Lipid Metabolism Disorders
Glucose Metabolism Disorders
Calcium Metabolism Disorders
Phosphorus Metabolism Disorders
Metabolic Diseases
Iron Metabolism Disorders
Glucose
Glucose Tolerance Test
Insulin
Energy Metabolism
Glucose Intolerance
Glycolysis
Lipid Metabolism
Glucose Transporter Type 1
Bipolar Disorder
Liver
Glucose Transporter Type 4
Hexokinase
Fluorodeoxyglucose F18
Glycogen
Lactic Acid
Mental Disorders
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2
Glucokinase
Monosaccharide Transport Proteins
Glucose Oxidase
Gluconeogenesis
Glucose Transporter Type 2
Brain
Insulin Resistance
Islets of Langerhans
Glucagon
Oxidation-Reduction
Tomography, Emission-Computed
Adipose Tissue
Fatty Acids, Nonesterified
Muscle, Skeletal
Glucose-6-Phosphate
Carbon Isotopes
Positron-Emission Tomography
Obesity
Homeostasis
Carbon Radioisotopes
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Biological Transport
Metabolism
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
Glucose 1-Dehydrogenase
Diabetes Mellitus
Fatty Acids
Body Weight
Impact of obesity on glucose and lipid profiles in adolescents at different age groups in relation to adulthood. (1/125)
BACKGROUND: As obesity is rapidly becoming a major medical and public health problem, the aim of our study was to determine: 1) if obesity in Caucasian adolescents at 5 different Tanner stages are associated with obesity in adulthood and its obesity-associated abnormal glucose and lipid profiles, 2) the type of fat distribution is associated with glucose and lipid profile abnormalities, and 3) the risk level and the age of appearance of these abnormalities. METHODS: For the first study, data analyses were from a case-control study of adolescents classified according to their BMI; a BMI >or= 85th percentile for age and sex as overweight, and those with a BMI >or= 95th percentile as obese. Subjects with a BMI < 85th percentile were classified as controls. WC:AC ratio of waist circumference to arm circumference was used as an indicator of a central pattern of adiposity. Two other indices of central adiposity were calculated from skinfolds: Central-peripheral (CPR) as subscapular skinfold + suprailliac skinfold)/ (triceps skinfold + thigh skinfold) and ratio of subscapular to triceps skinfold (STR). The sum of the four skinfolds (SUM) was calculated from triceps, subscapular, suprailliac and thigh skinfolds. SUM provides a single measure of subcutaneous adiposity. Representative adult subjects were used for comparison. Glucose and lipid profiles were also determined in these subjects. Abnormal glucose and lipid profiles were determined as being those with fasting glucose >or= 6.1 mmol/l and lipid values >or= 85th percentile adjusted for age and sex, respectively. Prevalence and odds ratio analysis were used to determine the impact of obesity on glucose and lipid profiles at each Tanner stages for both sexes. Correlation coefficient analyses were used to determine the association between glucose and lipid profiles and anthropometric measurements for both sexes. The second study evaluated in a retrospective-prospective longitudinal way if: 1) obesity in adolescence is associated with obesity in adulthood and 2) the nature of obesity-associated risk factors. Incidence and odds ratio analysis were used to determine the impact of obesity on glucose and lipid profiles at 7 different age groups from 9 to 38 years old in both sexes between 1974 to 2000. RESULTS: Overall, glucose and lipid profiles were significantly (P < 0.01) associated with all anthropometric measurements either in male and female adolescents. WC:AC, CPR, STR and SUM are stronger predictors of both glucose and lipid profiles than BMI. Obese and overweight adolescents of Tanner stages III and higher are at increased risk of having an impaired glucose and lipid profiles than normal subjects with odds ratios of 5.9 and higher. Obesity in adolescents of 13-15 years old group is significantly (P < 0.01) associated with obesity in adulthood (with odds ratios of at least 12 for both men and women) and abnormal glucose (odds ratio of >or= 8.6) and lipid profiles (odds ratio of >or= 11.4). CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed that adolescents aged between 13 and 15 years old of both sexes with a BMI >or= 85th percentile are at increased risk of becoming overweight or obese adults and presenting abnormal glucose and lipid profiles as adults. This emphasizes the importance of early detection and intervention directed at treatment of obesity to avert the long-term consequences of obesity on the development of cardiovascular diseases. (+info)Increased central artery stiffness in impaired glucose metabolism and type 2 diabetes: the Hoorn Study. (2/125)
Impaired glucose metabolism (IGM) and type 2 diabetes (DM-2) are associated with high cardiovascular disease risk. Increases in peripheral and central artery stiffness may represent pathophysiologic pathways through which glucose tolerance status leads to cardiovascular disease. Peripheral artery stiffness increases with deteriorating glucose tolerance status, whereas this trend remains unclear for central artery stiffness. Therefore, we investigated the associations between glucose tolerance status and estimates of central arterial stiffness. We performed a population-based study of 619 individuals (normal glucose metabolism, n=261; IGM, n=170; and DM-2, n=188) and assessed central artery stiffness by measuring total systemic arterial compliance, aortic pressure augmentation index, and carotid-femoral transit time. After adjustment for sex, age, heart rate, height, body mass index, and mean arterial pressure, DM-2 was associated with decreased total systemic arterial compliance, increased aortic augmentation index, and decreased carotid-femoral transit time. IGM was borderline significantly associated with decreased total systemic arterial compliance. Respective regression coefficients (95% confidence intervals) for IGM and DM-2 compared with normal glucose metabolism were -0.05 (-0.11 to 0.01) and -0.13 (-0.19 to -0.07) mL/mm Hg for total systemic arterial compliance; 1.1 (-0.2 to 2.5) and 1.6 (0.2 to 3.0) percentage points for aortic augmentation index; and -0.85 (-5.20 to 3.49) and -4.95 (-9.41 to -0.48) ms for carotid-femoral transit time. IGM and DM-2 are associated with increased central artery stiffness, which is more pronounced in DM-2. Deteriorating glucose tolerance is associated with increased central and peripheral arterial stiffness, which may partly explain why both DM-2 and IGM are associated with increased cardiovascular risk. (+info)Glucose metabolism in early onset versus late onset Alzheimer's disease: an SPM analysis of 120 patients. (3/125)
The aims of this cross-sectional study were (i) to compare the overall glucose metabolism between early onset and late onset Alzheimer's disease in a large sample of patients; and (ii) to investigate the pattern of glucose metabolism as a function of dementia severity in early onset versus late onset Alzheimer's disease, using a statistical parametric mapping (SPM) analysis. Subjects consisted of four groups: 74 patients with early onset Alzheimer's disease, 46 patients with late onset of the disease, and two control groups age matched to each patient group. All the subjects underwent 2-[(18)F]fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose (FDG)-PET under the same scanning conditions. Severity of dementia was rated with the Clincial Dementia Rating (CDR). Voxel-based SPM99 was used for statistical analyses. Overall glucose hypometabolism of early onset Alzheimer's disease patients was much greater in magnitude and extent than that of late onset patients, though both groups were similar in dementia severity: the early onset group showed more severe hypometabolism in parietal, frontal and subcortical (basal ganglia and thalamus) areas. When the decline of glucose metabolism was compared as a function of CDR stage, the slope was steeper in early onset than in late onset Alzheimer's disease. The rapid decline occurred at CDR 0.5-1 in the early onset group, whereas similar changes occurred at CDR 2-3 in the late onset group. The greater hypometabolism in early onset than in late onset patients is required to reach the same severity of dementia, probably reflecting greater functional reserve in younger than in older subjects. Alternatively, the metabolic decline curve suggests that the early onset patients may take a more rapid course in the reduction of glucose metabolism than the late onset patients. (+info)Evaluation of glucose metabolism profile in coronary disease. Prospective study in hospitalized patients. (4/125)
BACKGROUND: In 1995, it was estimated that 4% of the adult population had a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. The trend is for growing prevalence, with a prediction of 300 million individuals with diabetes diagnosed in 2025. There seems to be a large number of asymptomatic individuals with undiagnosed disorders of glucose metabolism. These disorders, whether diabetes mellitus or conditions considered as prediabetic, including impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose, represent an important risk factor for coronary disease and worsen the prognosis of established disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of glucose metabolism disorders in individuals admitted to hospital with coronary disease and to determine whether a significant number of these patients had previously undiagnosed diabetes or prediabetic conditions. METHODS: We conducted a prospective study of 44 consecutive patients admitted to the Cardiology Department with a diagnosis of coronary disease, whether previously established or established at the time of admission. We measured morning plasma glucose in all patients, after at least eight hours fasting, and all except those with a previous diagnosis of diabetes underwent an oral glucose tolerance test with 75 g of glucose before hospital discharge. For classification of glucometabolic state, we used the values defined by the World Health Organization (1999). RESULTS: The mean age of our cohort was 64.2+/-13.6 years. The most prevalent disorder was diabetes, with 19 patients (43.2%). Of these, 12 patients (27.3%) had a previous diagnosis of diabetes and 7 patients (15.9%) were unaware that they had the disease. We identified isolated impaired glucose tolerance in 11 patients (25%), isolated impaired fasting glucose in one patient (2.3%) and combined impaired glucose tolerance and impaired fasting glucose in another (2.3%). The remaining 12 patients (27.3%) revealed normal glycemia values. CONCLUSIONS: Glucose metabolism disorders including diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance have a high prevalence in coronary patients. This population includes a significant number of asymptomatic patients with undiagnosed diabetes or undetected prediabetic conditions. A systematic evaluation of the glucometabolic state of individuals with coronary disease during hospitalization, using an oral glucose tolerance test, may enable earlier identification of these disorders and implementation of measures to reduce their future impact. (+info)Brain white-matter volume loss and glucose hypometabolism precede the clinical symptoms of Huntington's disease. (5/125)
We studied the anatomic and functional changes in various brain areas during the course of Huntington's disease (HD) in a large cohort of mutation-positive individuals (n = 71) encompassing the complete range of disability (presymptomatic through stage V), and in healthy controls, for the purpose of defining both degenerative and dysfunctional brain changes in the same subjects. METHODS: We used an MRI and unsupervised multiparametric segmentation procedure based on a relaxometric approach to measure in vivo brain volumes in 71 subjects with presymptomatic to advanced HD. The same population was evaluated by 18F-FDG PET to assess variations in brain glucose metabolism. To predict age at onset in unaffected mutation carriers, we considered the estimated number of years from each subject's age to manifested HD symptoms, for a given expanded triplet number. RESULTS: Age-adjusted analyses confirmed that the 71 subjects as a group, as well as the subgroup of 24 unaffected presymptomatic subjects at risk for HD, had significantly smaller gray-matter and white-matter volumes and larger cerebrospinal fluid volumes than did controls (P < 0.0001). In the 24 presymptomatic subjects, we observed a significant inverse linear correlation between white-matter volume reduction and the estimated time to symptom onset (r2= 0.39; P = 0.0011). Both clinically unaffected subjects at risk for HD and symptomatic patients had significantly decreased glucose uptake in the cortex (frontal and temporal lobes) and striatum (caudate and putamen). HD subjects who were followed up longitudinally showed progressive white-matter reduction in the preclinical subjects (n = 10) and decreased glucose uptake in the cortex and striatum in affected (n = 21) and preclinical (n = 10) subjects. CONCLUSION: White-matter volume loss may precede gray-matter atrophy and may be associated with neuronal dysfunction in early disease. (+info)Pharmaceutical prospects of phytoestrogens. (6/125)
