Flaveria
Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase
Asteraceae
Pyruvate, Orthophosphate Dikinase
Ribulose-Bisphosphate Carboxylase
Photosynthesis
Glycine Dehydrogenase (Decarboxylating)
Carbon Cycle
Plant Leaves
Plant Vascular Bundle
Malate Dehydrogenase
Plants
Chloroplasts
Carbon Dioxide
Gene Expression Regulation, Plant
C4 photosynthesis at low temperature. A study using transgenic plants with reduced amounts of Rubisco. (1/31)
C(4) plants are rare in the cool climates characteristic of high latitudes and elevations, but the reasons for this are unclear. We tested the hypothesis that CO(2) fixation by Rubisco is the rate-limiting step during C(4) photosynthesis at cool temperatures. We measured photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence from 6 degrees C to 40 degrees C, and in vitro Rubisco and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase activity from 0 degrees C to 42 degrees C, in Flaveria bidentis modified by an antisense construct (targeted to the nuclear-encoded small subunit of Rubisco, anti-RbcS) to have 49% and 32% of the wild-type Rubisco content. Photosynthesis was reduced at all temperatures in the anti-Rbcs plants, but the thermal optimum for photosynthesis (35 degrees C) did not differ. The in vitro turnover rate (kcat) of fully carbamylated Rubisco was 3.8 mol mol(-)(1) s(-)(1) at 24 degrees C, regardless of genotype. The in vitro kcat (Rubisco Vcmax per catalytic site) and in vivo kcat (gross photosynthesis per Rubisco catalytic site) were the same below 20 degrees C, but at warmer temperatures, the in vitro capacity of the enzyme exceeded the realized rate of photosynthesis. The quantum requirement of CO(2) assimilation increased below 25 degrees C in all genotypes, suggesting greater leakage of CO(2) from the bundle sheath. The Rubisco flux control coefficient was 0.68 at the thermal optimum and increased to 0.99 at 6 degrees C. Our results thus demonstrate that Rubisco capacity is a principle control over the rate of C(4) photosynthesis at low temperatures. On the basis of these results, we propose that the lack of C(4) success in cool climates reflects a constraint imposed by having less Rubisco than their C(3) competitors. (+info)Evolution of c4 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase. Genes and proteins: a case study with the genus Flaveria. (2/31)
C4 photosynthesis is characterized by a division of labour between two different photosynthetic cell types, mesophyll and bundle-sheath cells. Relying on phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) as the primary carboxylase in the mesophyll cells a CO2 pump is established in C4 plants that concentrates CO2 at the site of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase in the bundle-sheath cells. The C4 photosynthetic pathway evolved polyphyletically implying that the genes encoding the C4 PEPC originated from non-photosynthetic PEPC progenitor genes that were already present in the C3 ancestral species. The dicot genus Flaveria (Asteraceae) is a unique system in which to investigate the molcular changes that had to occur in order to adapt a C3 ancestral PEPC gene to the special conditions of C4 photosynthesis. Flaveria contains not only C3 and C4 species but also a large number of C3-C4 intermediates which vary to the degree in which C4 photosynthetic traits are expressed. The C4 PEPC gene of Flaveria trinervia, which is encoded by the ppcA gene class, is highly expressed but only in mesophyll cells. The encoded PEPC protein possesses the typical kinetic and regulatory features of a C4-type PEPC. The orthologous ppcA gene of the C3 species Flaveria pringlei encodes a typical non-photosynthetic, C3-type PEPC and is weakly expressed with no apparent cell or organ specificity. PEPCs of the ppcA type have been detected also in C3-C4 intermediate Flaveria species. These orthologous PEPCs have been used to determine the molecular basis for C4 enzyme characteristics and to understand their evolution. Comparative and functional analyses of the ppcA promoters from F. trinervia and F. pringlei make it possible to identity the cis-regulatory sequences for mesophyll-specific gene expression and to search for the corresponding trans-regulatory factors. (+info)cis-Regulatory elements for mesophyll-specific gene expression in the C4 plant Flaveria trinervia, the promoter of the C4 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase gene. (3/31)
