Impaired conduction of cardiac impulse that can occur anywhere along the conduction pathway, such as between the SINOATRIAL NODE and the right atrium (SA block) or between atria and ventricles (AV block). Heart blocks can be classified by the duration, frequency, or completeness of conduction block. Reversibility depends on the degree of structural or functional defects.
The hollow, muscular organ that maintains the circulation of the blood.
A condition of fainting spells caused by heart block, often an atrioventricular block, that leads to BRADYCARDIA and drop in CARDIAC OUTPUT. When the cardiac output becomes too low, the patient faints (SYNCOPE). In some cases, the syncope attacks are transient and in others cases repetitive and persistent.
The number of times the HEART VENTRICLES contract per unit of time, usually per minute.
A device designed to stimulate, by electric impulses, contraction of the heart muscles. It may be temporary (external) or permanent (internal or internal-external).
A small nodular mass of specialized muscle fibers located in the interatrial septum near the opening of the coronary sinus. It gives rise to the atrioventricular bundle of the conduction system of the heart.
Small RNAs found in the cytoplasm usually complexed with proteins in scRNPs (RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS, SMALL CYTOPLASMIC).
Cardiac arrhythmias that are characterized by excessively slow HEART RATE, usually below 50 beats per minute in human adults. They can be classified broadly into SINOATRIAL NODE dysfunction and ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCK.
Impaired impulse conduction from HEART ATRIA to HEART VENTRICLES. AV block can mean delayed or completely blocked impulse conduction.
Autoantibodies directed against various nuclear antigens including DNA, RNA, histones, acidic nuclear proteins, or complexes of these molecular elements. Antinuclear antibodies are found in systemic autoimmune diseases including systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjogren's syndrome, scleroderma, polymyositis, and mixed connective tissue disease.
Developmental abnormalities involving structures of the heart. These defects are present at birth but may be discovered later in life.
Recording of the moment-to-moment electromotive forces of the HEART as projected onto various sites on the body's surface, delineated as a scalar function of time. The recording is monitored by a tracing on slow moving chart paper or by observing it on a cardioscope, which is a CATHODE RAY TUBE DISPLAY.
The heart of the fetus of any viviparous animal. It refers to the heart in the postembryonic period and is differentiated from the embryonic heart (HEART/embryology) only on the basis of time.
Pathophysiological conditions of the FETUS in the UTERUS. Some fetal diseases may be treated with FETAL THERAPIES.
Regulation of the rate of contraction of the heart muscles by an artificial pacemaker.
A heterogeneous condition in which the heart is unable to pump out sufficient blood to meet the metabolic need of the body. Heart failure can be caused by structural defects, functional abnormalities (VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION), or a sudden overload beyond its capacity. Chronic heart failure is more common than acute heart failure which results from sudden insult to cardiac function, such as MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION.
An impulse-conducting system composed of modified cardiac muscle, having the power of spontaneous rhythmicity and conduction more highly developed than the rest of the heart.
Small band of specialized CARDIAC MUSCLE fibers that originates in the ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE and extends into the membranous part of the interventricular septum. The bundle of His, consisting of the left and the right bundle branches, conducts the electrical impulses to the HEART VENTRICLES in generation of MYOCARDIAL CONTRACTION.
The heart rate of the FETUS. The normal range at term is between 120 and 160 beats per minute.
Pathological conditions involving the HEART including its structural and functional abnormalities.
A form of heart block in which the electrical stimulation of HEART VENTRICLES is interrupted at either one of the branches of BUNDLE OF HIS thus preventing the simultaneous depolarization of the two ventricles.
Exchange of substances between the maternal blood and the fetal blood at the PLACENTA via PLACENTAL CIRCULATION. The placental barrier excludes microbial or viral transmission.
Complexes of RNA-binding proteins with ribonucleic acids (RNA).
Interruption of NEURAL CONDUCTION in peripheral nerves or nerve trunks by the injection of a local anesthetic agent (e.g., LIDOCAINE; PHENOL; BOTULINUM TOXINS) to manage or treat pain.
Steroids which are substituted with one or more fluorine atoms in any position.
A mitochondrial disorder featuring the triad of chronic progressive EXTERNAL OPHTHALMOPLEGIA, cardiomyopathy (CARDIOMYOPATHIES) with conduction block (HEART BLOCK), and RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA. Disease onset is in the first or second decade. Elevated CSF protein, sensorineural deafness, seizures, and pyramidal signs may also be present. Ragged-red fibers are found on muscle biopsy. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p984)
A condition characterized by the thickening of ENDOCARDIUM due to proliferation of fibrous and elastic tissue, usually in the left ventricle leading to impaired cardiac function (CARDIOMYOPATHY, RESTRICTIVE). It is most commonly seen in young children and rarely in adults. It is often associated with congenital heart anomalies (HEART DEFECTS CONGENITAL;) INFECTION; or gene mutation. Defects in the tafazzin protein, encoded by TAZ gene, result in a form of autosomal dominant familial endocardial fibroelastosis.
The muscle tissue of the HEART. It is composed of striated, involuntary muscle cells (MYOCYTES, CARDIAC) connected to form the contractile pump to generate blood flow.
The transference of a heart from one human or animal to another.
The small mass of modified cardiac muscle fibers located at the junction of the superior vena cava (VENA CAVA, SUPERIOR) and right atrium. Contraction impulses probably start in this node, spread over the atrium (HEART ATRIUM) and are then transmitted by the atrioventricular bundle (BUNDLE OF HIS) to the ventricle (HEART VENTRICLE).
The chambers of the heart, to which the BLOOD returns from the circulation.
This structure includes the thin muscular atrial septum between the two HEART ATRIA, and the thick muscular ventricular septum between the two HEART VENTRICLES.
A transient loss of consciousness and postural tone caused by diminished blood flow to the brain (i.e., BRAIN ISCHEMIA). Presyncope refers to the sensation of lightheadedness and loss of strength that precedes a syncopal event or accompanies an incomplete syncope. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp367-9)
Ultrasonic recording of the size, motion, and composition of the heart and surrounding tissues. The standard approach is transthoracic.
Developmental abnormalities in any portion of the VENTRICULAR SEPTUM resulting in abnormal communications between the two lower chambers of the heart. Classification of ventricular septal defects is based on location of the communication, such as perimembranous, inlet, outlet (infundibular), central muscular, marginal muscular, or apical muscular defect.
A group of diseases in which the dominant feature is the involvement of the CARDIAC MUSCLE itself. Cardiomyopathies are classified according to their predominant pathophysiological features (DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY; HYPERTROPHIC CARDIOMYOPATHY; RESTRICTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY) or their etiological/pathological factors (CARDIOMYOPATHY, ALCOHOLIC; ENDOCARDIAL FIBROELASTOSIS).
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
A form of lupus erythematosus in which the skin may be the only organ involved or in which skin involvement precedes the spread into other body systems. It has been classified into three forms - acute (= LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC with skin lesions), subacute, and chronic (= LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, DISCOID).
The measurement of magnetic fields generated by electric currents from the heart. The measurement of these fields provides information which is complementary to that provided by ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY.
Endogenous tissue constituents that have the ability to interact with AUTOANTIBODIES and cause an immune response.
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
An infant during the first month after birth.
Abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in two or more fetal compartments, such as SKIN; PLEURA; PERICARDIUM; PLACENTA; PERITONEUM; AMNIOTIC FLUID. General fetal EDEMA may be of non-immunologic origin, or of immunologic origin as in the case of ERYTHROBLASTOSIS FETALIS.
A chronic, relapsing, inflammatory, and often febrile multisystemic disorder of connective tissue, characterized principally by involvement of the skin, joints, kidneys, and serosal membranes. It is of unknown etiology, but is thought to represent a failure of the regulatory mechanisms of the autoimmune system. The disease is marked by a wide range of system dysfunctions, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and the formation of LE cells in the blood or bone marrow.
Any disturbances of the normal rhythmic beating of the heart or MYOCARDIAL CONTRACTION. Cardiac arrhythmias can be classified by the abnormalities in HEART RATE, disorders of electrical impulse generation, or impulse conduction.
Conditions or pathological processes associated with pregnancy. They can occur during or after pregnancy, and range from minor discomforts to serious diseases that require medical interventions. They include diseases in pregnant females, and pregnancies in females with diseases.
Flaps of tissue that prevent regurgitation of BLOOD from the HEART VENTRICLES to the HEART ATRIA or from the PULMONARY ARTERIES or AORTA to the ventricles.
Method in which prolonged electrocardiographic recordings are made on a portable tape recorder (Holter-type system) or solid-state device ("real-time" system), while the patient undergoes normal daily activities. It is useful in the diagnosis and management of intermittent cardiac arrhythmias and transient myocardial ischemia.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Disorders that are characterized by the production of antibodies that react with host tissues or immune effector cells that are autoreactive to endogenous peptides.
Procedures in which placement of CARDIAC CATHETERS is performed for therapeutic or diagnostic procedures.
Striated muscle cells found in the heart. They are derived from cardiac myoblasts (MYOBLASTS, CARDIAC).
A form of CARDIAC MUSCLE disease that is characterized by ventricular dilation, VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION, and HEART FAILURE. Risk factors include SMOKING; ALCOHOL DRINKING; HYPERTENSION; INFECTION; PREGNANCY; and mutations in the LMNA gene encoding LAMIN TYPE A, a NUCLEAR LAMINA protein.
The visualization of tissues during pregnancy through recording of the echoes of ultrasonic waves directed into the body. The procedure may be applied with reference to the mother or the fetus and with reference to organs or the detection of maternal or fetal disease.
NECROSIS of the MYOCARDIUM caused by an obstruction of the blood supply to the heart (CORONARY CIRCULATION).
Resistance to a disease-causing agent induced by the introduction of maternal immunity into the fetus by transplacental transfer or into the neonate through colostrum and milk.
Historically, a heterogeneous group of acute and chronic diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, progressive systemic sclerosis, dermatomyositis, etc. This classification was based on the notion that "collagen" was equivalent to "connective tissue", but with the present recognition of the different types of collagen and the aggregates derived from them as distinct entities, the term "collagen diseases" now pertains exclusively to those inherited conditions in which the primary defect is at the gene level and affects collagen biosynthesis, post-translational modification, or extracellular processing directly. (From Cecil Textbook of Medicine, 19th ed, p1494)
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
The movement and the forces involved in the movement of the blood through the CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM.
Irregular HEART RATE caused by abnormal function of the SINOATRIAL NODE. It is characterized by a greater than 10% change between the maximum and the minimum sinus cycle length or 120 milliseconds.
A glucocorticoid given orally, parenterally, by local injection, by inhalation, or applied topically in the management of various disorders in which corticosteroids are indicated. Its lack of mineralocorticoid properties makes betamethasone particularly suitable for treating cerebral edema and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p724)
Inflammatory processes of the muscular walls of the heart (MYOCARDIUM) which result in injury to the cardiac muscle cells (MYOCYTES, CARDIAC). Manifestations range from subclinical to sudden death (DEATH, SUDDEN). Myocarditis in association with cardiac dysfunction is classified as inflammatory CARDIOMYOPATHY usually caused by INFECTION, autoimmune diseases, or responses to toxic substances. Myocarditis is also a common cause of DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY and other cardiomyopathies.
Determination of the nature of a pathological condition or disease in the postimplantation EMBRYO; FETUS; or pregnant female before birth.
A congenital cardiovascular malformation in which the AORTA arises entirely from the RIGHT VENTRICLE, and the PULMONARY ARTERY arises from the LEFT VENTRICLE. Consequently, the pulmonary and the systemic circulations are parallel and not sequential, so that the venous return from the peripheral circulation is re-circulated by the right ventricle via aorta to the systemic circulation without being oxygenated in the lungs. This is a potentially lethal form of heart disease in newborns and infants.
Act of listening for sounds within the heart.
A condition caused by dysfunctions related to the SINOATRIAL NODE including impulse generation (CARDIAC SINUS ARREST) and impulse conduction (SINOATRIAL EXIT BLOCK). It is characterized by persistent BRADYCARDIA, chronic ATRIAL FIBRILLATION, and failure to resume sinus rhythm following CARDIOVERSION. This syndrome can be congenital or acquired, particularly after surgical correction for heart defects.
A device that substitutes for a heart valve. It may be composed of biological material (BIOPROSTHESIS) and/or synthetic material.