Interest in the physiologic and pharmacologic role of bioactive compounds present in plants has increased dramatically over the last decade. Of particular interest in relation to human health are the classes of compounds known as the phytoestrogens, which embody several groups of non-steroidal estrogens, including isoflavones and lignans that are widely distributed within nature. The impact of dietary phytoestrogens on normal biologic processes was first recognized in sheep. Observations of sheep grazing on fields rich in clover and cheetahs fed high soy diets in zoos suggested that flavonoids and related phytochemicals can affect mammalian health. Endogenous estrogens have an important role not only in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, but also in various non-gonadal systems, such as cardiovascular systems, bone, and central nervous systems, and lipid metabolism. There have been several clinical studies of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in post-menopausal women to examine whether HRT has beneficial effects on the cardiovascular system, bone fractures, lipid metabolism, and Alzheimer's disease. In addition, estrogen contributes to the development of some estrogen-dependent cancers, such as breast cancer and prostate cancer and the number of patients with these cancers is increasing in developed countries. Although recent mega-studies showed negative results for classical HRT in the prevention of some of these diseases, the molecules that interact with estrogen receptors are candidate drugs for various diseases, including hormone-dependent cancers. This review focuses on the molecular properties and pharmaceutical potential of phytoestrogens. (+info)Abnormal glucose tolerance and insulin resistance in polycystic ovary syndrome amongst the Taiwanese population- not correlated with insulin receptor substrate-1 Gly972Arg/Ala513Pro polymorphism. (7/125)
BACKGROUND: Insulin resistance and glucose dysmetabolism in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) are related with the polymorphisms in the genes encoding the insulin receptor substrate (IRS) proteins, especially Gly972Arg/Ala513Pro polymorphism being reported to be associated with type-2 diabetes and PCOS. We intended to assess the prevalence of abnormal glucose tolerance (AGT) and insulin resistance in Taiwanese PCOS women. We also tried to assess whether the particular identity of Gly972Arg/Ala513Pro polymorphic alleles of the IRS-1 gene mutation can be used as an appropriate diagnostic indicator for PCOS. METHODS: We designed a prospective clinical study. Forty-seven Taiwanese Hoklo and Hakka women, diagnosed with PCOS were enrolled in this study as were forty-five healthy Hoklo and Hakka women as the control group. Insulin resistance was evaluated with fasting insulin, fasting glucose/insulin ratio, and homeostasis model assessment index for insulin resistance (HOMAIR). The genomic DNA of the subjects was amplified by PCR and digested by restriction fragmented length polymorphism (RFLP) with Bst N1 used for codon 972 and Dra III for codon 513. RESULTS: AGT was found in 46.8% of these PCOS patients and was significantly related to high insulin resistance rather than the low insulin resistance. Those patients with either insulin resistance or AGT comprised the majority of PCOS affected patients (AGT + fasting insulin > or =17: 83%, AGT + glucose/insulin ratio > or =6.5: 85.1%, AGT + HOMAIR > or = 2: 87.2%, and AGT + HOMAIR > or = 3.8: 72.3%). None of the tested samples revealed any polymorphism due to the absence of any Dra III recognition site or any Bst N1 recognition site in the amplified PCR fragment digested by restriction fragmented length polymorphism. CONCLUSION: There is significantly high prevalence of AGT and insulin resistance in PCOS women, but Gly972Arg and Ala513Pro polymorphic alleles of IRS-1 are rare and are not associated with the elevated risk of PCOS amongst Taiwanese subjects. This is quite different from the similar study in phylogenetically diverged Caucasian subjects. (+info)Development of cookie test for the simultaneous determination of glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance and postprandial dyslipidemia. (8/125)
A new cookie test was developed for the simultaneous evaluation of multiple risk factors such as glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance and postprandial dyslipidemia. The cookie consisting of 75 g carbohydrate and 25 g fat is ingested and the blood samples are obtained at 0, 1 and 2 hours later. When the two carbohydrate sources, liquid glucose and test cookie, were compared as a glucose load within 3 months, the 2 hr plasma glucose levels were not statistically different, proposing the use of the same criteria at 2 hour glucose level for the diagnosis of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) in subjects without exocrine pancreatic dysfunction. In addition, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance (AUC insulin, and/or AUC insulin X AUC glucose), and postprandial hyperlipidemia (DeltaTG, Triglyceride; DeltaRLP, remnant like particles) have been simultaneously uncovered. Reactive hypoglycemia with adverse epigastric discomfort was observed in 26.3% of the control subjects with liquid glucose, while it was observed in only 1 case (5.3%) without any symptom with cookie tests. In fact, one reactive hypoglycemia out of 5 with liquid glucose turned out to be IGT with cookie test. In 64 subjects with lifestyle-related diseases, cookie test revealed hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance in 56% respectively, postprandial hyperlipidemia in 39%, diabetes and IGT in 22-23% of each of the subjects and all showed at least one abnormal value. In contrast, in university students with exercise habit, all showed normal results with cookie test. In addition, improved insulin sensitivity over non-exercise group was obverved. In summary, the cookie test provided more informations compared with OGTT using liquid glucose and with fewer side effects. Simultaneous evaluation of glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and postprandial hyperlipidemia was also possible. (+info)Lipid metabolism disorders are a group of conditions that result from abnormalities in the breakdown, transport, or storage of lipids (fats) in the body. These disorders can lead to an accumulation of lipids in various tissues and organs, causing them to function improperly.
There are several types of lipid metabolism disorders, including:
1. Hyperlipidemias: These are conditions characterized by high levels of cholesterol or triglycerides in the blood. They can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease and pancreatitis.
2. Hypercholesterolemia: This is a condition characterized by high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, also known as "bad" cholesterol, in the blood. It can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.
3. Hypocholesterolemias: These are conditions characterized by low levels of cholesterol in the blood. Some of these disorders may be associated with an increased risk of cancer and neurological disorders.
4. Hypertriglyceridemias: These are conditions characterized by high levels of triglycerides in the blood. They can increase the risk of pancreatitis and cardiovascular disease.
5. Lipodystrophies: These are conditions characterized by abnormalities in the distribution of body fat, which can lead to metabolic abnormalities such as insulin resistance, diabetes, and high levels of triglycerides.
6. Disorders of fatty acid oxidation: These are conditions that affect the body's ability to break down fatty acids for energy, leading to muscle weakness, liver dysfunction, and in some cases, life-threatening neurological complications.
Lipid metabolism disorders can be inherited or acquired, and their symptoms and severity can vary widely depending on the specific disorder and the individual's overall health status. Treatment may include lifestyle changes, medications, and dietary modifications to help manage lipid levels and prevent complications.
Glucose metabolism disorders are a group of conditions that result from abnormalities in the body's ability to produce, store, or use glucose, which is a simple sugar that serves as the primary source of energy for the body's cells. These disorders can be categorized into two main types: those caused by insufficient insulin production (such as type 1 diabetes) and those caused by impaired insulin action (such as type 2 diabetes).
In healthy individuals, glucose is absorbed from food during digestion and enters the bloodstream. The pancreas responds to this increase in blood glucose levels by releasing insulin, a hormone that signals cells throughout the body to take up glucose from the bloodstream and use it for energy production or storage.
Glucose metabolism disorders can disrupt this process at various stages, leading to high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) or low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia). Some common examples of these disorders include:
1. Diabetes Mellitus: A group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood glucose levels due to insufficient insulin production, impaired insulin action, or both. Type 1 diabetes results from the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta-cells that produce insulin, while type 2 diabetes is caused by a combination of insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion.
2. Gestational Diabetes: A form of high blood glucose that develops during pregnancy due to hormonal changes that impair insulin action.
3. Prediabetes: A condition where blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not yet high enough to be classified as diabetes.
4. Hypoglycemia: Abnormally low blood glucose levels, which can result from certain medications, hormonal deficiencies, or other medical conditions.
5. Glycogen Storage Diseases: A group of rare inherited metabolic disorders that affect the body's ability to store and break down glycogen, a complex carbohydrate that serves as an energy reserve in muscles and the liver.
6. Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY): A group of monogenic forms of diabetes caused by mutations in specific genes involved in insulin secretion or action.
7. Glucose Galactose Malabsorption: An inherited disorder that impairs the absorption of glucose and galactose, leading to severe diarrhea, dehydration, and high blood glucose levels.
8. Fructose Intolerance: A condition where the body cannot metabolize fructose properly due to a deficiency in the enzyme aldolase B, resulting in abdominal pain, diarrhea, and high blood glucose levels.
Calcium metabolism disorders refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the body's ability to properly regulate the levels of calcium in the blood and tissues. Calcium is an essential mineral that plays a critical role in many bodily functions, including bone health, muscle contraction, nerve function, and blood clotting.
There are several types of calcium metabolism disorders, including:
1. Hypocalcemia: This is a condition characterized by low levels of calcium in the blood. It can be caused by various factors such as vitamin D deficiency, hypoparathyroidism, and certain medications. Symptoms may include muscle cramps, spasms, and tingling sensations in the fingers and toes.
2. Hypercalcemia: This is a condition characterized by high levels of calcium in the blood. It can be caused by various factors such as hyperparathyroidism, cancer, and certain medications. Symptoms may include fatigue, weakness, confusion, and kidney stones.
3. Osteoporosis: This is a condition characterized by weak and brittle bones due to low calcium levels in the bones. It can be caused by various factors such as aging, menopause, vitamin D deficiency, and certain medications. Symptoms may include bone fractures and loss of height.
4. Paget's disease: This is a condition characterized by abnormal bone growth and deformities due to disordered calcium metabolism. It can be caused by various factors such as genetics, age, and certain medications. Symptoms may include bone pain, fractures, and deformities.
Treatment for calcium metabolism disorders depends on the underlying cause of the condition. It may involve supplements, medication, dietary changes, or surgery. Proper diagnosis and management are essential to prevent complications such as kidney stones, bone fractures, and neurological damage.
Phosphorus metabolism disorders refer to a group of conditions that affect the body's ability to properly regulate the levels and utilization of phosphorus. Phosphorus is an essential mineral that plays a critical role in many biological processes, including energy production, bone formation, and nerve function.
Disorders of phosphorus metabolism can result from genetic defects, kidney dysfunction, vitamin D deficiency, or other medical conditions. These disorders can lead to abnormal levels of phosphorus in the blood, which can cause a range of symptoms, including muscle weakness, bone pain, seizures, and respiratory failure.
Examples of phosphorus metabolism disorders include:
1. Hypophosphatemia: This is a condition characterized by low levels of phosphorus in the blood. It can be caused by various factors, such as malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, and kidney dysfunction.
2. Hyperphosphatemia: This is a condition characterized by high levels of phosphorus in the blood. It can be caused by kidney failure, tumor lysis syndrome, and certain medications.