C(4) photosynthesis depends on the strict compartmentalization of CO(2) assimilatory enzymes. cis-regulatory mechanisms are described that ensure mesophyll-specific expression of the gene encoding the C(4) isoform of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (ppcA1) of the C(4) dicot Flaveria trinervia. To elucidate and understand the anatomy of the C(4) ppcA1 promoter, detailed promoter/reporter gene studies were performed in the closely related C(4) species F. bidentis, revealing that the C(4) promoter contains two regions, a proximal segment up to -570 and a distal part from -1566 to -2141, which are necessary but also sufficient for high mesophyll-specific expression of the beta-glucuronidase reporter gene. The distal region behaves as an enhancer-like expression module that can direct mesophyll-specific expression when inserted into the ppcA1 promoter of the C(3) plant F. pringlei. Mesophyll expression determinants were restricted to a 41-bp segment, referred to as mesophyll expression module 1 (Mem1). Evolutionary and functional studies identified the tetranucleotide sequence CACT as a key component of Mem1. (+info)Untranslated regions from C4 amaranth AhRbcS1 mRNAs confer translational enhancement and preferential bundle sheath cell expression in transgenic C4 Flaveria bidentis. (4/31)
Many aspects of photosynthetic gene expression are posttranscriptionally regulated in C4 plants. To determine if RbcS mRNA untranslated regions (UTRs) in themselves could confer any characteristic C4 expression patterns, 5'- and 3'-UTRs of AhRbcS1 mRNA from the C4 dicot amaranth were linked to a gusA reporter gene. These were constitutively transcribed from a cauliflower mosaic virus promoter and assayed for posttranscriptional expression patterns in transgenic lines of the C4 dicot Flaveria bidentis. Three characteristic C4 expression patterns were conferred by heterologous AhRbcS1 UTRs in transgenic F. bidentis. First, the AhRbcS1 UTRs conferred strong translational enhancement of gusA expression, relative to control constructs lacking these UTRs. Second, while the UTRs did not appear to confer tissue-specific expression when analyzed by beta-glucuronidase activity assays, differences in gusA mRNA accumulation were observed in leaves, stems, and roots. Third, the AhRbcS1 UTRs conferred preferential gusA expression (enzyme activity and gusA mRNA accumulation) in leaf bundle sheath cells. AhRbcS1 UTR-mediated translational enhancement was also observed in transgenic C3 plants (tobacco [Nicotiana tabacum]) and in in vitro translation extracts. These mRNAs appear to be translated with different efficiencies in C4 versus C3 plants, indicating that processes determining overall translational efficiency may vary between these two categories of higher plants. Our findings suggest that the AhRbcS1 5'-UTR functions as a strong translational enhancer in leaves and other tissues, and may work synergistically with the 3'-UTR to modulate overall levels of Rubisco gene expression in different tissues and cell types of C4 plants. (+info)Reductions of Rubisco activase by antisense RNA in the C4 plant Flaveria bidentis reduces Rubisco carbamylation and leaf photosynthesis. (5/31)
To function, the catalytic sites of Rubisco (EC 4.1.1.39) need to be activated by the reversible carbamylation of a lysine residue within the sites followed by rapid binding of magnesium. The activation of Rubisco in vivo requires the presence of the regulatory protein Rubisco activase. This enzyme is thought to aid the release of sugar phosphate inhibitors from Rubisco's catalytic sites, thereby influencing carbamylation. In C3 species, Rubisco operates in a low CO2 environment, which is suboptimal for both catalysis and carbamylation. In C4 plants, Rubisco is located in the bundle sheath cells and operates in a high CO2 atmosphere close to saturation. To explore the role of Rubisco activase in C4 photosynthesis, activase levels were reduced in Flaveria bidentis, a C4 dicot, by transformation with an antisense gene directed against the mRNA for Rubisco activase. Four primary transformants with very low activase levels were recovered. These plants and several of their segregating T1 progeny required high CO2 (>1 kPa) for growth. They had very low CO2 assimilation rates at high light and ambient CO2, and only 10% to 15% of Rubisco sites were carbamylated at both ambient and very high CO2. The amount of Rubisco was similar to that of wild-type plants. Experiments with the T1 progeny of these four primary transformants showed that CO2 assimilation rate and Rubisco carbamylation were severely reduced in plants with less than 30% of wild-type levels of activase. We conclude that activase activity is essential for the operation of the C4 photosynthetic pathway. (+info)Is C4 photosynthesis less phenotypically plastic than C3 photosynthesis? (6/31)