DMPK dosage alterations result in atrioventricular conduction abnormalities in a mouse myotonic dystrophy model. (1/1056)

Myotonic dystrophy (DM) is the most common form of muscular dystrophy and is caused by expansion of a CTG trinucleotide repeat on human chromosome 19. Patients with DM develop atrioventricular conduction disturbances, the principal cardiac manifestation of this disease. The etiology of the pathophysiological changes observed in DM has yet to be resolved. Haploinsufficiency of myotonic dystrophy protein kinase (DMPK), DM locus-associated homeodomain protein (DMAHP) and/or titration of RNA-binding proteins by expanded CUG sequences have been hypothesized to underlie the multi-system defects observed in DM. Using an in vivo murine electrophysiology study, we show that cardiac conduction is exquisitely sensitive to DMPK gene dosage. DMPK-/- mice develop cardiac conduction defects which include first-, second-, and third-degree atrioventricular (A-V) block. Our results demonstrate that the A-V node and the His-Purkinje regions of the conduction system are specifically compromised by DMPK loss. Importantly, DMPK+/- mice develop first-degree heart block, a conduction defect strikingly similar to that observed in DM patients. These results demonstrate that DMPK dosage is a critical element modulating cardiac conduction integrity and conclusively link haploinsufficiency of DMPK with cardiac disease in myotonic dystrophy.  (+info)

Junctional ectopic tachycardia evolving into complete heart block. (2/1056)

Transition from congenital junctional ectopic tachycardia to complete AV block was observed in an 8 month old girl, over a 36 hour period, during initial hospital admission. Two years later she had evidence of a rapidly increasing left ventricular end diastolic diameter, associated with lowest heart rates during sleep of < 30 beats/min. A transvenous permanent pacemaker was therefore implanted. This finding supports the idea that a pathological process in the area of the AV junction, initially presenting as junctional ectopic tachycardia may later extend to sudden complete atrioventricular block.  (+info)

Modulation of AV nodal and Hisian conduction by changes in extracellular space. (3/1056)

Previous studies have demonstrated that the extracellular space (ECS) component of the atrioventricular (AV) node and His bundle region is larger than the ECS in adjacent contractile myocardium. The potential physiological significance of this observation was examined in a canine blood-perfused AV nodal preparation. Mannitol, an ECS osmotic expander, was infused directly into either the AV node or His bundle region. This resulted in a significant dose-dependent increase in the AV nodal or His-ventricular conduction time and in the AV nodal effective refractory period. Mannitol infusion eventually resulted in Wenckebach block (n = 6), which reversed with mannitol washout. The ratio of AV nodal to left ventricular ECS in tissue frozen immediately on the development of heart block (n = 8) was significantly higher in the region of block (4.53 +/- 0.61) compared with that in control preparations (2.23 +/- 0.35, n = 6, P < 0.01) and donor dog hearts (2.45 +/- 0.18, n = 11, P < 0.01) not exposed to mannitol. With lower mannitol rates (10% of total blood flow), AV nodal conduction times increased by 5-10% and the AV node became supersensitive to adenosine, acetylcholine, and carbachol, but not to norepinephrine. We conclude that mannitol-induced changes in AV node and His bundle ECS markedly alter conduction system electrophysiology and the sensitivity of conductive tissues to purinergic and cholinergic agonists.  (+info)

Atrioventricular block occurring several months after radiofrequency ablation for the treatment of atrioventricular nodal re-entrant tachycardia. (4/1056)

Atrioventricular (AV) block following radiofrequency (RF) ablation for the treatment of AV nodal re-entrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is a rare but well recognised complication of the procedure--the reported incidence ranges from 1% to 21%. Almost all cases of AV block occur during or shortly after the procedure, are transient, and recover quickly. Two patients (a 22 year man and a 72 year old woman) with symptomatic AV block occurring several months after slow pathway RF ablation, requiring permanent pacemaker implantation, are described. Both patients had had several 24 hour Holter recordings before the procedure, and in neither case was there any evidence of intermittent or persistent AV block. This is a rare complication with no definitive predictors; however, all efforts should be made to exclude AV block in patients presenting with suggestive symptoms following RF ablation. With the wide use of RF ablation for the treatment of AVNRT, more cases are likely to occur. A registry should allow documentation of the incidence of this complication.  (+info)

Catheter-induced mechanical trauma to accessory pathways during radiofrequency ablation: incidence, predictors and clinical implications. (5/1056)

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the incidence, predictors and clinical implications of nonintentionally catheter-induced mechanical trauma to accessory pathways during radiofrequency ablation procedures. BACKGROUND: Data on the incidence and significance of catheter-induced trauma to accessory pathways are scarce. METHODS: Consecutive patients (n = 381) undergoing radiofrequency ablation of accessory pathways at two different institutions were closely monitored for appearance of mechanical block of accessory pathways during catheter manipulation. RESULTS: Mechanical trauma to accessory pathways was observed in 37 (9.7%) patients. According to a multivariate analysis, the only independent variable associated with this phenomenon was the anatomical pathway location (p = 0.0001). The incidence of trauma of either right anteroseptal (38.5%) or right atriofascicular pathways (33.3%) was significantly greater than that of pathways (< or =10%) at all remaining locations (p < 0.0001). The duration of conduction block observed ranged from < or =1 min to >30 min in 19% and 35% of patients, respectively. "Immediate" application of radiofrequency pulses at sites of mechanical block (<1 min after occurrence) was associated with a 78% long-term success rate at follow-up. This contrasted with a 25% long-term success rate in patients in whom pulses were delivered 30 min after occurrence of block ("delayed pulses"). Finally, in 24% of patients persistent trauma-induced conduction block led to discontinuation of the ablation procedure. CONCLUSIONS: Trauma to accessory pathways is more common than previously recognized and frequently results in prolongation or discontinuation of the ablation procedure and in lower success rates. The only independent predictor of catheter-trauma to accessory pathways is the pathway location.  (+info)

Conduction disturbances and increased atrial vulnerability in Connexin40-deficient mice analyzed by transesophageal stimulation. (6/1056)

BACKGROUND: Recently, it has been reported that connexin40 (Cx40) deficiency in targeted mouse mutants is associated with a prolongation of P-wave and QRS complex duration on surface electrograms. The specific effects of Cx40 deficiency on sinus node function, sinoatrial, and atrioventricular conduction properties as well as on atrial vulnerability have not yet been investigated systematically by electrophysiological analysis. METHODS AND RESULTS: Fifty-two mice (18 Cx40(+/+), 15 Cx40(+/-), and 19 Cx40(-/-) mice) were subjected to rapid atrial transesophageal stimulation after anesthesia with avertin. A significant prolongation of sinus node recovery time was noticed in Cx40(-/-) mice compared with Cx40(+/-) and Cx40(+/+) mice (287.8+/-109.0 vs 211.1+/-61.8 vs 204.4+/-60.9 ms; P<0.05). In addition, Wenckebach periodicity occurred at significantly longer atrial pacing cycle lengths in Cx40(-/-) mice than in Cx40(+/-) or Cx40(+/+) mice (93. 3+/-11.8 vs 83.9+/-9.7 vs 82.8+/-8.0 ms, P<0.05). Analysis of 27 Cx40(-/-) mice showed a significant increase in intra-atrial conduction time and atrioventricular conduction time compared with 52 Cx40(+/-) and 31 wild-type (Cx40(+/+)) mice. Furthermore, in Cx40(-/-) mice, atrial tachyarrhythmias could be induced frequently by atrial burst pacing, whereas no atrial arrhythmias were inducible in heterozygous or wild-type mice. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that Cx40 deficiency is associated with sinoatrial, intra-atrial, and atrioventricular conduction disturbances. In atrial myocardium of the mouse, Cx40 deficiency results in increased atrial vulnerability and might contribute to arrhythmogenesis.  (+info)

Reversion to sinus rhythm 11 years after surgically induced heart block. (7/1056)

A patient is presented in whom the heart reverted spontaneously to sinus rhythm 11 years after surgical closure of a ventricular septal defect complicated by complete heart block. It seems unlikely that regeneration of fibres in the bundle of His, if these had indeed been destroyed, could account for the restoration of sinus rhythm after so long an interval.  (+info)

Electrophysiological effects of mexiletine in man. (8/1056)

The electrophysiological effects of intravenous mexiletine in a dose of 200 to 250 mg given over 5 minutes, followed by continuous infusion of 60 to 90 mg per hour, were studied in 5 patients with normal conduction and in 20 patients with a variety of disturbances of impulse formation and conduction, by means of His bundle electrography, atrial pacing, and the extrastimulus method. In all but 2 patients the plasma level was above the lower therapeutic limit. Mexiletine had no consistent effects on sinus frequency and atrial refractoriness. The sinoatrial recovery time changed inconsistently in both directions; however, of the 5 patients in whom an increase was evident, 3 had sinus node dysfunction. In most patients mexiletine increased the AV nodal conduction time at paced atrial rates and shifted the Wenckebach point to a lower atrial rate. The effective refractory period of the AV node was not consistently influenced, while the functional refractory period increased in 12 out of 14 patients. The HV intervals increased by a mean of 11 ms in 8 patients and were unchanged in 17. Both the relative and effective refractory period of the His-Purkinje system increased after mexiletine. Non-cardiac side effects occurred in 7 out of 25 patients, and cardiac side effects, including one serious, in 2. The results indicate that mexiletine shares some electrophysiological properties with procainamide and quinidine, when given to patients with conduction defects, and that the drug should not be used in patients with pre-existing impairment of impulse formation or conduction. It has additional effects on AV nodal conduction which may be of value in the treatment of re-entrant tachycardias involving the AV node.  (+info)

Heart block is a cardiac condition characterized by the interruption of electrical impulse transmission from the atria (the upper chambers of the heart) to the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). This disruption can lead to abnormal heart rhythms, including bradycardia (a slower-than-normal heart rate), and in severe cases, can cause the heart to stop beating altogether. Heart block is typically caused by damage to the heart's electrical conduction system due to various factors such as aging, heart disease, or certain medications.

There are three types of heart block: first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree (also known as complete heart block). Each type has distinct electrocardiogram (ECG) findings and symptoms. Treatment for heart block depends on the severity of the condition and may include monitoring, medication, or implantation of a pacemaker to regulate the heart's electrical activity.

In medical terms, the heart is a muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity that functions as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body. It's responsible for delivering oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. The human heart is divided into four chambers: two atria on the top and two ventricles on the bottom. The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs, while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it out to the rest of the body. The heart's rhythmic contractions and relaxations are regulated by a complex electrical conduction system.

Adams-Stokes syndrome is a medical condition characterized by a series of episodes of sudden loss of consciousness (syncope) due to a significant decrease or temporary cessation of heart function (cardiac standstill or severe bradycardia). These episodes are often associated with convulsive movements and may be triggered by certain positions or activities that increase the obstruction to blood flow from the heart.

The syndrome is named after English physicians Robert Adams and William Stokes, who independently described the condition in the 19th century. It is most commonly caused by heart block or sick sinus syndrome, which are electrical conduction disorders of the heart. Other causes may include structural heart diseases, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy or coronary artery disease.

Treatment for Adams-Stokes syndrome typically involves addressing the underlying cause. In some cases, a pacemaker may be required to regulate the heart's electrical activity and prevent further episodes of syncope.

Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per unit of time, often expressed as beats per minute (bpm). It can vary significantly depending on factors such as age, physical fitness, emotions, and overall health status. A resting heart rate between 60-100 bpm is generally considered normal for adults, but athletes and individuals with high levels of physical fitness may have a resting heart rate below 60 bpm due to their enhanced cardiovascular efficiency. Monitoring heart rate can provide valuable insights into an individual's health status, exercise intensity, and response to various treatments or interventions.

An artificial pacemaker is a medical device that uses electrical impulses to regulate the beating of the heart. It is typically used when the heart's natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial node, is not functioning properly and the heart rate is too slow or irregular. The pacemaker consists of a small generator that contains a battery and electronic circuits, which are connected to one or more electrodes that are placed in the heart.

The generator sends electrical signals through the electrodes to stimulate the heart muscle and cause it to contract, thereby maintaining a regular heart rhythm. Artificial pacemakers can be programmed to deliver electrical impulses at a specific rate or in response to the body's needs. They are typically implanted in the chest during a surgical procedure and can last for many years before needing to be replaced.

Artificial pacemakers are an effective treatment for various types of bradycardia, which is a heart rhythm disorder characterized by a slow heart rate. Pacemakers can significantly improve symptoms associated with bradycardia, such as fatigue, dizziness, shortness of breath, and fainting spells.

The atrioventricular (AV) node is a critical part of the electrical conduction system of the heart. It is a small cluster of specialized cardiac muscle cells located in the lower interatrial septum, near the opening of the coronary sinus. The AV node receives electrical impulses from the sinoatrial node (the heart's natural pacemaker) via the internodal pathways and delays their transmission for a brief period before transmitting them to the bundle of His and then to the ventricles. This delay allows the atria to contract and empty their contents into the ventricles before the ventricles themselves contract, ensuring efficient pumping of blood throughout the body.

The AV node plays an essential role in maintaining a normal heart rhythm, as it can also function as a backup pacemaker if the sinoatrial node fails to generate impulses. However, certain heart conditions or medications can affect the AV node's function and lead to abnormal heart rhythms, such as atrioventricular block or atrial tachycardia.

"Small cytoplasmic RNAs" (scRNAs) are a heterogeneous group of non-coding RNA molecules that are typically 100-300 nucleotides in length and are located within the cytoplasm of cells. They play various roles in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, including serving as components of ribonucleoprotein complexes involved in mRNA splicing, stability, and translation.

Some specific types of scRNAs include small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), which are involved in spliceosomal complexes that remove introns from pre-mRNA; small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), which guide chemical modifications of other RNA molecules, such as ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs); and microRNAs (miRNAs), which bind to target mRNAs and inhibit their translation or promote their degradation.

It's worth noting that the term "small cytoplasmic RNA" is a broad category, and individual scRNAs can have distinct functions and characteristics.

Bradycardia is a medical term that refers to an abnormally slow heart rate, typically defined as a resting heart rate of less than 60 beats per minute in adults. While some people, particularly well-trained athletes, may have a naturally low resting heart rate, bradycardia can also be a sign of an underlying health problem.

There are several potential causes of bradycardia, including:

* Damage to the heart's electrical conduction system, such as from heart disease or aging
* Certain medications, including beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, and digoxin
* Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland)
* Sleep apnea
* Infection of the heart (endocarditis or myocarditis)
* Infiltrative diseases such as amyloidosis or sarcoidosis

Symptoms of bradycardia can vary depending on the severity and underlying cause. Some people with bradycardia may not experience any symptoms, while others may feel weak, fatigued, dizzy, or short of breath. In severe cases, bradycardia can lead to fainting, confusion, or even cardiac arrest.

Treatment for bradycardia depends on the underlying cause. If a medication is causing the slow heart rate, adjusting the dosage or switching to a different medication may help. In other cases, a pacemaker may be necessary to regulate the heart's rhythm. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience symptoms of bradycardia, as it can be a sign of a serious underlying condition.

Atrioventricular (AV) block is a disorder of the electrical conduction system of the heart that causes a delay or interruption in the transmission of electrical signals from the atria (the upper chambers of the heart) to the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). This results in an abnormal heart rhythm, also known as an arrhythmia.

There are three degrees of AV block:

1. First-degree AV block: In this type of AV block, there is a delay in the conduction of electrical signals from the atria to the ventricles, but all signals are eventually conducted. This condition may not cause any symptoms and is often discovered during a routine electrocardiogram (ECG).
2. Second-degree AV block: In this type of AV block, some electrical signals from the atria are not conducted to the ventricles. There are two types of second-degree AV block: Mobitz type I and Mobitz type II. Mobitz type I is characterized by a progressive prolongation of the PR interval (the time between the electrical activation of the atria and ventricles) until a QRS complex (which represents the electrical activation of the ventricles) is dropped. Mobitz type II is characterized by a constant PR interval with occasional non-conducted P waves.
3. Third-degree AV block: In this type of AV block, no electrical signals are conducted from the atria to the ventricles. The atria and ventricles beat independently of each other, resulting in a slow heart rate (bradycardia) and an irregular rhythm. This condition can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

The causes of AV block include aging, heart disease, medications, and certain medical conditions such as hypothyroidism and Lyme disease. Treatment depends on the severity of the condition and may include medication, a pacemaker, or surgery.