3. Hereditary hypophosphatemic rickets: This is a genetic disorder that affects the body's ability to regulate vitamin D and phosphorus metabolism. It can lead to weakened bones and skeletal deformities.
4. Oncogenic osteomalacia: This is a rare condition that occurs when tumors produce substances that interfere with phosphorus metabolism, leading to bone pain and weakness.
Treatment for phosphorus metabolism disorders depends on the underlying cause of the disorder and may include dietary changes, supplements, medications, or surgery.
Metabolic diseases are a group of disorders caused by abnormal chemical reactions in your body's cells. These reactions are part of a complex process called metabolism, where your body converts the food you eat into energy.
There are several types of metabolic diseases, but they most commonly result from:
1. Your body not producing enough of certain enzymes that are needed to convert food into energy.
2. Your body producing too much of certain substances or toxins, often due to a genetic disorder.
Examples of metabolic diseases include phenylketonuria (PKU), diabetes, and gout. PKU is a rare condition where the body cannot break down an amino acid called phenylalanine, which can lead to serious health problems if left untreated. Diabetes is a common disorder that occurs when your body doesn't produce enough insulin or can't properly use the insulin it produces, leading to high blood sugar levels. Gout is a type of arthritis that results from too much uric acid in the body, which can form crystals in the joints and cause pain and inflammation.
Metabolic diseases can be inherited or acquired through environmental factors such as diet or lifestyle choices. Many metabolic diseases can be managed with proper medical care, including medication, dietary changes, and lifestyle modifications.
Iron metabolism disorders are a group of medical conditions that affect the body's ability to absorb, transport, store, or utilize iron properly. Iron is an essential nutrient that plays a crucial role in various bodily functions, including oxygen transportation and energy production. However, imbalances in iron levels can lead to several health issues.
There are two main types of iron metabolism disorders:
1. Iron deficiency anemia (IDA): This condition occurs when the body lacks adequate iron to produce sufficient amounts of hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. Causes of IDA may include inadequate dietary iron intake, blood loss, or impaired iron absorption due to conditions like celiac disease or inflammatory bowel disease.
2. Hemochromatosis: This is a genetic disorder characterized by excessive absorption and accumulation of iron in various organs, including the liver, heart, and pancreas. Over time, this excess iron can lead to organ damage and diseases such as cirrhosis, heart failure, diabetes, and arthritis. Hemochromatosis is typically caused by mutations in the HFE gene, which regulates iron absorption in the intestines.
Other iron metabolism disorders include:
* Anemia of chronic disease (ACD): A type of anemia that occurs in individuals with chronic inflammation or infection, where iron is not efficiently used for hemoglobin production due to altered regulation.
* Sideroblastic anemias: These are rare disorders characterized by the abnormal formation of ringed sideroblasts (immature red blood cells containing iron-laden mitochondria) in the bone marrow, leading to anemia and other symptoms.
* Iron-refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA): A rare inherited disorder caused by mutations in the TMPRSS6 gene, resulting in impaired regulation of hepcidin, a hormone that controls iron absorption and distribution in the body. This leads to both iron deficiency and iron overload.
Proper diagnosis and management of iron metabolism disorders are essential to prevent complications and maintain overall health. Treatment options may include dietary modifications, iron supplementation, phlebotomy (bloodletting), or chelation therapy, depending on the specific disorder and its severity.
Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.
In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.
Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.
Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.
The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.
Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.
A Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) is a medical test used to diagnose prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, and gestational diabetes. It measures how well your body is able to process glucose, which is a type of sugar.
During the test, you will be asked to fast (not eat or drink anything except water) for at least eight hours before the test. Then, a healthcare professional will take a blood sample to measure your fasting blood sugar level. After that, you will be given a sugary drink containing a specific amount of glucose. Your blood sugar levels will be measured again after two hours and sometimes also after one hour.
The results of the test will indicate how well your body is able to process the glucose and whether you have normal, impaired, or diabetic glucose tolerance. If your blood sugar levels are higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed with diabetes, you may have prediabetes, which means that you are at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the future.
It is important to note that a Glucose Tolerance Test should be performed under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as high blood sugar levels can be dangerous if not properly managed.
Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.
Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.
Energy metabolism is the process by which living organisms produce and consume energy to maintain life. It involves a series of chemical reactions that convert nutrients from food, such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, into energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
The process of energy metabolism can be divided into two main categories: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism is the breakdown of nutrients to release energy, while anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones using energy.
There are three main stages of energy metabolism: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle), and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH). The citric acid cycle takes place in the mitochondria and involves the further breakdown of pyruvate to produce more ATP, NADH, and carbon dioxide. Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of energy metabolism and occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It involves the transfer of electrons from NADH and other electron carriers to oxygen, which generates a proton gradient across the membrane. This gradient drives the synthesis of ATP, producing the majority of the cell's energy.
Overall, energy metabolism is a complex and essential process that allows organisms to grow, reproduce, and maintain their bodily functions. Disruptions in energy metabolism can lead to various diseases, including diabetes, obesity, and neurodegenerative disorders.
Glucose intolerance is a condition in which the body has difficulty processing and using glucose, or blood sugar, effectively. This results in higher than normal levels of glucose in the blood after eating, particularly after meals that are high in carbohydrates. Glucose intolerance can be an early sign of developing diabetes, specifically type 2 diabetes, and it may also indicate other metabolic disorders such as prediabetes or insulin resistance.
In a healthy individual, the pancreas produces insulin to help regulate blood sugar levels by facilitating glucose uptake in muscles, fat tissue, and the liver. When someone has glucose intolerance, their body may not produce enough insulin, or their cells may have become less responsive to insulin (insulin resistance), leading to impaired glucose metabolism.
Glucose intolerance can be diagnosed through various tests, including the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test. Treatment for glucose intolerance often involves lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, increased physical activity, and a balanced diet with reduced sugar and refined carbohydrate intake. In some cases, medication may be prescribed to help manage blood sugar levels more effectively.
Glycolysis is a fundamental metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells, consisting of a series of biochemical reactions. It's the process by which a six-carbon glucose molecule is broken down into two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. This process generates a net gain of two ATP molecules (the main energy currency in cells), two NADH molecules, and two water molecules.
Glycolysis can be divided into two stages: the preparatory phase (or 'energy investment' phase) and the payoff phase (or 'energy generation' phase). During the preparatory phase, glucose is phosphorylated twice to form glucose-6-phosphate and then converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. These reactions consume two ATP molecules but set up the subsequent breakdown of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate into triose phosphates in the payoff phase. In this second stage, each triose phosphate is further oxidized and degraded to produce one pyruvate molecule, one NADH molecule, and one ATP molecule through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Glycolysis does not require oxygen to proceed; thus, it can occur under both aerobic (with oxygen) and anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions. In the absence of oxygen, the pyruvate produced during glycolysis is further metabolized through fermentation pathways such as lactic acid fermentation or alcohol fermentation to regenerate NAD+, which is necessary for glycolysis to continue.
In summary, glycolysis is a crucial process in cellular energy metabolism, allowing cells to convert glucose into ATP and other essential molecules while also serving as a starting point for various other biochemical pathways.
Lipid metabolism is the process by which the body breaks down and utilizes lipids (fats) for various functions, such as energy production, cell membrane formation, and hormone synthesis. This complex process involves several enzymes and pathways that regulate the digestion, absorption, transport, storage, and consumption of fats in the body.
The main types of lipids involved in metabolism include triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids, and fatty acids. The breakdown of these lipids begins in the digestive system, where enzymes called lipases break down dietary fats into smaller molecules called fatty acids and glycerol. These molecules are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver, which is the main site of lipid metabolism.
In the liver, fatty acids may be further broken down for energy production or used to synthesize new lipids. Excess fatty acids may be stored as triglycerides in specialized cells called adipocytes (fat cells) for later use. Cholesterol is also metabolized in the liver, where it may be used to synthesize bile acids, steroid hormones, and other important molecules.
Disorders of lipid metabolism can lead to a range of health problems, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). These conditions may be caused by genetic factors, lifestyle habits, or a combination of both. Proper diagnosis and management of lipid metabolism disorders typically involves a combination of dietary changes, exercise, and medication.
Deoxyglucose is a glucose molecule that has had one oxygen atom removed, resulting in the absence of a hydroxyl group (-OH) at the 2' position of the carbon chain. It is used in research and medical settings as a metabolic tracer to study glucose uptake and metabolism in cells and organisms.
Deoxyglucose can be taken up by cells through glucose transporters, but it cannot be further metabolized by glycolysis or other glucose-utilizing pathways. This leads to the accumulation of deoxyglucose within the cell, which can interfere with normal cellular processes and cause toxicity in high concentrations.
In medical research, deoxyglucose is sometimes labeled with radioactive isotopes such as carbon-14 or fluorine-18 to create radiolabeled deoxyglucose (FDG), which can be used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans to visualize and measure glucose uptake in tissues. This technique is commonly used in cancer imaging, as tumors often have increased glucose metabolism compared to normal tissue.
Glucose Transporter Type 1 (GLUT1) is a specific type of protein called a glucose transporter, which is responsible for facilitating the transport of glucose across the blood-brain barrier and into the brain cells. It is encoded by the SLC2A1 gene and is primarily found in the endothelial cells of the blood-brain barrier, as well as in other tissues such as the erythrocytes (red blood cells), placenta, and kidney.
GLUT1 plays a critical role in maintaining normal glucose levels in the brain, as it is the main mechanism for glucose uptake into the brain. Disorders of GLUT1 can lead to impaired glucose transport, which can result in neurological symptoms such as seizures, developmental delay, and movement disorders. These disorders are known as GLUT1 deficiency syndromes.
Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a mental health condition that causes extreme mood swings that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression). When you become depressed, you may feel sad or hopeless and lose interest or pleasure in most activities. When your mood shifts to mania or hypomania (a less severe form of mania), you may feel euphoric, full of energy, or unusually irritable. These mood swings can significantly affect your job, school, relationships, and overall quality of life.
Bipolar disorder is typically characterized by the presence of one or more manic or hypomanic episodes, often accompanied by depressive episodes. The episodes may be separated by periods of normal mood, but in some cases, a person may experience rapid cycling between mania and depression.
There are several types of bipolar disorder, including:
* Bipolar I Disorder: This type is characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, which may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes.
* Bipolar II Disorder: This type involves the presence of at least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode, but no manic episodes.
* Cyclothymic Disorder: This type is characterized by numerous periods of hypomania and depression that are not severe enough to meet the criteria for a full manic or depressive episode.
* Other Specified and Unspecified Bipolar and Related Disorders: These categories include bipolar disorders that do not fit the criteria for any of the other types.
The exact cause of bipolar disorder is unknown, but it appears to be related to a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurochemical factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, psychotherapy, and lifestyle changes to help manage symptoms and prevent relapses.
The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:
1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.
Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.
Glucose Transporter Type 4 (GLUT4) is a type of glucose transporter protein that plays a crucial role in regulating insulin-mediated glucose uptake into cells, particularly in muscle and fat tissues. GLUT4 is primarily located in intracellular vesicles within these cell types and moves to the plasma membrane upon stimulation by insulin or muscle contraction, facilitating the influx of glucose into the cell. Dysfunction in GLUT4 regulation has been implicated in various metabolic disorders, including type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance.
Hexokinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the initial step of glucose metabolism, which is the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate. This reaction is the first step in most glucose catabolic pathways, including glycolysis, pentose phosphate pathway, and glycogen synthesis.
Hexokinase has a high affinity for glucose, meaning it can bind and phosphorylate glucose even at low concentrations. This property makes hexokinase an important regulator of glucose metabolism in cells. There are four isoforms of hexokinase (I-IV) found in different tissues, with hexokinase IV (also known as glucokinase) being primarily expressed in the liver and pancreas.
In summary, hexokinase is a vital enzyme involved in glucose metabolism, catalyzing the conversion of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate, and playing a crucial role in regulating cellular energy homeostasis.
Fluorodeoxyglucose F18 (FDG-18) is not a medical condition, but a radiopharmaceutical used in medical imaging. It is a type of glucose (a simple sugar) that has been chemically combined with a small amount of a radioactive isotope called fluorine-18.
FDG-18 is used in positron emission tomography (PET) scans to help identify areas of the body where cells are using more energy than normal, such as cancerous tumors. The FDG-18 is injected into the patient's vein and travels throughout the body. Because cancer cells often use more glucose than normal cells, they tend to absorb more FDG-18.
Once inside the body, the FDG-18 emits positrons, which interact with electrons in nearby tissue, producing gamma rays that can be detected by a PET scanner. The resulting images can help doctors locate and assess the size and activity of cancerous tumors, as well as monitor the effectiveness of treatment.
Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate that serves as the primary form of energy storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria. It is a polysaccharide consisting of long, branched chains of glucose molecules linked together by glycosidic bonds. Glycogen is stored primarily in the liver and muscles, where it can be quickly broken down to release glucose into the bloodstream during periods of fasting or increased metabolic demand.
In the liver, glycogen plays a crucial role in maintaining blood glucose levels by releasing glucose when needed, such as between meals or during exercise. In muscles, glycogen serves as an immediate energy source for muscle contractions during intense physical activity. The ability to store and mobilize glycogen is essential for the proper functioning of various physiological processes, including athletic performance, glucose homeostasis, and overall metabolic health.
Lactic acid, also known as 2-hydroxypropanoic acid, is a chemical compound that plays a significant role in various biological processes. In the context of medicine and biochemistry, lactic acid is primarily discussed in relation to muscle metabolism and cellular energy production. Here's a medical definition for lactic acid:
Lactic acid (LA): A carboxylic acid with the molecular formula C3H6O3 that plays a crucial role in anaerobic respiration, particularly during strenuous exercise or conditions of reduced oxygen availability. It is formed through the conversion of pyruvate, catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), when there is insufficient oxygen to complete the final step of cellular respiration in the Krebs cycle. The accumulation of lactic acid can lead to acidosis and muscle fatigue. Additionally, lactic acid serves as a vital intermediary in various metabolic pathways and is involved in the production of glucose through gluconeogenesis in the liver.
Lactates, also known as lactic acid, are compounds that are produced by muscles during intense exercise or other conditions of low oxygen supply. They are formed from the breakdown of glucose in the absence of adequate oxygen to complete the full process of cellular respiration. This results in the production of lactate and a hydrogen ion, which can lead to a decrease in pH and muscle fatigue.
In a medical context, lactates may be measured in the blood as an indicator of tissue oxygenation and metabolic status. Elevated levels of lactate in the blood, known as lactic acidosis, can indicate poor tissue perfusion or hypoxia, and may be seen in conditions such as sepsis, cardiac arrest, and severe shock. It is important to note that lactates are not the primary cause of acidemia (low pH) in lactic acidosis, but rather a marker of the underlying process.
A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. It's associated with distress and/or impaired functioning in social, occupational, or other important areas of life, often leading to a decrease in quality of life. These disorders are typically persistent and can be severe and disabling. They may be related to factors such as genetics, early childhood experiences, or trauma. Examples include depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and personality disorders. It's important to note that a diagnosis should be made by a qualified mental health professional.
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose (or sugar) levels resulting from the body's inability to produce sufficient amounts of insulin or effectively use the insulin it produces. This form of diabetes usually develops gradually over several years and is often associated with older age, obesity, physical inactivity, family history of diabetes, and certain ethnicities.
In Type 2 diabetes, the body's cells become resistant to insulin, meaning they don't respond properly to the hormone. As a result, the pancreas produces more insulin to help glucose enter the cells. Over time, the pancreas can't keep up with the increased demand, leading to high blood glucose levels and diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes is managed through lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, regular exercise, and a healthy diet. Medications, including insulin therapy, may also be necessary to control blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications associated with the disease, such as heart disease, nerve damage, kidney damage, and vision loss.
Glucokinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in regulating glucose metabolism. It is primarily found in the liver, pancreas, and brain. In the pancreas, glucokinase helps to trigger the release of insulin in response to rising blood glucose levels. In the liver, it plays a key role in controlling glucose storage and production.
Glucokinase has a unique property among hexokinases (enzymes that phosphorylate six-carbon sugars) in that it is not inhibited by its product, glucose-6-phosphate. This allows it to continue functioning even when glucose levels are high, making it an important regulator of glucose metabolism.
Defects in the gene that codes for glucokinase can lead to several types of inherited diabetes and other metabolic disorders.
Anxiety disorders are a category of mental health disorders characterized by feelings of excessive and persistent worry, fear, or anxiety that interfere with daily activities. They include several different types of disorders, such as:
1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): This is characterized by chronic and exaggerated worry and tension, even when there is little or nothing to provoke it.
2. Panic Disorder: This is characterized by recurring unexpected panic attacks and fear of experiencing more panic attacks.
3. Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD): Also known as social phobia, this is characterized by excessive fear, anxiety, or avoidance of social situations due to feelings of embarrassment, self-consciousness, and concern about being judged or viewed negatively by others.
4. Phobias: These are intense, irrational fears of certain objects, places, or situations. When a person with a phobia encounters the object or situation they fear, they may experience panic attacks or other severe anxiety responses.
5. Agoraphobia: This is a fear of being in places where it may be difficult to escape or get help if one has a panic attack or other embarrassing or incapacitating symptoms.
6. Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD): This is characterized by excessive anxiety about separation from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment (such as a parent, sibling, or partner).
7. Selective Mutism: This is a disorder where a child becomes mute in certain situations, such as at school, but can speak normally at home or with close family members.
These disorders are treatable with a combination of medication and psychotherapy (cognitive-behavioral therapy, exposure therapy). It's important to seek professional help if you suspect that you or someone you know may have an anxiety disorder.
Mood disorders are a category of mental health disorders characterized by significant and persistent changes in mood, affect, and emotional state. These disorders can cause disturbances in normal functioning and significantly impair an individual's ability to carry out their daily activities. The two primary types of mood disorders are depressive disorders (such as major depressive disorder or persistent depressive disorder) and bipolar disorders (which include bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, and cyclothymic disorder).
Depressive disorders involve prolonged periods of low mood, sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest in activities. Individuals with these disorders may also experience changes in sleep patterns, appetite, energy levels, concentration, and self-esteem. In severe cases, they might have thoughts of death or suicide.
Bipolar disorders involve alternating episodes of mania (or hypomania) and depression. During a manic episode, individuals may feel extremely elated, energetic, or irritable, with racing thoughts, rapid speech, and impulsive behavior. They might engage in risky activities, have decreased sleep needs, and display poor judgment. In contrast, depressive episodes involve the same symptoms as depressive disorders.
Mood disorders can be caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Proper diagnosis and treatment, which may include psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both, are essential for managing these conditions and improving quality of life.
Monosaccharide transport proteins are a type of membrane transport protein that facilitate the passive or active transport of monosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, across cell membranes. These proteins play a crucial role in the absorption, distribution, and metabolism of carbohydrates in the body.
There are two main types of monosaccharide transport proteins: facilitated diffusion transporters and active transporters. Facilitated diffusion transporters, also known as glucose transporters (GLUTs), passively transport monosaccharides down their concentration gradient without the need for energy. In contrast, active transporters, such as the sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT), use energy in the form of ATP to actively transport monosaccharides against their concentration gradient.
Monosaccharide transport proteins are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the intestines, kidneys, liver, and brain. They play a critical role in maintaining glucose homeostasis by regulating the uptake and release of glucose into and out of cells. Dysfunction of these transporters has been implicated in several diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, and neurological disorders.
Glucose oxidase (GOD) is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of D-glucose to D-glucono-1,5-lactone, while reducing oxygen to hydrogen peroxide in the process. This reaction is a part of the metabolic pathway in some organisms that convert glucose into energy. The systematic name for this enzyme is D-glucose:oxygen 1-oxidoreductase.
Glucose oxidase is commonly found in certain fungi, such as Aspergillus niger, and it has various applications in industry, medicine, and research. For instance, it's used in the production of glucose sensors for monitoring blood sugar levels, in the detection and quantification of glucose in food and beverages, and in the development of biosensors for environmental monitoring.
It's worth noting that while glucose oxidase has many applications, it should not be confused with glutathione peroxidase, another enzyme involved in the reduction of hydrogen peroxide to water.
Fasting is defined in medical terms as the abstinence from food or drink for a period of time. This practice is often recommended before certain medical tests or procedures, as it helps to ensure that the results are not affected by recent eating or drinking.
In some cases, fasting may also be used as a therapeutic intervention, such as in the management of seizures or other neurological conditions. Fasting can help to lower blood sugar and insulin levels, which can have a variety of health benefits. However, it is important to note that prolonged fasting can also have negative effects on the body, including malnutrition, dehydration, and electrolyte imbalances.
Fasting is also a spiritual practice in many religions, including Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism. In these contexts, fasting is often seen as a way to purify the mind and body, to focus on spiritual practices, or to express devotion or mourning.
Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that occurs in the liver, kidneys, and to a lesser extent in the small intestine. It involves the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors such as lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. This process becomes particularly important during periods of fasting or starvation when glucose levels in the body begin to drop, and there is limited carbohydrate intake to replenish them.
Gluconeogenesis helps maintain blood glucose homeostasis by providing an alternative source of glucose for use by various tissues, especially the brain, which relies heavily on glucose as its primary energy source. It is a complex process that involves several enzymatic steps, many of which are regulated to ensure an adequate supply of glucose while preventing excessive production, which could lead to hyperglycemia.
Glucose Transporter Type 2 (GLUT2) is a protein responsible for the facilitated diffusion of glucose across the cell membrane. It is a member of the solute carrier family 2 (SLC2), also known as the facilitative glucose transporter family. GLUT2 is primarily expressed in the liver, kidney, and intestines, where it plays a crucial role in regulating glucose homeostasis.
In the pancreas, GLUT2 is found in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans, where it facilitates the uptake of glucose from the bloodstream into the cells. Once inside the cell, glucose is metabolized, leading to an increase in ATP levels and the closure of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. This results in the depolarization of the cell membrane and the subsequent opening of voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing for the release of insulin from secretory vesicles into the bloodstream.