C4 photosynthesis is a complex specialization that enhances carbon gain in hot, often arid habitats where photorespiration rates can be high. Certain features unique to C4 photosynthesis may reduce the potential for phenotypic plasticity and photosynthetic acclimation to environmental change relative to what is possible with C3 photosynthesis. During acclimation, the structural and physiological integrity of the mesophyll-bundle sheath (M-BS) complex has to be maintained if C4 photosynthesis is to function efficiently in the new environment. Disruption of the M-BS structure could interfere with metabolic co-ordination between the C3 and C4 cycles, decrease metabolite flow rate between the tissues, increase CO2 leakage from the bundle sheath, and slow enzyme activity. C4 plants have substantial acclimation potential, but in most cases lag behind the acclimation responses in C3 plants. For example, some C4 species are unable to maintain high quantum yields when grown in low-light conditions. Others fail to reduce carboxylase content in shade, leaving substantial over-capacity of Rubisco and PEP carboxylase in place. Shade-tolerant C4 grasses lack the capacity for maintaining a high state of photosynthetic induction following sunflecks, and thus may be poorly suited to exploit subsequent sunflecks compared with C3 species. In total, the evidence indicates that C4 photosynthesis is less phenotypically plastic than C3 photosynthesis, and this may contribute to the more restricted ecological and geographical distribution of C4 plants across the Earth. (+info)Diel patterns of leaf C export and of main shoot growth for Flaveria linearis with altered leaf sucrose-starch partitioning. (7/31)
Diel C export from source leaves of two Flaveria linearis lines [85-1: high cytosolic fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (cytFBPase) and 84-9: low cytFBPase] were estimated using three methods, including leaf steady-state (14)CO(2) labelling, leaf metabolite analysis, and leaf dry mass analysis in conjunction with leaf CO(2) exchange measurements. Synthesis and accumulation of starch during the daytime were much higher in 84-9. Relative (14)C-export (export as a % of photosynthesis) in the light was 36% higher in 85-1. The diel export patterns from (14)C-analyses correlated with those based on metabolite or dry weight/gas exchange analyses during the daytime, but not during the night. Night-time export estimated from (14)C-disappearance was 3.6 times lower than those estimated using the other methods. Even though the starch degradation at night was greater for 84-9, night-time export in 84-9 was similar to 85-1, since 84-9 showed both higher respiration and accumulation of soluble sugars (i.e. glucose) at night. Patterns of (14)C allocation to sink organs were also different in the two lines. Main stem growth was less in 84-9, being reduced most in the light when leaf export was lower relative to 85-1. Supplementation with sucrose for 1 h daily via the roots at a time when leaf export in 84-9 was low relative to 85-1 increased the stem growth rate of 84-9 to a level similar with that of 85-1. This study provides evidence that diel C availability predicted by source strength (e.g. C-export rate) influences main stem extension growth and the pattern of sink development in F. linearis. (+info)Carbonic anhydrase and its influence on carbon isotope discrimination during C4 photosynthesis. Insights from antisense RNA in Flaveria bidentis. (8/31)
In C4 plants, carbonic anhydrase (CA) facilitates both the chemical and isotopic equilibration of atmospheric CO2 and bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the mesophyll cytoplasm. The CA-catalyzed reaction is essential for C4 photosynthesis, and the model of carbon isotope discrimination (Delta13C) in C4 plants predicts that changes in CA activity will influence Delta13C. However, experimentally, the influence of CA on Delta13C has not been demonstrated in C4 plants. Here, we compared measurements of Delta13C during C4 photosynthesis in Flaveria bidentis wild-type plants with F. bidentis plants with reduced levels of CA due to the expression of antisense constructs targeted to a putative mesophyll cytosolic CA. Plants with reduced CA activity had greater Delta13C, which was also evident in the leaf dry matter carbon isotope composition (delta13C). Contrary to the isotope measurements, photosynthetic