INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS, a single-stranded RNA virus. Its incubation period is 30-90 days. Hepatitis C is transmitted primarily by contaminated blood parenterally, and is often associated with transfusion and intravenous drug abuse. However, in a significant number of cases, the source of hepatitis C infection is unknown.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans that is caused by HEPATITIS C VIRUS lasting six months or more. Chronic hepatitis C can lead to LIVER CIRRHOSIS.
A genus of FLAVIVIRIDAE causing parenterally-transmitted HEPATITIS C which is associated with transfusions and drug abuse. Hepatitis C virus is the type species.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS genus, HEPATITIS B VIRUS. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by a member of the HEPATOVIRUS genus, HUMAN HEPATITIS A VIRUS. It can be transmitted through fecal contamination of food or water.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS C ANTIGENS including antibodies to envelope, core, and non-structural proteins.
The type species of the genus ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS which causes human HEPATITIS B and is also apparently a causal agent in human HEPATOCELLULAR CARCINOMA. The Dane particle is an intact hepatitis virion, named after its discoverer. Non-infectious spherical and tubular particles are also seen in the serum.
Those hepatitis B antigens found on the surface of the Dane particle and on the 20 nm spherical and tubular particles. Several subspecificities of the surface antigen are known. These were formerly called the Australia antigen.
Agents used in the prophylaxis or therapy of VIRUS DISEASES. Some of the ways they may act include preventing viral replication by inhibiting viral DNA polymerase; binding to specific cell-surface receptors and inhibiting viral penetration or uncoating; inhibiting viral protein synthesis; or blocking late stages of virus assembly.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER.
Antigens of the virions of HEPACIVIRUS, their surface, core, or other associated antigens.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans due to infection by VIRUSES. There are several significant types of human viral hepatitis with infection caused by enteric-transmission (HEPATITIS A; HEPATITIS E) or blood transfusion (HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C; and HEPATITIS D).
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS B VIRUS lasting six months or more. It is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
Immunoglobulins raised by any form of viral hepatitis; some of these antibodies are used to diagnose the specific kind of hepatitis.
A nucleoside antimetabolite antiviral agent that blocks nucleic acid synthesis and is used against both RNA and DNA viruses.
A species in the genus HEPATOVIRUS containing one serotype and two strains: HUMAN HEPATITIS A VIRUS and Simian hepatitis A virus causing hepatitis in humans (HEPATITIS A) and primates, respectively.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS B ANTIGENS, including antibodies to the surface (Australia) and core of the Dane particle and those to the "e" antigens.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER with ongoing hepatocellular injury for 6 months or more, characterized by NECROSIS of HEPATOCYTES and inflammatory cell (LEUKOCYTES) infiltration. Chronic hepatitis can be caused by viruses, medications, autoimmune diseases, and other unknown factors.
One of the type I interferons produced by peripheral blood leukocytes or lymphoblastoid cells. In addition to antiviral activity, it activates NATURAL KILLER CELLS and B-LYMPHOCYTES, and down-regulates VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR expression through PI-3 KINASE and MAPK KINASES signaling pathways.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated hepatitis B or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent hepatitis B. Some vaccines may be recombinantly produced.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Proteins encoded by a VIRAL GENOME that are produced in the organisms they infect, but not packaged into the VIRUS PARTICLES. Some of these proteins may play roles within the infected cell during VIRUS REPLICATION or act in regulation of virus replication or VIRUS ASSEMBLY.
The hepatitis B antigen within the core of the Dane particle, the infectious hepatitis virion.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with hepatitis A virus (HEPATOVIRUS).
A closely related group of antigens found in the plasma only during the infective phase of hepatitis B or in virulent chronic hepatitis B, probably indicating active virus replication; there are three subtypes which may exist in a complex with immunoglobulins G.
Liver disease in which the normal microcirculation, the gross vascular anatomy, and the hepatic architecture have been variably destroyed and altered with fibrous septa surrounding regenerated or regenerating parenchymal nodules.
Any vaccine raised against any virus or viral derivative that causes hepatitis.
Antigens of the virion of the HEPATITIS B VIRUS or the Dane particle, its surface (HEPATITIS B SURFACE ANTIGENS), core (HEPATITIS B CORE ANTIGENS), and other associated antigens, including the HEPATITIS B E ANTIGENS.
Acute INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans; caused by HEPATITIS E VIRUS, a non-enveloped single-stranded RNA virus. Similar to HEPATITIS A, its incubation period is 15-60 days and is enterically transmitted, usually by fecal-oral transmission.
Polymers of ETHYLENE OXIDE and water, and their ethers. They vary in consistency from liquid to solid depending on the molecular weight indicated by a number following the name. They are used as SURFACTANTS, dispersing agents, solvents, ointment and suppository bases, vehicles, and tablet excipients. Some specific groups are NONOXYNOLS, OCTOXYNOLS, and POLOXAMERS.
A chronic self-perpetuating hepatocellular INFLAMMATION of unknown cause, usually with HYPERGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA and serum AUTOANTIBODIES.
A positive-stranded RNA virus species in the genus HEPEVIRUS, causing enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis (HEPATITIS E).
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in animals due to viral infection.
Antibodies to the HEPATITIS A ANTIGENS including antibodies to envelope, core, and non-structural proteins.
Any of the viruses that cause inflammation of the liver. They include both DNA and RNA viruses as well viruses from humans and animals.
A strain of HEPATITIS A VIRUS which causes hepatitis in humans. The virus replicates in hepatocytes and is presumed to reach the intestine via the bile duct. Transmission occurs by the fecal-oral route.
Proteins found mainly in icosahedral DNA and RNA viruses. They consist of proteins directly associated with the nucleic acid inside the NUCLEOCAPSID.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS DELTA VIRUS, a defective RNA virus that can only infect HEPATITIS B patients. For its viral coating, hepatitis delta virus requires the HEPATITIS B SURFACE ANTIGENS produced by these patients. Hepatitis D can occur either concomitantly with (coinfection) or subsequent to (superinfection) hepatitis B infection. Similar to hepatitis B, it is primarily transmitted by parenteral exposure, such as transfusion of contaminated blood or blood products, but can also be transmitted via sexual or intimate personal contact.
A defective virus, containing particles of RNA nucleoprotein in virion-like form, present in patients with acute hepatitis B and chronic hepatitis. It requires the presence of a hepadnavirus for full replication. This is the lone species in the genus Deltavirus.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in non-human animals.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of L-alanine and 2-oxoglutarate to pyruvate and L-glutamate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.6.1.2.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
A primary malignant neoplasm of epithelial liver cells. It ranges from a well-differentiated tumor with EPITHELIAL CELLS indistinguishable from normal HEPATOCYTES to a poorly differentiated neoplasm. The cells may be uniform or markedly pleomorphic, or form GIANT CELLS. Several classification schemes have been suggested.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
Any DNA sequence capable of independent replication or a molecule that possesses a REPLICATION ORIGIN and which is therefore potentially capable of being replicated in a suitable cell. (Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
The quantity of measurable virus in a body fluid. Change in viral load, measured in plasma, is sometimes used as a SURROGATE MARKER in disease progression.
A species of the CORONAVIRUS genus causing hepatitis in mice. Four strains have been identified as MHV 1, MHV 2, MHV 3, and MHV 4 (also known as MHV-JHM, which is neurotropic and causes disseminated encephalomyelitis with demyelination as well as focal liver necrosis).
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Tumors or cancer of the LIVER.
The transference of a part of or an entire liver from one human or animal to another.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
A condition characterized by the presence of abnormal quantities of CRYOGLOBULINS in the blood. Upon cold exposure, these abnormal proteins precipitate into the microvasculature leading to restricted blood flow in the exposed areas.
Tetraspanin proteins that are involved in a variety of cellular functions including BASEMENT MEMBRANE assembly, and in the formation of a molecular complexes on the surface of LYMPHOCYTES.
Abuse, overuse, or misuse of a substance by its injection into a vein.
A genus of PICORNAVIRIDAE causing infectious hepatitis naturally in humans and experimentally in other primates. It is transmitted through fecal contamination of food or water. HEPATITIS A VIRUS is the type species.
The main structural component of the LIVER. They are specialized EPITHELIAL CELLS that are organized into interconnected plates called lobules.
Proteins secreted by vertebrate cells in response to a wide variety of inducers. They confer resistance against many different viruses, inhibit proliferation of normal and malignant cells, impede multiplication of intracellular parasites, enhance macrophage and granulocyte phagocytosis, augment natural killer cell activity, and show several other immunomodulatory functions.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
Antigens from any of the hepatitis viruses including surface, core, and other associated antigens.
Antigens produced by various strains of HEPATITIS A VIRUS such as the human hepatitis A virus (HEPATITIS A VIRUS, HUMAN).
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER due to ALCOHOL ABUSE. It is characterized by NECROSIS of HEPATOCYTES, infiltration by NEUTROPHILS, and deposit of MALLORY BODIES. Depending on its severity, the inflammatory lesion may be reversible or progress to LIVER CIRRHOSIS.
The complete genetic complement contained in a DNA or RNA molecule in a virus.
Antigens produced by various strains of HEPATITIS D VIRUS.
EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES based on the detection through serological testing of characteristic change in the serum level of specific ANTIBODIES. Latent subclinical infections and carrier states can thus be detected in addition to clinically overt cases.
'Blood donors' are individuals who voluntarily and safely donate a specific amount of their own blood, which can be further separated into components, to be used for transfusion purposes or for manufacturing medical products, without receiving remuneration that is intended to reward them financially.
The common chimpanzee, a species of the genus Pan, family HOMINIDAE. It lives in Africa, primarily in the tropical rainforests. There are a number of recognized subspecies.
Layers of protein which surround the capsid in animal viruses with tubular nucleocapsids. The envelope consists of an inner layer of lipids and virus specified proteins also called membrane or matrix proteins. The outer layer consists of one or more types of morphological subunits called peplomers which project from the viral envelope; this layer always consists of glycoproteins.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A DNA virus that closely resembles human hepatitis B virus. It has been recovered from naturally infected ducks.
Includes the spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus infections that range from asymptomatic seropositivity, thru AIDS-related complex (ARC), to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
Blood tests that are used to evaluate how well a patient's liver is working and also to help diagnose liver conditions.
A country in northern Africa, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Libya and the Gaza Strip, and the Red Sea north of Sudan, and includes the Asian Sinai Peninsula Its capital is Cairo.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
A family of RNA viruses, many of which cause disease in humans and domestic animals. There are three genera FLAVIVIRUS; PESTIVIRUS; and HEPACIVIRUS, as well as several unassigned species.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
An ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS causing chronic liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma in woodchucks. It closely resembles the human hepatitis B virus.
Simultaneous infection of a host organism by two or more pathogens. In virology, coinfection commonly refers to simultaneous infection of a single cell by two or more different viruses.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
The presence of viruses in the blood.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Pathological processes of the LIVER.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The indelible marking of TISSUES, primarily SKIN, by pricking it with NEEDLES to imbed various COLORING AGENTS. Tattooing of the CORNEA is done to colorize LEUKOMA spots.
Severe inability of the LIVER to perform its normal metabolic functions, as evidenced by severe JAUNDICE and abnormal serum levels of AMMONIA; BILIRUBIN; ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE; ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE; LACTATE DEHYDROGENASES; and albumin/globulin ratio. (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed)
The ability of viruses to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents or antiviral agents. This resistance is acquired through gene mutation.
A reverse transcriptase inhibitor and ZALCITABINE analog in which a sulfur atom replaces the 3' carbon of the pentose ring. It is used to treat HIV disease.
The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.
Enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the conversion of L-aspartate and 2-ketoglutarate to oxaloacetate and L-glutamate. EC 2.6.1.1.
The introduction of whole blood or blood component directly into the blood stream. (Dorland, 27th ed)
The sequence at the 5' end of the messenger RNA that does not code for product. This sequence contains the ribosome binding site and other transcription and translation regulating sequences.
INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans caused by HEPATITIS DELTA VIRUS in conjunction with HEPATITIS B VIRUS and lasting six months or more.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
An enzyme that catalyses RNA-template-directed extension of the 3'- end of an RNA strand by one nucleotide at a time, and can initiate a chain de novo. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992, p293)
The condition of harboring an infective organism without manifesting symptoms of infection. The organism must be readily transmissible to another susceptible host.
Diseases which have one or more of the following characteristics: they are permanent, leave residual disability, are caused by nonreversible pathological alteration, require special training of the patient for rehabilitation, or may be expected to require a long period of supervision, observation, or care. (Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
The entering of cells by viruses following VIRUS ATTACHMENT. This is achieved by ENDOCYTOSIS, by direct MEMBRANE FUSION of the viral membrane with the CELL MEMBRANE, or by translocation of the whole virus across the cell membrane.
A genus of Sciuridae consisting of 14 species. They are shortlegged, burrowing rodents which hibernate in winter.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis.
Proteins found in any species of virus.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
Any of the processes by which cytoplasmic factors influence the differential control of gene action in viruses.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
Viral diseases which are transmitted or propagated by sexual conduct.
Infectious organisms in the BLOOD, of which the predominant medical interest is their contamination of blood-soiled linens, towels, gowns, BANDAGES, other items from individuals in risk categories, NEEDLES and other sharp objects, MEDICAL WASTE and DENTAL WASTE, all of which health workers are exposed to. This concept is differentiated from the clinical conditions of BACTEREMIA; VIREMIA; and FUNGEMIA where the organism is present in the blood of a patient as the result of a natural infectious process.
Soluble factors which stimulate growth-related activities of leukocytes as well as other cell types. They enhance cell proliferation and differentiation, DNA synthesis, secretion of other biologically active molecules and responses to immune and inflammatory stimuli.
A clinical manifestation of HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA, characterized by the yellowish staining of the SKIN; MUCOUS MEMBRANE; and SCLERA. Clinical jaundice usually is a sign of LIVER dysfunction.
Hospital units in which care is provided the hemodialysis patient. This includes hemodialysis centers in hospitals.
The classic hemophilia resulting from a deficiency of factor VIII. It is an inherited disorder of blood coagulation characterized by a permanent tendency to hemorrhage.
A family of proteins that promote unwinding of RNA during splicing and translation.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
A spectrum of clinical liver diseases ranging from mild biochemical abnormalities to ACUTE LIVER FAILURE, caused by drugs, drug metabolites, and chemicals from the environment.
Proteins which are synthesized as a single polymer and then cleaved into several distinct proteins.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
Genotypic differences observed among individuals in a population.
The infective system of a virus, composed of the viral genome, a protein core, and a protein coat called a capsid, which may be naked or enclosed in a lipoprotein envelope called the peplos.
Lipid infiltration of the hepatic parenchymal cells resulting in a yellow-colored liver. The abnormal lipid accumulation is usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES, either as a single large droplet or multiple small droplets. Fatty liver is caused by an imbalance in the metabolism of FATTY ACIDS.
A spontaneous diminution or abatement of a disease over time, without formal treatment.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
A genus in the subfamily CALLITRICHINAE consisting of 12 species and found in Panama as well as South America. Species seen most frequently in the literature are S. oedipus (cotton-top marmoset), S. nigricollis, and S. fusicollis.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
'Prisoners,' in a medical context, refer to individuals who are incarcerated and may face challenges in accessing adequate healthcare services due to various systemic and individual barriers, which can significantly impact their health status and outcomes.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
Abnormal immunoglobulins, especially IGG or IGM, that precipitate spontaneously when SERUM is cooled below 37 degrees Celsius. It is characteristic of CRYOGLOBULINEMIA.
Infections with viruses of the family FLAVIVIRIDAE.
Penal institutions, or places of confinement for war prisoners.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Brazil" is not a medical term or concept, it is a country located in South America, known officially as the Federative Republic of Brazil. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or science, I'd be happy to help answer those!
A species of virus (tentatively placed in the genus HEPACIVIRUS) in the family FLAVIVIRIDAE, that was recovered from a tamarin monkey, but may have been of human origin. It causes HEPATITIS in several species of New World monkeys.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
The interactions between a host and a pathogen, usually resulting in disease.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Diagnostic procedures involving immunoglobulin reactions.
Usage of a single needle among two or more people for injecting drugs. Needle sharing is a high-risk behavior for contracting infectious disease.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
Carbon-containing phosphonic acid compounds. Included under this heading are compounds that have carbon bound to either OXYGEN atom or the PHOSPHOROUS atom of the (P=O)O2 structure.
A species of virus (unassigned to a genus) in the family FLAVIVIRIDAE. It is genetically heterogeneous, of human origin, and transmitted by blood or blood products. Despite its alternate name (Hepatitis G virus), its pathogenicity remains controversial.
The study of the structure, growth, function, genetics, and reproduction of viruses, and VIRUS DISEASES.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Compounds which inhibit or antagonize biosynthesis or actions of proteases (ENDOPEPTIDASES).
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and an INFECTION. The infection may precede or follow FERTILIZATION.
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
Therapy for the insufficient cleansing of the BLOOD by the kidneys based on dialysis and including hemodialysis, PERITONEAL DIALYSIS, and HEMODIAFILTRATION.
The transmission of infectious disease or pathogens from one generation to another. It includes transmission in utero or intrapartum by exposure to blood and secretions, and postpartum exposure via breastfeeding.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pakistan" is a country located in South Asia and it does not have a medical definition. If you have any medical question or term that you would like me to define, please provide it and I will be happy to help.
The assembly of VIRAL STRUCTURAL PROTEINS and nucleic acid (VIRAL DNA or VIRAL RNA) to form a VIRUS PARTICLE.
A subclass of enzymes of the transferase class that catalyze the transfer of an amino group from a donor (generally an amino acid) to an acceptor (generally a 2-keto acid). Most of these enzymes are pyridoxyl phosphate proteins. (Dorland, 28th ed) EC 2.6.1.
"Ducks" is not a recognized medical term or condition in human health; it may refer to various anatomical structures in animals, such as the ducks of the heart valves, but it does not have a standalone medical definition.
Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with LONGITUDINAL STUDIES which are followed over a period of time.
Commercially prepared reagent sets, with accessory devices, containing all of the major components and literature necessary to perform one or more designated diagnostic tests or procedures. They may be for laboratory or personal use.
Mature LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES transported by the blood to the body's extravascular space. They are morphologically distinguishable from mature granulocytic leukocytes by their large, non-lobed nuclei and lack of coarse, heavily stained cytoplasmic granules.
The functional hereditary units of VIRUSES.
Human immunodeficiency virus. A non-taxonomic and historical term referring to any of two species, specifically HIV-1 and/or HIV-2. Prior to 1986, this was called human T-lymphotropic virus type III/lymphadenopathy-associated virus (HTLV-III/LAV). From 1986-1990, it was an official species called HIV. Since 1991, HIV was no longer considered an official species name; the two species were designated HIV-1 and HIV-2.
Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.
The perforation of an anatomical region for the wearing of jewelry.
A country spanning from central Asia to the Pacific Ocean.
A genus of tree shrews of the family TUPAIIDAE which consists of about 12 species. One of the most frequently encountered species is T. glis. Members of this genus inhabit rain forests and secondary growth areas in southeast Asia.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
An antiviral that is used in the prophylactic or symptomatic treatment of influenza A. It is also used as an antiparkinsonian agent, to treat extrapyramidal reactions, and for postherpetic neuralgia. The mechanisms of its effects in movement disorders are not well understood but probably reflect an increase in synthesis and release of dopamine, with perhaps some inhibition of dopamine uptake.
Viral proteins that are components of the mature assembled VIRUS PARTICLES. They may include nucleocapsid core proteins (gag proteins), enzymes packaged within the virus particle (pol proteins), and membrane components (env proteins). These do not include the proteins encoded in the VIRAL GENOME that are produced in infected cells but which are not packaged in the mature virus particle,i.e. the so called non-structural proteins (VIRAL NONSTRUCTURAL PROTEINS).
A purine base and a fundamental unit of ADENINE NUCLEOTIDES.
FIBROSIS of the hepatic parenchyma due to chronic excess ALCOHOL DRINKING.
The transmission of infectious disease or pathogens. When transmission is within the same species, the mode can be horizontal or vertical (INFECTIOUS DISEASE TRANSMISSION, VERTICAL).
People who take drugs for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. The drugs may be legal or illegal, but their use often results in adverse medical, legal, or social consequences for the users.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
A bile pigment that is a degradation product of HEME.
The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.
The naturally occurring or experimentally induced replacement of one or more AMINO ACIDS in a protein with another. If a functionally equivalent amino acid is substituted, the protein may retain wild-type activity. Substitution may also diminish, enhance, or eliminate protein function. Experimentally induced substitution is often used to study enzyme activities and binding site properties.
A family of hepatotropic DNA viruses which contains double-stranded DNA genomes and causes hepatitis in humans and animals. There are two genera: AVIHEPADNAVIRUS and ORTHOHEPADNAVIRUS. Hepadnaviruses include HEPATITIS B VIRUS, duck hepatitis B virus (HEPATITIS B VIRUS, DUCK), heron hepatitis B virus, ground squirrel hepatitis virus, and woodchuck hepatitis B virus (HEPATITIS B VIRUS, WOODCHUCK).
The spatial arrangement of the atoms of a nucleic acid or polynucleotide that results in its characteristic 3-dimensional shape.
Penetrating stab wounds caused by needles. They are of special concern to health care workers since such injuries put them at risk for developing infectious disease.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
Unassigned species, in the family PICORNAVIRIDAE, causing high mortality in ducklings 3 days to 3 weeks old.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
The transmission of infectious disease or pathogens from patients to health professionals or health care workers. It includes transmission via direct or indirect exposure to bacterial, fungal, parasitic, or viral agents.
A form of rapid-onset LIVER FAILURE, also known as fulminant hepatic failure, caused by severe liver injury or massive loss of HEPATOCYTES. It is characterized by sudden development of liver dysfunction and JAUNDICE. Acute liver failure may progress to exhibit cerebral dysfunction even HEPATIC COMA depending on the etiology that includes hepatic ISCHEMIA, drug toxicity, malignant infiltration, and viral hepatitis such as post-transfusion HEPATITIS B and HEPATITIS C.
The survival of a graft in a host, the factors responsible for the survival and the changes occurring within the graft during growth in the host.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Italy" is not a medical term or concept, it's a country located in Southern Europe. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I'd be happy to help with those!
An integral membrane protein that is localized to TIGHT JUNCTIONS, where it plays a role in controlling the paracellular permeability of polarized cells. Mutations in the gene for claudin-1 are associated with Neonatal Ichthyosis-Sclerosing Cholangitis (NISCH) Syndrome.
Specific molecular components of the cell capable of recognizing and interacting with a virus, and which, after binding it, are capable of generating some signal that initiates the chain of events leading to the biological response.
Liver diseases associated with ALCOHOLISM. It usually refers to the coexistence of two or more subentities, i.e., ALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER; ALCOHOLIC HEPATITIS; and ALCOHOLIC CIRRHOSIS.
A contagious disease caused by canine adenovirus (ADENOVIRUSES, CANINE) infecting the LIVER, the EYE, the KIDNEY, and other organs in dogs, other canids, and bears. Symptoms include FEVER; EDEMA; VOMITING; and DIARRHEA.
Virus diseases caused by the HEPADNAVIRIDAE.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
Organized periodic procedures performed on large groups of people for the purpose of detecting disease.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
Individuals supplying living tissue, organs, cells, blood or blood components for transfer or transplantation to histocompatible recipients.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Taiwan" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. It is a country located in East Asia. If you have any questions related to healthcare or medical terms, I would be happy to help with those!
Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) specific immune responses in anti-HCV positive patients without hepatitis C viraemia. (1/3013)

