (who.int)
Children3
- Many children will gradually learn to control their esotropias, sometimes with the help of orthoptic exercises. (wikipedia.org)
- Children with accommodative esotropia often present around the age of 3 years old. (eyetools.co.uk)
- A common form of esotropia occurs in children usually 2 years or older. (fortworth2020.com)
Type1
- The most common type of esotropia occurs in approximately one to two percent of the population. (the-medical-dictionary.com)
Patients2
- Dans la présente étude de cohorte rétrospective, nous avons examiné le profil des patients atteints d'un strabisme vertical consultant en établissement de soins dans la ville de Yazd (République islamique d'Iran) et l'issue des interventions chirurgicales. (who.int)
- Le dépistage, le diagnostic et la prise en charge précoces sont requis dans les familles affectées et chez les patients ayant des antécédents familiaux de strabisme. (who.int)
Constant3
- Constant esotropia A constant esotropia, as the name implies, is present all the time. (wikipedia.org)
- A patient can have a constant esotropia for reading, but an intermittent esotropia for distance (but rarely vice versa). (wikipedia.org)
- Heroin use may lead to intermittent or constant exotropia and withdrawal may result in intermittent or constant esotropia. (nih.gov)
Fully1
- In such cases, known as 'fully accommodative esotropias,' the esotropia will only be seen when the child removes their glasses. (wikipedia.org)
Years2
- 17 years of age with esotropia were enrolled in a 9-month data-collection study following BTX-A injection of one or both medial rectus muscles. (arvojournals.org)
- 10. Why does accommodative esotropia often present at around the age of 3 years old? (eyetools.co.uk)