rates were not affected until CA activity was less than 20% of wild type. Measurements of Delta13C, delta13C of leaf dry matter, and rates of net CO2 assimilation were all dramatically altered when CA activity was less than 5% of wild type. CA activity in wild-type F. bidentis is sufficient to maintain net CO2 assimilation; however, reducing leaf CA activity has a relatively large influence on Delta13C, often without changes in net CO2 assimilation. Our data indicate that the extent of CA activity in C4 leaves needs to be taken into account when using Delta13C and/or delta13C to model the response of C4 photosynthesis to changing environmental conditions. (+info)"Flaveria" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is a genus of flowering plants in the aster family (Asteraceae) that includes about 40 species, mostly native to the Americas. Some Flaveria species are used in research to study the molecular mechanisms of photosynthesis and plant responses to environmental stresses.
Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEP-carboxylase or PEPC) is a biotin-dependent enzyme that plays a crucial role in the carbon fixation process of photosynthesis, specifically in the C4 and CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plant pathways. It is also found in some bacteria and archaea.
PEP-carboxylase catalyzes the irreversible reaction between phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) to form oxaloacetate and inorganic phosphate (Pi). This reaction helps to initiate the carbon fixation process by incorporating atmospheric carbon dioxide into an organic molecule, which can then be used for various metabolic processes.
In C4 plants, PEP-carboxylase is primarily located in the mesophyll cells where it facilitates the initial fixation of CO2 onto PEP, forming oxaloacetate. This oxaloacetate is then reduced to malate, which is subsequently transported to bundle sheath cells for further metabolism and additional carbon fixation by another enzyme, ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO).
In CAM plants, PEP-carboxylase operates at night to fix CO2 into malate, which is stored in vacuoles. During the day, malate is decarboxylated, releasing CO2 for RuBisCO-mediated carbon fixation while conserving water through reduced stomatal opening.
PEP-carboxylase is also found in some non-photosynthetic bacteria and archaea, where it contributes to various metabolic pathways such as gluconeogenesis, anaplerotic reactions, and the glyoxylate cycle.
Asteraceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the daisy family or sunflower family. It is one of the largest and most diverse families of vascular plants, with over 1,900 genera and 32,000 species. The family includes a wide variety of plants, ranging from annual and perennial herbs to shrubs and trees.
The defining characteristic of Asteraceae is the presence of a unique type of inflorescence called a capitulum, which resembles a single flower but is actually composed of many small flowers (florets) arranged in a dense head. The florets are typically bisexual, with both male and female reproductive structures, and are radially symmetrical.
Asteraceae includes many economically important plants, such as sunflowers, daisies, artichokes, lettuce, chicory, and ragweed. Some species of Asteraceae are also used in traditional medicine and have been found to contain bioactive compounds with potential therapeutic uses.
It's worth noting that the taxonomy of this family has undergone significant revisions in recent years, and some genera and species have been moved to other families or renamed.
Pyruvate, orthophosphate dikinase (PPDK) is an enzyme found in plants and some bacteria that plays a crucial role in carbohydrate metabolism. Its primary function is to catalyze the reversible conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate, releasing inorganic phosphate (Pi) and generating a molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from adenosine diphosphate (ADP).
The reaction catalyzed by PPDK is as follows:
PEP + Pi + ATP ↔ Pyruvate + AMP + PPi (inorganic pyrophosphate)
This enzyme is particularly important in C4 and CAM plants, where it helps to fix carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. In these plant species, PPDK is primarily located in the bundle sheath cells, which are surrounding the vascular bundles of leaves. Here, it facilitates the transfer of fixed carbon from mesophyll cells to bundle sheath cells for further processing and eventual reduction into carbohydrates.