In the intestines, GLUT2 is expressed in the enterocytes of the small intestine, where it facilitates the absorption of glucose and other monosaccharides from the lumen into the bloodstream. In the kidneys, GLUT2 is found in the proximal tubules, where it plays a role in reabsorbing glucose from the filtrate back into the bloodstream.
Mutations in the gene that encodes GLUT2 (SLC2A2) can lead to several genetic disorders, including Fanconi-Bickel syndrome, which is characterized by impaired glucose and galactose absorption in the intestines, hepatic glycogen accumulation, and renal tubular dysfunction.
The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:
1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.
The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.
Insulin resistance is a condition in which the body's cells become less responsive to insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels. In response to this decreased sensitivity, the pancreas produces more insulin to help glucose enter the cells. However, over time, the pancreas may not be able to keep up with the increased demand for insulin, leading to high levels of glucose in the blood and potentially resulting in type 2 diabetes, prediabetes, or other health issues such as metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Insulin resistance is often associated with obesity, physical inactivity, and genetic factors.
The Islets of Langerhans are clusters of specialized cells within the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach. These islets are named after Paul Langerhans, who first identified them in 1869. They constitute around 1-2% of the total mass of the pancreas and are distributed throughout its substance.
The Islets of Langerhans contain several types of cells, including:
1. Alpha (α) cells: These produce and release glucagon, a hormone that helps to regulate blood sugar levels by promoting the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver when blood sugar levels are low.
2. Beta (β) cells: These produce and release insulin, a hormone that promotes the uptake and utilization of glucose by cells throughout the body, thereby lowering blood sugar levels.
3. Delta (δ) cells: These produce and release somatostatin, a hormone that inhibits the release of both insulin and glucagon and helps regulate their secretion in response to changing blood sugar levels.
4. PP cells (gamma or γ cells): These produce and release pancreatic polypeptide, which plays a role in regulating digestive enzyme secretion and gastrointestinal motility.
Dysfunction of the Islets of Langerhans can lead to various endocrine disorders, such as diabetes mellitus, where insulin-producing beta cells are damaged or destroyed, leading to impaired blood sugar regulation.
Glucagon is a hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas. Its main function is to regulate glucose levels in the blood by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which can then be released into the bloodstream. This process helps to raise blood sugar levels when they are too low, such as during hypoglycemia.
Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide that is derived from the preproglucagon protein. It works by binding to glucagon receptors on liver cells, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation of enzymes involved in glycogen breakdown.
In addition to its role in glucose regulation, glucagon has also been shown to have other physiological effects, such as promoting lipolysis (the breakdown of fat) and inhibiting gastric acid secretion. Glucagon is often used clinically in the treatment of hypoglycemia, as well as in diagnostic tests to assess pancreatic function.
Oxidation-Reduction (redox) reactions are a type of chemical reaction involving a transfer of electrons between two species. The substance that loses electrons in the reaction is oxidized, and the substance that gains electrons is reduced. Oxidation and reduction always occur together in a redox reaction, hence the term "oxidation-reduction."
In biological systems, redox reactions play a crucial role in many cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, and signaling. The transfer of electrons in these reactions is often facilitated by specialized molecules called electron carriers, such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+/NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD/FADH2).
The oxidation state of an element in a compound is a measure of the number of electrons that have been gained or lost relative to its neutral state. In redox reactions, the oxidation state of one or more elements changes as they gain or lose electrons. The substance that is oxidized has a higher oxidation state, while the substance that is reduced has a lower oxidation state.
Overall, oxidation-reduction reactions are fundamental to the functioning of living organisms and are involved in many important biological processes.
Emission computed tomography (ECT) is a type of tomographic imaging technique in which an emission signal from within the body is detected to create cross-sectional images of that signal's distribution. In Emission-Computed Tomography (ECT), a radionuclide is introduced into the body, usually through injection, inhalation or ingestion. The radionuclide emits gamma rays that are then detected by external gamma cameras.
The data collected from these cameras is then used to create cross-sectional images of the distribution of the radiopharmaceutical within the body. This allows for the identification and quantification of functional information about specific organs or systems within the body, such as blood flow, metabolic activity, or receptor density.
One common type of Emission-Computed Tomography is Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT), which uses a single gamma camera that rotates around the patient to collect data from multiple angles. Another type is Positron Emission Tomography (PET), which uses positron-emitting radionuclides and detects the coincident gamma rays emitted by the annihilation of positrons and electrons.
Overall, ECT is a valuable tool in medical imaging for diagnosing and monitoring various diseases, including cancer, heart disease, and neurological disorders.
Adipose tissue, also known as fatty tissue, is a type of connective tissue that is composed mainly of adipocytes (fat cells). It is found throughout the body, but is particularly abundant in the abdominal cavity, beneath the skin, and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.
Adipose tissue serves several important functions in the body. One of its primary roles is to store energy in the form of fat, which can be mobilized and used as an energy source during periods of fasting or exercise. Adipose tissue also provides insulation and cushioning for the body, and produces hormones that help regulate metabolism, appetite, and reproductive function.
There are two main types of adipose tissue: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). WAT is the more common form and is responsible for storing energy as fat. BAT, on the other hand, contains a higher number of mitochondria and is involved in heat production and energy expenditure.
Excessive accumulation of adipose tissue can lead to obesity, which is associated with an increased risk of various health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.
Nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), also known as free fatty acids (FFA), refer to fatty acid molecules that are not bound to glycerol in the form of triglycerides or other esters. In the bloodstream, NEFAs are transported while bound to albumin and can serve as a source of energy for peripheral tissues. Under normal physiological conditions, NEFA levels are tightly regulated by the body; however, elevated NEFA levels have been associated with various metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes.
Skeletal muscle, also known as striated or voluntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is attached to bones by tendons or aponeuroses and functions to produce movements and support the posture of the body. It is composed of long, multinucleated fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles and are characterized by alternating light and dark bands, giving them a striped appearance under a microscope. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, meaning that it is consciously activated through signals from the nervous system. It is responsible for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and lifting objects.
Hypoglycemic agents are a class of medications that are used to lower blood glucose levels in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. These medications work by increasing insulin sensitivity, stimulating insulin release from the pancreas, or inhibiting glucose production in the liver. Examples of hypoglycemic agents include sulfonylureas, meglitinides, biguanides, thiazolidinediones, DPP-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists. It's important to note that the term "hypoglycemic" refers to a condition of abnormally low blood glucose levels, but in this context, the term is used to describe agents that are used to treat high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) associated with diabetes.
Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is a vital intermediate compound in the metabolism of glucose, which is a simple sugar that serves as a primary source of energy for living organisms. G6P plays a critical role in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis pathways, contributing to the regulation of blood glucose levels and energy production within cells.
In biochemistry, glucose-6-phosphate is defined as:
A hexose sugar phosphate ester formed by the phosphorylation of glucose at the 6th carbon atom by ATP in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase or glucokinase. This reaction is the first step in both glycolysis and glucose storage (glycogen synthesis) processes, ensuring that glucose can be effectively utilized for energy production or stored for later use.
G6P serves as a crucial metabolic branch point, leading to various pathways such as:
1. Glycolysis: In the presence of sufficient ATP and NAD+ levels, G6P is further metabolized through glycolysis to generate pyruvate, which enters the citric acid cycle for additional energy production in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
2. Gluconeogenesis: During periods of low blood glucose levels, G6P can be synthesized back into glucose through the gluconeogenesis pathway, primarily occurring in the liver and kidneys. This process helps maintain stable blood glucose concentrations and provides energy to cells when dietary intake is insufficient.
3. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP): A portion of G6P can be shunted into the PPP, an alternative metabolic route that generates NADPH, ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis, and erythrose-4-phosphate for aromatic amino acid production. The PPP is essential in maintaining redox balance within cells and supporting biosynthetic processes.
Overall, glucose-6-phosphate plays a critical role as a central metabolic intermediate, connecting various pathways to regulate energy homeostasis, redox balance, and biosynthesis in response to cellular demands and environmental cues.
Carbon isotopes are variants of the chemical element carbon that have different numbers of neutrons in their atomic nuclei. The most common and stable isotope of carbon is carbon-12 (^{12}C), which contains six protons and six neutrons. However, carbon can also come in other forms, known as isotopes, which contain different numbers of neutrons.
Carbon-13 (^{13}C) is a stable isotope of carbon that contains seven neutrons in its nucleus. It makes up about 1.1% of all carbon found on Earth and is used in various scientific applications, such as in tracing the metabolic pathways of organisms or in studying the age of fossilized materials.
Carbon-14 (^{14}C), also known as radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon that contains eight neutrons in its nucleus. It is produced naturally in the atmosphere through the interaction of cosmic rays with nitrogen gas. Carbon-14 has a half-life of about 5,730 years, which makes it useful for dating organic materials, such as archaeological artifacts or fossils, up to around 60,000 years old.
Carbon isotopes are important in many scientific fields, including geology, biology, and medicine, and are used in a variety of applications, from studying the Earth's climate history to diagnosing medical conditions.
In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."
1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.
2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.
3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.
4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).
Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.
Positron-Emission Tomography (PET) is a type of nuclear medicine imaging that uses small amounts of radioactive material, called a radiotracer, to produce detailed, three-dimensional images. This technique measures metabolic activity within the body, such as sugar metabolism, to help distinguish between healthy and diseased tissue, identify cancerous cells, or examine the function of organs.
During a PET scan, the patient is injected with a radiotracer, typically a sugar-based compound labeled with a positron-emitting radioisotope, such as fluorine-18 (^18^F). The radiotracer accumulates in cells that are metabolically active, like cancer cells. As the radiotracer decays, it emits positrons, which then collide with electrons in nearby tissue, producing gamma rays. A special camera, called a PET scanner, detects these gamma rays and uses this information to create detailed images of the body's internal structures and processes.
PET is often used in conjunction with computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to provide both functional and anatomical information, allowing for more accurate diagnosis and treatment planning. Common applications include detecting cancer recurrence, staging and monitoring cancer, evaluating heart function, and assessing brain function in conditions like dementia and epilepsy.
In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.
For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.
Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.
Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.
Obesity is a complex disease characterized by an excess accumulation of body fat to the extent that it negatively impacts health. It's typically defined using Body Mass Index (BMI), a measure calculated from a person's weight and height. A BMI of 30 or higher is indicative of obesity. However, it's important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying obesity in populations, it does not directly measure body fat and may not accurately reflect health status in individuals. Other factors such as waist circumference, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and blood sugar levels should also be considered when assessing health risks associated with weight.
Homeostasis is a fundamental concept in the field of medicine and physiology, referring to the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment, despite changes in external conditions. It is the process by which biological systems regulate their internal environment to remain in a state of dynamic equilibrium. This is achieved through various feedback mechanisms that involve sensors, control centers, and effectors, working together to detect, interpret, and respond to disturbances in the system.
For example, the body maintains homeostasis through mechanisms such as temperature regulation (through sweating or shivering), fluid balance (through kidney function and thirst), and blood glucose levels (through insulin and glucagon secretion). When homeostasis is disrupted, it can lead to disease or dysfunction in the body.