Antinuclear antibodies (ANA) are a type of autoantibody that target structures found in the nucleus of a cell. These antibodies are produced by the immune system and attack the body's own cells and tissues, leading to inflammation and damage. The presence of ANA is often used as a marker for certain autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjogren's syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, and polymyositis.

ANA can be detected through a blood test called the antinuclear antibody test. A positive result indicates the presence of ANA in the blood, but it does not necessarily mean that a person has an autoimmune disease. Further testing is usually needed to confirm a diagnosis and determine the specific type of autoantibodies present.

It's important to note that ANA can also be found in healthy individuals, particularly as they age. Therefore, the test results should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and symptoms.

Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are structural abnormalities in the heart that are present at birth. They can affect any part of the heart's structure, including the walls of the heart, the valves inside the heart, and the major blood vessels that lead to and from the heart.

Congenital heart defects can range from mild to severe and can cause various symptoms depending on the type and severity of the defect. Some common symptoms of CHDs include cyanosis (a bluish tint to the skin, lips, and fingernails), shortness of breath, fatigue, poor feeding, and slow growth in infants and children.

There are many different types of congenital heart defects, including:

1. Septal defects: These are holes in the walls that separate the four chambers of the heart. The two most common septal defects are atrial septal defect (ASD) and ventricular septal defect (VSD).
2. Valve abnormalities: These include narrowed or leaky valves, which can affect blood flow through the heart.
3. Obstruction defects: These occur when blood flow is blocked or restricted due to narrowing or absence of a part of the heart's structure. Examples include pulmonary stenosis and coarctation of the aorta.
4. Cyanotic heart defects: These cause a lack of oxygen in the blood, leading to cyanosis. Examples include tetralogy of Fallot and transposition of the great arteries.

The causes of congenital heart defects are not fully understood, but genetic factors and environmental influences during pregnancy may play a role. Some CHDs can be detected before birth through prenatal testing, while others may not be diagnosed until after birth or later in childhood. Treatment for CHDs may include medication, surgery, or other interventions to improve blood flow and oxygenation of the body's tissues.

Electrocardiography (ECG or EKG) is a medical procedure that records the electrical activity of the heart. It provides a graphic representation of the electrical changes that occur during each heartbeat. The resulting tracing, called an electrocardiogram, can reveal information about the heart's rate and rhythm, as well as any damage to its cells or abnormalities in its conduction system.

During an ECG, small electrodes are placed on the skin of the chest, arms, and legs. These electrodes detect the electrical signals produced by the heart and transmit them to a machine that amplifies and records them. The procedure is non-invasive, painless, and quick, usually taking only a few minutes.

ECGs are commonly used to diagnose and monitor various heart conditions, including arrhythmias, coronary artery disease, heart attacks, and electrolyte imbalances. They can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of certain medications or treatments.

The fetal heart is the cardiovascular organ that develops in the growing fetus during pregnancy. It starts to form around 22 days after conception and continues to develop throughout the first trimester. By the end of the eighth week of gestation, the fetal heart has developed enough to pump blood throughout the body.

The fetal heart is similar in structure to the adult heart but has some differences. It is smaller and more compact, with a four-chambered structure that includes two atria and two ventricles. The fetal heart also has unique features such as the foramen ovale, which is a hole between the right and left atria that allows blood to bypass the lungs, and the ductus arteriosus, a blood vessel that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta and diverts blood away from the lungs.

The fetal heart is responsible for pumping oxygenated blood from the placenta to the rest of the body and returning deoxygenated blood back to the placenta for re-oxygenation. The rate of the fetal heartbeat is faster than that of an adult, typically ranging from 120 to 160 beats per minute. Fetal heart rate monitoring is a common method used during pregnancy and childbirth to assess the health and well-being of the developing fetus.

Fetal diseases are medical conditions or abnormalities that affect a fetus during pregnancy. These diseases can be caused by genetic factors, environmental influences, or a combination of both. They can range from mild to severe and may impact various organ systems in the developing fetus. Examples of fetal diseases include congenital heart defects, neural tube defects, chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome, and infectious diseases such as toxoplasmosis or rubella. Fetal diseases can be diagnosed through prenatal testing, including ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling. Treatment options may include medication, surgery, or delivery of the fetus, depending on the nature and severity of the disease.

Artificial cardiac pacing is a medical procedure that involves the use of an artificial device to regulate and stimulate the contraction of the heart muscle. This is often necessary when the heart's natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial node, is not functioning properly and the heart is beating too slowly or irregularly.

The artificial pacemaker consists of a small generator that produces electrical impulses and leads that are positioned in the heart to transmit the impulses. The generator is typically implanted just under the skin in the chest, while the leads are inserted into the heart through a vein.

There are different types of artificial cardiac pacing systems, including single-chamber pacemakers, which stimulate either the right atrium or right ventricle, and dual-chamber pacemakers, which stimulate both chambers of the heart. Some pacemakers also have additional features that allow them to respond to changes in the body's needs, such as during exercise or sleep.

Artificial cardiac pacing is a safe and effective treatment for many people with abnormal heart rhythms, and it can significantly improve their quality of life and longevity.

Heart failure is a pathophysiological state in which the heart is unable to pump sufficient blood to meet the metabolic demands of the body or do so only at the expense of elevated filling pressures. It can be caused by various cardiac disorders, including coronary artery disease, hypertension, valvular heart disease, cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmias. Symptoms may include shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. Heart failure is often classified based on the ejection fraction (EF), which is the percentage of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle during each contraction. A reduced EF (less than 40%) is indicative of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), while a preserved EF (greater than or equal to 50%) is indicative of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). There is also a category of heart failure with mid-range ejection fraction (HFmrEF) for those with an EF between 40-49%.

The heart conduction system is a group of specialized cardiac muscle cells that generate and conduct electrical impulses to coordinate the contraction of the heart chambers. The main components of the heart conduction system include:

1. Sinoatrial (SA) node: Also known as the sinus node, it is located in the right atrium near the entrance of the superior vena cava and functions as the primary pacemaker of the heart. It sets the heart rate by generating electrical impulses at regular intervals.
2. Atrioventricular (AV) node: Located in the interatrial septum, near the opening of the coronary sinus, it serves as a relay station for electrical signals between the atria and ventricles. The AV node delays the transmission of impulses to allow the atria to contract before the ventricles.
3. Bundle of His: A bundle of specialized cardiac muscle fibers that conducts electrical impulses from the AV node to the ventricles. It divides into two main branches, the right and left bundle branches, which further divide into smaller Purkinje fibers.
4. Right and left bundle branches: These are extensions of the Bundle of His that transmit electrical impulses to the respective right and left ventricular myocardium. They consist of specialized conducting tissue with large diameters and minimal resistance, allowing for rapid conduction of electrical signals.
5. Purkinje fibers: Fine, branching fibers that arise from the bundle branches and spread throughout the ventricular myocardium. They are responsible for transmitting electrical impulses to the working cardiac muscle cells, triggering coordinated ventricular contraction.

In summary, the heart conduction system is a complex network of specialized muscle cells responsible for generating and conducting electrical signals that coordinate the contraction of the atria and ventricles, ensuring efficient blood flow throughout the body.

The Bundle of His is a bundle of specialized cardiac muscle fibers that conduct electrical impulses to the Purkinje fibers, which then stimulate contraction of the ventricles in the heart. It is named after Wilhelm His, Jr., who first described it in 1893.

The Bundle of His is a part of the electrical conduction system of the heart that helps coordinate the contraction of the atria and ventricles to ensure efficient pumping of blood. The bundle originates from the atrioventricular node, which receives electrical impulses from the sinoatrial node (the heart's natural pacemaker) and transmits them through the Bundle of His to the Purkinje fibers.

The Bundle of His is divided into two main branches, known as the right and left bundle branches, which further divide into smaller fascicles that spread throughout the ventricular myocardium. This ensures a coordinated contraction of the ventricles, allowing for efficient pumping of blood to the rest of the body.

Fetal heart rate (FHR) is the number of times a fetus's heart beats in one minute. It is measured through the use of a fetoscope, Doppler ultrasound device, or cardiotocograph (CTG). A normal FHR ranges from 120 to 160 beats per minute (bpm), although it can vary throughout pregnancy and is usually faster than an adult's heart rate. Changes in the FHR pattern may indicate fetal distress, hypoxia, or other conditions that require medical attention. Regular monitoring of FHR during pregnancy, labor, and delivery helps healthcare providers assess fetal well-being and ensure a safe outcome for both the mother and the baby.

Heart disease is a broad term for a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels. It's often used to refer to conditions that include:

1. Coronary artery disease (CAD): This is the most common type of heart disease. It occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the heart become hardened and narrowed due to the buildup of cholesterol and other substances, which can lead to chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, or a heart attack.

2. Heart failure: This condition occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood efficiently to meet the body's needs. It can be caused by various conditions, including coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, and cardiomyopathy.

3. Arrhythmias: These are abnormal heart rhythms, which can be too fast, too slow, or irregular. They can lead to symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, and fainting.

4. Valvular heart disease: This involves damage to one or more of the heart's four valves, which control blood flow through the heart. Damage can be caused by various conditions, including infection, rheumatic fever, and aging.

5. Cardiomyopathy: This is a disease of the heart muscle that makes it harder for the heart to pump blood efficiently. It can be caused by various factors, including genetics, viral infections, and drug abuse.

6. Pericardial disease: This involves inflammation or other problems with the sac surrounding the heart (pericardium). It can cause chest pain and other symptoms.

7. Congenital heart defects: These are heart conditions that are present at birth, such as a hole in the heart or abnormal blood vessels. They can range from mild to severe and may require medical intervention.

8. Heart infections: The heart can become infected by bacteria, viruses, or parasites, leading to various symptoms and complications.

It's important to note that many factors can contribute to the development of heart disease, including genetics, lifestyle choices, and certain medical conditions. Regular check-ups and a healthy lifestyle can help reduce the risk of developing heart disease.

Bundle-branch block (BBB) is a type of conduction delay or block in the heart's electrical system that affects the way electrical impulses travel through the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). In BBB, one of the two main bundle branches that conduct electrical impulses to the ventricles is partially or completely blocked, causing a delay in the contraction of one of the ventricles.

There are two types of bundle-branch block: right bundle-branch block (RBBB) and left bundle-branch block (LBBB). In RBBB, the right bundle branch is affected, while in LBBB, the left bundle branch is affected. The symptoms and severity of BBB can vary depending on the underlying cause and the presence of other heart conditions.

In some cases, BBB may not cause any noticeable symptoms and may only be detected during a routine electrocardiogram (ECG). However, if BBB occurs along with other heart conditions such as coronary artery disease, heart failure, or cardiomyopathy, it can increase the risk of serious complications such as arrhythmias, syncope, and even sudden cardiac death.

Treatment for bundle-branch block depends on the underlying cause and the severity of the condition. In some cases, no treatment may be necessary, while in others, medications, pacemakers, or other treatments may be recommended to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Maternal-fetal exchange, also known as maternal-fetal transport or placental transfer, refers to the physiological process by which various substances are exchanged between the mother and fetus through the placenta. This exchange includes the transfer of oxygen and nutrients from the mother's bloodstream to the fetal bloodstream, as well as the removal of waste products and carbon dioxide from the fetal bloodstream to the mother's bloodstream.

The process occurs via passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport mechanisms across the placental barrier, which is composed of fetal capillary endothelial cells, the extracellular matrix, and the syncytiotrophoblast layer of the placenta. The maternal-fetal exchange is crucial for the growth, development, and survival of the fetus throughout pregnancy.

Ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) are complexes composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. They play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including gene expression, RNA processing, transport, stability, and degradation. Different types of RNPs exist, such as ribosomes, spliceosomes, and signal recognition particles, each having specific functions in the cell.

Ribosomes are large RNP complexes responsible for protein synthesis, where messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into proteins. They consist of two subunits: a smaller subunit containing ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins that recognize the start codon on mRNA, and a larger subunit with rRNA and proteins that facilitate peptide bond formation during translation.

Spliceosomes are dynamic RNP complexes involved in pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) splicing, where introns (non-coding sequences) are removed, and exons (coding sequences) are joined together to form mature mRNA. Spliceosomes consist of five small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), each containing a specific small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and several proteins, as well as numerous additional proteins.

Other RNP complexes include signal recognition particles (SRPs), which are responsible for targeting secretory and membrane proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum during translation, and telomerase, an enzyme that maintains the length of telomeres (the protective ends of chromosomes) by adding repetitive DNA sequences using its built-in RNA component.

In summary, ribonucleoproteins are essential complexes in the cell that participate in various aspects of RNA metabolism and protein synthesis.

A nerve block is a medical procedure in which an anesthetic or neurolytic agent is injected near a specific nerve or bundle of nerves to block the transmission of pain signals from that area to the brain. This technique can be used for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, such as identifying the source of pain, providing temporary or prolonged relief, or facilitating surgical procedures in the affected region.

The injection typically contains a local anesthetic like lidocaine or bupivacaine, which numbs the nerve, preventing it from transmitting pain signals. In some cases, steroids may also be added to reduce inflammation and provide longer-lasting relief. Depending on the type of nerve block and its intended use, the injection might be administered close to the spine (neuraxial blocks), at peripheral nerves (peripheral nerve blocks), or around the sympathetic nervous system (sympathetic nerve blocks).

While nerve blocks are generally safe, they can have side effects such as infection, bleeding, nerve damage, or in rare cases, systemic toxicity from the anesthetic agent. It is essential to consult with a qualified medical professional before undergoing this procedure to ensure proper evaluation, technique, and post-procedure care.

Fluorinated steroids are a type of synthetic corticosteroid that contain fluorine atoms in their chemical structure. Corticosteroids are a class of hormones that are naturally produced by the adrenal gland and have various important functions in the body, including regulating metabolism, immune response, and stress response.