PPDK is subject to complex regulation, with its activity being controlled by various factors such as light, pH, and metabolite concentrations. The enzyme can be reversibly inactivated under low light conditions or during the night through a process called protein phosphorylation, which adds a phosphate group to specific residues on the enzyme. This modification reduces PPDK's catalytic activity and helps conserve energy when it is not needed for carbon fixation. Upon exposure to light, the phosphate group can be removed by a protein phosphatase, reactivating the enzyme and allowing it to participate in carbohydrate metabolism once again.
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) is a crucial enzyme in the Calvin cycle, which is a process that plants use to convert carbon dioxide into glucose during photosynthesis. RuBisCO catalyzes the reaction between ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate and carbon dioxide, resulting in the formation of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, which can then be converted into glucose.
RuBisCO is considered to be the most abundant enzyme on Earth, making up as much as 50% of the soluble protein found in leaves. It is a large and complex enzyme, consisting of eight small subunits and eight large subunits that are arranged in a barrel-shaped structure. The active site of the enzyme, where the reaction between ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate and carbon dioxide takes place, is located at the interface between two large subunits.
RuBisCO also has a secondary function as an oxygenase, which can lead to the production of glycolate, a toxic compound for plants. This reaction occurs when the enzyme binds with oxygen instead of carbon dioxide and is more prevalent in environments with low carbon dioxide concentrations and high oxygen concentrations. The glycolate produced during this process needs to be recycled through a series of reactions known as photorespiration, which can result in significant energy loss for the plant.
Photosynthesis is not strictly a medical term, but it is a fundamental biological process with significant implications for medicine, particularly in understanding energy production in cells and the role of oxygen in sustaining life. Here's a general biological definition:
Photosynthesis is a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy, usually from the sun, into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, such as glucose (or sugar), using water and carbon dioxide. This process primarily takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells, specifically in structures called thylakoids. The overall reaction can be summarized as:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
In this equation, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are the reactants, while glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2) are the products. Photosynthesis has two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle). The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane and involve the conversion of light energy into ATP and NADPH, which are used to power the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts and involves the synthesis of glucose from CO2 and water using the ATP and NADPH generated during the light-dependent reactions.
Understanding photosynthesis is crucial for understanding various biological processes, including cellular respiration, plant metabolism, and the global carbon cycle. Additionally, research into artificial photosynthesis has potential applications in renewable energy production and environmental remediation.
The carbon cycle is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of carbon atoms between the Earth's land, atmosphere, and oceans. It involves the exchange of carbon between various reservoirs, including the biosphere (living organisms), pedosphere (soil), lithosphere (rocks and minerals), hydrosphere (water), and atmosphere.
The carbon cycle is essential for the regulation of Earth's climate and the functioning of ecosystems. Carbon moves between these reservoirs through various processes, including photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, combustion, and weathering. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis and convert it into organic matter, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. When plants and animals die, they decompose, releasing the stored carbon back into the atmosphere or soil.
Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and contributing to global climate change. Therefore, understanding the carbon cycle and its processes is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change and promote sustainable development.
I believe there may be a slight misunderstanding in your question. "Plant leaves" are not a medical term, but rather a general biological term referring to a specific organ found in plants.
Leaves are organs that are typically flat and broad, and they are the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants. They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is essential for capturing sunlight and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis.
While leaves do not have a direct medical definition, understanding their structure and function can be important in various medical fields, such as pharmacognosy (the study of medicinal plants) or environmental health. For example, certain plant leaves may contain bioactive compounds that have therapeutic potential, while others may produce allergens or toxins that can impact human health.