In summary, homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within biological systems, through various regulatory mechanisms that respond to changes in external conditions.
Carbon radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of carbon, which is an naturally occurring chemical element with the atomic number 6. The most common and stable isotope of carbon is carbon-12 (^12C), but there are also several radioactive isotopes, including carbon-11 (^11C), carbon-14 (^14C), and carbon-13 (^13C). These radioisotopes have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, which makes them unstable and causes them to emit radiation.
Carbon-11 has a half-life of about 20 minutes and is used in medical imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) scans. It is produced by bombarding nitrogen-14 with protons in a cyclotron.
Carbon-14, also known as radiocarbon, has a half-life of about 5730 years and is used in archaeology and geology to date organic materials. It is produced naturally in the atmosphere by cosmic rays.
Carbon-13 is stable and has a natural abundance of about 1.1% in carbon. It is not radioactive, but it can be used as a tracer in medical research and in the study of metabolic processes.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a publication of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) that provides diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. It is widely used by mental health professionals in the United States and around the world to diagnose and classify mental health conditions.
The DSM includes detailed descriptions of symptoms, clinical examples, and specific criteria for each disorder, which are intended to facilitate accurate diagnosis and improve communication among mental health professionals. The manual is regularly updated to reflect current research and clinical practice, with the most recent edition being the DSM-5, published in 2013.
It's important to note that while the DSM is a valuable tool for mental health professionals, it is not without controversy. Some critics argue that the manual medicalizes normal human experiences and that its categories may be too broad or overlapping. Nonetheless, it remains an essential resource for clinicians, researchers, and policymakers in the field of mental health.
Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, ions, or solutes across biological membranes or through cells in living organisms. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, regulating cellular functions, and enabling communication between cells. There are two main types of biological transport: passive transport and active transport.
Passive transport does not require the input of energy and includes:
1. Diffusion: The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of solvent molecules (usually water) across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
3. Facilitated diffusion: The assisted passage of polar or charged substances through protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane, which increases the rate of diffusion without consuming energy.
Active transport requires the input of energy (in the form of ATP) and includes:
1. Primary active transport: The direct use of ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient, often driven by specific transport proteins called pumps.
2. Secondary active transport: The coupling of the movement of one substance down its electrochemical gradient with the uphill transport of another substance, mediated by a shared transport protein. This process is also known as co-transport or counter-transport.
Metabolism is the complex network of chemical reactions that occur within our bodies to maintain life. It involves two main types of processes: catabolism, which is the breaking down of molecules to release energy, and anabolism, which is the building up of molecules using energy. These reactions are necessary for the body to grow, reproduce, respond to environmental changes, and repair itself. Metabolism is a continuous process that occurs at the cellular level and is regulated by enzymes, hormones, and other signaling molecules. It is influenced by various factors such as age, genetics, diet, physical activity, and overall health status.
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway (also known as the Hexose Monophosphate Shunt or HMP Shunt) is a metabolic pathway that runs parallel to glycolysis. It serves two major functions:
1. Providing reducing equivalents in the form of NADPH for reductive biosynthesis and detoxification processes.
2. Generating ribose-5-phosphate, a pentose sugar used in the synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
This pathway begins with the oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate to form 6-phosphogluconolactone, catalyzed by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. The resulting NADPH is used in various anabolic reactions and antioxidant defense systems.
The Pentose Phosphate Pathway also includes a series of reactions called the non-oxidative branch, which interconverts various sugars to meet cellular needs for different types of monosaccharides. These conversions are facilitated by several enzymes including transketolase and transaldolase.
Glucose 1-Dehydrogenase (G1DH) is an enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of β-D-glucose into D-glucono-1,5-lactone and reduces the cofactor NAD+ into NADH. This reaction plays a role in various biological processes, including glucose sensing and detoxification of reactive carbonyl species. G1DH is found in many organisms, including humans, and has several isoforms with different properties and functions.
Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) due to absolute or relative deficiency in insulin secretion and/or insulin action. There are two main types: Type 1 diabetes, which results from the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to insulin deficiency, and Type 2 diabetes, which is associated with insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.
Type 1 diabetes typically presents in childhood or young adulthood, while Type 2 diabetes tends to occur later in life, often in association with obesity and physical inactivity. Both types of diabetes can lead to long-term complications such as damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and cardiovascular system if left untreated or not well controlled.
The diagnosis of diabetes is usually made based on fasting plasma glucose levels, oral glucose tolerance tests, or hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels. Treatment typically involves lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise, along with medications to lower blood glucose levels and manage associated conditions.
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a long aliphatic chain, which are important components of lipids and are widely distributed in living organisms. They can be classified based on the length of their carbon chain, saturation level (presence or absence of double bonds), and other structural features.
The two main types of fatty acids are:
1. Saturated fatty acids: These have no double bonds in their carbon chain and are typically solid at room temperature. Examples include palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0).
2. Unsaturated fatty acids: These contain one or more double bonds in their carbon chain and can be further classified into monounsaturated (one double bond) and polyunsaturated (two or more double bonds) fatty acids. Examples of unsaturated fatty acids include oleic acid (C18:1, monounsaturated), linoleic acid (C18:2, polyunsaturated), and alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3, polyunsaturated).
Fatty acids play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as energy storage, membrane structure, and cell signaling. Some essential fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources.
Glucose Transporter Type 3 (GLUT3) is defined in medical terms as a specific type of glucose transporter protein, also known as solute carrier family 2, member 1 (SLC2A1). It is primarily found in the membranes of neurons and plays a crucial role in facilitating the transport of glucose from the extracellular space into the intracellular compartment of these cells. GLUT3 is notable for its high affinity for glucose, allowing it to effectively transport this essential energy source even under conditions of low glucose concentration. Its presence in neurons is particularly important, as these cells have a high demand for glucose to support their metabolic needs and maintain proper function.
Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.
Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.
It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.
Glycerol, also known as glycerine or glycerin, is a simple polyol (a sugar alcohol) with a sweet taste and a thick, syrupy consistency. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is slightly soluble in water and freely miscible with ethanol and ether.
In the medical field, glycerol is often used as a medication or supplement. It can be used as a laxative to treat constipation, as a source of calories and energy for people who cannot eat by mouth, and as a way to prevent dehydration in people with certain medical conditions.
Glycerol is also used in the production of various medical products, such as medications, skin care products, and vaccines. It acts as a humectant, which means it helps to keep things moist, and it can also be used as a solvent or preservative.
In addition to its medical uses, glycerol is also widely used in the food industry as a sweetener, thickening agent, and moisture-retaining agent. It is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
Delayed-maturation theory of obsessive-compulsive disorder
Sleep disorder
Enolase deficiency
Brodmann area 25
POEMS syndrome
Ruth Benca
Metabolic disorder
Pattern hair loss
Hematologic disease
Mygene
Eating disorders and memory
Neuroenhancement
Postprandial dip
Fatty-acid metabolism disorder
Disorders of consciousness
Circadian rhythm sleep disorder
Glucose tolerance test
Microcephaly
Glucose-galactose malabsorption
Mannose
Neurocardiology
List of disorders included in newborn screening programs
Diurnal mood variation
FGF19
Glycogen storage disease type II
CLOCK
Papez circuit
Korsakoff syndrome
Intravenous sugar solution
Urine test strip
International Journal of Obesity
Glucose Metabolism Disorders - Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 | CU Experts | CU Boulder
Involvement of Lipid and Glucose Metabolism in Skeletal Disorders of Animal Models
Cellular stress response mechanisms of Rhizoma coptidis: a systematic review | Chinese Medicine
The Effect of the Ketogenic Diet on the Therapy of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Its Impact on Improving Cognitive Functions |...
Use of imaging biomarkers to assess perfusion and glucose metabolism in the skeletal muscle of dystrophic mice | BMC...
ISMRM 2014) Brain Perfusion and Glucose Metabolism by Simultaneous FDG-PET/MR-ASL in Patients with Cognitive Disorders: Initial...
Glucose metabolism disorders and risk factors of type 2 diabetes in 45-74-years-old population in Riga, Latvia - RSU
Delayed-maturation theory of obsessive-compulsive disorder - Wikipedia
Advanced Search Results - Public Health Image Library(PHIL)
Systemic Diseases | MindMeister Mind Map
Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental | Harvard Catalyst Profiles | Harvard Catalyst
Recent Advances In Animal Nutrition And Metabolism - Wu Guoyao (Curatore) | Libro Springer 11/2022 - HOEPLI.it
Frontiers | A Copper-Based Biosensor for Dual-Mode Glucose Detection
Transfusion-Induced Iron Overload: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology
A Study Comparing the Health Effects of Two Diets Following UK Dietary Guidance in People Living With Overweight or Obesity -...
Plus it
Polymorphic amyloid nanostructures of hormone peptides involved in glucose homeostasis display reversible amyloid formation |...
Movement - unpredictable or jerky | Lima Memorial Health System
UKidney - Randomized Trial
6 Surprising Factors That Increase Your Obesity Risk | weight-management - Sharecare
Lifestyle counselling during pregnancy has a positive effect on women's health also after delivery | University of Helsinki
Interdependencies among Selected Pro-Inflammatory Markers of Endothelial Dysfunction, C-Peptide, Anti-Inflammatory Interleukin...