Fluorinated steroids are often used as medications to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system. They are commonly prescribed for a variety of conditions such as asthma, allergies, skin conditions, and autoimmune disorders. The fluorine atoms in these drugs help to prolong their activity in the body, making them more potent and longer-lasting than non-fluorinated steroids.

However, fluorinated steroids can also have significant side effects, particularly when used at high doses or for long periods of time. These may include weight gain, mood changes, thinning of the bones (osteoporosis), and increased risk of infections. Therefore, they are usually prescribed at the lowest effective dose and for the shortest duration possible to minimize these risks.

Kearns-Sayre Syndrome (KSS) is a rare, progressive genetic disorder that affects the function of the mitochondria, which are the energy-producing structures in cells. It is classified as a type of mitochondrial myopathy and is typically associated with symptoms that appear before the age of 20.

The medical definition of Kearns-Sayre Syndrome includes the following criteria:
1. Onset before 20 years of age
2. Progressive external ophthalmoplegia (PEO), which is characterized by weakness and paralysis of the eye muscles, leading to drooping eyelids (ptosis) and limited eye movement
3. Retinitis pigmentosa, a degenerative condition affecting the retina that can lead to vision loss
4. A cardiac conduction defect, such as heart block
5. Ragged red fibers on muscle biopsy
6. At least one major criteria or two minor criteria must be present:
* Major criteria include cerebellar ataxia (lack of coordination), deafness, or increased protein in the cerebrospinal fluid
* Minor criteria include pigmentary retinopathy, heart block, or a high level of creatine kinase in the blood.

Kearns-Sayre Syndrome is caused by a single large-scale deletion of genes in the mitochondrial DNA and is usually sporadic, meaning it occurs randomly and is not inherited from parents. The condition can be diagnosed through genetic testing, muscle biopsy, or other clinical tests. Treatment is focused on managing symptoms and may include physical therapy, surgery for ptosis, hearing aids, and pacemakers for heart block.

Endocardial fibroelastosis (EFE) is a rare heart condition characterized by the thickening and stiffening of the endocardium, which is the inner lining of the heart chambers. This thickening is caused by an overgrowth of fibrous tissue and elastic fibers in the endocardium, particularly affecting the left ventricle and atrium.

EFE can occur as a primary condition or secondary to other heart diseases, infections, or genetic disorders. In some cases, it may be associated with conditions such as congenital heart defects, metabolic disorders, or viral infections like coxsackievirus B.

The symptoms of EFE depend on the severity and underlying cause of the condition. They can include difficulty breathing, poor feeding, failure to thrive, fatigue, and irregular heart rhythms (arrhythmias). In severe cases, EFE can lead to heart failure and require medical intervention such as medications or even a heart transplant.

The exact cause of primary EFE is still unknown, but it is believed to involve genetic factors. Secondary EFE is usually a result of damage to the heart muscle due to various causes, including infections, inflammation, or other underlying conditions. Treatment for EFE focuses on addressing the underlying cause and managing symptoms to prevent further complications.

The myocardium is the middle layer of the heart wall, composed of specialized cardiac muscle cells that are responsible for pumping blood throughout the body. It forms the thickest part of the heart wall and is divided into two sections: the left ventricle, which pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and the right ventricle, which pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

The myocardium contains several types of cells, including cardiac muscle fibers, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. The muscle fibers are arranged in a highly organized pattern that allows them to contract in a coordinated manner, generating the force necessary to pump blood through the heart and circulatory system.

Damage to the myocardium can occur due to various factors such as ischemia (reduced blood flow), infection, inflammation, or genetic disorders. This damage can lead to several cardiac conditions, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and cardiomyopathy.

Heart transplantation is a surgical procedure where a diseased, damaged, or failing heart is removed and replaced with a healthy donor heart. This procedure is usually considered as a last resort for patients with end-stage heart failure or severe coronary artery disease who have not responded to other treatments. The donor heart typically comes from a brain-dead individual whose family has agreed to donate their loved one's organs for transplantation. Heart transplantation is a complex and highly specialized procedure that requires a multidisciplinary team of healthcare professionals, including cardiologists, cardiac surgeons, anesthesiologists, perfusionists, nurses, and other support staff. The success rates for heart transplantation have improved significantly over the past few decades, with many patients experiencing improved quality of life and increased survival rates. However, recipients of heart transplants require lifelong immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection of the donor heart, which can increase the risk of infections and other complications.

The sinoatrial (SA) node, also known as the sinus node, is the primary pacemaker of the heart. It is a small bundle of specialized cardiac conduction tissue located in the upper part of the right atrium, near the entrance of the superior vena cava. The SA node generates electrical impulses that initiate each heartbeat, causing the atria to contract and pump blood into the ventricles. This process is called sinus rhythm.

The SA node's electrical activity is regulated by the autonomic nervous system, which can adjust the heart rate in response to changes in the body's needs, such as during exercise or rest. The SA node's rate of firing determines the heart rate, with a normal resting heart rate ranging from 60 to 100 beats per minute.

If the SA node fails to function properly or its electrical impulses are blocked, other secondary pacemakers in the heart may take over, resulting in abnormal heart rhythms called arrhythmias.

The heart atria are the upper chambers of the heart that receive blood from the veins and deliver it to the lower chambers, or ventricles. There are two atria in the heart: the right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it into the right ventricle, which then sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated; and the left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs and pumps it into the left ventricle, which then sends it out to the rest of the body. The atria contract before the ventricles during each heartbeat, helping to fill the ventricles with blood and prepare them for contraction.

The heart septum is the thick, muscular wall that divides the right and left sides of the heart. It consists of two main parts: the atrial septum, which separates the right and left atria (the upper chambers of the heart), and the ventricular septum, which separates the right and left ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). A normal heart septum ensures that oxygen-rich blood from the lungs does not mix with oxygen-poor blood from the body. Any defect or abnormality in the heart septum is called a septal defect, which can lead to various congenital heart diseases.

Syncope is a medical term defined as a transient, temporary loss of consciousness and postural tone due to reduced blood flow to the brain. It's often caused by a drop in blood pressure, which can be brought on by various factors such as dehydration, emotional stress, prolonged standing, or certain medical conditions like heart diseases, arrhythmias, or neurological disorders.

During a syncope episode, an individual may experience warning signs such as lightheadedness, dizziness, blurred vision, or nausea before losing consciousness. These episodes usually last only a few minutes and are followed by a rapid, full recovery. However, if left untreated or undiagnosed, recurrent syncope can lead to severe injuries from falls or even life-threatening conditions related to the underlying cause.

Echocardiography is a medical procedure that uses sound waves to produce detailed images of the heart's structure, function, and motion. It is a non-invasive test that can help diagnose various heart conditions, such as valve problems, heart muscle damage, blood clots, and congenital heart defects.

During an echocardiogram, a transducer (a device that sends and receives sound waves) is placed on the chest or passed through the esophagus to obtain images of the heart. The sound waves produced by the transducer bounce off the heart structures and return to the transducer, which then converts them into electrical signals that are processed to create images of the heart.

There are several types of echocardiograms, including:

* Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE): This is the most common type of echocardiogram and involves placing the transducer on the chest.
* Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE): This type of echocardiogram involves passing a specialized transducer through the esophagus to obtain images of the heart from a closer proximity.
* Stress echocardiography: This type of echocardiogram is performed during exercise or medication-induced stress to assess how the heart functions under stress.
* Doppler echocardiography: This type of echocardiogram uses sound waves to measure blood flow and velocity in the heart and blood vessels.

Echocardiography is a valuable tool for diagnosing and managing various heart conditions, as it provides detailed information about the structure and function of the heart. It is generally safe, non-invasive, and painless, making it a popular choice for doctors and patients alike.

A ventricular septal defect (VSD) is a type of congenital heart defect that involves a hole in the wall separating the two lower chambers of the heart, the ventricles. This defect allows oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to mix with deoxygenated blood in the right ventricle, leading to inefficient oxygenation of the body's tissues. The size and location of the hole can vary, and symptoms may range from none to severe, depending on the size of the defect and the amount of blood that is able to shunt between the ventricles. Small VSDs may close on their own over time, while larger defects usually require medical intervention, such as medication or surgery, to prevent complications like pulmonary hypertension and heart failure.

Cardiomyopathies are a group of diseases that affect the heart muscle, leading to mechanical and/or electrical dysfunction. The American Heart Association (AHA) defines cardiomyopathies as "a heterogeneous group of diseases of the myocardium associated with mechanical and/or electrical dysfunction that usually (but not always) exhibit inappropriate ventricular hypertrophy or dilatation and frequently lead to heart failure."

There are several types of cardiomyopathies, including:

1. Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM): This is the most common type of cardiomyopathy, characterized by an enlarged left ventricle and impaired systolic function, leading to heart failure.
2. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM): In this type, there is abnormal thickening of the heart muscle, particularly in the septum between the two ventricles, which can obstruct blood flow and increase the risk of arrhythmias.
3. Restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM): This is a rare form of cardiomyopathy characterized by stiffness of the heart muscle, impaired relaxation, and diastolic dysfunction, leading to reduced filling of the ventricles and heart failure.
4. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC): In this type, there is replacement of the normal heart muscle with fatty or fibrous tissue, primarily affecting the right ventricle, which can lead to arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death.
5. Unclassified cardiomyopathies: These are conditions that do not fit into any of the above categories but still significantly affect the heart muscle and function.

Cardiomyopathies can be caused by genetic factors, acquired conditions (e.g., infections, toxins, or autoimmune disorders), or a combination of both. The diagnosis typically involves a comprehensive evaluation, including medical history, physical examination, electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and sometimes genetic testing. Treatment depends on the type and severity of the condition but may include medications, lifestyle modifications, implantable devices, or even heart transplantation in severe cases.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (CLE) is a skin manifestation of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease, but it can also occur without systemic involvement. It is characterized by various skin lesions that differ in appearance and distribution. The three main subtypes of CLE are:

1. Acute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (ACLE): This form is typically associated with SLE and is characterized by a classic malar or "butterfly" rash on the face, which is often photosensitive and can be accompanied by discoid lesions. The rash may also appear on other sun-exposed areas of the body.

2. Chronic Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (CCLE): This subtype includes Discoid Lupus Erythematosus (DLE) and other less common forms such as lupus panniculitis and chilblain lupus. DLE is characterized by well-circumscribed, erythematous, scaly plaques that can cause scarring and pigmentation changes, often found on the face, scalp, and ears. Lupus panniculitis presents as deep subcutaneous nodules or indurated plaques, typically located on the trunk and proximal extremities. Chilblain lupus is characterized by violaceous, tender, and swollen lesions on acral areas, often triggered by cold exposure.

3. Subacute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (SCLE): This form of CLE presents as non-scarring, papulosquamous or annular polycyclic rashes, often located on the trunk and proximal extremities. The lesions are typically photosensitive and may appear in patients with SLE or those with isolated cutaneous disease.

The diagnosis of Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus is based on clinical presentation, histopathological findings, and sometimes direct immunofluorescence. Treatment depends on the severity and extent of skin involvement and may include topical therapies, antimalarials, corticosteroids, immunomodulatory agents, or photoprotection measures.

Magnetocardiography (MCG) is a non-invasive diagnostic technique that measures the magnetic fields produced by the electrical activity of the heart. It uses highly sensitive devices called magnetometers to detect and record these magnetic signals, which are then processed and analyzed to provide information about the heart's electrical function and structure.

MCG can be used to detect and monitor various cardiac conditions, including arrhythmias, ischemia (reduced blood flow to the heart), and myocardial infarction (heart attack). It can also help in identifying abnormalities in the heart's conduction system and assessing the effectiveness of treatments such as pacemakers.

One advantage of MCG over other diagnostic techniques like electrocardiography (ECG) is that it is not affected by the conductive properties of body tissues, which can distort ECG signals. This makes MCG a more accurate tool for measuring the heart's magnetic fields and can provide additional information about the underlying electrical activity. However, MCG requires specialized equipment and shielding to reduce interference from external magnetic sources, making it less widely available than ECG.

Autoantigens are substances that are typically found in an individual's own body, but can stimulate an immune response because they are recognized as foreign by the body's own immune system. In autoimmune diseases, the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy tissues and organs because it recognizes some of their components as autoantigens. These autoantigens can be proteins, DNA, or other molecules that are normally present in the body but have become altered or exposed due to various factors such as infection, genetics, or environmental triggers. The immune system then produces antibodies and activates immune cells to attack these autoantigens, leading to tissue damage and inflammation.

Autoantibodies are defined as antibodies that are produced by the immune system and target the body's own cells, tissues, or organs. These antibodies mistakenly identify certain proteins or molecules in the body as foreign invaders and attack them, leading to an autoimmune response. Autoantibodies can be found in various autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and thyroiditis. The presence of autoantibodies can also be used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

Hydrops Fetalis is a serious condition characterized by the accumulation of excessive fluid in two or more fetal compartments, including the abdomen (ascites), around the heart (pericardial effusion), and/or within the lungs (pleural effusion). This accumulation can also affect the skin, causing it to become edematous. Hydrops Fetalis is often associated with various underlying causes, such as chromosomal abnormalities, congenital infections, genetic disorders, and structural defects that impair the fetus's ability to maintain fluid balance. In some cases, the cause may remain unknown. The prognosis for Hydrops Fetalis is generally poor, with a high mortality rate, although early detection and appropriate management can improve outcomes in certain situations.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease that can affect almost any organ or system in the body. In SLE, the immune system produces an exaggerated response, leading to the production of autoantibodies that attack the body's own cells and tissues, causing inflammation and damage. The symptoms and severity of SLE can vary widely from person to person, but common features include fatigue, joint pain, skin rashes (particularly a "butterfly" rash across the nose and cheeks), fever, hair loss, and sensitivity to sunlight.

Systemic lupus erythematosus can also affect the kidneys, heart, lungs, brain, blood vessels, and other organs, leading to a wide range of symptoms such as kidney dysfunction, chest pain, shortness of breath, seizures, and anemia. The exact cause of SLE is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Treatment typically involves medications to suppress the immune system and manage symptoms, and may require long-term management by a team of healthcare professionals.