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Most patients infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) develop chronic infection and persistent viraemia. The immune mechanisms responsible for resolution of viraemia remain poorly understood. HCV specific humoral and cellular immune responses in patients with and without viraemia were investigated. METHODS: In vitro T helper (TH) lymphocyte responses to structural and non-structural HCV proteins were determined by means of proliferative response and cytokine production in 35 anti-HCV positive/HCV RNA negative patients and in 31 patients with chronic HCV infection and persistent viraemia. Humoral responses were determined by measuring HCV specific antibody quantity and specificity. RESULTS: A TH response to two or more HCV proteins was present in 18 of 35 patients with serological viral clearance compared with just one of 31 viraemic patients (p = 0.00001). HCV specific interferon-gamma production was increased only in the former group. In contrast, the antibody levels were significantly lower and directed at fewer HCV antigens in patients with undetectable HCV RNA. CONCLUSIONS: Patients without viraemia after HCV infection frequently have strong TH lymphocyte responses of the TH1 type to multiple HCV antigens many years after the onset of infection, whereas antibody responses are less marked. These results suggest that control of HCV replication may depend on effective TH lymphocyte activation.  (+info)

Oval cell numbers in human chronic liver diseases are directly related to disease severity. (2/3013)

The risk of developing hepatocellular carcinoma is significantly increased in patients with genetic hemochromatosis, alcoholic liver disease, or chronic hepatitis C infection. The precise mechanisms underlying the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in these conditions are not well understood. Stem cells within the liver, termed oval cells, are involved in the pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma in animal models and may be important in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in human chronic liver diseases. The aims of this study were to determine whether oval cells could be detected in the liver of patients with genetic hemochromatosis, alcoholic liver disease, or chronic hepatitis C, and whether there is a relationship between the severity of the liver disease and the number of oval cells. Oval cells were detected using histology and immunohistochemistry in liver biopsies from patients with genetic hemochromatosis, alcoholic liver disease, or chronic hepatitis C. Oval cells were not observed in normal liver controls. Oval cell numbers increased significantly with the progression of disease severity from mild to severe in each of the diseases studied. We conclude that oval cells are frequently found in subjects with genetic hemochromatosis, alcoholic liver disease, or chronic hepatitis C. There is an association between severity of liver disease and increase in the number of oval cells consistent with the hypothesis that oval cell proliferation is associated with increased risk for development of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic liver disease.  (+info)

Ontogeny of hepatitis C virus (HCV) hypervariable region 1 (HVR1) heterogeneity and HVR1 antibody responses over a 3 year period in a patient infected with HCV type 2b. (3/3013)

Hypervariable region 1 (HVR1) sequences of 96 clones at six time-points representing 27 variants in two major and one minor group were identified in a patient with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection over 3 years. Major and selected minor variants were used to design synthetic peptides corresponding to the HVR1 C terminus. Peptide ELISA reactivity with IgG was plotted against the corresponding clone frequency, and three patterns emerged: (1) three peptides were unreactive; (2) antibodies against two peptides followed emergence of the corresponding variant, suggesting isolate-specificity; (3) antibodies against four peptides preceded the appearance of the corresponding variant, indicating cross-reactivity or previous exposure. Cross-reactivity was investigated further: sera from six time-points were tested against 11 unrelated HVR1 peptides, seven of which (63.6%) showed cross-reactivity at all time-points. Cross-reactivity of nine patient-specific peptides tested against a panel of 45 heterologous sera from chronic HCV carriers ranged between 0 and 20%. Only three of 27 variants appeared at more than one time-point and in two cases specific and/or cross-reactive HVR1 antibodies coexisted with the corresponding variant, consistent with emergence of escape mutants. In addition, analysis of HVR1 IgG reactivity within a group of closely related patient-specific peptides revealed a loss of reactivity in one peptide attributable to a single amino acid substitution. Interferon-alpha treatment considerably reduced viral RNA but, paradoxically, heterogeneity increased.  (+info)

The natural course of hepatitis C virus infection 18 years after an epidemic outbreak of non-A, non-B hepatitis in a plasmapheresis centre. (4/3013)

BACKGROUND: The natural history of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is variable and factors determining the course of the illness are unclear. AIMS: To determine the natural course of HCV infection in a well characterised group of patients 18 years after an epidemic outbreak of non-A, non-B hepatitis at a plasmapheresis centre. METHODS: Between 1994 and 1996, 20 of 30 affected individuals were studied. HCV infection was confirmed using second and third generation ELISA test kits. HCV RNA was detected by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method and HCV genotyping was performed by analysing amplicons from the conserved 5'-non-translated region generated by nested PCR. Thirty two liver biopsies were carried out in 14 patients. RESULTS: HCV antibodies were detected in all subjects. Eighteen patients had abnormal liver enzymes and 17 were HCV RNA positive, all of whom were infected with genotype 1a. Ninety per cent of this cohort showed evidence of chronic HCV infection with 50% having progressive liver disease and 20% cirrhosis 18 years after acute onset of non-A, non-B hepatitis. Considerable variation in disease outcome occurred between individuals and no correlation with clinical features of the acute illness was found. CONCLUSIONS: Variability in the consequences of HCV infection in cases infected with the same virus suggests that host factors are important in determining disease outcome. The factors which determine differences in the natural history of the disease still remain to be elucidated.  (+info)

Differences between hepatitis C virus 5' untranslated region quasispecies in serum and liver. (5/3013)

It is unclear whether the sequence populations of hepatitis C virus (HCV) quasispecies in the liver and in serum are different, as a variety of studies on this subject provide conflicting results. In the current study, the populations of HCV 5' untranslated region (5' UTR) sequences in paired serum and liver samples from six patients with chronic hepatitis were analysed. Liver-derived, negative-strand viral RNA was amplified with a highly strand-specific Tth-based assay, and extensive measures, including accounting for template copy number, were undertaken to lower the risk of sporadic artefactual polymorphism. Amplified sequences were compared by single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis and by direct sequencing of identified differences. In four patients, liver samples were found to contain variants within the quasispecies which were not found in serum or negative-strand viral RNA, while in the remaining two patients, low virus titre prevented a reliable quasispecies analysis. These results suggest the presence in the same individual of HCV variants differing in the 5' UTR and possibly replicating with different kinetics.  (+info)

Prevalence and changes in hepatitis C virus genotypes among multitransfused persons with hemophilia. The Multicenter Hemophilia Cohort Study. (6/3013)

The purpose of this study was to determine hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes and their relationship to HCV RNA levels over time in a cohort of multitransfused hemophiliacs. Following reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction amplification of HCV RNA, the product DNAs were genotyped by using the line probe assay. HCV RNA was quantified by the branched-chain DNA assay. Genotyping was done on 109 serum samples from 32 subjects. Genotype 3a had the highest prevalence (41%), followed by genotypes 1a (31%) and 1b (13%). Changes in genotypes were observed in 18 (58%) of the subjects >3-15 years of age. Changes were more common in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive subjects (13/17) than in HIV-negative subjects (5/15) (P=.014). HCV RNA increased 30-fold in HIV-positive subjects whose genotypes changed. Consensus nucleotide sequencing confirmed genotype changes in 2 patients. We conclude that genotype changes are common in hemophiliacs with chronic HCV, particularly in those who are coinfected with HIV.  (+info)

Imbalance of IL-1 beta and IL-1 receptor antagonist mRNA in liver tissue from hepatitis C virus (HCV)-related chronic hepatitis. (7/3013)

Increased levels of IL-1 beta and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) have been found in serum of patients with chronic liver diseases, although their expression in liver tissue has not been extensively investigated. The aim of this study was therefore to examine the relationship between IL-1 beta and IL-1Ra at tissue level in patients with HCV-related chronic active hepatitis (CAH) of varying degrees of severity. IL-1 beta and IL-1Ra mRNA expression was investigated by semiquantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in 31 patients with CAH of varying severity (classified as minimal/mild in 13 cases and moderate/severe activity in 18 cases) and in 12 control subjects. Quantitative evaluation of IL-1 beta and IL-1Ra corresponding bands was performed by densitometric image analysis, and expressed in arbitrary units. The 12 controls expressed a similar pattern with a mean IL-1 beta/IL-1Ra ratio of 1.03 (1.03 +/- 0.15 (mean +/- s.e.m.), median 0.92, range 0.71-1.45). Minimal/mild activity CAH showed a prevalence of IL-1Ra mRNA expression (1.14 +/- 0.64, median 0.43, range 0-8.75) when compared with controls (0.27 +/- 0.04, median 0.23, range 0.11-0.45) and with moderate/severe activity CAH (0.20 +/- 0.04, median 0.12, range 0-0.67; P = 0.01). Since IL-1 beta expression was similar in the three groups, a significantly different IL-1 beta/IL-1Ra ratio emerged between controls, patients with moderate/severe CAH (2.22 +/- 0.48, median 2.76, range 0-6.12) and those with minimal/mild activity CAH (0.62 +/- 0.15, median 0.5, range 0-1.58, P = 0.005). Patients with higher grades of fibrosis showed a higher IL-1 beta/IL-1Ra ratio (2.49 +/- 0.56, median 2.15, range 0.35-6.12) in comparison with lower grade fibrosis (1.06 +/- 0.30, median 0.59, range 0.03-4.50) and control patients (P = 0.01). These results suggest that an imbalance between IL-1 beta and IL-1Ra, at the tissue level, may contribute to the pathogenesis and the activity of chronic active hepatitis C.  (+info)

Lymphocyte subsets in renal allograft recipients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. (8/3013)

BACKGROUND: The pathogenetic mechanisms of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in renal allograft recipients are not well established. This study aimed to examine the relationship between altered immune status and HCV-related liver disease, by determining the changes in peripheral blood lymphocyte and natural killer (NK) cell subsets in these subjects. METHODS: Peripheral blood lymphocyte, NK cell and activation markers were detected by flow cytometry in renal allograft recipients with (TpC+) or without (TpC-) HCV infection, and compared with age- and sex-matched patients with post-transfusional chronic HCV infection (TfC+) and healthy controls. RESULTS: CD19+ cells were reduced in renal allograft recipients compared with controls. TpC+ subjects had increased CD3+CD8+ cells compared with controls, and increased CD3+DR+ cells but reduced CD4+ CD38+ and CD3-CD16/56+ cells compared with controls as well as TfC+ patients. TfC+ patients and controls had similar numbers and proportions for the lymphocyte subsets and NK cells. Chronic liver disease in HCV-infected renal allograft recipients was associated with increased CD3+CD16/56+ cells but reduced CD4+CD38+ cells. Reduction of CD3-CD16/56+ cells was noted in TpC+ subjects without liver disease. Yet among post-transfusional (TfC+) subjects this was associated with chronic hepatitis. CONCLUSIONS: Peripheral blood suppressor/cytotoxic T lymphocytes are increased, whereas activated helper/inducer T lymphocytes and NK cells are reduced, in renal allograft recipients with HCV infection. Increased non-MHC-restricted cytotoxic T cells and reduced NK cells are associated with the presence or absence of liver disease respectively. These data suggest that immune mechanisms are important in the pathogenesis of chronic hepatitis C after renal transplantation.  (+info)

Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It's primarily spread through contact with contaminated blood, often through sharing needles or other equipment to inject drugs. For some people, hepatitis C is a short-term illness but for most — about 75-85% — it becomes a long-term, chronic infection that can lead to serious health problems like liver damage, liver failure, and even liver cancer. The virus can infect and inflame the liver, causing symptoms like jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, fatigue, and dark urine. Many people with hepatitis C don't have any symptoms, so they might not know they have the infection until they experience complications. There are effective treatments available for hepatitis C, including antiviral medications that can cure the infection in most people. Regular testing is important to diagnose and treat hepatitis C early, before it causes serious health problems.