Pregnancy, metabolism, and the short- and long-term health of women and their children - NIDDK
Hyperinsulinism | Profiles RNS
NHANES 2007-2008: Standard Biochemistry Profile Data Documentation, Codebook, and Frequencies
Livalo, Zypitamag (pitavastatin) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more
Detecting sugar: an everyday problem when facing diabetes - Science in School
Perfusion and glucose metabolism2
Hepatic Glucose Metabolism1
- 2010), nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, impaired hepatic glucose metabolism (Zheng et al. (deepdyve.com)
Obesity4
- For example, a 2017 study published in the journal Obesity showed that chronic stress could lead to elevated levels of cortisol, a hormone that affects metabolism and helps the body manage stress. (sharecare.com)
- Disturbed lipid and carbohydrate metabolism are manifested by enhanced inflammation and endothelial dysfunction in patients with simply obesity. (medsci.org)
- Therefore, it is becoming more and more popular to adjust the obesity and abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism by eating dietary fiber. (ijpsonline.com)
- They also found that the lean participants with diabetes were more likely to have lower levels of Vitamin D. "Our findings indicate that Vitamin D is associated more closely with glucose metabolism than obesity," said Manuel Marcia-Gonzalez, another author of the study. (medicalguardian.com)
Carbohydrate5
- The use of drastic caloric restriction or ultralow-carbohydrate diets increases the production of ketone bodies, which are an alternative energy substrate in situations of insufficient glucose supply. (karger.com)
- It is believed that carbohydrate metabolism disorders may affect the progression of these diseases, as confirmed by both animal and human studies. (karger.com)
- Glucose measurements are used in the diagnosis and treatment of pancreatic islet cell carcinoma and of carbohydrate metabolism disorders, including diabetes mellitus, neonatal hypoglycemia, and idiopathic hypoglycemia. (cdc.gov)
- Carbohydrate metabolism disorders are a group of metabolic disorders. (medlineplus.gov)
- Overview of Carbohydrate Metabolism Disorders Carbohydrate metabolism disorders are errors of metabolism that affect the catabolism and anabolism of carbohydrates. (msdmanuals.com)
Diabetes27
- The aims of this study were to investigate the current prevalence of abnormal glucose tolerance (AGT), compare the risk factor profile between persons with and without AGT among 45-74 years-old Latvian men and women, and to validate the Finnish diabetes risk score (FINDRISC) questionnaire in detecting AGT in the middle-aged Latvian population. (rsu.lv)
- A beta cell subset with enhanced insulin secretion and glucose metabolism is reduced in type 2 diabetes. (harvard.edu)
- In addition to effects on both the mother and child during pregnancy, the disorder is an indication of a seven-fold risk of diabetes in the future. (helsinki.fi)
- Diabetes or a preceding glucose metabolism disorder was diagnosed in 13% of the control subjects, while the corresponding figure was 3% in the counselling group. (helsinki.fi)
- In the RADIEL data, the highest incidence of gestational diabetes in the second trimester (36%) was indeed found in normal-weight women with a history of gestational diabetes, despite their being the healthiest subjects during early pregnancy in terms of metabolism. (helsinki.fi)
- Five years after delivery, 15% of RADIEL study subjects were diagnosed with abnormal glucose metabolism, while 4% had already developed type 2 diabetes. (helsinki.fi)
- In some women, these changes can cause their blood glucose levels to rise to such a degree that they are diagnosed with and treated for a condition called gestational diabetes (GDM), a form of diabetes that is diagnosed during pregnancy and is not clearly identified as either preexisting type 1 or type 2 diabetes. (nih.gov)
- Now, through a long-term study involving thousands of women and children, researchers have found that elevated maternal blood glucose levels even below those meeting traditional GDM diagnostic criteria increase the risk of future type 2 diabetes in mothers and impaired glucose metabolism and greater excess fat in children ages 10 to 14 years post-delivery. (nih.gov)
- Women identified as at-risk then go through further testing to see if their blood glucose levels exceed certain threshold values for diabetes. (nih.gov)
- In 2008, the landmark NIH-funded Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study reported findings of health problems associated with glucose levels during pregnancy that were above normal (hyperglycemia), but not high enough to be considered diabetes. (nih.gov)
- Diabetes mellitus (or simply diabetes ) is a syndrome characterised by disordered glucose metabolism and overly high blood sugar levels (hyperglycaemia). (scienceinschool.org)
- The principle of these experiments is the same as in assays to determine blood glucose levels for the diagnosis of diabetes, or to measure glucose and/or lactose levels, for example in fruit juices, milk and dairy products. (scienceinschool.org)
- Impaired glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity have been linked to the pathogenesis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). (hindawi.com)
- Association of blood glucose control and outcomes in patients with COVID-19 and pre-existing type 2 diabetes. (vitamindwiki.com)
- Singh AK, Singh R. Does poor glucose control increase the severity and mortality in patients with diabetes and COVID-19? (vitamindwiki.com)
- Fasting blood glucose at admission is an independent predictor for 28-day mortality in patients with COVID-19 without previous diagnosis of diabetes: a multi-centre retrospective study. (vitamindwiki.com)
- In this review, we summarize current knowledge about vitamin D metabolism in general, its role in diabetes mellitus (mainly type 2) and diabetic complications (mainly diabetic kidney disease), and potential therapeutic perspectives including vitamin D signalling as a druggable target. (karger.com)
- 2007). Emerging evidence from both epidemiological and experimental studies indicates the adverse consequences of PM2.5 exposure on diabetes, including worsening of whole-body insulin sensitivity, glucose tolerance impairment, lipid accumulation, and glucose metabolism dysfunction (Hwang et al. (deepdyve.com)
- If you are pregnant, may become pregnant, breastfeeding, have diabetes or any other blood glucose metabolism disorder, or if you are taking any prescription drug, consult your health care professional before using this product. (vitanetonline.com)
- The new study published in the Endocrine Society's Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, may have found that people with lower levels of Vitamin D are more likely to have diabetes regardless of their weight. (medicalguardian.com)
- The study categorized the 148 participants by their body-mass index, and if they had any diabetes, pre-diabetes or glycemic disorders. (medicalguardian.com)
- The researchers found that the obese participants with higher levels of vitamin D did not have diabetes or any other glucose metabolism disorder. (medicalguardian.com)
- Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is defined as glucose intolerance that is first detected during pregnancy. (cdc.gov)
- Diabetes Mellitus is the most common of the endocrine disorders. (who.int)
- The term Diabetes Mellitus stands for a group of disorders defined by Hyperglycaemia. (who.int)
- Evaluation of diabetes mellitus, serum glucose, and thyroid function among United States workers exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. (cdc.gov)
- After excluding subjects being treated for diabetes, workers in the group with the highest half life extrapolated TCDD concentrations had a significantly increased adjusted mean serum glucose concentration compared with referents (p = 0.03). (cdc.gov)
Inborn errors of3
- Approach to the Patient With a Suspected Inherited Disorder of Metabolism Most inherited disorders of metabolism (inborn errors of metabolism) are rare, and therefore their diagnosis requires a high index of suspicion. (msdmanuals.com)
- Initial testing Most inherited disorders of metabolism (inborn errors of metabolism) are rare, and therefore their diagnosis requires a high index of suspicion. (msdmanuals.com)
- Birth defects like inborn errors of metabolism and blood disorders of prenatal origin appear in other chapters. (who.int)
Diseases8
- Women with AGT had a worse risk factor profile for T2D and cardiovascular diseases compared to those with normal glucose tolerance. (rsu.lv)
- and metabolic disorders (or diseases) resulting from nutrient deficiencies. (hoepli.it)
- Glucose is a source of energy for daily activities of the human body and is regarded as a clinical biomarker, due to the abnormal glucose level in the blood leading to many endocrine metabolic diseases. (frontiersin.org)
- By adding internal standard, glucose level could be quantitative analysis by Cu 2 O NPs assisted LDI MS. Notably, the dual-mode Cu 2 O NPs based biosensor was applied to detect glucose from serum and a consistent result was obtained, demonstrating that the method could be reliable in glucose analysis for clinical diseases diagnostics and monitoring. (frontiersin.org)
- This battery of measurements are used in the diagnosis and treatment of certain liver, heart, and kidney diseases, acid-base imbalance in the respiratory and metabolic systems, other diseases involving lipid metabolism and various endocrine disorders as well as other metabolic or nutritional disorders. (cdc.gov)
- Sleeping disorder suddenly became an important issue because many more people are facing it and body needs sleep to survive because study shown that sleep is essential for immune system and maintaining the ability to fight against diseases and sickness. (ukessays.com)
- The patients, commonly complicated with cardiovascular diseases and neurologic disorders, are at high risk to progress into end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and death. (hindawi.com)
- Several diseases can result in disorders of bone mineralization, which can be defined as the process by which osteoid becomes calcified. (medscape.com)
Tolerance6
- The survey consisted of a questionnaire, measurements such as height, weight, waist circumference, and blood pressure as well as blood oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), cholesterol and its fractions. (rsu.lv)
- Meanwhile, Cu 2 O NPs were utilized as a matrix for LDI MS analysis of small molecules (e.g. glucose) with good salt tolerance. (frontiersin.org)
- The dissertation findings highlight the significance of glucose tolerance tests during pregnancy regardless of body weight. (helsinki.fi)
- Beta-cell specific Insr deletion promotes insulin hypersecretion and improves glucose tolerance prior to global insulin resistance. (umassmed.edu)
- Several, albeit not all, studies suggested that the consumption of the Paleolithic diet might improve glucose tolerance, decrease insulin secretion, and increase insulin sensitivity. (mdpi.com)
- The stage of impaired glucose tolerance, which shows polyuria in spite of the absence of Glycosuria, can be included in Udakameha. (who.int)
Abnormal glucose metabolism1
- Taken together, the inhibition of hsa_circ_0046060 expression in exosomes from GDM-derived UMSCs can alleviate GDM by reversing abnormal glucose metabolism and insulin resistance in vivo and in vitro . (hindawi.com)
Cerebral glucose metabolism3
- Objective To assess reductions of cerebral glucose metabolism in Parkinson's disease (PD) with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET), and their associations with cognitive decline. (bmj.com)
- Cerebral glucose metabolism in obsessive-compulsive hoarding. (medscape.com)
- Systematic changes in cerebral glucose metabolism after successful behavior modification treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. (bvsalud.org)
Endocrinology1
- 4Institute of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran (Correspondence to H.R. Baradaran: [email protected]). (who.int)
Intolerance2
- GDM characterized by irregular glucose intolerance was initially reported during pregnancy [ 1 ]. (hindawi.com)
- 2017). The inhibition of hypothalamic inflammation by intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of IKK2 inhibitor (IMD-0354) rectified PM2.5-induced glucose intolerance, IR, energy metabolism dysfunction, and attenuated peripheral inflammation in response to PM2.5 exposure (Song et al. (deepdyve.com)
Homeostasis3
- ERS pathways are triggered by the unbalance of ER environment, including hypoxia, disturbance of Ca 2+ homeostasis and glucose starvation. (springer.com)
- Stomach-derived human insulin-secreting organoids restore glucose homeostasis. (harvard.edu)
- Therefore, the aim of this meta-analysis was to compare the effect of the Paleolithic diet with other types of diets on glucose and insulin homeostasis in subjects with altered glucose metabolism. (mdpi.com)
Skeletal3
- These molecules could be therapeutic targets for the skeletal disorders. (austinpublishinggroup.com)
- Among the molecules we identified in this study, there are some whose suppression ameliorated skeletal disorders under pathological conditions but did not affect physiological conditions, indicating that targeting on these molecules may lead to an ideal treatment without side effects on physiological functions. (austinpublishinggroup.com)
- Supplemental NMN is shown to improve several markers of skeletal muscle glucose metabolism that are commonly dysregulated in people with metabolic disorders. (prohealth.com)
Pathophysiology1
- Studies done, via neuroimaging, show that the pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder involve abnormal functioning along specific frontal-sub-cortical brain circuits. (wikipedia.org)