Cardiac arrhythmias are abnormal heart rhythms that result from disturbances in the electrical conduction system of the heart. The heart's normal rhythm is controlled by an electrical signal that originates in the sinoatrial (SA) node, located in the right atrium. This signal travels through the atrioventricular (AV) node and into the ventricles, causing them to contract and pump blood throughout the body.

An arrhythmia occurs when there is a disruption in this electrical pathway or when the heart's natural pacemaker produces an abnormal rhythm. This can cause the heart to beat too fast (tachycardia), too slow (bradycardia), or irregularly.

There are several types of cardiac arrhythmias, including:

1. Atrial fibrillation: A rapid and irregular heartbeat that starts in the atria (the upper chambers of the heart).
2. Atrial flutter: A rapid but regular heartbeat that starts in the atria.
3. Supraventricular tachycardia (SVT): A rapid heartbeat that starts above the ventricles, usually in the atria or AV node.
4. Ventricular tachycardia: A rapid and potentially life-threatening heart rhythm that originates in the ventricles.
5. Ventricular fibrillation: A chaotic and disorganized electrical activity in the ventricles, which can be fatal if not treated immediately.
6. Heart block: A delay or interruption in the conduction of electrical signals from the atria to the ventricles.

Cardiac arrhythmias can cause various symptoms, such as palpitations, dizziness, shortness of breath, chest pain, and fatigue. In some cases, they may not cause any symptoms and go unnoticed. However, if left untreated, certain types of arrhythmias can lead to serious complications, including stroke, heart failure, or even sudden cardiac death.

Treatment for cardiac arrhythmias depends on the type, severity, and underlying causes. Options may include lifestyle changes, medications, cardioversion (electrical shock therapy), catheter ablation, implantable devices such as pacemakers or defibrillators, and surgery. It is essential to consult a healthcare professional for proper evaluation and management of cardiac arrhythmias.

Pregnancy complications refer to any health problems that arise during pregnancy which can put both the mother and the baby at risk. These complications may occur at any point during the pregnancy, from conception until childbirth. Some common pregnancy complications include:

1. Gestational diabetes: a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy in women who did not have diabetes before becoming pregnant.
2. Preeclampsia: a pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and damage to organs such as the liver or kidneys.
3. Placenta previa: a condition where the placenta covers the cervix, which can cause bleeding and may require delivery via cesarean section.
4. Preterm labor: when labor begins before 37 weeks of gestation, which can lead to premature birth and other complications.
5. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR): a condition where the fetus does not grow at a normal rate inside the womb.
6. Multiple pregnancies: carrying more than one baby, such as twins or triplets, which can increase the risk of premature labor and other complications.
7. Rh incompatibility: a condition where the mother's blood type is different from the baby's, which can cause anemia and jaundice in the newborn.
8. Pregnancy loss: including miscarriage, stillbirth, or ectopic pregnancy, which can be emotionally devastating for the parents.

It is important to monitor pregnancy closely and seek medical attention promptly if any concerning symptoms arise. With proper care and management, many pregnancy complications can be treated effectively, reducing the risk of harm to both the mother and the baby.

Heart valves are specialized structures in the heart that ensure unidirectional flow of blood through its chambers during the cardiac cycle. There are four heart valves: the tricuspid valve and the mitral (bicuspid) valve, located between the atria and ventricles, and the pulmonic (pulmonary) valve and aortic valve, located between the ventricles and the major blood vessels leaving the heart.

The heart valves are composed of thin flaps of tissue called leaflets or cusps, which are supported by a fibrous ring. The aortic and pulmonic valves have three cusps each, while the tricuspid and mitral valves have three and two cusps, respectively.

The heart valves open and close in response to pressure differences across them, allowing blood to flow forward into the ventricles during diastole (filling phase) and preventing backflow of blood into the atria during systole (contraction phase). A properly functioning heart valve ensures efficient pumping of blood by the heart and maintains normal blood circulation throughout the body.

Ambulatory electrocardiography, also known as ambulatory ECG or Holter monitoring, is a non-invasive method of recording the electrical activity of the heart over an extended period of time (typically 24 hours or more) while the patient goes about their daily activities. The device used to record the ECG is called a Holter monitor, which consists of a small, portable recorder that is attached to the patient's chest with electrodes.

The recorded data provides information on any abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or electrical activity during different stages of activity and rest, allowing healthcare providers to diagnose and evaluate various cardiac conditions such as arrhythmias, ischemia, and infarction. The ability to monitor the heart's activity over an extended period while the patient performs their normal activities provides valuable information that may not be captured during a standard ECG, which only records the heart's electrical activity for a few seconds.

In summary, ambulatory electrocardiography is a diagnostic tool used to evaluate the electrical activity of the heart over an extended period, allowing healthcare providers to diagnose and manage various cardiac conditions.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Autoimmune diseases are a group of disorders in which the immune system, which normally protects the body from foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses, mistakenly attacks the body's own cells and tissues. This results in inflammation and damage to various organs and tissues in the body.

In autoimmune diseases, the body produces autoantibodies that target its own proteins or cell receptors, leading to their destruction or malfunction. The exact cause of autoimmune diseases is not fully understood, but it is believed that a combination of genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development.

There are over 80 different types of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms can vary widely depending on the specific autoimmune disease and the organs or tissues affected. Treatment typically involves managing symptoms and suppressing the immune system to prevent further damage.

Cardiac catheterization is a medical procedure used to diagnose and treat cardiovascular conditions. In this procedure, a thin, flexible tube called a catheter is inserted into a blood vessel in the arm or leg and threaded up to the heart. The catheter can be used to perform various diagnostic tests, such as measuring the pressure inside the heart chambers and assessing the function of the heart valves.

Cardiac catheterization can also be used to treat certain cardiovascular conditions, such as narrowed or blocked arteries. In these cases, a balloon or stent may be inserted through the catheter to open up the blood vessel and improve blood flow. This procedure is known as angioplasty or percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI).

Cardiac catheterization is typically performed in a hospital cardiac catheterization laboratory by a team of healthcare professionals, including cardiologists, radiologists, and nurses. The procedure may be done under local anesthesia with sedation or general anesthesia, depending on the individual patient's needs and preferences.

Overall, cardiac catheterization is a valuable tool in the diagnosis and treatment of various heart conditions, and it can help improve symptoms, reduce complications, and prolong life for many patients.

Cardiac myocytes are the muscle cells that make up the heart muscle, also known as the myocardium. These specialized cells are responsible for contracting and relaxing in a coordinated manner to pump blood throughout the body. They differ from skeletal muscle cells in several ways, including their ability to generate their own electrical impulses, which allows the heart to function as an independent rhythmical pump. Cardiac myocytes contain sarcomeres, the contractile units of the muscle, and are connected to each other by intercalated discs that help coordinate contraction and ensure the synchronous beating of the heart.

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a type of cardiomyopathy characterized by the enlargement and weakened contraction of the heart's main pumping chamber (the left ventricle). This enlargement and weakness can lead to symptoms such as shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. DCM can be caused by various factors including genetics, viral infections, alcohol and drug abuse, and other medical conditions like high blood pressure and diabetes. It is important to note that this condition can lead to heart failure if left untreated.

Prenatal ultrasonography, also known as obstetric ultrasound, is a medical diagnostic procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of the developing fetus, placenta, and amniotic fluid inside the uterus. It is a non-invasive and painless test that is widely used during pregnancy to monitor the growth and development of the fetus, detect any potential abnormalities or complications, and determine the due date.

During the procedure, a transducer (a small handheld device) is placed on the mother's abdomen and moved around to capture images from different angles. The sound waves travel through the mother's body and bounce back off the fetus, producing echoes that are then converted into electrical signals and displayed as images on a screen.

Prenatal ultrasonography can be performed at various stages of pregnancy, including early pregnancy to confirm the pregnancy and detect the number of fetuses, mid-pregnancy to assess the growth and development of the fetus, and late pregnancy to evaluate the position of the fetus and determine if it is head down or breech. It can also be used to guide invasive procedures such as amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling.

Overall, prenatal ultrasonography is a valuable tool in modern obstetrics that helps ensure the health and well-being of both the mother and the developing fetus.

Myocardial infarction (MI), also known as a heart attack, is a medical condition characterized by the death of a segment of heart muscle (myocardium) due to the interruption of its blood supply. This interruption is most commonly caused by the blockage of a coronary artery by a blood clot formed on the top of an atherosclerotic plaque, which is a buildup of cholesterol and other substances in the inner lining of the artery.

The lack of oxygen and nutrients supply to the heart muscle tissue results in damage or death of the cardiac cells, causing the affected area to become necrotic. The extent and severity of the MI depend on the size of the affected area, the duration of the occlusion, and the presence of collateral circulation.

Symptoms of a myocardial infarction may include chest pain or discomfort, shortness of breath, nausea, lightheadedness, and sweating. Immediate medical attention is necessary to restore blood flow to the affected area and prevent further damage to the heart muscle. Treatment options for MI include medications, such as thrombolytics, antiplatelet agents, and pain relievers, as well as procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG).

Maternally-acquired immunity (MAI) refers to the passive immunity that is transferred from a mother to her offspring, typically through the placenta during pregnancy or through breast milk after birth. This immunity is temporary and provides protection to the newborn or young infant against infectious agents, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the mother's own immune experiences and responses.

In humans, maternally-acquired immunity is primarily mediated by the transfer of antibodies called immunoglobulins (IgG) across the placenta to the fetus during pregnancy. This process begins around the 20th week of gestation and continues until birth, providing the newborn with a range of protective antibodies against various pathogens. After birth, additional protection is provided through breast milk, which contains secretory immunoglobulin A (IgA) that helps to prevent infections in the infant's gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.

Maternally-acquired immunity is an essential mechanism for protecting newborns and young infants, who have not yet developed their own active immune responses. However, it is important to note that maternally-acquired antibodies can also interfere with the infant's response to certain vaccines, as they may neutralize the vaccine antigens before the infant's immune system has a chance to mount its own response. This is one reason why some vaccines are not recommended for young infants and why the timing of vaccinations may be adjusted in cases where maternally-acquired immunity is present.

Collagen diseases, also known as collagen disorders or connective tissue diseases, refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the body's connective tissues. These tissues provide support and structure for various organs and systems in the body, including the skin, joints, muscles, and blood vessels.

Collagen is a major component of connective tissues, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining their strength and elasticity. In collagen diseases, the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy collagen, leading to inflammation, pain, and damage to the affected tissues.

There are several types of collagen diseases, including:

1. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): This is a chronic autoimmune disease that can affect various organs and systems in the body, including the skin, joints, kidneys, heart, and lungs.
2. Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): This is a chronic inflammatory disease that primarily affects the joints, causing pain, swelling, and stiffness.
3. Scleroderma: This is a rare autoimmune disorder that causes thickening and hardening of the skin and connective tissues, leading to restricted movement and organ damage.
4. Dermatomyositis: This is an inflammatory muscle disease that can also affect the skin, causing rashes and weakness.
5. Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD): This is a rare autoimmune disorder that combines symptoms of several collagen diseases, including SLE, RA, scleroderma, and dermatomyositis.

The exact cause of collagen diseases is not fully understood, but they are believed to be related to genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medications, lifestyle changes, and physical therapy to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Hemodynamics is the study of how blood flows through the cardiovascular system, including the heart and the vascular network. It examines various factors that affect blood flow, such as blood volume, viscosity, vessel length and diameter, and pressure differences between different parts of the circulatory system. Hemodynamics also considers the impact of various physiological and pathological conditions on these variables, and how they in turn influence the function of vital organs and systems in the body. It is a critical area of study in fields such as cardiology, anesthesiology, and critical care medicine.

Sinus arrhythmia is a type of heart rhythm disorder (arrhythmia) where the normal rhythm generated by the sinus node in the heart varies in rate or pattern. The sinus node is the natural pacemaker of the heart and usually sets a steady pace for heartbeats. However, in sinus arrhythmia, the heart rate may speed up or slow down abnormally during breathing in (inspiration) or breathing out (expiration).

When the heart rate increases during inspiration, it is called "inspiratory sinus arrhythmia," and when the heart rate decreases during expiration, it is called "expiratory sinus arrhythmia." Most people experience a mild form of inspiratory sinus arrhythmia, which is considered normal, especially in children and young adults.

However, if the variation in heart rate is significant or accompanied by symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, shortness of breath, or chest discomfort, it may require medical evaluation and treatment. Sinus arrhythmia can be caused by various factors, including lung disease, heart disease, electrolyte imbalances, or the use of certain medications.

Betamethasone is a type of corticosteroid medication that is used to treat various medical conditions. It works by reducing inflammation and suppressing the activity of the immune system. Betamethasone is available in several forms, including creams, ointments, lotions, gels, solutions, tablets, and injectable preparations.

The medical definition of betamethasone is:

A synthetic corticosteroid with anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, and vasoconstrictive properties. It is used to treat a variety of conditions such as skin disorders, allergies, asthma, arthritis, and autoimmune diseases. Betamethasone is available in various formulations including topical (creams, ointments, lotions, gels), oral (tablets), and injectable preparations. It acts by binding to specific receptors in cells, which leads to the inhibition of the production of inflammatory mediators and the suppression of immune responses.

It is important to note that betamethasone should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as it can have significant side effects if not used properly.

Myocarditis is an inflammation of the myocardium, which is the middle layer of the heart wall. The myocardium is composed of cardiac muscle cells and is responsible for the heart's pumping function. Myocarditis can be caused by various infectious and non-infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, autoimmune diseases, toxins, and drugs.

In myocarditis, the inflammation can damage the cardiac muscle cells, leading to decreased heart function, arrhythmias (irregular heart rhythms), and in severe cases, heart failure or even sudden death. Symptoms of myocarditis may include chest pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, palpitations, and swelling in the legs, ankles, or abdomen.

The diagnosis of myocarditis is often based on a combination of clinical presentation, laboratory tests, electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and endomyocardial biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and severity of the disease and may include medications to support heart function, reduce inflammation, control arrhythmias, and prevent further damage to the heart muscle. In some cases, hospitalization and intensive care may be necessary.