Chronic Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV) that lasts for more than six months. This long-term infection can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), which can cause serious health problems, such as liver failure or liver cancer, in some individuals. The infection is usually asymptomatic until complications arise, but it can be detected through blood tests that identify antibodies to the virus or viral RNA. Chronic hepatitis C is typically managed with antiviral therapy, which can help clear the virus from the body and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Hepacivirus is a genus of viruses in the family Flaviviridae. The most well-known member of this genus is Hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major cause of liver disease worldwide. HCV infection can lead to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.

Hepaciviruses are enveloped viruses with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They have a small icosahedral capsid and infect a variety of hosts, including humans, non-human primates, horses, and birds. The virus enters the host cell by binding to specific receptors on the cell surface and is then internalized through endocytosis.

HCV has a high degree of genetic diversity and is classified into seven major genotypes and numerous subtypes based on differences in its RNA sequence. This genetic variability can affect the virus's ability to evade the host immune response, making treatment more challenging.

In addition to HCV, other hepaciviruses have been identified in various animal species, including equine hepacivirus (EHCV), rodent hepacivirus (RHV), and bat hepacivirus (BtHepCV). These viruses are being studied to better understand the biology of hepaciviruses and their potential impact on human health.

Hepatitis B is a viral infection that attacks the liver and can cause both acute and chronic disease. The virus is transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, and other bodily fluids. It can also be passed from an infected mother to her baby at birth.

Acute hepatitis B infection lasts for a few weeks to several months and often causes no symptoms. However, some people may experience mild to severe flu-like symptoms, yellowing of the skin and eyes (jaundice), dark urine, and fatigue. Most adults with acute hepatitis B recover completely and develop lifelong immunity to the virus.

Chronic hepatitis B infection can lead to serious liver damage, including cirrhosis and liver cancer. People with chronic hepatitis B may experience long-term symptoms such as fatigue, joint pain, and depression. They are also at risk for developing liver failure and liver cancer.

Prevention measures include vaccination, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles or other drug injection equipment, and covering wounds and skin rashes. There is no specific treatment for acute hepatitis B, but chronic hepatitis B can be treated with antiviral medications to slow the progression of liver damage.

Hepatitis A is a viral infection that specifically targets the liver, causing inflammation and impaired function. This disease is caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV), which spreads primarily through the fecal-oral route, often due to poor sanitation and hygiene. Individuals can become infected by consuming food or water contaminated with HAV or by coming into direct contact with an infected person's stool.

The symptoms of hepatitis A may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, clay-colored bowel movements, joint pain, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). However, in some cases, particularly in children under six years old, the infection may be asymptomatic.

While hepatitis A can be unpleasant and cause serious complications, it is rarely fatal and most people recover completely within a few months. Preventive measures include vaccination, practicing good hygiene, and avoiding potentially contaminated food and water.

Hepatitis C antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Detection of these antibodies in the blood indicates a past or present HCV infection. However, it does not necessarily mean that the person is currently infected, as antibodies can persist for years even after the virus has been cleared from the body. Additional tests are usually needed to confirm whether the infection is still active and to guide treatment decisions.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a DNA virus that belongs to the Hepadnaviridae family and causes the infectious disease known as hepatitis B. This virus primarily targets the liver, where it can lead to inflammation and damage of the liver tissue. The infection can range from acute to chronic, with chronic hepatitis B increasing the risk of developing serious liver complications such as cirrhosis and liver cancer.

The Hepatitis B virus has a complex life cycle, involving both nuclear and cytoplasmic phases. It enters hepatocytes (liver cells) via binding to specific receptors and is taken up by endocytosis. The viral DNA is released into the nucleus, where it is converted into a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) form, which serves as the template for viral transcription.

HBV transcribes several RNAs, including pregenomic RNA (pgRNA), which is used as a template for reverse transcription during virion assembly. The pgRNA is encapsidated into core particles along with the viral polymerase and undergoes reverse transcription to generate new viral DNA. This process occurs within the cytoplasm of the hepatocyte, resulting in the formation of immature virions containing partially double-stranded DNA.

These immature virions are then enveloped by host cell membranes containing HBV envelope proteins (known as surface antigens) to form mature virions that can be secreted from the hepatocyte and infect other cells. The virus can also integrate into the host genome, which may contribute to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in chronic cases.

Hepatitis B is primarily transmitted through exposure to infected blood or bodily fluids containing the virus, such as through sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. Prevention strategies include vaccination, safe sex practices, and avoiding needle-sharing behaviors. Treatment for hepatitis B typically involves antiviral medications that can help suppress viral replication and reduce the risk of liver damage.

Hepatitis B Surface Antigens (HBsAg) are proteins found on the surface of the Hepatitis B virus. They are present in the blood of individuals infected with the Hepatitis B virus and are used as a marker for the presence of a current Hepatitis B infection. The detection of HBsAg in the blood indicates that an individual is infectious and can transmit the virus to others. It is typically used in diagnostic tests to detect and diagnose Hepatitis B infections, monitor treatment response, and assess the risk of transmission.

Antiviral agents are a class of medications that are designed to treat infections caused by viruses. Unlike antibiotics, which target bacteria, antiviral agents interfere with the replication and infection mechanisms of viruses, either by inhibiting their ability to replicate or by modulating the host's immune response to the virus.

Antiviral agents are used to treat a variety of viral infections, including influenza, herpes simplex virus (HSV) infections, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, hepatitis B and C, and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.

These medications can be administered orally, intravenously, or topically, depending on the type of viral infection being treated. Some antiviral agents are also used for prophylaxis, or prevention, of certain viral infections.

It is important to note that antiviral agents are not effective against all types of viruses and may have significant side effects. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before starting any antiviral therapy.

Hepatitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the liver, often resulting in damage to liver cells. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections (such as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E), alcohol abuse, toxins, medications, and autoimmune disorders. Symptoms may include jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and dark urine. The severity of the disease can range from mild illness to severe, life-threatening conditions, such as liver failure or cirrhosis.

Hepatitis C antigens refer to the proteins present on the surface of the hepatitis C virus (HCV). The most commonly studied and clinically relevant antigen is the core protein, which plays a crucial role in the viral replication process. Detection of HCV antigens in serum or plasma can indicate an ongoing infection, as they appear during the early stages of infection and usually persist until the development of a humoral immune response, which leads to the production of antibodies against these antigens.

The detection of HCV core antigen (HCVcAg) has been used as an alternative diagnostic marker for HCV infection, especially in resource-limited settings where nucleic acid testing (NAT), such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for HCV RNA, might not be readily available. However, the sensitivity and specificity of HCVcAg detection are generally lower than those of NAT methods. Nonetheless, it remains a valuable tool in monitoring treatment response and disease progression in individuals with chronic hepatitis C infection.

Viral hepatitis in humans refers to inflammation of the liver caused by infection with viruses that primarily target the liver. There are five main types of human viral hepatitis, designated as Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E virus (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, and HEV). These viruses can cause a range of illnesses, from acute self-limiting hepatitis to chronic hepatitis, which can lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer.

1. Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is typically spread through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It usually results in an acute self-limiting infection, but rarely can cause chronic hepatitis in individuals with weakened immune systems.
2. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, semen, and other bodily fluids. It can lead to both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may result in cirrhosis and liver cancer if left untreated.
3. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is predominantly spread through exposure to infected blood, such as through sharing needles or receiving contaminated blood transfusions. Chronic hepatitis C is common, and it can lead to serious liver complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer if not treated.
4. Hepatitis D virus (HDV) is an incomplete virus that requires the presence of HBV for its replication. HDV infection occurs only in individuals already infected with HBV, leading to more severe liver disease compared to HBV monoinfection.
5. Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. It usually results in an acute self-limiting infection but can cause chronic hepatitis in pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems.

Prevention measures include vaccination for HAV and HBV, safe sex practices, avoiding sharing needles, and ensuring proper hygiene and sanitation to prevent fecal-oral transmission.

Chronic Hepatitis B is a persistent infection of the liver caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which can lead to chronic inflammation and scarring of the liver over time. It is defined as the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) in the blood for more than six months.

The infection can be asymptomatic or may cause nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and joint pain. A small percentage of people with chronic HBV infection may develop serious complications, including cirrhosis, liver failure, and liver cancer. Treatment options for chronic hepatitis B include antiviral medications that can help to suppress the virus and reduce the risk of liver damage. Vaccination is available to prevent hepatitis B infection.

Hepatitis antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by a hepatitis virus. There are several types of hepatitis viruses, including A, B, C, D, and E, each with their own specific antibodies.

The presence of hepatitis antibodies in the blood can indicate a current or past infection with the corresponding hepatitis virus. For example, the detection of anti-HAV (hepatitis A virus) antibodies indicates a past infection or immunization against hepatitis A, while the detection of anti-HBs (hepatitis B surface antigen) antibodies indicates immunity due to vaccination or recovery from a hepatitis B infection.

It's important to note that some hepatitis antibodies may not provide immunity to future infections, and individuals can still be infected with the virus even if they have previously produced antibodies against it. Therefore, regular testing and vaccination are essential for preventing the spread of hepatitis viruses and protecting public health.

Ribavirin is an antiviral medication used in the treatment of certain viral infections, including hepatitis C and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection. It works by interfering with viral replication, preventing the virus from multiplying within infected cells. Ribavirin is often used in combination with other antiviral drugs for more effective treatment.

It's important to note that ribavirin can have serious side effects and should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional. Additionally, it is not effective against all types of viral infections and its use should be based on a confirmed diagnosis and appropriate medical evaluation.

Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the causative agent of hepatitis A, a viral infection that causes inflammation of the liver. It is a small, non-enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Picornaviridae family and Hepatovirus genus. The virus primarily spreads through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water, or close contact with an infected person. After entering the body, HAV infects hepatocytes in the liver, leading to liver damage and associated symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and nausea. The immune system eventually clears the infection, providing lifelong immunity against future HAV infections. Preventive measures include vaccination and practicing good hygiene to prevent transmission.

Hepatitis B antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of the Hepatitis B virus. There are two main types of Hepatitis B antibodies:

1. Hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs): This is produced when a person has recovered from a Hepatitis B infection or has been successfully vaccinated against the virus. The presence of anti-HBs indicates immunity to Hepatitis B.
2. Hepatitis B core antibody (anti-HBC): This is produced during a Hepatitis B infection and remains present for life, even after the infection has been cleared. However, the presence of anti-HBC alone does not indicate immunity to Hepatitis B, as it can also be present in people who have a chronic Hepatitis B infection.

It's important to note that testing for Hepatitis B antibodies is typically done through blood tests and can help determine whether a person has been infected with the virus, has recovered from an infection, or has been vaccinated against it.

Chronic hepatitis is a type of liver inflammation that lasts for more than six months and can lead to scarring of the liver (cirrhosis), liver failure, and even liver cancer in some cases. It can be caused by various factors, including viral infections such as Hepatitis B and C, autoimmune disorders, alcohol abuse, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. The symptoms of chronic hepatitis may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, joint pain, dark urine, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). Treatment for chronic hepatitis depends on the underlying cause and may include antiviral medications, immunosuppressive drugs, or lifestyle changes.

Interferon-alpha (IFN-α) is a type I interferon, which is a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of viruses, parasites, and tumor cells. It plays a crucial role in the immune response against viral infections. IFN-α has antiviral, immunomodulatory, and anti-proliferative effects.

IFN-α is produced naturally by various cell types, including leukocytes (white blood cells), fibroblasts, and epithelial cells, in response to viral or bacterial stimulation. It binds to specific receptors on the surface of nearby cells, triggering a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of genes involved in the antiviral response. This results in the production of proteins that inhibit viral replication and promote the presentation of viral antigens to the immune system, enhancing its ability to recognize and eliminate infected cells.

In addition to its role in the immune response, IFN-α has been used as a therapeutic agent for various medical conditions, including certain types of cancer, chronic hepatitis B and C, and multiple sclerosis. However, its use is often limited by side effects such as flu-like symptoms, depression, and neuropsychiatric disorders.

"Hepatitis B vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by the hepatitis B virus. They work by introducing a small and harmless piece of the virus to your body, which triggers your immune system to produce antibodies to fight off the infection. These antibodies remain in your body and provide protection if you are exposed to the real hepatitis B virus in the future.

The hepatitis B vaccine is typically given as a series of three shots over a six-month period. It is recommended for all infants, children and adolescents who have not previously been vaccinated, as well as for adults who are at increased risk of infection, such as healthcare workers, people who inject drugs, and those with certain medical conditions.

It's important to note that hepatitis B vaccine does not provide protection against other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A or C."

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

Viral nonstructural proteins (NS) are viral proteins that are not part of the virion structure. They play various roles in the viral life cycle, such as replication of the viral genome, transcription, translation regulation, and modulation of the host cell environment to favor virus replication. These proteins are often produced in large quantities during infection and can manipulate or disrupt various cellular pathways to benefit the virus. They may also be involved in evasion of the host's immune response. The specific functions of viral nonstructural proteins vary depending on the type of virus.

Hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg) is a protein found in the core of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It is present during active replication of the virus and plays a crucial role in the formation of the viral capsid or core. The antibodies produced against HBcAg (anti-HBc) can be detected in the blood, which serves as a marker for current or past HBV infection. It is important to note that HBcAg itself is not detectable in the blood because it is confined within the viral particle. However, during the serological testing of hepatitis B, the detection of anti-HBc IgM indicates a recent acute infection, while the presence of anti-HBc IgG suggests either a past resolved infection or an ongoing chronic infection.

Hepatitis A vaccines are inactivated or live attenuated viral vaccines that are administered to prevent infection and illness caused by the hepatitis A virus. The vaccine contains antigens that stimulate an immune response in the body, leading to the production of antibodies that protect against future infection with the virus.

The inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is made from viruses that have been chemically treated to destroy their ability to cause disease while preserving their ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is typically given in two doses, six months apart, and provides long-term protection against the virus.

The live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine contains a weakened form of the virus that is unable to cause illness but can still stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is given as a single dose and provides protection against the virus for at least 20 years.

Hepatitis A vaccines are recommended for people who are at increased risk of infection, including travelers to areas where hepatitis A is common, men who have sex with men, people who use injection drugs, and people with chronic liver disease or clotting factor disorders. The vaccine is also recommended for children in certain states and communities where hepatitis A is endemic.

Hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg) is a protein produced by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) during its replication process. It can be found in the blood of individuals infected with HBV. The presence of HBeAg generally indicates that the virus is actively replicating in the liver and that the individual has high levels of viral load.

HBeAg is a serological marker used to assess the severity and activity of HBV infection, as well as the response to antiviral treatment. In particular, the disappearance of HBeAg from the blood (known as seroconversion) is often associated with a decrease in viral replication and an improvement in liver disease. However, the presence of HBeAg does not necessarily mean that the individual will develop symptoms or liver damage, as some people can remain asymptomatic carriers of the virus for many years.

It's important to note that not all HBV strains produce HBeAg, and some mutant strains may not produce detectable levels of this antigen even when the virus is actively replicating. Therefore, additional tests may be needed to confirm the presence or absence of HBV infection in these cases.