Serum glucose1
- Tight control of serum glucose is important to minimize infection. (medscape.com)
Brain metabolism1
- Simultaneous acquisition of brain metabolism and perfusion by hybrid FDG- PET/MR arterial spin labeling (ASL) may better characterise physio-pathological processes underpinning cognitive disorders. (gitlab.io)
Diagnosis5
- Diagnosis and assessment of Parkinson disease and other movement disorders. (limamemorial.org)
- Because HAPO only included women whose glucose levels were not high enough for a diagnosis of GDM at the time, they were not considered to have this disease and thus were not treated for it. (nih.gov)
- these criteria include lower blood glucose level threshold values for a GDM diagnosis. (nih.gov)
- Together with pH determination, bicarbonate measurements are used in the diagnosis and treatment of numerous potentially serious disorders associated with acid-base imbalance in the respiratory and metabolic systems. (cdc.gov)
- A meta-analysis of 15 studies reported that hyperglycemia increased both in-hospital mortality and incidence of heart failure in patients admitted for acute myocardial infarction, independent of a previous diagnosis of DM, demonstrating that the presence of DM is not as important as the control of blood glucose concentrations. (medscape.com)
Mice1
- Hence, we investigated the role of PPARγ in bone metabolism by analyzing heterozygous PPARγ-deficient (PPARγ+/-) mice [6,7], since the homozygous deficient (PPARγ-/-) mice were embryonically lethal [8]. (austinpublishinggroup.com)
Hypoglycemia1
- Evaluation, Medical Therapy, and Course of Adult Persistent Hyperinsulinemic Hypoglycemia After Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass Surgery: A Case Series. (umassmed.edu)
Parkinson's2
- What is particularly noteworthy is its importance in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) [1-3]. (karger.com)
- Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder affecting over four million people above the age of 50, with the prevalence expected to double to 9.3 million by 2030. (bmj.com)
Genetic4
- If there is a family history of one of these disorders, parents can get genetic testing to see whether they carry the gene. (medlineplus.gov)
- Other genetic tests can tell whether the fetus has the disorder or carries the gene for the disorder. (medlineplus.gov)
- Autosomal Recessive Genetic disorders determined by a single gene (Mendelian disorders) are easiest to analyze and the most well understood. (msdmanuals.com)
- There are currently no sound estimates of the number of children born with a serious congenital disorder attributable to genetic or environmental causes. (who.int)
Disturbance2
- Janowska J, Chudek J, Olszanecka-Glinianowicz M, Semik-Grabarczyk E, Zahorska-Markiewicz B. Interdependencies among Selected Pro-Inflammatory Markers of Endothelial Dysfunction, C-Peptide, Anti-Inflammatory Interleukin-10 and Glucose Metabolism Disturbance in Obese Women. (medsci.org)
- We have studied the relationship between clinical and biochemical parameters and C-peptide and anti-inflammatory IL-10, as well as selected markers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction such as: CCL2, CRP, sICAM-1, sVCAM-1 and E-selectin in obese women with various degree of glucose metabolism disturbance. (medsci.org)
Carbohydrates3
- Normally your enzymes break carbohydrates down into glucose (a type of sugar). (medlineplus.gov)
- If you have one of these disorders, you may not have enough enzymes to break down the carbohydrates. (medlineplus.gov)
- The elevation of blood glucose leads to the development of abnormalities in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and electrolytes. (who.int)
Obsessive-compulsi3
- The delayed-maturation theory of obsessive-compulsive disorder suggests that obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) can be caused by delayed maturation of the frontal striatal circuitry or parts of the brain that make up the frontal cortex, striatum, or integrating circuits. (wikipedia.org)
- The first record of obsessive-compulsive disorder dates back to the 14th century in Europe. (wikipedia.org)
- In the 1910s, Sigmund Freud, a neurologist from Austria described Obsessive Compulsive Disorder to a case of touching phobia. (wikipedia.org)
Pregnancy2
- Lifestyle counselling during and after pregnancy significantly reduced glucose metabolism disorders a year after giving birth. (helsinki.fi)
- Traditional approaches to diagnosing GDM in the United States include a screening test 24 to 28 weeks into pregnancy, during which women are given a sugary drink and then tested for blood glucose levels to see if they are at risk. (nih.gov)
Phosphate5
- These conditions may result in failure of osteoid calcification (rickets) in children because of a disruption in the pathway of either vitamin D or phosphate metabolism. (medscape.com)
- Low phosphate and high alkaline phosphatase levels characterize most of the disorders. (medscape.com)
- In addition, a renal tubular defect that reduces reabsorption may alter phosphate metabolism. (medscape.com)
- with urinary loss of phosphate and glucose. (msdmanuals.com)
- Haemoglobinophathies (including thalassaemia and sickle-cell disease) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency, which are not covered by the ICD-10 definition of congenital anomalies, account for 6% of all congenital disorders. (who.int)
Inflammation3
- For example, heart disease may be due to a combination of processes such as glucose metabolism, lipid disorders, high blood pressure and inflammation. (cdc.gov)
- We therefore investigated the effects of PM2.5 exposure on insulin resistance and the disorders of hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism via hypothalamic inflammation. (deepdyve.com)
- Therefore, our current finding indicates an important role of hypothalamic inflammation in PM2.5 exposure-mediated hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism disorder. (deepdyve.com)
Movement disorders1
- Other movement disorders. (limamemorial.org)
Clinical2
- In 1998, we first reported, using the Penn State Adult Cohort, a different frequency and pattern of prevalence of OSA based on AHI solely versus based on a combination of AHI and presence of clinical symptoms ( i.e. sleepiness and/or cardiometabolic disorders) [ 2 ]. (ersjournals.com)
- Clinical results and laboratory examination findings vary with each disorder. (medscape.com)
Gluconeogenesis1
- Apart from the small amount supplied by the diet, glucose is then produced by gluconeogenesis from amino acids and by oxidation of fatty acids. (karger.com)
Apoptosis2
- Akt pathways have effects on apoptosis, protein synthesis, metabolism and cell cycle. (springer.com)
- Glucose metabolism in the developing brain is controlled by IGF-1 which also stimulates differentiation and prevents apoptosis. (lu.se)
Neurological disorders1
- The products of ketone body metabolism can cover as much as 80% of the brain's energy needs, while also showing neuroprotective effects, which are especially important in neurological disorders. (karger.com)
Deficiency1
- It enables the timely deployment of primary prevention interventions which aim to prevent teratogen-induced birth defects (including those caused by congenital syphilis and rubella), defects caused by iodine deficiency disorder, neural tube defects (and possibly other malformations), and maternal-age-related chromosomal disorders (e.g. (who.int)
Abnormalities1
- Birth defects can be defined as structural or functional abnormalities, including metabolic disorders, which are present from birth. (who.int)
Regulation1
- Although the precise pathogenic mechanism of GDM has not been fully elucidated, it may occur as a result of abnormal glucose regulation and increased IR, inducing the disorders of glucose metabolism. (hindawi.com)
Outcomes3
- Studying a racially and ethnically diverse international cohort of over 23,000 pregnant women and their babies, the HAPO researchers found that elevated maternal blood glucose levels below those diagnostic of GDM were associated with increased risk of multiple adverse outcomes for the mother and child. (nih.gov)
- Strikingly, the HAPO researchers observed that even modestly elevated maternal blood glucose levels were associated with risks, which increased with maternal blood glucose levels in a linear fashion for most outcomes. (nih.gov)
- Elevation of blood glucose level predicts worse outcomes in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: a retrospective cohort study. (vitamindwiki.com)
Sucrose2
- One series of experiments detects whether or not a solution contains starch, proteins, or sugars such as glucose, lactose or sucrose. (scienceinschool.org)
- Students receive five samples, labelled A to E, which contain starch, protein (bovine serum albumin), the monosaccharide glucose, or the disaccharides lactose or sucrose. (scienceinschool.org)
Prevalence3
- Ossification of the Posterior Longitudinal Ligament of the Spine (OPLL) with a prevalence of 2-4% in Asia and somewhat lower in other countries is a disorder that causes severe tetra paresis [2]. (austinpublishinggroup.com)
- The overall prevalence of hoarding disorder is approximately 2.6%, with higher rates for people older than 60 years and people with other psychiatric diagnoses, especially anxiety and depression. (medscape.com)
- The disorder affects both males and females, but some studies have reported a significantly greater prevalence among males. (medscape.com)
Behavior2
- Glucose is regarded as a biomarker in the clinic, the concentration of which reflects the abnormal behavior of the body. (frontiersin.org)
- Sleep disorder comes in many different forms like Bruxism, Delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS), Cataplexy Rapid eye movement behavior disorder (RBD), insomnia, sleep apnea, night terrors, nightmares and somnambulism. (ukessays.com)
Levels8
- In the state of ketosis, blood glucose levels are stable, reaching physiological values. (karger.com)
- Significant relationships were found between levels of glucose and sICAM-1and also E-selectin and HOMA-IR. (medsci.org)
- Controlling maternal blood glucose levels through lifestyle change (modifications to diet and exercise) and/or with injections of the hormone insulin, if needed, can mitigate some of these risks. (nih.gov)
- lopinavir increases levels of pitavastatin by decreasing metabolism. (medscape.com)
- erythromycin base increases levels of pitavastatin by decreasing metabolism. (medscape.com)
- Linear regression was used to evaluate how levels of cortical FDG metabolism were predictive of subsequent cognitive decline rated with the MMSE and MoCA. (bmj.com)
- The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between blood glucose (BG) levels and in-hospital mortality in non-critically patients hospitalized with COVID-19. (vitamindwiki.com)
- Planetary Herbals Cinnamon Glucose Balanceâ„¢ is a comprehensive blend of herbs and nutrients designed for the support of healthy metabolic function and the maintenance of blood sugar levels already within the normal range. (vitanetonline.com)
Proteins1
- It also serves as a precursor in the production of proteins and in lipid metabolism. (scienceinschool.org)
Syndrome2
- In these previously non-obese women, metabolic syndrome and/or a glucose metabolism disorder was diagnosed already at a significantly lower body mass index range. (helsinki.fi)
- The most common serious congenital disorders are congenital heart defects, neural tube defects and Down syndrome. (who.int)
Complications2
- Cardiovascular complications after recovery from COVID-19 have been reported, including hyperlipidaemia, heart failure, and glucose metabolism disorders (6-8). (who.int)
- Long-term multisystem complications include cognitive, behavioral, and motor dysfunction as a result of brain damage as well as visual and hearing deficits and metabolic disorders that persist into adulthood. (lu.se)
High5
- These included high birth weight, low blood glucose in the baby at birth, and need for caesarean delivery. (nih.gov)
- The intracellular glucose intake and glycogen content were measured using a High Sensitivity Glucose Assay Kit and Glycogen Assay Kit, respectively. (hindawi.com)
- Previous reports indicate that the mechanisms of DN involve a multifactorial interaction of metabolic and hemodynamic factors such as high blood glucose, advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), and the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). (hindawi.com)
- The results showed that the addition of capsaicin further decreased the fasting blood glucose and insulin, and increased beta-muricholic acid, deoxycholic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid, and 3 beta-ursodeoxycholic acid when compared to only high fiber diet. (ijpsonline.com)
- Some studies have demonstrated that early inulin intervention in High Dietary (HD) fed mouse can reduce the glucose metabolism disorders and gut dysbiosis in the offspring[ 7 ]. (ijpsonline.com)
Vascular1
- As for as vascular dementia patient, a mismatch between perfusion and metabolism raised up, showing a decreased frontal perfusion in absence of significant metabolism reduction in these areas. (gitlab.io)
Affects2
- For example, one set of changes affects how women are able to metabolize glucose (sugar), the body's major source of energy. (nih.gov)
- Chronic sleep disorder influenced 70% of children development and psychologically while sleep-phase disruption affects adolescents who could not attend regular school schedules. (ukessays.com)
Enzymatic1
- Once the sugars are identified, further experiments determine, using an enzymatic reaction, which samples contain lactose or glucose. (scienceinschool.org)
Blood sugar1
- As we age, we have more trouble processing glucose, leading to higher blood sugar. (prohealth.com)