Prenatal diagnosis is the medical testing of fetuses, embryos, or pregnant women to detect the presence or absence of certain genetic disorders or birth defects. These tests can be performed through various methods such as chorionic villus sampling (CVS), amniocentesis, or ultrasound. The goal of prenatal diagnosis is to provide early information about the health of the fetus so that parents and healthcare providers can make informed decisions about pregnancy management and newborn care. It allows for early intervention, treatment, or planning for the child's needs after birth.

Transposition of the Great Vessels is a congenital heart defect in which the two main vessels that carry blood from the heart to the rest of the body are switched in position. Normally, the aorta arises from the left ventricle and carries oxygenated blood to the body, while the pulmonary artery arises from the right ventricle and carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. In transposition of the great vessels, the aorta arises from the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery arises from the left ventricle. This results in oxygen-poor blood being pumped to the body and oxygen-rich blood being recirculated back to the lungs, which can lead to serious health problems and is often fatal if not corrected through surgery soon after birth.

Heart auscultation is a medical procedure in which a healthcare professional uses a stethoscope to listen to the sounds produced by the heart. The process involves placing the stethoscope on various locations of the chest wall to hear different areas of the heart.

The sounds heard during auscultation are typically related to the opening and closing of the heart valves, as well as the turbulence created by blood flow through the heart chambers. These sounds can provide important clues about the structure and function of the heart, allowing healthcare professionals to diagnose various cardiovascular conditions such as heart murmurs, valvular disorders, and abnormal heart rhythms.

Heart auscultation is a key component of a physical examination and requires proper training and experience to interpret the findings accurately.

Sick Sinus Syndrome (SSS) is a term used to describe a group of abnormal heart rhythm disturbances that originates in the sinoatrial node (the natural pacemaker of the heart). This syndrome is characterized by impaired functioning of the sinoatrial node, resulting in various abnormalities such as sinus bradycardia (abnormally slow heart rate), sinus arrest (complete cessation of sinus node activity), and/or sinoatrial exit block (failure of the electrical impulse to leave the sinus node and spread to the atria).

People with SSS may experience symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, fatigue, shortness of breath, or syncope (fainting) due to inadequate blood supply to the brain caused by slow heart rate. The diagnosis of SSS is typically made based on the patient's symptoms and the results of an electrocardiogram (ECG), Holter monitoring, or event recorder that shows evidence of abnormal sinus node function. Treatment options for SSS may include lifestyle modifications, medications, or implantation of a pacemaker to regulate the heart rate.

A heart valve prosthesis is a medical device that is implanted in the heart to replace a damaged or malfunctioning heart valve. The prosthetic valve can be made of biological tissue (such as from a pig or cow) or artificial materials (such as carbon or polyester). Its function is to allow for the proper directional flow of blood through the heart, opening and closing with each heartbeat to prevent backflow of blood.

There are several types of heart valve prostheses, including:

1. Mechanical valves: These are made entirely of artificial materials and have a longer lifespan than biological valves. However, they require the patient to take blood-thinning medication for the rest of their life to prevent blood clots from forming on the valve.
2. Bioprosthetic valves: These are made of biological tissue and typically last 10-15 years before needing replacement. They do not require the patient to take blood-thinning medication, but there is a higher risk of reoperation due to degeneration of the tissue over time.
3. Homografts or allografts: These are human heart valves that have been donated and preserved for transplantation. They have similar longevity to bioprosthetic valves and do not require blood-thinning medication.
4. Autografts: In this case, the patient's own pulmonary valve is removed and used to replace the damaged aortic valve. This procedure is called the Ross procedure and has excellent long-term results, but it requires advanced surgical skills and is not widely available.

The choice of heart valve prosthesis depends on various factors, including the patient's age, overall health, lifestyle, and personal preferences.