Liver cirrhosis is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by the replacement of normal liver tissue with scarred (fibrotic) tissue, leading to loss of function. The scarring is caused by long-term damage from various sources such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and other causes. As the disease advances, it can lead to complications like portal hypertension, fluid accumulation in the abdomen (ascites), impaired brain function (hepatic encephalopathy), and increased risk of liver cancer. It is generally irreversible, but early detection and treatment of underlying causes may help slow down its progression.

Viral hepatitis vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by various hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis A and B. These vaccines contain antigens that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against infection with the corresponding virus. The vaccines are typically administered through injection and may require multiple doses for full protection.

The hepatitis A vaccine is made from inactivated hepatitis A virus, while the hepatitis B vaccine is made from recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen. Both vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing infection and reducing the risk of complications associated with viral hepatitis, such as liver disease and liver cancer.

It's important to note that there are no vaccines available for other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis C, D, or E. Prevention strategies for these types of viral hepatitis typically involve measures to reduce exposure to the virus, such as safe injection practices and avoiding high-risk behaviors like sharing needles or having unprotected sex with infected individuals.

Hepatitis B antigens are proteins or particles present on the surface (HBsAg) or inside (HBcAg, HBeAg) the hepatitis B virus.

1. HBsAg (Hepatitis B surface antigen): This is a protein found on the outer surface of the hepatitis B virus. Its presence in the blood indicates an active infection with hepatitis B virus. It's also used as a marker to diagnose hepatitis B infection and monitor treatment response.

2. HBcAg (Hepatitis B core antigen): This is a protein found inside the hepatitis B virus core. It's not usually detected in the blood, but its antibodies (anti-HBc) are used to diagnose past or present hepatitis B infection.

3. HBeAg (Hepatitis B e antigen): This is a protein found inside the hepatitis B virus core and is associated with viral replication. Its presence in the blood indicates high levels of viral replication, increased infectivity, and higher risk of liver damage. It's used to monitor disease progression and treatment response.

These antigens play a crucial role in the diagnosis, management, and prevention of hepatitis B infection.

Hepatitis E is a viral infection that specifically affects the liver, caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV). The disease is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water or food. It can also be spread through blood transfusions and vertical transmission from mother to fetus.

The incubation period for hepatitis E ranges from 2 to 10 weeks. Symptoms of the disease are similar to other types of viral hepatitis and may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, and dark urine.

In most cases, hepatitis E is a self-limiting disease, meaning that it resolves on its own within a few weeks to months. However, in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems, the infection can lead to severe complications such as acute liver failure and death. Pregnant women, especially those in the third trimester, are at higher risk of developing severe disease and have a mortality rate of up to 25%.

Prevention measures include maintaining good hygiene practices, practicing safe food handling and preparation, and ensuring access to clean water sources. Currently, there is no specific treatment for hepatitis E, but supportive care can help manage symptoms. Vaccines are available in some countries to prevent the disease.

Polyethylene glycols (PEGs) are a family of synthetic, water-soluble polymers with a wide range of molecular weights. They are commonly used in the medical field as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations due to their ability to improve drug solubility, stability, and bioavailability. PEGs can also be used as laxatives to treat constipation or as bowel cleansing agents prior to colonoscopy examinations. Additionally, some PEG-conjugated drugs have been developed for use in targeted cancer therapies.

In a medical context, PEGs are often referred to by their average molecular weight, such as PEG 300, PEG 400, PEG 1500, and so on. Higher molecular weight PEGs tend to be more viscous and have longer-lasting effects in the body.

It's worth noting that while PEGs are generally considered safe for use in medical applications, some people may experience allergic reactions or hypersensitivity to these compounds. Prolonged exposure to high molecular weight PEGs has also been linked to potential adverse effects, such as decreased fertility and developmental toxicity in animal studies. However, more research is needed to fully understand the long-term safety of PEGs in humans.

Autoimmune hepatitis is a chronic (long-term) disease in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks the liver, leading to inflammation and damage. This results in decreased liver function over time if not treated. The exact cause of autoimmune hepatitis is unknown, but it is believed to be associated with genetic factors and exposure to certain environmental triggers, such as viral infections or medications.

There are two main types of autoimmune hepatitis:

1. Type 1 (classic) autoimmune hepatitis: This form can affect both adults and children, and it is more common in women than men. People with this type may also have other autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, thyroid disease, or ulcerative colitis.
2. Type 2 autoimmune hepatitis: This form primarily affects children and young women. It is less common than type 1 and tends to be more severe. People with this type may also have other autoimmune disorders, such as celiac disease or chronic candidiasis.

Symptoms of autoimmune hepatitis can vary widely, from mild to severe. They may include fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, joint pain, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), dark urine, and light-colored stools.

Diagnosis typically involves blood tests, imaging studies, and sometimes a liver biopsy to assess the extent of damage. Treatment usually includes medications that suppress the immune system, such as corticosteroids and immunosuppressants, which can help reduce inflammation and slow or stop liver damage. In some cases, lifestyle changes and supportive care may also be necessary.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Hepeviridae and genus Orthohepevirus. It primarily infects the liver, causing acute hepatitis in humans. The virus is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water or food sources. Ingestion of raw or undercooked pork or deer meat can also lead to HEV infection.

HEV infection typically results in self-limiting acute hepatitis, characterized by symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, and dark urine. In some cases, particularly among pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems, HEV infection can lead to severe complications, including fulminant hepatic failure and death.

There are four main genotypes of HEV that infect humans: genotype 1 and 2 are primarily found in developing countries and are transmitted through contaminated water; genotype 3 and 4 are found worldwide and can be transmitted through both zoonotic and human-to-human routes.

Prevention measures include improving sanitation, access to clean water, and food safety practices. Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment for HEV infection, but supportive care can help manage symptoms. A vaccine against HEV is available in China and has shown efficacy in preventing the disease.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Viral Hepatitis, Animal" is not a standard medical classification or definition. Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver, and viral hepatitis refers to inflammation caused by a virus. The term "animal" in this context doesn't provide a clear meaning.

However, it's worth noting that some animals can contract viral hepatitis, similar to humans. For instance, there are hepatitis A, B, and C-like viruses that have been identified in various animal species. These are typically not transmissible to humans.

If you're referring to a specific medical condition or context, could you please provide more details? I'd be happy to help further with more information.

Hepatitis A antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to a Hepatitis A virus infection or after vaccination. There are two types of Hepatitis A antibodies:

1. IgM anti-HAV (Hepatitis A Virus) antibodies: These are the first type of antibodies produced by the immune system during a Hepatitis A infection. They appear in the blood within 2 to 4 weeks after exposure to the virus and remain detectable for up to 12 weeks. The presence of IgM anti-HAV antibodies indicates a recent or ongoing Hepatitis A infection.

2. IgG anti-HAV antibodies: These are the second type of antibodies produced by the immune system during a Hepatitis A infection, and they appear in the blood several weeks after the onset of illness. IgG anti-HAV antibodies remain detectable for many years, providing long-term immunity against future Hepatitis A infections. After vaccination, only IgG anti-HAV antibodies are produced, indicating immunity to Hepatitis A.

Testing for Hepatitis A antibodies is used to diagnose acute or past Hepatitis A infections and to assess immunity following vaccination.

Hepatitis viruses refer to a group of viral agents that primarily target the liver, causing inflammation and damage to hepatocytes (liver cells). This results in various clinical manifestations, ranging from an acute infection to a chronic, persistent infection. There are five main types of hepatitis viruses, named Hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E virus, each with distinct genetic material, modes of transmission, and disease severity.

1. Hepatitis A Virus (HAV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water. Infected individuals may experience symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and loss of appetite. While most people recover completely within a few months, severe complications can occur in rare cases. A vaccine is available to prevent HAV infection.
2. Hepatitis B Virus (HBV): This is a double-stranded DNA virus that is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids, such as during sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth. HBV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may lead to severe liver complications like cirrhosis and liver cancer if left untreated. A vaccine is available to prevent HBV infection.
3. Hepatitis C Virus (HCV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood, often through sharing needles or during medical procedures using contaminated equipment. Like HBV, HCV can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, which may lead to severe liver complications if left untreated. No vaccine is currently available for HCV; however, antiviral treatments can cure the infection in many cases.
4. Hepatitis D Virus (HDV): This is a defective RNA virus that requires the presence of HBV to replicate and cause infection. HDV is primarily transmitted through contact with infected blood or bodily fluids, similar to HBV. Co-infection with both HBV and HDV can result in more severe liver disease compared to HBV infection alone. Antiviral treatments are available for HDV; however, a vaccine is not.
5. Hepatitis E Virus (HEV): This is a single-stranded RNA virus that primarily causes acute hepatitis and is usually transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated food or water. In most cases, HEV infection resolves on its own without treatment. However, in pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems, HEV can cause severe liver complications. No vaccine is currently available for HEV in the United States; however, a vaccine has been approved in some countries.

Hepatitis A Virus, Human (HAV): A single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus belonging to the Picornaviridae family, specifically the Hepatovirus genus. It is the causative agent of Hepatitis A, a viral infection that primarily affects the liver. The virus is typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water, or close contact with an infected individual. Following incubation (15-50 days), symptoms may include jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, nausea, diarrhea, and fever. Most people recover completely within a few weeks; however, severe complications and death are possible, especially in individuals with preexisting liver disease. Prevention is primarily achieved through vaccination and practicing good hygiene.

Viral core proteins are the structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or protein shell, enclosing and protecting the viral genome. These proteins play a crucial role in the assembly of the virion, assist in the infection process by helping to deliver the viral genome into the host cell, and may also have functions in regulating viral replication. The specific composition and structure of viral core proteins vary among different types of viruses.

Hepatitis D, also known as Delta hepatitis, is a viral infection of the liver that can only occur in people who have a current infection with the hepatitis B virus (HBV). It's caused by the hepatitis delta virus (HDV), which is a small, enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus.

HDV requires the presence of HBV for its replication and survival, so it can't infect someone who doesn't already have HBV. When both viruses are present, they can interact in ways that lead to more severe liver disease than either virus would cause alone.

Hepatitis D can be an acute or chronic infection, and it can range from mild to severe, with symptoms similar to those of other types of viral hepatitis, such as jaundice, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and joint pain. In some cases, hepatitis D can lead to serious complications, including liver failure and death.

Hepatitis D is primarily spread through contact with infected blood or other bodily fluids, such as during sexual contact, sharing needles, or mother-to-child transmission during childbirth. It's preventable through vaccination against hepatitis B, which provides immunity to both viruses. There is no specific treatment for hepatitis D, but antiviral therapy for hepatitis B can help manage the infection and prevent complications.

Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV) is not a traditional virus but rather a defective RNA particle that requires the assistance of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) to replicate. It's also known as delta agent or hepatitis D. HDV is a unique pathogen that only infects individuals who are already infected with HBV.

The virus causes a more severe form of viral hepatitis than HBV alone, leading to a higher risk of fulminant hepatitis (acute liver failure) and chronic hepatitis, which can progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HDV is primarily transmitted through percutaneous or sexual contact with infected blood or body fluids.

Prevention strategies include vaccination against HBV, which also prevents HDV infection, and avoiding high-risk behaviors such as intravenous drug use and unprotected sex with multiple partners. There is no specific treatment for HDV; however, antiviral therapy for HBV can help manage the infection.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Animal Hepatitis" is not a medical term used to describe a specific disease. Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver, and it can be caused by various factors, including viruses, alcohol, drugs, and certain medical conditions.

However, there are several viral hepatitis types that can infect animals, such as Hepatitis A, B, and C, which primarily affect humans. But there are also other hepatitis viruses that are species-specific and primarily infect animals, such as:

1. Canine Hepatitis (Adenovirus Type 1): This is a viral infection that affects dogs and causes liver damage, respiratory signs, and occasionally death.
2. Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) Virus: While not strictly a hepatitis virus, this feline coronavirus can cause severe inflammation of the liver and other organs in cats.
3. Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV): This retrovirus affects horses and causes cyclic fever, anemia, and occasionally liver disease.
4. Avian Hepatitis E Virus: A recently discovered virus that infects birds and can cause hepatitis and other systemic signs in chickens and other avian species.

If you're looking for information on a specific animal hepatitis virus or a different medical term, please provide more context so I can give you a more accurate answer.

Alanine transaminase (ALT) is a type of enzyme found primarily in the cells of the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cells of other tissues such as the heart, muscles, and kidneys. Its primary function is to catalyze the reversible transfer of an amino group from alanine to another alpha-keto acid, usually pyruvate, to form pyruvate and another amino acid, usually glutamate. This process is known as the transamination reaction.

When liver cells are damaged or destroyed due to various reasons such as hepatitis, alcohol abuse, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, or drug-induced liver injury, ALT is released into the bloodstream. Therefore, measuring the level of ALT in the blood is a useful diagnostic tool for evaluating liver function and detecting liver damage. Normal ALT levels vary depending on the laboratory, but typically range from 7 to 56 units per liter (U/L) for men and 6 to 45 U/L for women. Elevated ALT levels may indicate liver injury or disease, although other factors such as muscle damage or heart disease can also cause elevations in ALT.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common type of primary liver cancer in adults. It originates from the hepatocytes, which are the main functional cells of the liver. This type of cancer is often associated with chronic liver diseases such as cirrhosis caused by hepatitis B or C virus infection, alcohol abuse, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and aflatoxin exposure.

The symptoms of HCC can vary but may include unexplained weight loss, lack of appetite, abdominal pain or swelling, jaundice, and fatigue. The diagnosis of HCC typically involves imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, as well as blood tests to measure alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels. Treatment options for Hepatocellular carcinoma depend on the stage and extent of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and liver function. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or liver transplantation.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "replicon" is not a term that has a widely accepted or specific medical definition. It is a term that is used in the field of molecular biology, where it refers to a segment of DNA that contains an origin of replication. The origin of replication is the site on the DNA molecule where the process of DNA replication is initiated. This concept is important in the fields of genetics and virology, but it is not a term that is commonly used in clinical medicine.

If you have any questions related to the medical field, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you!

Viral load refers to the amount or quantity of virus (like HIV, Hepatitis C, SARS-CoV-2) present in an individual's blood or bodily fluids. It is often expressed as the number of virus copies per milliliter of blood or fluid. Monitoring viral load is important in managing and treating certain viral infections, as a higher viral load may indicate increased infectivity, disease progression, or response to treatment.

Murine hepatitis virus (MHV) is a type of coronavirus that primarily infects laboratory mice. It is not related to the human hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D, or E. MHV causes a range of diseases in mice, including hepatitis (liver inflammation), encephalomyelitis (inflammation of the brain and spinal cord), and enteritis (inflammation of the intestine). The virus is transmitted through fecal-oral route and respiratory droplets. It's widely used in research to understand the pathogenesis, immunity, and molecular biology of coronaviruses.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Liver neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the liver that can be benign or malignant. Benign liver neoplasms are non-cancerous tumors that do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant liver neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissue and spread to other organs.

Liver neoplasms can be primary, meaning they originate in the liver, or secondary, meaning they have metastasized (spread) to the liver from another part of the body. Primary liver neoplasms can be further classified into different types based on their cell of origin and behavior, including hepatocellular carcinoma, cholangiocarcinoma, and hepatic hemangioma.

The diagnosis of liver neoplasms typically involves a combination of imaging studies, such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI, and biopsy to confirm the type and stage of the tumor. Treatment options depend on the type and extent of the neoplasm and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or liver transplantation.

Liver transplantation is a surgical procedure in which a diseased or failing liver is replaced with a healthy one from a deceased donor or, less commonly, a portion of a liver from a living donor. The goal of the procedure is to restore normal liver function and improve the patient's overall health and quality of life.

Liver transplantation may be recommended for individuals with end-stage liver disease, acute liver failure, certain genetic liver disorders, or liver cancers that cannot be treated effectively with other therapies. The procedure involves complex surgery to remove the diseased liver and implant the new one, followed by a period of recovery and close medical monitoring to ensure proper function and minimize the risk of complications.

The success of liver transplantation has improved significantly in recent years due to advances in surgical techniques, immunosuppressive medications, and post-transplant care. However, it remains a major operation with significant risks and challenges, including the need for lifelong immunosuppression to prevent rejection of the new liver, as well as potential complications such as infection, bleeding, and organ failure.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Cryoglobulinemia is a medical condition characterized by the presence of abnormal proteins called cryoglobulins in the blood. These proteins become insoluble at lower temperatures and can form immune complexes that can cause inflammation and damage to small blood vessels when they precipitate in cooler parts of the body.

Cryoglobulinemia is often associated with underlying conditions such as autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus), chronic infections (such as hepatitis C), and certain types of cancer (such as lymphoma). Symptoms can vary widely, but may include purpura (purple spots on the skin), joint pain, peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage causing numbness or weakness), fatigue, and kidney problems.

The diagnosis of cryoglobulinemia is typically made by detecting cryoglobulins in the blood through a special test that requires the blood sample to be kept at cold temperatures. Treatment for cryoglobulinemia depends on the underlying cause, but may include medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, or chemotherapy drugs.