A plant vascular bundle is not a medical term, but rather a term used in botany to describe the arrangement of specialized tissues that transport water, nutrients, and sugars within plants. Here's a brief overview of its anatomy:
A vascular bundle typically consists of two types of conducting tissues: xylem and phloem. Xylem is responsible for water transportation from the roots to other parts of the plant, while phloem translocates sugars and other organic nutrients throughout the plant. These tissues are encased in a protective sheath called the bundle sheath, which may contain additional supportive cells.
In some plants, vascular bundles can also include meristematic tissue (cambium) that facilitates secondary growth by producing new xylem and phloem cells. The arrangement of these tissues within a vascular bundle varies among plant species, but the primary function remains consistent: to provide structural support and enable long-distance transport of essential resources for plant survival and growth.
Malate Dehydrogenase (MDH) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. It catalyzes the reversible oxidation of malate to oxaloacetate, while simultaneously reducing NAD+ to NADH. This reaction is essential for energy production in the form of ATP and NADH within the cell.
There are two main types of Malate Dehydrogenase:
1. NAD-dependent Malate Dehydrogenase (MDH1): Found primarily in the cytoplasm, this isoform plays a role in the malate-aspartate shuttle, which helps transfer reducing equivalents between the cytoplasm and mitochondria.
2. FAD-dependent Malate Dehydrogenase (MDH2): Located within the mitochondrial matrix, this isoform is involved in the Krebs cycle for energy production.
Abnormal levels of Malate Dehydrogenase enzyme can be indicative of certain medical conditions or diseases, such as myocardial infarction (heart attack), muscle damage, or various types of cancer. Therefore, MDH enzyme activity is often assessed in diagnostic tests to help identify and monitor these health issues.
I apologize for any confusion, but "plants" is not a term that has a medical definition. The term "plants" refers to a large and diverse group of organisms that obtain their energy through photosynthesis, which is the process of converting sunlight into chemical energy. Plants are typically characterized by having cells with cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll, and the ability to synthesize their own food through photosynthesis.
In a medical or biological context, you might be thinking of "plant-based" or "phytomedicine," which refer to the use of plants or plant extracts as a form of medicine or treatment. Phytomedicines have been used for thousands of years in many traditional systems of medicine, and some plant-derived compounds have been found to have therapeutic benefits in modern medicine as well. However, "plants" itself does not have a medical definition.
Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in the cells of green plants, algae, and some protists. They are responsible for carrying out photosynthesis, which is the process by which these organisms convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, such as glucose.
Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy from the sun. They also contain a system of membranes and enzymes that convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen through a series of chemical reactions known as the Calvin cycle. This process not only provides energy for the organism but also releases oxygen as a byproduct, which is essential for the survival of most life forms on Earth.
Chloroplasts are believed to have originated from ancient cyanobacteria that were engulfed by early eukaryotic cells and eventually became integrated into their host's cellular machinery through a process called endosymbiosis. Over time, chloroplasts evolved to become an essential component of plant and algal cells, contributing to their ability to carry out photosynthesis and thrive in a wide range of environments.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that is naturally present in the Earth's atmosphere. It is a normal byproduct of cellular respiration in humans, animals, and plants, and is also produced through the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
In medical terms, carbon dioxide is often used as a respiratory stimulant and to maintain the pH balance of blood. It is also used during certain medical procedures, such as laparoscopic surgery, to insufflate (inflate) the abdominal cavity and create a working space for the surgeon.
Elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the body can lead to respiratory acidosis, a condition characterized by an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and a decrease in pH. This can occur in conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, or other lung diseases that impair breathing and gas exchange. Symptoms of respiratory acidosis may include shortness of breath, confusion, headache, and in severe cases, coma or death.
Gene expression regulation in plants refers to the processes that control the production of proteins and RNA from the genes present in the plant's DNA. This regulation is crucial for normal growth, development, and response to environmental stimuli in plants. It can occur at various levels, including transcription (the first step in gene expression, where the DNA sequence is copied into RNA), RNA processing (such as alternative splicing, which generates different mRNA molecules from a single gene), translation (where the information in the mRNA is used to produce a protein), and post-translational modification (where proteins are chemically modified after they have been synthesized).