Types of infra-Hisian block include: Type 2 second degree heart block (Mobitz II) -a type of AV block due to a block within or ... Therefore, most of the important heart blocks are AV nodal blocks and infra-Hisian blocks. SA blocks are usually of lesser ... due to a block in or below the bundle of His Third-degree AV block (complete heart block) Infra-Hisian block is that of the ... The term "Wenckebach block" is also used for some heart blocks, and can refer to a second degree type I block in either the SA ...
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A sinoatrial block (also spelled sinuatrial block) is a disorder in the normal rhythm of the heart, known as a heart block, ... In an SA block, the electrical impulse is delayed or blocked on the way to the atria, thus delaying the atrial beat. (An AV ... Second degree SA blocks are broken down into two subcategories just like AV blocks are: The first is a second degree type I, or ... "sinoatrial heart block". TheFreeDictionary.com. Bledsoe, Porter, Cherry (2009). Paramedic Care; Principles and Practice. New ...
First degree AV block does not generally cause any symptoms, but may progress to more severe forms of heart block such as ... First-degree atrioventricular block (AV block) is a disease of the electrical conduction system of the heart in which ... A subset of individuals with the triad of first-degree heart block, right bundle branch block, and either left anterior ... Atrioventricular block Second-degree atrioventricular block Third-degree atrioventricular block "Lesson VI - ECG Conduction ...
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... heart block; supraventricular tachycardia or bradyarrhythmias Intraventricular conduction delay or bundle branch block or that ... According to American Heart Association data,[citation needed] about 65% of men and 47% of women present with a heart attack or ... workup before heart transplantation, and prognosis and risk assessment of heart failure patients. The test is also common in ... American Heart Association; Heart Rhythm Society (2011). "ACCF/ASE/AHA/ASNC/HFSA/HRS/SCAI/SCCM/SCCT/SCMR 2011 Appropriate Use ...
... (AV block) is a type of heart block that occurs when the electrical signal traveling from the atria, or ... Additionally, there is an increased risk of patients with Mobitz II heart block developing third-degree heart block. Therefore ... There is a low risk of a Mobitz I AV block leading to complete heart block or cardiac arrest. Mobitz II is caused by a sudden, ... When the signal is completely blocked, the ventricles produce their own electrical signal to control the heart rate. The heart ...
In stimulating the vagus the degree of heart-block increases thereby facilitating the stoppage of the heart block. In an ... AV block- also known as a complete heart block). In this condition, the ability of the heart to relay electrical signals from ... However, when researchers injected calcium chloride into the heart, the heart was able to revive to a regular heart rhythm with ... On the other hand, when the clamps were tightened gradually, the heart passed through various stages of partial block. Through ...
To block the effects of certain hormones on the heart to slow the heart rate. Calcium Channel Blockers: Help slow the heart ... Helps slow the heart rate by blocking the number of electrical impulses that pass through the AV node into the lower heart ... "The Heart Block Poem". Nurseslabs. tumblr.com. Connie Allen; Valerie Harper (5 January 2011). Laboratory Manual for Anatomy and ... 31 W pattern in V1-V2 and M pattern in V3-V6 is Left bundle block. M pattern in V1-V2 and W in V3-V6 is Right bundle block. ...
WFS1 Heart block, nonprogressive; 113900; SCN5A Heart block, progressive, type IA; 113900; SCN5A Heinz body anemia; 140700; ... POLG Progressive familial heart block, type IB; 604559; TRPM4 Proguanil poor metabolizer; 609535; CYP2C Prolidase deficiency; ... SRD5A3 Congenital heart defects, nonsyndromic, 1, X-linked; 306955; ZIC3 Congenital heart disease, nonsyndromic, 2; 612863; ... ENPP1 Hypoplastic left heart syndrome; 241550; GJA1 Hypoproteinemia, hypercatabolic; 241600; B2M Hypospadias 1, X-linked; ...
Haider, Riaz; Singh, S. P. (1970). "Phentolamine In Heart Block". The British Medical Journal. 4 (5730): 307. doi:10.1136/bmj. ... Haider, Riaz; Singh, S. P. (1970). "Phentolamine In Heart Block". The British Medical Journal. 4 (5730): 307-307. ISSN 0007- ... and heart catheterization. He is the former President of the American Heart Association Nation's Capital Affiliate, and served ... 1992 American Heart Association, Nation's Capital, Heart of Gold Award, 1992 Haider, Riaz (2020-04-30). A Triumphant Voyage: ...
"Acquired congenital heart block. Pattern of maternal antibody response to biochemically defined antigens of the SSA/Ro-SSB/La ... SSB-La antibodies in the mother and the risk for congenital heart block in the fetus or in newborns (J Clin Invest 1989). ... and immune-related Congenital heart block. Ben-Chetrit detected a new antigen (52 KD) component of the SSA/Ro (J Exp Med 1988) ...
"House of Hearts" 9:00 "House of Hearts - Rory Block , Songs, Reviews, Credits , AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved May 21, 2021. " ... House of Hearts is an album by American blues guitarist and singer Rory Block, released in 1987 on the Rounder Records label. ... "House of Hearts - Rory Block , Releases , AllMusic". AllMusic. Retrieved May 21, 2021. (Use mdy dates from February 2020, ... The album is dedicated to Block's son, Thiele David Biehusen, who died in a road accident, aged 20. Biehusen's voice is heard ...
... heart block). In other arrhythmias the heart may beat abnormally rapidly, referred to as a tachycardia or tachyarrhythmia. ... In a healthy heart blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backflow. The heart is enclosed in ... "gill hearts" also known as branchial hearts, and one "systemic heart". The branchial hearts have two atria and one ventricle ... Typically, healthy hearts have only two audible heart sounds, called S1 and S2. The first heart sound S1, is the sound created ...
Tuberculosis of Myocardium causing Complete Heart Block. T. Bhaskara Menon and C. K. Prasada Rao, American Journal of Pathology ... In memory of his professional services, the Extension block of Pathology department in Andhra Medical College was renamed as Dr ...
A police station is situated at the heart of Pandwa block. This police station is one of the important police station in Palamu ... Blocks of Palamu district Details of Pandwa block Details of villages under Pandwa block (Articles needing cleanup from August ... The block has 8 panchayats and about 34 villages. Pandwa a Taluka/Block, close to Medininager Palamu, is located 18 km from ... Pandwa mandal/Block consists of 8 Panchayats. The following are the list of Panchayats in the Block: Chhechauri Majhigawan ...
... causes a resting block in the heart. A resting block is the depression of a person's Vmax after a resting period. ... It acts to stop arrhythmias of the heart through a frequency-dependent block of cardiac sodium channels. ... The higher the heart rate, the less effect Prajmaline will have. The drug Prajmaline has been used to treat a number of cardiac ... The effects of some Class I antiarrhythmics are only seen in a patient who has a normal heart rate (~1 Hz). This is due to the ...
The ECG will show complete heart block, high grade AV block, or other malignant arrhythmia during the attacks. Torsades de ... bradycardia due to complete heart block. Typically an attack occurs without warning, leading to sudden loss of consciousness. ... or Gerbec-Morgagni-Adams-Stokes syndrome is a periodic fainting spell in which there is intermittent complete heart block or ... Pointes can occur in a heart block setting. Initial treatment can be medical, involving the use of drugs like isoprenaline ( ...
A variable PR interval may indicate other types of heart block.[citation needed] PR segment depression may indicate atrial ... This is known as first degree heart block. Prolongation can be associated with fibrosis of the AV node, high vagal tone, ... "Heart rate variability in children with acute rheumatic fever". Cardiol Young. 22 (3): 285-92. doi:10.1017/S1047951111001429. ...
Symptoms of heart block include syncope, exercise intolerance, and bradycardia.[citation needed] Kearns-Sayre patients are ... KEARNS TP; SAYRE GP (1958). "Retinitis Pigmentosa, External Ophthalmoplegia, and Complete Heart Block Unusual Syndrome with ... Kearns, Thomas P. (1958). "Retinitis Pigmentosa, External Ophthalmoplegia, and Complete Heart Block". AMA Archives of ... deafness and heart block". The American Journal of Medicine. 29 (5): 888-893. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(60)90122-4. PMID 13789175. ...
"Cause of atrioventricular block in patients after heart transplantation". Transplantation journal. "USC AGSA Dinner Dance and ... "Cause of Atrioventricular Block in Patients After Heart Transplantation.". Armen continued his education at the USC Marshall ...
Nau C, Seaver M, Wang SY, Wang GK (March 2000). "Block of human heart hH1 sodium channels by amitriptyline". J Pharmacol Exp ... particularly any degree of heart block Coronary artery disease Porphyria Severe liver disease (such as cirrhosis) Being under ... The blocking effect of amitriptyline on sodium channels may also contribute to its efficacy in pain conditions. Amitriptyline ... Glaucoma, liver toxicity and abnormal heart rhythms are rare but serious side effects. Blood levels of amitriptyline vary ...
Gray, Christopher (July 16, 2006). "A Notable Block With a Hole in Its Heart". The New York Times. Retrieved January 21, 2016. ...
Regouby Y, Delomez G, Tisserant A (1990). "[First-degree heart block caused by voluntary zopiclone poisoning]". Therapie (in ... Serious effects on the heart may also occur from a zopiclone overdose when combined with piperazine. Death certificates show ... Regouby Y, Delomez G, Tisserant A (1989). "[Auriculo-ventricular block during voluntary poisoning with zopiclone]". Therapie ( ...
"Iraqi boy undergoes rare heart surgery". DNA India. "Six-hour surgery to remove rare heart tumour, 3 blocks". DNA India. "Man ... "Man survives 17 blocks in heart , Mumbai News - Times of India". The Times of India. "76-year-old stable after complicated ... "Doctors use girl's heart cover to fix her valve". DNA India. "Mumbai woman operated upon fifth time for heart valve replacement ... AHI cardiac surgeons use the girl's own heart to fix her valve-13 year old was suffering from rheumatic heart, a condition in ...
"Heart Hospital opening faces more blocks". The Peninsula Qatar. 11 December 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2015. "The Formation of The ... He played a large role in efforts to open a Heart Hospital in HMC. He became the first chairman of The International Society ... "Gulf Heart Association". European Society of Cardiology. Archived from the original on 11 August 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2015 ... In 2002, he founded and chaired the Gulf Heart Association, an organization which has been an affiliate of the European Society ...
Permanent neurological deficits complicating sino-atrial block". Br Heart J. 35 (5): 503-6. doi:10.1136/hrt.35.5.503. PMC ... Samarasinghe, HH; Senanyake, N (May 1973). "British Heart Journal, I973, 35, 503-506. ...
Johannes Draaijer, 26, Dutch racing driver, heart block, heart attack. Vern Freiburger, 66, American baseball player. Alberto ... Russell Jacquet, 72, American trumpeter, heart attack. Colin Milburn, 48, English cricketer, heart attack. Wallace Reid Jr., 72 ... "Greville Wynne, Spy for Britain In the Soviet Bloc, Is Dead at 71". The New York Times. March 2, 1990. p. A 19. Retrieved ... Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr., 77, American painter and musician, father of Muhammad Ali, heart attack. George de Mestral, 82, ...
ISBN 0-412-46630-9. KORNEL L (1958). "A case of calcified ventricular aneurysm with progressive heart block; observations on ...
Heart of the World - a programming block featuring foreign telenovelas. K-Feels - the channel's primary programming block ... Heart of Asia Channel (known on-air as Heart of Asia and stylized as HEART OF asia) is a Philippine free-to-air television ... It operates daily starting at 06:00 (PST) with sign-off at 00:00 (PST). Heart of Asia is inspired from the programming block of ... The channel plans to air dramas shown on GMA Network's The Heart of Asia and FantaSeries programming blocks, as well as GMA- ...
Types of infra-Hisian block include: Type 2 second degree heart block (Mobitz II) -a type of AV block due to a block within or ... Therefore, most of the important heart blocks are AV nodal blocks and infra-Hisian blocks. SA blocks are usually of lesser ... due to a block in or below the bundle of His Third-degree AV block (complete heart block) Infra-Hisian block is that of the ... The term "Wenckebach block" is also used for some heart blocks, and can refer to a second degree type I block in either the SA ...
See examples of HEART BLOCK used in a sentence. ... heart block. in a sentence. *. We may define heart block as the ... Overdosing with digitalis has produced partial heart block in many cases.. Arteriosclerosis and Hypertension: , Louis Marshall ... In this manner we are able to distinguish between functional and organic heart block. ... Digitalis has been found to produce partial to complete heart block when therapeutically administered. ...
Just the other day I was wishing I had a good pattern for a heart quilt. ... Check out Canoe Ridge Creations for this tutorial and assembly guide for one patchwork heart block, a good way to use up fabric ... Just the other day I was wishing I had a good pattern for a heart quilt. ...
... also referred to as third-degree heart block or complete heart block, is a disorder of the cardiac conduction system where ... Third-Degree Atrioventricular Block (Complete Heart Block) * Sections Third-Degree Atrioventricular Block (Complete Heart Block ... Third-Degree Atrioventricular Block (Complete Heart Block). ECG before and after complete heart block at the AV nodal level. ... Third-Degree Atrioventricular Block (Complete Heart Block). Electrocardiogram from patient in complete heart block. View Media ...
miR1 and miR133a block division of heart cells. Approach for strengthening heart regeneration discovered ... The disadvantage: if parts of the heart muscle are damaged, as is the case with a heart attack, for example, the heart lacks ... New heart muscle cells produced by cell division could disrupt this physiological process and cause the heart to become out of ... The heart consists of many individual heart muscle cells that are electrically interconnected and represent a functional unit. ...
... scientists at Johns Hopkins have mapped out a key chemical step involved in blocking enzyme action in heart failure. ... Steps to Block Key Enzyme Action in Heart Failure Mapped Personalised Printable Document (PDF). Please complete this form and ... Steps to Block Key Enzyme Action in Heart Failure Mapped. .article-author__avatar{float:left;}.article-author__avatar figure ... Heart diseases that are present at birth are called Congenital heart diseases . ...
Copyright © 2023 BMJ Publishing Group Ltd & British Cardiovascular Society. All rights reserved.. ...
Third-degree heart block is sometimes called complete heart block.. What causes third-degree heart block?. Third-degree heart ... Heart block may also run in families.. What are the symptoms of third-degree heart block?. Symptoms of third-degree heart block ... Complete Heart Block. Heart block is a condition in which the electrical wiring system of the heart doesnt work correctly. It ... Third-degree heart block is a serious condition that needs to be treated right away. Treatments for third-degree heart block ...
A new study has found that a chemical in crude oil slows the fishs heart rates, reduces cardiac contractility and causes ... Oil Pollution Hurts Tuna Hearts, Crude Oil Blocked Key Processes In Fishs Cardiac Cells. By Zoe Mintz @ZoeMintz 02/14/14 AT ... "The ability of a heart cell to beat," Barbara Block, a professor of marine sciences at Stanford University, said in a statement ... "The protein ion channels we observe in the tuna heart cells are similar to what we would find in any vertebrate heart and ...
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Gapers Block has ceased publication.. Gapers Block published from April 22, 2003 to Jan. 1, 2016. The site will remain up in ... Whats next for Heart of Man?. From the fashion side, Im going to expand the product mix; my goal is to definitely be in five ... A/C is the arts and culture section of Gapers Block, covering the many forms of expression on display in Chicago. More.... ... You work a lot with kids in the community through your foundation, Heart of Man Project--tell us about how that all got started ...
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Blocking Stress-Related Cell Death Could Provide New Drug Development Target For Heart Attack, Stroke And Parkinsons. ... We developed a small peptide that intervenes in JNK migration and blocks those harmful effects - specifically cell death. ... LoGrasso noted that the team was able to block JNK mitochondrial interaction without harming any other important enzyme ... stroke and heart attack. Activated JNK migrates to the mitochondria in reaction to a stress signal, said Philip LoGrasso, ...
Holz of German include 10 wooden hearts in shades of red, pink and orange that fit neatly like a puzzle in a heart-shaped tray ... grimms-wooden-heart-blocks.jpeg?v=1663824824","variant_ids":[11465731521]},"available":true,"name":"Wooden Heart Blocks - Red ... The hearts can be fit snugly inside the frame like a puzzle, or they can be used like building blocks. The 3-piece wooden frame ... See also our Rainbow Wooden Heart Blocks.. Each piece exceeds the size considered a choking hazard as set forth by both US and ...
Progressive familial heart block is a genetic condition that alters the normal beating of the heart. Explore symptoms, ... Most cases of heart block are not genetic and are not considered progressive familial heart block. The most common cause of ... In types IA and IB, the heart block originates in the bundle branch, and in type II, the heart block originates in the ... heart block is fibrosis of the heart, which occurs as a normal process of aging. Other causes of heart block can include the ...
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Can a blockage in the heart cause a heart attack?. A sudden, severe blockage of one of the hearts artery can lead to a heart ... Heart attack. If a coronary artery becomes completely blocked, the lack of blood and oxygen can lead to a heart attack that ... A complete blockage can cause a heart attack.. What is it called when blood flow to part of the heart muscle is blocked?. ... This happens when blood flow to the heart muscle is blocked.. What happens when the right coronary artery is blocked?. When one ...
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Hearts Block 2 is a digital pattern designed by Ida Houston. Available for immediate download! Stitch file types included are: ...
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A naturally occurring protein that blocks this inflammatory immune response, known as neonatal NET-inhibitory factor, or nNIF, ... About the American Heart Association The American Heart Association is a relentless force for a world of longer, healthier ... Naturally occurring protein to block inflammatory response improved stroke recovery in mice. American Heart Association Meeting ... To study the effects on stroke, the investigators blocked the formation of NETs in mice. To block NET formation, they ...
Ultrafast sodium channel block by dietary fish oil prevents dofetilide-induced ventricular arrhythmias in rabbit hearts. ... Dofetilide reduced excitability in omega3FA-pretreated hearts but not in control hearts. Whereas torsades de pointes (TdP) were ... AJP - Heart and Circulatory Physiology 295(4): H1414-H1421 (2008). Abstract: Several epidemiologic and clinical studies show ... Ultrafast sodium channel block by DHA may account for the antiarrhythmic protection of the dietary supplements of omega3FA ...
"Letter Block Alphabet Initial Heart Monogram Signet Ring Gold Plated - Gold C \/ 4","public_title":"Gold C \/ 4","options":[" ... "Letter Block Alphabet Initial Heart Monogram Signet Ring Gold Plated - Gold A \/ 4","public_title":"Gold A \/ 4","options":[" ... "Letter Block Alphabet Initial Heart Monogram Signet Ring Gold Plated - Gold J \/ 4","public_title":"Gold J \/ 4","options":[" ... "Letter Block Alphabet Initial Heart Monogram Signet Ring Gold Plated - Gold N \/ 4","public_title":"Gold N \/ 4","options":[" ...
  • Your heart may beat slowly, or it may skip beats. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The heart can skip a beat , we can even perceive that it beats irregularly or slower than it should. (ahealthguide.com)
  • If this happens, it is normal for your heart to skip or suddenly have an irregular rhythm. (ahealthguide.com)
  • In January 2019 , India-based Natco Pharma announced the launch of valsartan sacubitril, a cardiovascular drug that is used to treat congestive heart failure in patients. (pharmiweb.com)
  • It is considered to be an effective treatment for congestive heart failure, angina, coronary vessels block/heart block and coronary artery disease as it is a non-invasive and non-surgical treatment procedure. (punechelation.com)
  • The of quinidine is 2 to 3 L/kg in healthy young adults, but this may be reduced to as little as 0.5 L/kg in patients with congestive heart failure, or increased to 3 to 5 L/kg in patients with cirrhosis of the liver. (nih.gov)
  • Heart block (HB) is a disorder in the heart's rhythm due to a fault in the natural pacemaker. (wikipedia.org)
  • Despite the severe-sounding name, heart block may cause no symptoms at all in some cases, or occasional missed heartbeats in other cases (which can cause light-headedness, syncope (fainting), and palpitations), or may require the implantation of an artificial pacemaker, depending upon exactly where in the heart conduction is being impaired and how significantly it is affected. (wikipedia.org)