CD81 is a type of protein that is found on the surface of certain cells in the human body. It is a member of the tetraspanin family of proteins, which are involved in various cellular processes including cell adhesion, motility, and activation. CD81 has been shown to be important in the function of the immune system, particularly in the regulation of T cells.

CD81 is also known as a potential antigen, which means that it can stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body. Specifically, CD81 can bind to another protein called CD19, and this interaction has been shown to be important for the activation and survival of B cells, which are a type of white blood cell involved in the production of antibodies.

In some cases, CD81 may be targeted by the immune system in certain autoimmune diseases or during rejection of transplanted organs. Additionally, CD81 has been identified as a potential target for cancer immunotherapy, as it is overexpressed on some types of cancer cells and can help to inhibit the anti-tumor immune response.

Substance abuse, intravenous, refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances that are introduced directly into the bloodstream through injection, for non-medical purposes. This behavior can lead to a range of short- and long-term health consequences, including addiction, dependence, and an increased risk of infectious diseases such as HIV and hepatitis C. Intravenous substance abuse often involves drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and amphetamines, and is characterized by the repeated injection of these substances using needles and syringes. The practice can also have serious social consequences, including disrupted family relationships, lost productivity, and criminal behavior.

Hepatovirus is a genus of viruses in the Picornaviridae family, and it's most notably represented by the Human Hepatitis A Virus (HAV). These viruses are non-enveloped, with a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. They primarily infect hepatocytes, causing liver inflammation and disease, such as hepatitis. Transmission of hepatoviruses typically occurs through the fecal-oral route, often via contaminated food or water. The virus causes an acute infection that does not usually become chronic, and recovery is usually complete within a few weeks. Immunity after infection is solid and lifelong.

Hepatocytes are the predominant type of cells in the liver, accounting for about 80% of its cytoplasmic mass. They play a key role in protein synthesis, protein storage, transformation of carbohydrates, synthesis of cholesterol, bile salts and phospholipids, detoxification, modification, and excretion of exogenous and endogenous substances, initiation of formation and secretion of bile, and enzyme production. Hepatocytes are essential for the maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

Interferons (IFNs) are a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or tumor cells. They belong to the larger family of cytokines and are crucial for the innate immune system's defense against infections. Interferons exist in multiple forms, classified into three types: type I (alpha and beta), type II (gamma), and type III (lambda). These proteins play a significant role in modulating the immune response, inhibiting viral replication, regulating cell growth, and promoting apoptosis of infected cells. Interferons are used as therapeutic agents for various medical conditions, including certain viral infections, cancers, and autoimmune diseases.

Viral DNA refers to the genetic material present in viruses that consist of DNA as their core component. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is one of the two types of nucleic acids that are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information in living organisms. Viruses are infectious agents much smaller than bacteria that can only replicate inside the cells of other organisms, called hosts.

Viral DNA can be double-stranded (dsDNA) or single-stranded (ssDNA), depending on the type of virus. Double-stranded DNA viruses have a genome made up of two complementary strands of DNA, while single-stranded DNA viruses contain only one strand of DNA.

Examples of dsDNA viruses include Adenoviruses, Herpesviruses, and Poxviruses, while ssDNA viruses include Parvoviruses and Circoviruses. Viral DNA plays a crucial role in the replication cycle of the virus, encoding for various proteins necessary for its multiplication and survival within the host cell.

Hepatitis antigens are proteins or molecules present on the surface or inside the hepatitis viruses (hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E) that can stimulate an immune response in the body. These antigens are targeted by the immune system to produce antibodies to fight against the infection.

For example, the Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is a protein found on the surface of the hepatitis B virus and its presence in the blood indicates an ongoing infection or evidence of past infection/vaccination. Similarly, the core antigen (HBcAg) is a protein found inside the hepatitis B virus and is a marker of active viral replication.

Detection of these antigens in clinical samples such as blood is useful for diagnosing hepatitis infections and monitoring the effectiveness of treatment.

Hepatitis A antigens refer to the proteins or molecules present on the surface of the Hepatitis A virus (HAV) that can stimulate an immune response in the body. There are two main types of HAV antigens:

1. Hepatitis A Virus Capsid Antigen (also known as HAV VP1): This is a structural protein that makes up the outer shell or capsid of the HAV particle. It contains several epitopes (regions that can be recognized by the immune system) that can induce the production of antibodies in infected individuals.
2. Hepatitis A Virus Non-structural Antigen (also known as HAV NS1): This is a non-structural protein produced during the replication of the HAV genome. It plays a crucial role in the replication and assembly of new HAV particles, but it is not present in the mature virion. However, its detection in serum or liver tissue can indicate an ongoing HAV infection.

The presence of antibodies against these antigens (anti-HAV antibodies) in a person's blood can be used to diagnose past or recent Hepatitis A infections and immunity acquired through vaccination.

Alcoholic hepatitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation and damage to the liver caused by excessive alcohol consumption. It is a type of hepatitis that specifically results from alcohol abuse, rather than from viral infections or other causes. The condition can vary in severity, and long-term heavy drinking increases the risk of developing alcoholic hepatitis.

The inflammation in alcoholic hepatitis can lead to symptoms such as jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and fever. In severe cases, it can cause liver failure, which may be life-threatening. Treatment typically involves alcohol abstinence, supportive care, and medications to manage symptoms and prevent further liver damage. In some cases, hospitalization and more intensive treatments may be necessary.

A viral genome is the genetic material (DNA or RNA) that is present in a virus. It contains all the genetic information that a virus needs to replicate itself and infect its host. The size and complexity of viral genomes can vary greatly, ranging from a few thousand bases to hundreds of thousands of bases. Some viruses have linear genomes, while others have circular genomes. The genome of a virus also contains the information necessary for the virus to hijack the host cell's machinery and use it to produce new copies of the virus. Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is important for developing vaccines and antiviral treatments.

Hepatitis Delta Antigens (HDAg) are proteins found on the surface of the Hepatitis Delta Virus (HDV), a defective virus that requires the assistance of the Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) to replicate. There are two types of HDAg: small (S-HDAg) and large (L-HDAg). S-HDAg is a 195-amino acid protein that is essential for viral replication, while L-HDAg is a 214-amino acid protein that regulates the packaging of the viral genome into new virus particles. The presence of HDAg can be used to diagnose HDV infection and distinguish it from other forms of hepatitis.

Seroepidemiologic studies are a type of epidemiological study that measures the presence and levels of antibodies in a population's blood serum to investigate the prevalence, distribution, and transmission of infectious diseases. These studies help to identify patterns of infection and immunity within a population, which can inform public health policies and interventions.

Seroepidemiologic studies typically involve collecting blood samples from a representative sample of individuals in a population and testing them for the presence of antibodies against specific pathogens. The results are then analyzed to estimate the prevalence of infection and immunity within the population, as well as any factors associated with increased or decreased risk of infection.

These studies can provide valuable insights into the spread of infectious diseases, including emerging and re-emerging infections, and help to monitor the effectiveness of vaccination programs. Additionally, seroepidemiologic studies can also be used to investigate the transmission dynamics of infectious agents, such as identifying sources of infection or tracking the spread of antibiotic resistance.

A blood donor is a person who voluntarily gives their own blood or blood components to be used for the benefit of another person in need. The blood donation process involves collecting the donor's blood, testing it for infectious diseases, and then storing it until it is needed by a patient. There are several types of blood donations, including:

1. Whole blood donation: This is the most common type of blood donation, where a donor gives one unit (about 450-500 milliliters) of whole blood. The blood is then separated into its components (red cells, plasma, and platelets) for transfusion to patients with different needs.
2. Double red cell donation: In this type of donation, the donor's blood is collected using a special machine that separates two units of red cells from the whole blood. The remaining plasma and platelets are returned to the donor during the donation process. This type of donation can be done every 112 days.
3. Platelet donation: A donor's blood is collected using a special machine that separates platelets from the whole blood. The red cells and plasma are then returned to the donor during the donation process. This type of donation can be done every seven days, up to 24 times a year.
4. Plasma donation: A donor's blood is collected using a special machine that separates plasma from the whole blood. The red cells and platelets are then returned to the donor during the donation process. This type of donation can be done every 28 days, up to 13 times a year.

Blood donors must meet certain eligibility criteria, such as being in good health, aged between 18 and 65 (in some countries, the upper age limit may vary), and weighing over 50 kg (110 lbs). Donors are also required to answer medical questionnaires and undergo a mini-physical examination before each donation. The frequency of blood donations varies depending on the type of donation and the donor's health status.

"Pan troglodytes" is the scientific name for a species of great apes known as the Common Chimpanzee. They are native to tropical rainforests in Western and Central Africa. Common Chimpanzees are our closest living relatives, sharing about 98.6% of our DNA. They are highly intelligent and social animals, capable of using tools, exhibiting complex behaviors, and displaying a range of emotions.

Here is a medical definition for 'Pan troglodytes':

The scientific name for the Common Chimpanzee species (genus Pan), a highly intelligent and social great ape native to tropical rainforests in Western and Central Africa. They are our closest living relatives, sharing approximately 98.6% of our DNA. Known for their complex behaviors, tool use, and emotional expression, Common Chimpanzees have been extensively studied in the fields of anthropology, psychology, and primatology to better understand human evolution and behavior.

Viral envelope proteins are structural proteins found in the envelope that surrounds many types of viruses. These proteins play a crucial role in the virus's life cycle, including attachment to host cells, fusion with the cell membrane, and entry into the host cell. They are typically made up of glycoproteins and are often responsible for eliciting an immune response in the host organism. The exact structure and function of viral envelope proteins vary between different types of viruses.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV) is not a medical definition related to human health, but it is a species of hepatitis B virus that primarily infects various species of ducks and other Anseriformes (waterfowl). It is closely related to the human hepatitis B virus (HBV), but it is not known to infect humans or other mammals.

DHBV, like HBV, is a DNA virus that targets the liver and can cause both acute and chronic infections. The virus is transmitted through the fecal-oral route and primarily affects young ducklings. Infection with DHBV can lead to liver damage and death in infected birds.

Researchers study DHBV as a model system for understanding HBV infection and pathogenesis, due to their similarities in viral structure, replication strategy, and host-virus interactions. However, it is important to note that DHBV is not a human health concern and does not pose a risk of infection to humans or other mammals.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection is a viral illness that progressively attacks and weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to other infections and diseases. The virus primarily infects CD4+ T cells, a type of white blood cell essential for fighting off infections. Over time, as the number of these immune cells declines, the body becomes increasingly vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers.

HIV infection has three stages:

1. Acute HIV infection: This is the initial stage that occurs within 2-4 weeks after exposure to the virus. During this period, individuals may experience flu-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue, rash, swollen glands, and muscle aches. The virus replicates rapidly, and the viral load in the body is very high.
2. Chronic HIV infection (Clinical latency): This stage follows the acute infection and can last several years if left untreated. Although individuals may not show any symptoms during this phase, the virus continues to replicate at low levels, and the immune system gradually weakens. The viral load remains relatively stable, but the number of CD4+ T cells declines over time.
3. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): This is the most advanced stage of HIV infection, characterized by a severely damaged immune system and numerous opportunistic infections or cancers. At this stage, the CD4+ T cell count drops below 200 cells/mm3 of blood.

It's important to note that with proper antiretroviral therapy (ART), individuals with HIV infection can effectively manage the virus, maintain a healthy immune system, and significantly reduce the risk of transmission to others. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving long-term health outcomes and reducing the spread of HIV.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

Liver function tests (LFTs) are a group of blood tests that are used to assess the functioning and health of the liver. These tests measure the levels of various enzymes, proteins, and waste products that are produced or metabolized by the liver. Some common LFTs include:

1. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT): An enzyme found primarily in the liver, ALT is released into the bloodstream in response to liver cell damage. Elevated levels of ALT may indicate liver injury or disease.
2. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST): Another enzyme found in various tissues, including the liver, heart, and muscles. Like ALT, AST is released into the bloodstream following tissue damage. High AST levels can be a sign of liver damage or other medical conditions.
3. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): An enzyme found in several organs, including the liver, bile ducts, and bones. Elevated ALP levels may indicate a blockage in the bile ducts, liver disease, or bone disorders.
4. Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT): An enzyme found mainly in the liver, pancreas, and biliary system. Increased GGT levels can suggest liver disease, alcohol consumption, or the use of certain medications.
5. Bilirubin: A yellowish pigment produced when hemoglobin from red blood cells is broken down. Bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted through bile. High bilirubin levels can indicate liver dysfunction, bile duct obstruction, or certain types of anemia.
6. Albumin: A protein produced by the liver that helps maintain fluid balance in the body and transports various substances in the blood. Low albumin levels may suggest liver damage, malnutrition, or kidney disease.
7. Total protein: A measure of all proteins present in the blood, including albumin and other types of proteins produced by the liver. Decreased total protein levels can indicate liver dysfunction or other medical conditions.

These tests are often ordered together as part of a routine health checkup or when evaluating symptoms related to liver function or disease. The results should be interpreted in conjunction with clinical findings, medical history, and other diagnostic tests.

I am not aware of any medical definition for the term "Egypt." Egypt is a country located in the northeastern corner of Africa, known for its rich history and cultural heritage. It is home to various ancient artifacts and monuments, including the Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx.

If you have any specific medical or health-related questions related to Egypt, such as information about diseases prevalent in the country or healthcare practices there, I would be happy to try to help answer those for you.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Flaviviridae is a family of viruses that includes many important human pathogens. According to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV), Flaviviridae is divided into four genera: Flavivirus, Hepacivirus, Pegivirus, and Pestivirus. These viruses are enveloped and have a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome.

1. Flavivirus genus includes several medically important viruses, such as dengue virus, yellow fever virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, Zika virus, and tick-borne encephalitis virus. These viruses are primarily transmitted by arthropod vectors (mosquitoes or ticks) and can cause a wide range of symptoms, from mild febrile illness to severe hemorrhagic fever and neuroinvasive disease.
2. Hepacivirus genus contains hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is a major causative agent of viral hepatitis and liver diseases, such as cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. HCV is primarily transmitted through percutaneous exposure to infected blood or blood products, sexual contact, and mother-to-child transmission during childbirth.
3. Pegivirus genus includes pegiviruses (formerly known as GB viruses) that are associated with persistent infection in humans and other animals. While pegiviruses can cause acute illness, they are mostly linked to asymptomatic or mild infections.
4. Pestivirus genus contains several animal pathogens, such as bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), Classical swine fever virus (CSFV), and border disease virus (BDV). These viruses can cause significant economic losses in the livestock industry due to reproductive failure, growth retardation, and immunosuppression.

In summary, Flaviviridae is a family of enveloped, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA viruses that includes several important human and animal pathogens. The family is divided into four genera: Flavivirus, Hepacivirus, Pegivirus, and Pestivirus.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

Hepatitis B virus (Woodchuck) refers to the hepadnavirus that naturally infects North American woodchucks (Marmota monax). This virus is closely related to the human Hepatitis B virus (HBV), and it is used as a model for studying HBV infection and related liver diseases in woodchucks. The woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV) can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis, liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer in its natural host. The virus-host interactions and the disease progression in woodchucks closely mimic those observed in humans with HBV infection. Therefore, studies of WHV infection in woodchucks have contributed significantly to our understanding of HBV biology, host immune responses, and the development of novel therapies for HBV infection in humans.

Coinfection is a term used in medicine to describe a situation where a person is infected with more than one pathogen (infectious agent) at the same time. This can occur when a person is infected with two or more viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi. Coinfections can complicate the diagnosis and treatment of infectious diseases, as the symptoms of each infection can overlap and interact with each other.

Coinfections are common in certain populations, such as people who are immunocompromised, have chronic illnesses, or live in areas with high levels of infectious agents. For example, a person with HIV/AIDS may be more susceptible to coinfections with tuberculosis, hepatitis, or pneumocystis pneumonia. Similarly, a person who has recently undergone an organ transplant may be at risk for coinfections with cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr virus, or other opportunistic pathogens.

Coinfections can also occur in people who are otherwise healthy but are exposed to multiple infectious agents at once, such as through travel to areas with high levels of infectious diseases or through close contact with animals that carry infectious agents. For example, a person who travels to a tropical area may be at risk for coinfections with malaria and dengue fever, while a person who works on a farm may be at risk for coinfections with influenza and Q fever.