In plants, gene expression regulation can be influenced by various factors such as hormones, light, temperature, and stress. Plants use complex networks of transcription factors, chromatin remodeling complexes, and small RNAs to regulate gene expression in response to these signals. Understanding the mechanisms of gene expression regulation in plants is important for basic research, as well as for developing crops with improved traits such as increased yield, stress tolerance, and disease resistance.
Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the reversible reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid, which then quickly dissociates into bicarbonate and a proton. This reaction is crucial for maintaining pH balance and regulating various physiological processes in the body, including respiration, secretion of electrolytes, and bone resorption.
There are several isoforms of carbonic anhydrases found in different tissues and organelles, each with distinct functions and properties. For example, CA I and II are primarily found in red blood cells, while CA III is present in various tissues such as the kidney, lung, and eye. CA IV is a membrane-bound enzyme that plays a role in transporting ions across cell membranes.
Carbonic anhydrases have been targeted for therapeutic interventions in several diseases, including glaucoma, epilepsy, and cancer. Inhibitors of carbonic anhydrases can reduce the production of bicarbonate and lower the pH of tumor cells, which may help to slow down their growth and proliferation. However, these inhibitors can also have side effects such as kidney stones and metabolic acidosis, so they must be used with caution.
Flaveria
Flaveria floridana
Flaveria bidentis
Flaveria robusta
Flaveria anomala
Flaveria cronquistii
Flaveria campestris
Flaveria oppositifolia
Flaveria palmeri
Flaveria brownii
Flaveria vaginata
Flaveria sonorensis
Flaveria ramosissima
Flaveria angustifolia
Flaveria mcdougallii
Flaveria australasica
Flaveria pubescens
Flaveria linearis
Flaveria trinervia
Flaveria kochiana
Flaveria chlorifolia
Flaveria pringlei
Tageteae
Oedera
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Flora of Zimbabwe: Species information: Flaveria trinervia
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Bidentis1
- Efficient 2-phosphoglycolate degradation is required to maintain carbon assimilation and allocation in the C4 plant Flaveria bidentis. (mpg.de)
Linearis1
- Flaveria linearis Lag. (harvard.edu)
Trinervia1
- Flaveria trinervia (Spreng. (co.zw)
Asteraceae2
- Flaveria is a genus of plants in the family Asteraceae. (wikipedia.org)
- 1978. Systematics of Flaveria (Flaveriinae-Asteraceae. (wikipedia.org)
Genus1
- With closely related species exhibiting different forms of metabolism, Flaveria has been a model genus for studies on the evolution of photosynthesis. (wikipedia.org)
Species3
- A monograph by A.M. Powell from 1978 is the most comprehensive study of morphology and biogeography for the Flaveria species to date. (wikipedia.org)
- Molecular phylogenetic studies have clarified many of the evolutionary relationships between Flaveria species. (wikipedia.org)
- Change in expression levels of NAD kinase-encoding genes in Flaveria species. (saitama-u.ac.jp)
Juss1
- 1789. Genera Plantarum 186-187 in Latin Tropicos, Flaveria Juss. (wikipedia.org)
Tropicos1
- C4-like Tropicos search for Flaveria Flann, C (ed) 2009+ Global Compositae Checklist Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de. (wikipedia.org)
Floridana1
- Flaveria floridana J.R.Johnst. (usf.edu)
Flora1
- Floira of North America Vol. 21 Page 247 Flaveria Jussieu Flora of China Vol. 20-21 Page 855 黄顶菊属 huang ding ju shu Flaveria Jussieu, Gen. Pl. 186. (wikipedia.org)
Bull1
- Flaveria pinetorum S. F. Blake, Bull. (usf.edu)
Yellowtops1
- Pictured above: Narrowleaf yellowtops ( Flaveria linearis ) by Jenny Evans (CC BY-NC 2.0). (flawildflowers.org)
Vaginata1
- C4 Flaveria vaginata B.L.Rob. (wikipedia.org)