  • In severe cases where the heart's ability to control and trigger heartbeats may be completely ineffective or unreliable, heart block can usually be treated by inserting an artificial pacemaker, a medical device that provides correct electrical impulses to trigger heart beats, compensating for the natural pacemaker's unreliability. (wikipedia.org)
  • SA blocks are usually of lesser clinical significance, since in the event of SA block, the AV node contains a secondary pacemaker which would still maintain a heart rate of around 40 - 60 beats per minute, sufficient for consciousness and much of daily life in the majority of individuals. (wikipedia.org)
  • SA blocks rarely give severe symptoms, because even if an individual had complete block at this level of the conduction system (which is uncommon), the secondary pacemaker of the heart would be at the AV node, which would fire at 40 to 60 beats a minute, which is enough to retain consciousness in the resting state. (wikipedia.org)
  • If you have second- or third-degree heart block, you may need a pacemaker to help your heart beat regularly. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Sometimes, if the heart block is expected to resolve in a day or so, a temporary pacemaker will be used. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Instead a wire may be inserted through a vein and directed to the heart and connected to the pacemaker. (medlineplus.gov)
  • PATIENTS--48 patients (age range 21 to 89 years, 15 women), 24 with a VVI pacemaker implanted and 24 with classic left bundle branch block. (bmj.com)
  • An impulse is normally generated from the sinoatrial node (the hearts internal 'pacemaker') and travels from the atria (tops chambers) to the ventricles (bottom chambers). (cardiologytasmania.com.au)
  • If a heart block becomes overly complicated, a person may require surgery to implant a pacemaker to monitor the heartbeat. (ahealthguide.com)
  • Most patients whose heart block is not otherwise treatable will require placement of a permanent pacemaker or an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD). (medscape.com)
  • This condition affects the function of the sino-atrial (SA) node, which is an area of specialized cells in the heart that functions as a natural pacemaker. (nih.gov)
  • Conduction problems of heart impulse like heart block may be treated with a pacemaker. (nih.gov)
  • The individual cells are interconnected via cell-cell contacts so that the electrical excitation conduction necessary for heart contraction can take place in a controlled manner. (mpg.de)
  • If the conduction system is disrupted, not only will contraction of the heart muscles be affected, but the timing and frequency of heartbeats too. (petmd.com)
  • The electrical current that controls the contraction of heart muscle starts in the sinoatrial node, flows through the heart's upper chambers (atria) and then goes to the heart's lower chambers (ventricles) through a sort of electrical junction box called the atrioventricular node (AV node). (msdmanuals.com)
  • And, approximately six months after that his the doctors discovered that two of the arteries leading to his heart were so blocked they required stents, and one artery was completely gone - a result of his heart attack. (bigclassaction.com)
  • The heart attack completely blew out one of Stephen's arteries. (bigclassaction.com)
  • Clean Blocked Arteries - Heart Treatment that Works! (saveyourheart.com)
  • Arteries actually open and close each time the heart beats. (saveyourheart.com)
  • This serves the purpose periodically, but over time the patches get thicker and cause what is known as plaque build-up and can end up blocking the arteries. (saveyourheart.com)
  • Clean Blocked Arteries - Try Pauling Therapy For Yourself! (saveyourheart.com)
  • Heart block should not be confused with other conditions, which may or may not be co-occurring, relating to the heart and/or other nearby organs that are or can be serious, including angina (heart-related chest pain), heart attack (myocardial infarction), any type of heart failure, cardiogenic shock or other types of shock, different types of abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), cardiac arrest, or respiratory arrest. (wikipedia.org)
  • Tissue sections of hearts after myocardial infarction. (mpg.de)
  • In addition, we found that these animals developed a much smaller scar on the heart muscle after experimentally induced myocardial infarction. (mpg.de)
  • Abuin G, Nieponice A, Barcelo A, Rojas-Granados A, Leu PH, Arteaga-Martinez M. Anatomical reasons for the discrepancies in atrioventricular block after inferior myocardial infarction with and without right ventricular involvement. (medscape.com)
  • Thirty-year trends (1975-2005) in the magnitude and hospital death rates associated with complete heart block in patients with acute myocardial infarction: a population-based perspective. (medscape.com)
  • Blockages are therefore classified based on where the blockage occurs - namely the SA node ("Sinoatrial block"), AV node ("AV block" or AVB), and at or below the bundle of His ("Intra-Hisian" or "Infra-Hisian block" respectively). (wikipedia.org)
  • In the heart, normal impulse initiation begins in the sinoatrial node (SAN). (medscape.com)
  • The signal starts with cells in the sinoatrial (SA) node that cause the heart to beat. (nih.gov)
  • The electrical signals travel to the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles). (medlineplus.gov)
  • The electrical impulse may not reach the lower chambers of the heart. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The electrical signal does not move to the lower chambers of the heart. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Next, the electrical current flows down to the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles). (msdmanuals.com)
  • These channels play a major role in signaling the start of each heartbeat, coordinating the contractions of the upper and lower chambers of the heart, and maintaining a normal heart rhythm. (nih.gov)
  • This happens when no signals reach your ventricles, the lower chambers of the heart. (nih.gov)
  • Brugada syndrome is an irregular heartbeat in the lower chambers of the heart. (nih.gov)
  • Anti-SSA/Ro and anti-SSB/La antibody-mediated congenital heart block. (medscape.com)
  • Steinberg L. Congenital heart block. (medscape.com)
  • Garcia RU, Safa R, Karpawich PP. Postoperative complete heart block among congenital heart disease patients: contributing risk factors, therapies and long-term sequelae in the current era. (medscape.com)
  • Background Given that diseases associated with anti-Ro such as SLE and Sjögren's syndrome associate with an upregulation of type I interferons, recent attention has focused on a potential role for IFN in the pathogenesis of congenital heart block (CHB). (bmj.com)
  • Third-degree AV block can be either congenital or acquired. (medscape.com)
  • Modern incidence of complete heart block in patients with L-looped ventricles: does univentricular status matter? (medscape.com)
  • In first-degree atrioventricular block, every electrical impulse from the atria reaches the ventricles, but each is slowed for a fraction of a second as it moves through the atrioventricular node. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Third-degree atrioventricular (AV) block, also referred to as third-degree heart block or complete heart block (CHB), is an abnormal heart rhythm resulting from a defect in the cardiac conduction system in which there is no conduction through the atrioventricular node (AVN), leading to complete dissociation of the atria and ventricles. (medscape.com)
  • The soldier had penetration of his right atrium and subsequent traumatic membranous ventricular septal defect and complete heart block. (medscape.com)
  • The hearts on these simple quilt blocks don't take up much fabric, which means this is a great opportunity to use up some scraps. (favequilts.com)
  • Your veterinarian will also take X-rays of both the thoracic and abdominal regions to see if there are any abnormal masses, tumor, foreign body, and/or abnormal heart position. (petmd.com)
  • Overview of Abnormal Heart Rhythms Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) are sequences of heartbeats that are irregular, too fast, too slow, or conducted via an abnormal electrical pathway through the heart. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Bestetti RB, Cury PM, Theodoropoulos TA, Villafanha D. Trypanosoma cruzi myocardial infection reactivation presenting as complete atrioventricular block in a Chagas' heart transplant recipient. (medscape.com)
  • Complete atrioventricular block in acute coronary syndrome: prevalence, characterisation and implication on outcome. (medscape.com)
  • Atrioventricular block is a delay in the conduction of electrical current as it passes through the atrioventricular conduction system. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Most types of atrioventricular block are more common among older people. (msdmanuals.com)
  • First-degree atrioventricular block is common among well-trained athletes, teenagers, young adults, and people with a highly active vagus nerve. (msdmanuals.com)
  • You have a heart defect. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Narula OS, Scherlag BJ, Javier RP, Hildner FJ, Samet P. Analysis of the A-V conduction defect in complete heart block utilizing His bundle electrograms. (medscape.com)
  • In April 2022 , Bristol Myers Squibb announced that they have received approval from US Food and Drug Corporation for its oral heart disease drug Mavacamten which will help in treating hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, a genetic heart disease that leads to sudden cardiac arrests in young people. (pharmiweb.com)
  • incorrect conduction or interference from external sources can lead to mild or serious symptoms depending upon the location of the blockage and how severely conduction is being blocked. (wikipedia.org)
  • "Introduction of artificial intelligence technology in the Heart Blockage surgeries will be the biggest step towards increasing the revenue growth of Heart Block Therapeutics Market" comments an analyst at Future Market Insights. (pharmiweb.com)
  • Is there an alternative treatment for heart blockage or coronary vessels block? (punechelation.com)
  • Is angioplasty bypass necessary to treat blockage of heart? (punechelation.com)
  • The heart may miss a beat or beats and may be slow and irregular. (medlineplus.gov)
  • More than 400 mutations in the SCN5A gene have been identified in people with Brugada syndrome, which is a heart condition characterized by an irregular heart rhythm (arrhythmia). (nih.gov)
  • This delay in channel closure alters the transmission of electrical signals in the heart, increasing the risk of an irregular heartbeat that can cause syncope or sudden death. (nih.gov)
  • Left Anterior Fascicular Block (LAFB) is a condition that affects the heart's conduction system, which is responsible for generating electrical impulses (waves) that propagate throughout the musculature of the heart, stimulating the heart muscles to contract and pump blood. (petmd.com)
  • Occasionally, first-degree AV block may be associated with other conduction disturbances, including bundle-branch block and fascicular blocks (bifascicular or trifascicular block). (medscape.com)
  • In the second degree of heart blocks the situation worsens a little more. (ahealthguide.com)
  • The impaired cardiac cells die, leading to a buildup of scar tissue (fibrosis) over time that worsens the heart block. (nih.gov)
  • In this degree, most impulses fail and the heart beats at a very slow rate, so much so that it seems to stop. (ahealthguide.com)
  • A disruption in ion transport changes the way the heart beats, leading to the arrhythmia often found in Brugada syndrome and SUNDS. (nih.gov)
  • In an SA block, the electrical impulse is delayed or blocked on the way to the atria, thus delaying atrial depolarization. (wikipedia.org)
  • Normally, the heart beat starts in an area in the top chambers of the heart (atria). (medlineplus.gov)
  • This impulse activates the upper chambers of the heart (atria). (msdmanuals.com)
  • At WG 330, the caption was changed from Disorders of the heart beat to Cardiac arrhythmias (General) . (nih.gov)
  • Our Bride + Groom Red Heart Decorative Wooden Block is a fun and versatile way to add your own personal flair to any shelf, tabletop or mantel. (opalandolive.com)
  • The Happy Place Heart Decorative Wooden Block adds flair as a coastal wooden shelf sitter, tabletop or mantel decoration. (rusticmarlin.com)
  • Differing effects of right ventricular pacing and left bundle branch block on left ventricular function. (bmj.com)
  • OBJECTIVE--To compare the different effects of right ventricular pacing and classic left bundle branch block on left ventricular function. (bmj.com)
  • Functional mitral regurgitation was present in all those with right ventricular pacing and 22 of those with left bundle branch block. (bmj.com)
  • CONCLUSIONS--The left ventricle seems to be activated much more rapidly with right ventricular pacing than with left bundle branch block. (bmj.com)
  • The use of right ventricular pacing as an experimental model of left bundle branch block in humans must be re-examined. (bmj.com)
  • Heart block occurs when the electrical signal is slowed down or does not reach the bottom chambers of the heart. (medlineplus.gov)
  • There are three degrees of heart block. (medlineplus.gov)
  • There are three degrees of AV block, depending on how serious your condition is. (nih.gov)
  • First-degree heart block is the mildest type and third-degree is the most severe. (medlineplus.gov)
  • However, in cases of severe or advanced heart problems or cancer, prognosis is not good. (petmd.com)
  • In June 2020 , Edward Lifesciences Corporation (USA) confirmed that they have received Chinese approval for the SAPIEN 3 Trans catheter heart valve for the treatment of patients with severe and symptomatic aortic stenosis (AS) who are not able to undergo open-heart surgery. (pharmiweb.com)
  • In particular, the physical examination findings of patients with third-degree AV block will be notable for bradycardia, which can be severe. (medscape.com)
  • You may not know you have heart block until it shows up on a test called an electrocardiogram (ECG) . (medlineplus.gov)
  • An electrocardiogram (ECG) represents the electrical current moving through the heart during a heartbeat. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Electrocardiogram from patient in complete heart block. (medscape.com)
  • They will perform a physical exam and may order blood tests , genetic testing, and heart tests such as an electrocardiogram, or EKG or a stress test. (nih.gov)
  • Learn more about the cardiac conduction system in our How the Heart Works topic. (nih.gov)
  • This keeps the heart beat steady and regular. (medlineplus.gov)
  • It gives off electrical signals to make your heart beat at a regular rate and rhythm. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This condition alters the normal beating of the heart and can lead to fainting (syncope) or sudden cardiac arrest and death. (nih.gov)
  • Infiltrative Cardiovascular Chloroma Presenting With Syncope and Heart Block. (bvsalud.org)
  • Heart palpitations -- Palpitations are when your heart feels like it is pounding, beating irregularly, or racing. (medlineplus.gov)
  • By contrast, an AV block occurs in the AV node and delays ventricular depolarization. (wikipedia.org)
  • Heart block occurs when slowing or complete block of this conduction occurs. (medscape.com)
  • Chronic heart block in adults. (medscape.com)
  • It is becoming increasingly clear that the ActRII pathway is involved in many of the chronic diseases associated with aging-such as heart failure, muscle loss, and neurovascular diseases," Rosenzweig says. (nih.gov)
  • This is the most commonly described form of bundle branch block in cats. (petmd.com)
  • 0.01) than corresponding values in patients with left bundle branch block. (bmj.com)
  • These major differences were not altered by left ventricular cavity size in either group, nor by the presence of previous left bundle branch block in patients who were subsequently paced. (bmj.com)
  • This applies even when left bundle branch block is present before pacing. (bmj.com)
  • Ventriculo-atrial conduction time during reciprocating tachycardia with intermittent bundle-branch block in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. (bmj.com)
  • You may have a left bundle branch block or a right bundle branch block, depending on which side is delayed. (nih.gov)
  • For example, sick sinus syndrome and bundle branch blocks are more common in older adults because of normal changes to the conduction system as you age. (nih.gov)
  • Hence, the growing older populace propels the worldwide Heart Block Therapeutics market as the older population is more prone to heart-related diseases. (pharmiweb.com)
  • The doctors at Pune Preventive Cardiology Center have been successfully using this non-surgical treatment procedure and are of the opinion that if a person has heart diseases Enhanced External Counterpulsation can help them. (punechelation.com)
  • Global Heart Block Therapeutics Market was valued at US$ 3 Bn in 2021 and is expected to reach US$ 4.8 Bn by 2032, find Future Market Insights (FMI) in a recent market survey. (pharmiweb.com)
  • Some SCN5A gene mutations associated with Brugada syndrome change single protein building blocks (amino acids) in the SCN5A protein. (nih.gov)
  • At least 16 mutations in the SCN5A gene have been found to cause another heart condition called sick sinus syndrome. (nih.gov)
  • A team led by Drs. Jason Roh and Anthony Rosenzweig of Massachusetts General Hospital set out to more closely investigate this pathway in heart failure. (nih.gov)
  • Inhibiting the ActRII pathway in this way improved heart function in tests with several different groups of mice with heart failure. (nih.gov)
  • The heart is stimulated to contract via an internal electrical pathway. (cardiologytasmania.com.au)
  • Heart blocks indicate that there is a problem in the transmission of electrical impulses that cause the heart to contract and beat faster or slower. (ahealthguide.com)
  • Having experienced a heart attack that has damaged the transmission of electrical impulses. (ahealthguide.com)
  • The flow of these ions is essential for creating the electrical impulses that start each heartbeat and spread these signals to other areas of the heart. (nih.gov)
  • A conduction disorder, also known as heart block, is a problem with the electrical system that controls your heart's rate and rhythm. (nih.gov)
  • Heart disorders are. (msdmanuals.com)
  • In conduction disorders, this electrical signal either does not get produced properly, does not travel the way it should through the heart, or both. (nih.gov)
  • If you or your child has any risk factors, your doctor may order heart tests and genetic testing to screen you for conduction disorders. (nih.gov)
  • Therefore, heart block frequently has no effects, or mild and occasional effects, and is not life-threatening in the vast majority of cases, and is usually treatable in more serious cases. (wikipedia.org)
  • You can finish your block anyway you like -- make a pillow, mini quilt, or make more blocks & make yourself a lovely Valentine's Day Quilt. (canoeridgecreations.com)
  • The heart fails to pump enough blood to the body. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Heart failure means that the heart can't pump enough blood to meet the body's needs. (nih.gov)
  • Torsades de pointes, complete heart block, on quinidine for a ventricular arrhytmia. (rjmatthewsmd.com)
  • The auriculo-ventricular dissociation was of that degree known as relatively complete block and became apparent on section of the right vagus nerve. (rupress.org)
  • Note that not all patients with AV dissociation have complete heart block. (medscape.com)
  • On electrocardiography (ECG), complete heart block is represented by QRS complexes being conducted at their own rate and totally independent of the P waves (see the image below). (medscape.com)
  • Initial triage of patients with complete heart block consists of determining symptoms, assessing vital signs, and looking for evidence of compromised peripheral perfusion. (medscape.com)
  • Medical treatment of complete heart block is limited to patients with conduction disease in the AVN. (medscape.com)
  • The third degree is called complete heart block. (nih.gov)
  • Complete heart block or third-degree AV block is more common in children born to mothers who have a connective tissue disorder. (nih.gov)
  • Heart block may resolve on its own, or it may be permanent and require treatment. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The combination of innovative treatment technology, adoption of digital solutions, and shifting provider and care delivery shifts provides the Heart Block Therapeutics Industry with tremendous growth potential in the United States. (pharmiweb.com)
  • Next, the team tested a treatment approach for heart failure. (nih.gov)
  • In recent times, doctors have included a preventive cardiology treatment called EECP treatment for heart block. (punechelation.com)
  • This non-surgical treatment is clinically proven to be highly effective and beneficial to heart patients. (punechelation.com)
  • In this treatment, the flow of healthy oxygenated blood to the heart is improved wherein small collateral blood vessels are formed or opened. (punechelation.com)
  • If you are looking for a heart treatment without angioplasty or bypass the EECP is the right choice. (punechelation.com)
  • Heart Treatment that Works! (saveyourheart.com)
  • Treatment of third-degree AV block is based on the level of the block. (medscape.com)
  • The first, and sometimes most important, medical treatment for heart block is the withdrawal of any potentially aggravating or causative medications. (medscape.com)