Effective treatment of coinfections requires accurate diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial therapy for each pathogen involved. In some cases, treating one infection may help to resolve the other, but in other cases, both infections may need to be treated simultaneously to achieve a cure. Preventing coinfections is an important part of infectious disease control, and can be achieved through measures such as vaccination, use of personal protective equipment, and avoidance of high-risk behaviors.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Viremia is a medical term that refers to the presence of viruses in the bloodstream. It occurs when a virus successfully infects a host and replicates within the body's cells, releasing new viral particles into the blood. This condition can lead to various clinical manifestations depending on the specific virus involved and the immune response of the infected individual. Some viral infections result in asymptomatic viremia, while others can cause severe illness or even life-threatening conditions. The detection of viremia is crucial for diagnosing certain viral infections and monitoring disease progression or treatment effectiveness.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Liver diseases refer to a wide range of conditions that affect the normal functioning of the liver. The liver is a vital organ responsible for various critical functions such as detoxification, protein synthesis, and production of biochemicals necessary for digestion.

Liver diseases can be categorized into acute and chronic forms. Acute liver disease comes on rapidly and can be caused by factors like viral infections (hepatitis A, B, C, D, E), drug-induced liver injury, or exposure to toxic substances. Chronic liver disease develops slowly over time, often due to long-term exposure to harmful agents or inherent disorders of the liver.

Common examples of liver diseases include hepatitis, cirrhosis (scarring of the liver tissue), fatty liver disease, alcoholic liver disease, autoimmune liver diseases, genetic/hereditary liver disorders (like Wilson's disease and hemochromatosis), and liver cancers. Symptoms may vary widely depending on the type and stage of the disease but could include jaundice, abdominal pain, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea, and weight loss.

Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to prevent progression and potential complications associated with liver diseases.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Tattooing is defined medically as the process of inserting pigment into the skin's dermis layer to change its color. This procedure creates a permanent design or image. The equipment used for tattooing includes an electrically powered tattoo machine, needles, and ink. Tattooing can carry potential risks such as infection, allergic reactions, and scarring. It is essential to ensure that all tattooing procedures are performed under sterile conditions and by a licensed professional to minimize these risks.

Liver failure is a serious condition in which the liver is no longer able to perform its normal functions, such as removing toxins and waste products from the blood, producing bile to help digest food, and regulating blood clotting. This can lead to a buildup of toxins in the body, jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fluid accumulation in the abdomen, and an increased risk of bleeding. Liver failure can be acute (sudden) or chronic (developing over time). Acute liver failure is often caused by medication toxicity, viral hepatitis, or other sudden illnesses. Chronic liver failure is most commonly caused by long-term damage from conditions such as cirrhosis, hepatitis, alcohol abuse, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

It's important to note that Liver Failure is a life threatening condition and need immediate medical attention.

Drug resistance, viral, refers to the ability of a virus to continue replicating in the presence of antiviral drugs that are designed to inhibit or stop its growth. This occurs when the virus mutates and changes its genetic makeup in such a way that the drug can no longer effectively bind to and inhibit the function of its target protein, allowing the virus to continue infecting host cells and causing disease.

Viral drug resistance can develop due to several factors, including:

1. Mutations in the viral genome that alter the structure or function of the drug's target protein.
2. Changes in the expression levels or location of the drug's target protein within the virus-infected cell.
3. Activation of alternative pathways that allow the virus to replicate despite the presence of the drug.
4. Increased efflux of the drug from the virus-infected cell, reducing its intracellular concentration and effectiveness.

Viral drug resistance is a significant concern in the treatment of viral infections such as HIV, hepatitis B and C, herpes simplex virus, and influenza. It can lead to reduced treatment efficacy, increased risk of treatment failure, and the need for more toxic or expensive drugs. Therefore, it is essential to monitor viral drug resistance during treatment and adjust therapy accordingly to ensure optimal outcomes.

Lamivudine is an antiretroviral medication used in the treatment and management of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection and HBV (Hepatitis B Virus) infection. It is a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI), which means it works by blocking the action of the reverse transcriptase enzyme that the viruses need to multiply. By doing this, Lamivudine helps to reduce the amount of the virus in the body, which in turn helps to slow down or prevent the damage that the virus can cause to the immune system and improve the patient's quality of life.

The medical definition of Lamivudine is: "A synthetic nucleoside analogue with activity against both HIV-1 and HBV. It is used in the treatment of HIV infection and AIDS, as well as chronic hepatitis B."

Recurrence, in a medical context, refers to the return of symptoms or signs of a disease after a period of improvement or remission. It indicates that the condition has not been fully eradicated and may require further treatment. Recurrence is often used to describe situations where a disease such as cancer comes back after initial treatment, but it can also apply to other medical conditions. The likelihood of recurrence varies depending on the type of disease and individual patient factors.

Aspartate aminotransferases (ASTs) are a group of enzymes found in various tissues throughout the body, including the heart, liver, and muscles. They play a crucial role in the metabolic process of transferring amino groups between different molecules.

In medical terms, AST is often used as a blood test to measure the level of this enzyme in the serum. Elevated levels of AST can indicate damage or injury to tissues that contain this enzyme, such as the liver or heart. For example, liver disease, including hepatitis and cirrhosis, can cause elevated AST levels due to damage to liver cells. Similarly, heart attacks can also result in increased AST levels due to damage to heart muscle tissue.

It is important to note that an AST test alone cannot diagnose a specific medical condition, but it can provide valuable information when used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluation.

A blood transfusion is a medical procedure in which blood or its components are transferred from one individual (donor) to another (recipient) through a vein. The donated blood can be fresh whole blood, packed red blood cells, platelets, plasma, or cryoprecipitate, depending on the recipient's needs. Blood transfusions are performed to replace lost blood due to severe bleeding, treat anemia, support patients undergoing major surgeries, or manage various medical conditions such as hemophilia, thalassemia, and leukemia. The donated blood must be carefully cross-matched with the recipient's blood type to minimize the risk of transfusion reactions.

Untranslated regions (UTRs) are sections of an mRNA molecule that do not contain information for protein synthesis. There are two types of UTRs: 5' UTR, which is located at the 5' end of the mRNA molecule, and 3' UTR, which is located at the 3' end.

The 5' UTR typically contains regulatory elements that control the translation of the mRNA into protein. These elements can affect the efficiency and timing of translation, as well as the stability of the mRNA molecule. The 5' UTR may also contain upstream open reading frames (uORFs), which are short sequences that can be translated into small peptides and potentially regulate the translation of the main coding sequence.

The length and sequence composition of the 5' UTR can have significant impacts on gene expression, and variations in these regions have been associated with various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of 5' UTRs is an important area of research in molecular biology and genetics.

Chronic Hepatitis D is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis delta virus (HDV). It is often considered a serious form of hepatitis because it can lead to more severe liver disease than hepatitis B alone. HDV is a defective virus that requires the presence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) to replicate and cause infection. Therefore, chronic hepatitis D only occurs in individuals who have an underlying chronic hepatitis B infection.

Chronic hepatitis D is characterized by persistent inflammation and damage to the liver, which can lead to scarring (fibrosis), cirrhosis, liver failure, and increased risk of liver cancer over time. Symptoms may include fatigue, joint pain, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, and jaundice. However, some people with chronic hepatitis D may not have any symptoms until the disease has progressed to a more advanced stage.

Chronic hepatitis D is diagnosed through blood tests that detect HDV antibodies and antigens, as well as liver function tests and imaging studies to assess liver damage. Treatment typically involves antiviral therapy to suppress the replication of both HBV and HDV, as well as supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications. In some cases, a liver transplant may be necessary for individuals with advanced liver disease due to chronic hepatitis D.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, also known as RNA replicase, is an enzyme that catalyzes the production of RNA from an RNA template. It plays a crucial role in the replication of certain viruses, such as positive-strand RNA viruses and retroviruses, which use RNA as their genetic material. The enzyme uses the existing RNA strand as a template to create a new complementary RNA strand, effectively replicating the viral genome. This process is essential for the propagation of these viruses within host cells and is a target for antiviral therapies.

A carrier state is a condition in which a person carries and may be able to transmit a genetic disorder or infectious disease, but does not show any symptoms of the disease themselves. This occurs when an individual has a recessive allele for a genetic disorder or is infected with a pathogen, but does not have the necessary combination of genes or other factors required to develop the full-blown disease.

For example, in the case of cystic fibrosis, which is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, a person who carries one normal allele and one mutated allele for the disease is considered a carrier. They do not have symptoms of cystic fibrosis themselves, but they can pass the mutated allele on to their offspring, who may then develop the disease if they inherit the mutation from both parents.

Similarly, in the case of infectious diseases, a person who is infected with a pathogen but does not show any symptoms may still be able to transmit the infection to others. This is known as being an asymptomatic carrier or a healthy carrier. For example, some people who are infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) may not develop any symptoms of liver disease, but they can still transmit the virus to others through contact with their blood or other bodily fluids.

It's important to note that in some cases, carriers of certain genetic disorders or infectious diseases may have mild or atypical symptoms that do not meet the full criteria for a diagnosis of the disease. In these cases, they may be considered to have a "reduced penetrance" or "incomplete expression" of the disorder or infection.

A chronic disease is a long-term medical condition that often progresses slowly over a period of years and requires ongoing management and care. These diseases are typically not fully curable, but symptoms can be managed to improve quality of life. Common chronic diseases include heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). They are often associated with advanced age, although they can also affect children and younger adults. Chronic diseases can have significant impacts on individuals' physical, emotional, and social well-being, as well as on healthcare systems and society at large.

Virus internalization, also known as viral entry, is the process by which a virus enters a host cell to infect it and replicate its genetic material. This process typically involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The viral envelope proteins bind to specific receptors on the surface of the host cell.
2. Entry: The virus then enters the host cell through endocytosis or membrane fusion, depending on the type of virus.
3. Uncoating: Once inside the host cell, the viral capsid is removed, releasing the viral genome into the cytoplasm.
4. Replication: The viral genome then uses the host cell's machinery to replicate itself and produce new viral particles.

It's important to note that the specific mechanisms of virus internalization can vary widely between different types of viruses, and are an active area of research in virology and infectious disease.

"Marmota" is a genus of large ground squirrels that are native to North America and Eurasia. These animals, also known as woodchucks or whistle pigs, are well-known for their ability to hibernate during the winter months. They typically live in burrows that they dig themselves, and their diet consists mainly of grasses, leaves, and shrubs. Marmotas are social creatures and often live in colonies with a dominant male and several females. While "Marmota" is a valid term in medical literature, it is more commonly found in the fields of biology and zoology rather than medicine.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Disease progression is the worsening or advancement of a medical condition over time. It refers to the natural course of a disease, including its development, the severity of symptoms and complications, and the impact on the patient's overall health and quality of life. Understanding disease progression is important for developing appropriate treatment plans, monitoring response to therapy, and predicting outcomes.

The rate of disease progression can vary widely depending on the type of medical condition, individual patient factors, and the effectiveness of treatment. Some diseases may progress rapidly over a short period of time, while others may progress more slowly over many years. In some cases, disease progression may be slowed or even halted with appropriate medical interventions, while in other cases, the progression may be inevitable and irreversible.

In clinical practice, healthcare providers closely monitor disease progression through regular assessments, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. This information is used to guide treatment decisions and adjust care plans as needed to optimize patient outcomes and improve quality of life.

Viral proteins are the proteins that are encoded by the viral genome and are essential for the viral life cycle. These proteins can be structural or non-structural and play various roles in the virus's replication, infection, and assembly process. Structural proteins make up the physical structure of the virus, including the capsid (the protein shell that surrounds the viral genome) and any envelope proteins (that may be present on enveloped viruses). Non-structural proteins are involved in the replication of the viral genome and modulation of the host cell environment to favor viral replication. Overall, a thorough understanding of viral proteins is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

Gene expression regulation, viral, refers to the processes that control the production of viral gene products, such as proteins and nucleic acids, during the viral life cycle. This can involve both viral and host cell factors that regulate transcription, RNA processing, translation, and post-translational modifications of viral genes.

Viral gene expression regulation is critical for the virus to replicate and produce progeny virions. Different types of viruses have evolved diverse mechanisms to regulate their gene expression, including the use of promoters, enhancers, transcription factors, RNA silencing, and epigenetic modifications. Understanding these regulatory processes can provide insights into viral pathogenesis and help in the development of antiviral therapies.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are infections that can be passed from one person to another through sexual contact. When focusing on viral STDs, these are infections caused by viruses that can be spread through sexual contact including vaginal, anal, and oral sex. Some common examples of viral STDs include HIV/AIDS, genital herpes, human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B, and genital warts. These viral infections can lead to serious health complications if not diagnosed and treated promptly. It's important to note that some viral STDs may not have noticeable symptoms, but can still be passed on to sexual partners and cause long-term health problems.

Blood-borne pathogens are microorganisms that are present in human blood and can cause disease. They include viruses such as HIV, Hepatitis B and C, and other bacteria and parasites. These pathogens can be transmitted through contact with infected blood or other bodily fluids, primarily through needlesticks or other sharps-related injuries, mucous membrane exposure, or skin exposure with open wounds or cuts. It's important for healthcare workers and others who may come into contact with blood or bodily fluids to be aware of the risks and take appropriate precautions to prevent exposure and transmission.

Interleukins (ILs) are a group of naturally occurring proteins that are important in the immune system. They are produced by various cells, including immune cells like lymphocytes and macrophages, and they help regulate the immune response by facilitating communication between different types of cells. Interleukins can have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, depending on the specific interleukin and the context in which it is produced. They play a role in various biological processes, including the development of immune responses, inflammation, and hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells).

There are many different interleukins that have been identified, and they are numbered according to the order in which they were discovered. For example, IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, etc. Each interleukin has a specific set of functions and targets certain types of cells. Dysregulation of interleukins has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, infections, and cancer.

Jaundice is a medical condition characterized by the yellowing of the skin, sclera (whites of the eyes), and mucous membranes due to an excess of bilirubin in the bloodstream. Bilirubin is a yellow-orange pigment produced when hemoglobin from red blood cells is broken down. Normally, bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted through bile into the digestive system. However, if there's an issue with bilirubin metabolism or elimination, it can accumulate in the body, leading to jaundice.

Jaundice can be a symptom of various underlying conditions, such as liver diseases (hepatitis, cirrhosis), gallbladder issues (gallstones, tumors), or blood disorders (hemolysis). It is essential to consult a healthcare professional if jaundice is observed, as it may indicate a severe health problem requiring prompt medical attention.

Hemodialysis units in a hospital setting are specialized departments or facilities that provide hemodialysis treatment to patients with kidney failure. Hemodialysis is a process of purifying the blood of waste products and excess fluids using a machine (hemodialysis machine) and a semi-permeable membrane (dialyzer). The procedure typically involves accessing the patient's bloodstream through a surgically created vascular access, such as a fistula or graft, and passing the blood through the dialyzer to remove waste products and excess fluids.

Hospital hemodialysis units are staffed by trained healthcare professionals, including nephrologists (kidney specialists), nurses, technicians, and support personnel. These units provide inpatient and outpatient services for patients who require hemodialysis due to acute or chronic kidney failure, as well as those who need dialysis while hospitalized for other medical conditions.

Hospital hemodialysis units may offer various types of hemodialysis treatments, including conventional hemodialysis, high-flux hemodialysis, hemofiltration, and hemodiafiltration. They also provide education and support to patients and their families regarding dialysis treatment options, lifestyle modifications, and long-term management of kidney disease.

Hemophilia A is a genetic bleeding disorder caused by a deficiency in clotting factor VIII. This results in impaired blood clotting and prolonged bleeding, particularly after injuries or surgeries. Symptoms can range from mild to severe, with the most severe form resulting in spontaneous bleeding into joints and muscles, leading to pain, swelling, and potential joint damage over time. Hemophilia A primarily affects males, as it is an X-linked recessive disorder, and is usually inherited from a carrier mother. However, about one third of cases result from a spontaneous mutation in the gene for factor VIII. Treatment typically involves replacement therapy with infusions of factor VIII concentrates to prevent or control bleeding episodes.

RNA helicases are a class of enzymes that are capable of unwinding RNA secondary structures using the energy derived from ATP hydrolysis. They play crucial roles in various cellular processes involving RNA, such as transcription, splicing, translation, ribosome biogenesis, and RNA degradation. RNA helicases can be divided into several superfamilies based on their sequence and structural similarities, with the two largest being superfamily 1 (SF1) and superfamily 2 (SF2). These enzymes typically contain conserved motifs that are involved in ATP binding and hydrolysis, as well as RNA binding. By unwinding RNA structures, RNA helicases facilitate the access of other proteins to their target RNAs, thereby enabling the coordinated regulation of RNA metabolism.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

Drug-Induced Liver Injury (DILI) is a medical term that refers to liver damage or injury caused by the use of medications or drugs. This condition can vary in severity, from mild abnormalities in liver function tests to severe liver failure, which may require a liver transplant.

The exact mechanism of DILI can differ depending on the drug involved, but it generally occurs when the liver metabolizes the drug into toxic compounds that damage liver cells. This can happen through various pathways, including direct toxicity to liver cells, immune-mediated reactions, or metabolic idiosyncrasies.

Symptoms of DILI may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and dark urine. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as ascites, encephalopathy, and bleeding disorders.

The diagnosis of DILI is often challenging because it requires the exclusion of other potential causes of liver injury. Liver function tests, imaging studies, and sometimes liver biopsies may be necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment typically involves discontinuing the offending drug and providing supportive care until the liver recovers. In some cases, medications that protect the liver or promote its healing may be used.

A polyprotein is a long, continuous chain of amino acids that are produced through the translation of a single mRNA (messenger RNA) molecule. This occurs in some viruses, including retroviruses like HIV, where the viral genome contains instructions for the production of one or more polyproteins.

After the polyprotein is synthesized, it is cleaved into smaller, functional proteins by virus-encoded proteases. These individual proteins then assemble to form new virus particles. The concept of polyproteins is important in understanding viral replication and may provide targets for antiviral therapy.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals and populations. These variations can result from mutations, genetic recombination, or gene flow between populations. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by providing the raw material upon which natural selection acts. It can occur within a single gene, between different genes, or at larger scales, such as differences in the number of chromosomes or entire sets of chromosomes. The study of genetic variation is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of diseases and traits, as well as the evolutionary history and relationships among species.

A virion is the complete, infectious form of a virus outside its host cell. It consists of the viral genome (DNA or RNA) enclosed within a protein coat called the capsid, which is often surrounded by a lipid membrane called the envelope. The envelope may contain viral proteins and glycoproteins that aid in attachment to and entry into host cells during infection. The term "virion" emphasizes the infectious nature of the virus particle, as opposed to non-infectious components like individual capsid proteins or naked viral genome.

Fatty liver, also known as hepatic steatosis, is a medical condition characterized by the abnormal accumulation of fat in the liver. The liver's primary function is to process nutrients, filter blood, and fight infections, among other tasks. When excess fat builds up in the liver cells, it can impair liver function and lead to inflammation, scarring, and even liver failure if left untreated.

Fatty liver can be caused by various factors, including alcohol consumption, obesity, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), viral hepatitis, and certain medications or medical conditions. NAFLD is the most common cause of fatty liver in the United States and other developed countries, affecting up to 25% of the population.

Symptoms of fatty liver may include fatigue, weakness, weight loss, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal pain or discomfort, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). However, many people with fatty liver do not experience any symptoms, making it essential to diagnose and manage the condition through regular check-ups and blood tests.

Treatment for fatty liver depends on the underlying cause. Lifestyle changes such as weight loss, exercise, and dietary modifications are often recommended for people with NAFLD or alcohol-related fatty liver disease. Medications may also be prescribed to manage related conditions such as diabetes, high cholesterol, or metabolic syndrome. In severe cases of liver damage, a liver transplant may be necessary.

Spontaneous remission in a medical context refers to the disappearance or significant improvement of symptoms of a disease or condition without any specific treatment being administered. In other words, it's a situation where the disease resolves on its own, without any apparent cause. While spontaneous remission can occur in various conditions, it is relatively rare and not well understood. It's important to note that just because a remission occurs without treatment doesn't mean that medical care should be avoided, as many conditions can worsen or lead to complications if left untreated.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

"Saguinus" is a genus of small, New World monkeys that are commonly known as tamarins. They are native to the forests of Central and South America. Tamarins have a slender body with long limbs, a specialized claw-like nail on their second digit of the foot, and a distinct coat coloration that varies between species. They primarily feed on fruits, insects, and exudates from trees. Tamarins are also known for their social structure, typically living in family groups consisting of a mated pair and their offspring.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

I apologize for any confusion, but "prisoners" is not a medical term. It generally refers to individuals who are deprived of their personal freedom and are being held in a prison or jail as a result of being convicted of a crime or while awaiting trial. If you have any questions related to medical terminology, I would be happy to help!

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

Cryoglobulins are immunoglobulins (a type of antibody) that precipitate or become insoluble at reduced temperatures, typically below 37°C (98.6°F), and re-dissolve when rewarmed. They can be found in various clinical conditions such as infections, inflammatory diseases, and lymphoproliferative disorders.

The presence of cryoglobulins in the blood can lead to a variety of symptoms, including purpura (a type of skin rash), arthralgias (joint pain), neuropathy (nerve damage), and glomerulonephritis (kidney inflammation). The diagnosis of cryoglobulinemia is made by detecting the presence of cryoglobulins in the serum, which requires special handling and processing of the blood sample. Treatment of cryoglobulinemia depends on the underlying cause and may include medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents, or targeted therapies.

Flaviviridae infections refer to a group of diseases caused by viruses that belong to the Flaviviridae family. This family includes several important human pathogens, such as dengue virus, yellow fever virus, West Nile virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, and Zika virus.

These viruses are primarily transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes or ticks. The symptoms of Flaviviridae infections can vary depending on the specific virus, but they often include fever, headache, muscle and joint pain, rash, and fatigue. In severe cases, these infections can lead to serious complications such as hemorrhagic fever, encephalitis, or neuropathy.

Prevention measures for Flaviviridae infections include avoiding mosquito and tick bites, using insect repellent, wearing protective clothing, and getting vaccinated if vaccines are available for the specific virus. Treatment is generally supportive and may include fluid replacement, pain relief, and management of complications. There are no specific antiviral treatments available for most Flaviviridae infections.

I believe there may be a slight misunderstanding in your question. "Prisons" are not a medical term, but rather a term used to describe facilities where individuals who have been convicted of crimes serve their sentences of incarceration. They are run by correctional systems and law enforcement agencies, not healthcare providers or medical organizations.

However, I can certainly provide information about the potential impact of prisons on health and healthcare. Prisons can have significant effects on the physical and mental health of inmates due to factors such as overcrowding, violence, limited access to healthcare services, and the transmission of infectious diseases like HIV and hepatitis C. Additionally, many inmates have underlying health issues that may be exacerbated by incarceration, including substance use disorders, mental illness, and chronic medical conditions.

Therefore, it is important for correctional facilities to provide adequate healthcare services to their inmates, not only to meet basic human rights standards but also to promote public health more broadly by reducing the spread of infectious diseases and improving the health outcomes of individuals who will eventually be released back into the community.

I apologize, but "Brazil" is not a medical term or condition. It is the largest country in both South America and Latin America by land area and population. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, please provide more information and I will do my best to help.

GB virus B (GBV-B) is not a widely accepted or used term in the medical community. It was initially identified as a possible new virus in the 1960s, during an investigation into hepatitis outbreaks among laboratory workers handling chimpanzee serum and feces. However, further research could not confirm its existence as a separate virus.

The name "GB virus B" comes from the initials of the person (G. Barker) who provided the original serum sample where the virus was first detected, and "B" to differentiate it from another related virus called GB virus A (GBV-A).

Currently, GBV-B is not considered a distinct human pathogen or a significant cause of any known diseases. It is not included in the list of human viruses by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) and is not recognized as a medical condition by major health organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Host-pathogen interactions refer to the complex and dynamic relationship between a living organism (the host) and a disease-causing agent (the pathogen). This interaction can involve various molecular, cellular, and physiological processes that occur between the two entities. The outcome of this interaction can determine whether the host will develop an infection or not, as well as the severity and duration of the illness.

During host-pathogen interactions, the pathogen may release virulence factors that allow it to evade the host's immune system, colonize tissues, and obtain nutrients for its survival and replication. The host, in turn, may mount an immune response to recognize and eliminate the pathogen, which can involve various mechanisms such as inflammation, phagocytosis, and the production of antimicrobial agents.

Understanding the intricacies of host-pathogen interactions is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases. This knowledge can help identify new targets for therapeutic interventions, inform vaccine design, and guide public health policies to control the spread of infectious agents.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Serologic tests are laboratory tests that detect the presence or absence of antibodies or antigens in a patient's serum (the clear liquid that separates from clotted blood). These tests are commonly used to diagnose infectious diseases, as well as autoimmune disorders and other medical conditions.

In serologic testing for infectious diseases, a sample of the patient's blood is collected and allowed to clot. The serum is then separated from the clot and tested for the presence of antibodies that the body has produced in response to an infection. The test may be used to identify the specific type of infection or to determine whether the infection is active or has resolved.

Serologic tests can also be used to diagnose autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, by detecting the presence of antibodies that are directed against the body's own tissues. These tests can help doctors confirm a diagnosis and monitor the progression of the disease.

It is important to note that serologic tests are not always 100% accurate and may produce false positive or false negative results. Therefore, they should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and laboratory test results.

Needle sharing is the reuse of needles or syringes by more than one person, often in the context of injecting drugs. This behavior is considered high-risk as it can lead to the transmission of bloodborne pathogens such as HIV, Hepatitis B, and Hepatitis C. It's a significant public health concern due to its association with intravenous drug use.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

Organophosphonates are a class of organic compounds characterized by the presence of a carbon-phosphorus bond. They contain a phosphonic acid group, which consists of a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen or nitrogen atoms, with one of those bonds being replaced by a carbon atom.

In a medical context, organophosphonates are commonly used as radiopharmaceuticals in diagnostic nuclear medicine procedures, such as bone scans. These compounds have the ability to bind to hydroxyapatite, the mineral component of bones, and can be labeled with radioactive isotopes for imaging purposes. They may also be used in therapeutic settings, including as treatments for conditions such as tumor-induced hypercalcemia and Paget's disease of bone.

It is important to note that organophosphonates are distinct from organophosphates, another class of compounds that contain a phosphorus atom bonded to three oxygen or sulfur atoms and one carbon atom. Organophosphates have been widely used as pesticides and chemical warfare agents, and can pose significant health risks due to their toxicity.

GB virus C (GBV-C), also known as hepatitis G virus (HGV) or human pegivirus (HPgV), is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the Flaviviridae family. It was initially identified in 1995 and is closely related to hepatitis C virus (HCV). However, unlike HCV, GBV-C is not associated with any significant liver disease and does not cause hepatitis.

GBV-C infection is usually asymptomatic and often resolves on its own without treatment. It is primarily transmitted through blood and bodily fluids, such as through sharing needles or during sexual contact. Vertical transmission from mother to child can also occur, although it is less common than with HCV.

While GBV-C infection is generally benign, there is some evidence to suggest that it may have immunomodulatory effects and could potentially impact the course of other viral infections, such as HIV. However, more research is needed to fully understand the clinical significance of GBV-C infection.

Virology is the study of viruses, their classification, and their effects on living organisms. It involves the examination of viral genetic material, viral replication, how viruses cause disease, and the development of antiviral drugs and vaccines to treat or prevent virus infections. Virologists study various types of viruses that can infect animals, plants, and microorganisms, as well as understand their evolution and transmission patterns.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

Protease inhibitors are a class of antiviral drugs that are used to treat infections caused by retroviruses, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is responsible for causing AIDS. These drugs work by blocking the activity of protease enzymes, which are necessary for the replication and multiplication of the virus within infected cells.

Protease enzymes play a crucial role in the life cycle of retroviruses by cleaving viral polyproteins into functional units that are required for the assembly of new viral particles. By inhibiting the activity of these enzymes, protease inhibitors prevent the virus from replicating and spreading to other cells, thereby slowing down the progression of the infection.

Protease inhibitors are often used in combination with other antiretroviral drugs as part of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for the treatment of HIV/AIDS. Common examples of protease inhibitors include saquinavir, ritonavir, indinavir, and atazanavir. While these drugs have been successful in improving the outcomes of people living with HIV/AIDS, they can also cause side effects such as nausea, diarrhea, headaches, and lipodystrophy (changes in body fat distribution).

Infectious pregnancy complications refer to infections that occur during pregnancy and can affect the mother, fetus, or both. These infections can lead to serious consequences such as preterm labor, low birth weight, birth defects, stillbirth, or even death. Some common infectious agents that can cause pregnancy complications include:

1. Bacteria: Examples include group B streptococcus, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes, which can cause sepsis, meningitis, or pneumonia in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.
2. Viruses: Examples include cytomegalovirus, rubella, varicella-zoster, and HIV, which can cause congenital anomalies, developmental delays, or transmission of the virus to the fetus.
3. Parasites: Examples include Toxoplasma gondii, which can cause severe neurological damage in the fetus if transmitted during pregnancy.
4. Fungi: Examples include Candida albicans, which can cause fungal infections in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.

Preventive measures such as vaccination, good hygiene practices, and avoiding high-risk behaviors can help reduce the risk of infectious pregnancy complications. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of infections during pregnancy are also crucial to prevent adverse outcomes.

Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way to protect people against harmful diseases, before they come into contact with them. It uses your body's natural defenses to build protection to specific infections and makes your immune system stronger.

A vaccination usually contains a small, harmless piece of a virus or bacteria (or toxins produced by these germs) that has been made inactive or weakened so it won't cause the disease itself. This piece of the germ is known as an antigen. When the vaccine is introduced into the body, the immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign and produces antibodies to fight it.

If a person then comes into contact with the actual disease-causing germ, their immune system will recognize it and immediately produce antibodies to destroy it. The person is therefore protected against that disease. This is known as active immunity.

Vaccinations are important for both individual and public health. They prevent the spread of contagious diseases and protect vulnerable members of the population, such as young children, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems who cannot be vaccinated or for whom vaccination is not effective.

Renal dialysis is a medical procedure that is used to artificially remove waste products, toxins, and excess fluids from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to perform these functions effectively. This process is also known as hemodialysis.

During renal dialysis, the patient's blood is circulated through a special machine called a dialyzer or an artificial kidney, which contains a semi-permeable membrane that filters out waste products and excess fluids from the blood. The cleaned blood is then returned to the patient's body.

Renal dialysis is typically recommended for patients with advanced kidney disease or kidney failure, such as those with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). It is a life-sustaining treatment that helps to maintain the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the body, prevent the buildup of waste products and toxins, and control blood pressure.

There are two main types of renal dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Hemodialysis is the most common type and involves using a dialyzer to filter the blood outside the body. Peritoneal dialysis, on the other hand, involves placing a catheter in the abdomen and using the lining of the abdomen (peritoneum) as a natural filter to remove waste products and excess fluids from the body.

Overall, renal dialysis is an essential treatment option for patients with kidney failure, helping them to maintain their quality of life and prolong their survival.

Vertical transmission of infectious diseases refers to the spread of an infection from an infected mother to her offspring during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. This mode of transmission can occur through several pathways:

1. Transplacental transmission: The infection crosses the placenta and reaches the fetus while it is still in the womb. Examples include HIV, syphilis, and toxoplasmosis.
2. Intrauterine infection: The mother's infection causes direct damage to the developing fetus or its surrounding tissues, leading to complications such as congenital defects. Examples include rubella and cytomegalovirus (CMV).
3. Perinatal transmission: This occurs during childbirth when the infant comes into contact with the mother's infected genital tract or bodily fluids. Examples include group B streptococcus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), and hepatitis B.
4. Postnatal transmission: This occurs after birth, often through breastfeeding, when the infant ingests infected milk or comes into contact with the mother's contaminated bodily fluids. Examples include HIV and HTLV-I (human T-lymphotropic virus type I).

Vertical transmission is a significant concern in public health, as it can lead to severe complications, congenital disabilities, or even death in newborns. Preventive measures, such as prenatal screening, vaccination, and antimicrobial treatment, are crucial for reducing the risk of vertical transmission and ensuring better outcomes for both mothers and their offspring.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Pakistan" is a country in South Asia and not a medical term or condition. If you have any medical questions or terms you would like defined, I would be happy to help!

Virus assembly, also known as virion assembly, is the final stage in the virus life cycle where individual viral components come together to form a complete viral particle or virion. This process typically involves the self-assembly of viral capsid proteins around the viral genome (DNA or RNA) and, in enveloped viruses, the acquisition of a lipid bilayer membrane containing viral glycoproteins. The specific mechanisms and regulation of virus assembly vary among different viral families, but it is often directed by interactions between viral structural proteins and genomic nucleic acid.

Transaminases, also known as aminotransferases, are a group of enzymes found in various tissues of the body, particularly in the liver, heart, muscle, and kidneys. They play a crucial role in the metabolism of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins.

There are two major types of transaminases: aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). Both enzymes are normally present in low concentrations in the bloodstream. However, when tissues that contain these enzymes are damaged or injured, such as during liver disease or muscle damage, the levels of AST and ALT in the blood may significantly increase.

Measurement of serum transaminase levels is a common laboratory test used to assess liver function and detect liver injury or damage. Increased levels of these enzymes in the blood can indicate conditions such as hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, drug-induced liver injury, heart attack, and muscle disorders. It's important to note that while elevated transaminase levels may suggest liver disease, they do not specify the type or cause of the condition, and further diagnostic tests are often required for accurate diagnosis and treatment.

"Ducks" is not a medical term. It is a common name used to refer to a group of birds that belong to the family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese. Some ducks are hunted for their meat, feathers, or down, but they do not have any specific medical relevance. If you have any questions about a specific medical term or concept, I would be happy to help if you could provide more information!

A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.

In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.

Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.

Reagent kits, diagnostic are prepackaged sets of chemical reagents and other components designed for performing specific diagnostic tests or assays. These kits are often used in clinical laboratories to detect and measure the presence or absence of various biomarkers, such as proteins, antibodies, antigens, nucleic acids, or small molecules, in biological samples like blood, urine, or tissues.

Diagnostic reagent kits typically contain detailed instructions for their use, along with the necessary reagents, controls, and sometimes specialized equipment or supplies. They are designed to simplify the testing process, reduce human error, and increase standardization, ensuring accurate and reliable results. Examples of diagnostic reagent kits include those used for pregnancy tests, infectious disease screening, drug testing, genetic testing, and cancer biomarker detection.

Mononuclear leukocytes are a type of white blood cells (leukocytes) that have a single, large nucleus. They include lymphocytes (B-cells, T-cells, and natural killer cells), monocytes, and dendritic cells. These cells play important roles in the body's immune system, including defending against infection and disease, and participating in immune responses and surveillance. Mononuclear leukocytes can be found in the bloodstream as well as in tissues throughout the body. They are involved in both innate and adaptive immunity, providing specific and nonspecific defense mechanisms to protect the body from harmful pathogens and other threats.

Viral genes refer to the genetic material present in viruses that contains the information necessary for their replication and the production of viral proteins. In DNA viruses, the genetic material is composed of double-stranded or single-stranded DNA, while in RNA viruses, it is composed of single-stranded or double-stranded RNA.

Viral genes can be classified into three categories: early, late, and structural. Early genes encode proteins involved in the replication of the viral genome, modulation of host cell processes, and regulation of viral gene expression. Late genes encode structural proteins that make up the viral capsid or envelope. Some viruses also have structural genes that are expressed throughout their replication cycle.

Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is crucial for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines. By targeting specific viral genes, researchers can develop drugs that inhibit viral replication and reduce the severity of viral infections. Additionally, knowledge of viral gene sequences can inform the development of vaccines that stimulate an immune response to specific viral proteins.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a species of lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that causes HIV infection and over time, HIV infection can lead to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). This virus attacks the immune system, specifically the CD4 cells, also known as T cells, which are a type of white blood cell that helps coordinate the body's immune response. As HIV destroys these cells, the body becomes more vulnerable to other infections and diseases. It is primarily spread through bodily fluids like blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.

It's important to note that while there is no cure for HIV, with proper medical care, HIV can be controlled. Treatment for HIV is called antiretroviral therapy (ART). If taken as prescribed, this medicine reduces the amount of HIV in the body to a very low level, which keeps the immune system working and prevents illness. This treatment also greatly reduces the risk of transmission.

An epitope is a specific region on the surface of an antigen (a molecule that can trigger an immune response) that is recognized by an antibody, B-cell receptor, or T-cell receptor. It is also commonly referred to as an antigenic determinant. Epitopes are typically composed of linear amino acid sequences or conformational structures made up of discontinuous amino acids in the antigen. They play a crucial role in the immune system's ability to differentiate between self and non-self molecules, leading to the targeted destruction of foreign substances like viruses and bacteria. Understanding epitopes is essential for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.

Body piercing is a form of body modification where a hole is made in the skin to insert an ornament, jewelry, or decorative item. It can be performed on various parts of the body such as ears, nose, lips, eyebrows, tongue, navel, and other areas. The process typically involves using a needle to puncture the skin and create an opening for the jewelry to pass through.

There are several types of body piercings, including:

1. Ear piercing - the most common type of body piercing, where a hole is made in the ear lobe or cartilage to insert earrings.
2. Navel piercing - a piercing that passes through the skin around the navel or belly button.
3. Lip piercing - a piercing that passes through the lip or the skin surrounding the lips, such as the labret or Monroe piercing.
4. Nose piercing - a piercing that passes through the nostril or septum of the nose.
5. Tongue piercing - a piercing that passes through the tongue.
6. Eyebrow piercing - a piercing that passes through the skin above or below the eyebrow.

Body piercings can pose risks such as infection, bleeding, scarring, and allergic reactions to jewelry materials. It is essential to practice proper hygiene and aftercare procedures to minimize these risks. Additionally, it is recommended to consult a professional piercer who follows safety guidelines and uses sterile equipment.

I am not aware of a specific medical definition for the term "China." Generally, it is used to refer to:

1. The People's Republic of China (PRC), which is a country in East Asia. It is the most populous country in the world and the fourth largest by geographical area. Its capital city is Beijing.
2. In a historical context, "China" was used to refer to various dynasties and empires that existed in East Asia over thousands of years. The term "Middle Kingdom" or "Zhongguo" (中国) has been used by the Chinese people to refer to their country for centuries.
3. In a more general sense, "China" can also be used to describe products or goods that originate from or are associated with the People's Republic of China.

If you have a specific context in which you encountered the term "China" related to medicine, please provide it so I can give a more accurate response.

"Tupaia" is not a term found in general medical terminology. It is most likely referring to a genus of small mammals known as tree shrews, also called "tupaias." They are native to Southeast Asia and are not closely related to shrews, but rather belong to their own order, Scandentia.

However, if you're referring to a specific medical condition or concept that uses the term "Tupaia," I would need more context to provide an accurate definition.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Amantadine is an antiviral medication that is primarily used to prevent and treat certain types of influenza (flu). It works by stopping the virus from multiplying in your body. In addition to its antiviral properties, amantadine also has central nervous system (CNS) stimulant and dopaminergic effects, which make it useful in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and various movement disorders.

The medical definition of Amantadine is:

A synthetic symmetrical tricyclic amine used as an antiviral agent to treat and prevent influenza A infection and as an anti-parkinsonian drug to control extrapyramidal symptoms caused by neuroleptic agents. The antiviral effect may be due to interference with viral uncoating or replication. The anti-parkinsonian effect may be due to a combination of dopamine agonist and NMDA receptor antagonist properties. (Stedman's Medical Dictionary, 28th edition)

Please note that the use of Amantadine for various medical conditions should always be under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as they will consider potential benefits and risks and provide appropriate guidance.

Viral structural proteins are the protein components that make up the viral particle or capsid, providing structure and stability to the virus. These proteins are encoded by the viral genome and are involved in the assembly of new virus particles during the replication cycle. They can be classified into different types based on their location and function, such as capsid proteins, matrix proteins, and envelope proteins. Capsid proteins form the protein shell that encapsulates the viral genome, while matrix proteins are located between the capsid and the envelope, and envelope proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer membrane that surrounds some viruses.

Adenine is a purine nucleotide base that is a fundamental component of DNA and RNA, the genetic material of living organisms. In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine via double hydrogen bonds, while in RNA, it pairs with uracil. Adenine is essential for the structure and function of nucleic acids, as well as for energy transfer reactions in cells through its role in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the primary energy currency of the cell.

Alcoholic Liver Cirrhosis is a medical condition characterized by irreversible scarring (fibrosis) and damage to the liver caused by excessive consumption of alcohol over an extended period. The liver's normal structure and function are progressively impaired as healthy liver tissue is replaced by scarred tissue, leading to the formation of nodules (regenerative noduli).

The condition typically develops after years of heavy drinking, with a higher risk for those who consume more than 60 grams of pure alcohol daily. The damage caused by alcoholic liver cirrhosis can be life-threatening and may result in complications such as:

1. Ascites (accumulation of fluid in the abdomen)
2. Encephalopathy (neurological dysfunction due to liver failure)
3. Esophageal varices (dilated veins in the esophagus that can rupture and bleed)
4. Hepatorenal syndrome (kidney failure caused by liver disease)
5. Increased susceptibility to infections
6. Liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma)
7. Portal hypertension (increased blood pressure in the portal vein that supplies blood to the liver)

Abstaining from alcohol and managing underlying medical conditions are crucial for slowing down or halting disease progression. Treatment may involve medications, dietary changes, and supportive care to address complications. In severe cases, a liver transplant might be necessary.

Infectious disease transmission refers to the spread of an infectious agent or pathogen from an infected person, animal, or contaminated object to another susceptible host. This can occur through various routes, including:

1. Contact transmission: Direct contact with an infected person or animal, such as through touching, kissing, or sexual contact.
2. Droplet transmission: Inhalation of respiratory droplets containing the pathogen, which are generated when an infected person coughs, sneezes, talks, or breathes heavily.
3. Airborne transmission: Inhalation of smaller particles called aerosols that can remain suspended in the air for longer periods and travel farther distances than droplets.
4. Fecal-oral transmission: Consuming food or water contaminated with fecal matter containing the pathogen, often through poor hygiene practices.
5. Vector-borne transmission: Transmission via an intermediate vector, such as a mosquito or tick, that becomes infected after feeding on an infected host and then transmits the pathogen to another host during a subsequent blood meal.
6. Vehicle-borne transmission: Consuming food or water contaminated with the pathogen through vehicles like soil, water, or fomites (inanimate objects).

Preventing infectious disease transmission is crucial in controlling outbreaks and epidemics. Measures include good personal hygiene, vaccination, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), safe food handling practices, and environmental disinfection.

A "drug user" is a person who uses or consumes illegal drugs, such as heroin, cocaine, or methamphetamine, or misuses prescription medications for recreational purposes or to self-medicate. It's important to note that the term "drug user" can have stigmatizing connotations and may not accurately reflect the complexity of an individual's relationship with drugs. Many prefer terms like "person who uses drugs" or "substance user," which emphasize the personhood and agency of the individual rather than reducing them to their drug use.

It's also worth noting that there is a wide range of drug use behaviors, from occasional recreational use to heavy, dependent use. The medical community recognizes that problematic drug use can lead to negative health consequences, but it's important to approach individuals who use drugs with compassion and understanding rather than judgment. Providing access to evidence-based treatments and harm reduction services can help reduce the risks associated with drug use and support individuals in making positive changes in their lives.

Immunoenzyme techniques are a group of laboratory methods used in immunology and clinical chemistry that combine the specificity of antibody-antigen reactions with the sensitivity and amplification capabilities of enzyme reactions. These techniques are primarily used for the detection, quantitation, or identification of various analytes (such as proteins, hormones, drugs, viruses, or bacteria) in biological samples.

In immunoenzyme techniques, an enzyme is linked to an antibody or antigen, creating a conjugate. This conjugate then interacts with the target analyte in the sample, forming an immune complex. The presence and amount of this immune complex can be visualized or measured by detecting the enzymatic activity associated with it.

There are several types of immunoenzyme techniques, including:

1. Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): A widely used method for detecting and quantifying various analytes in a sample. In ELISA, an enzyme is attached to either the capture antibody or the detection antibody. After the immune complex formation, a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme, producing a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.
2. Immunoblotting (Western blot): A method used for detecting specific proteins in a complex mixture, such as a protein extract from cells or tissues. In this technique, proteins are separated by gel electrophoresis and transferred to a membrane, where they are probed with an enzyme-conjugated antibody directed against the target protein.
3. Immunohistochemistry (IHC): A method used for detecting specific antigens in tissue sections or cells. In IHC, an enzyme-conjugated primary or secondary antibody is applied to the sample, and the presence of the antigen is visualized using a chromogenic substrate that produces a colored product at the site of the antigen-antibody interaction.
4. Immunofluorescence (IF): A method used for detecting specific antigens in cells or tissues by employing fluorophore-conjugated antibodies. The presence of the antigen is visualized using a fluorescence microscope.
5. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A method used for detecting and quantifying specific antigens or antibodies in liquid samples, such as serum or culture supernatants. In ELISA, an enzyme-conjugated detection antibody is added after the immune complex formation, and a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme to produce a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.

These techniques are widely used in research and diagnostic laboratories for various applications, including protein characterization, disease diagnosis, and monitoring treatment responses.

Bilirubin is a yellowish pigment that is produced by the liver when it breaks down old red blood cells. It is a normal byproduct of hemoglobin metabolism and is usually conjugated (made water-soluble) in the liver before being excreted through the bile into the digestive system. Elevated levels of bilirubin can cause jaundice, a yellowing of the skin and eyes. Increased bilirubin levels may indicate liver disease or other medical conditions such as gallstones or hemolysis. It is also measured to assess liver function and to help diagnose various liver disorders.

Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins. It involves two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. This RNA copy, or messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosome. During translation, the mRNA is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The ribosome then links these amino acids together in the correct order to form a polypeptide chain, which may then fold into a functional protein. Protein biosynthesis is essential for the growth and maintenance of all living organisms.

An amino acid substitution is a type of mutation in which one amino acid in a protein is replaced by another. This occurs when there is a change in the DNA sequence that codes for a particular amino acid in a protein. The genetic code is redundant, meaning that most amino acids are encoded by more than one codon (a sequence of three nucleotides). As a result, a single base pair change in the DNA sequence may not necessarily lead to an amino acid substitution. However, if a change does occur, it can have a variety of effects on the protein's structure and function, depending on the nature of the substituted amino acids. Some substitutions may be harmless, while others may alter the protein's activity or stability, leading to disease.

Hepadnaviridae is a family of small, enveloped viruses that primarily infect the liver cells (hepatocytes) of various species, including humans. The name "Hepadnaviridae" is derived from "hepa" for hepatotrophic (liver-tropic) and "DNA" for the DNA genome of the viruses.

The most well-known member of this family is the human hepatitis B virus (HBV), which causes acute and chronic liver infections, leading to various clinical manifestations such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Hepadnaviruses have a unique replication strategy that involves reverse transcription of an RNA intermediate, making them distinct from other DNA viruses. Their genome is partially double-stranded, with the minus strand being complete and the plus strand incomplete or absent. The genome encodes for four overlapping open reading frames (ORFs) that give rise to several viral proteins, including the surface antigen (HBsAg), core protein (HBcAg), polymerase, and X protein (HBx).

The family Hepadnaviridae includes several other members that infect animals, such as woodchuck hepatitis virus (WHV), ground squirrel hepatitis virus (GSHV), and duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV). These viruses serve as valuable models for understanding the biology and pathogenesis of HBV in humans.

Nucleic acid conformation refers to the three-dimensional structure that nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) adopt as a result of the bonding patterns between the atoms within the molecule. The primary structure of nucleic acids is determined by the sequence of nucleotides, while the conformation is influenced by factors such as the sugar-phosphate backbone, base stacking, and hydrogen bonding.

Two common conformations of DNA are the B-form and the A-form. The B-form is a right-handed helix with a diameter of about 20 Ã… and a pitch of 34 Ã…, while the A-form has a smaller diameter (about 18 Ã…) and a shorter pitch (about 25 Ã…). RNA typically adopts an A-form conformation.

The conformation of nucleic acids can have significant implications for their function, as it can affect their ability to interact with other molecules such as proteins or drugs. Understanding the conformational properties of nucleic acids is therefore an important area of research in molecular biology and medicine.

Needlestick injuries are sharp object injuries typically involving hollow-bore needles, which can result in exposure to bloodborne pathogens. They often occur during the use or disposal of contaminated needles in healthcare settings. These injuries pose a significant risk for transmission of infectious diseases such as HIV, Hepatitis B, and Hepatitis C. It is essential to follow strict protocols for handling and disposing of needles and other sharp objects to minimize the risk of needlestick injuries.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Immunosuppressive agents are medications that decrease the activity of the immune system. They are often used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. These drugs work by interfering with the immune system's normal responses, which helps to reduce inflammation and damage to tissues. However, because they suppress the immune system, people who take immunosuppressive agents are at increased risk for infections and other complications. Examples of immunosuppressive agents include corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and sirolimus.

Duck hepatitis virus (DHV) is not typically included in the medical definition of "hepatitis viruses" as it primarily affects birds, particularly ducks and geese, rather than humans. However, for the sake of completeness:

Duck hepatitis virus (DHV) is a species of small, single-stranded RNA viruses that belong to the family Picornaviridae. There are three serotypes of DHV (1, 2, and 3), which can cause an acute, often fatal, disease in young ducklings known as duck viral hepatitis.

DHV-1 and DHV-3 primarily affect ducklings under 4 weeks of age, causing liver damage, hemorrhage, and neurological symptoms. DHV-2, on the other hand, is associated with a milder disease in ducks but can cause a more severe illness in geese.

It's important to note that DHV is not related to human hepatitis viruses (A, B, C, D, and E) and does not pose a risk to human health.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Patient-to-professional transmission of infectious diseases refers to the spread of an infectious agent or disease from a patient to a healthcare professional. This can occur through various routes, including:

1. Contact transmission: This includes direct contact, such as touching or shaking hands with an infected patient, or indirect contact, such as touching a contaminated surface or object.
2. Droplet transmission: This occurs when an infected person coughs, sneezes, talks, or breathes out droplets containing the infectious agent, which can then be inhaled by a nearby healthcare professional.
3. Airborne transmission: This involves the spread of infectious agents through the air over long distances, usually requiring specialized medical procedures or equipment.

Healthcare professionals are at risk of patient-to-professional transmission of infectious diseases due to their close contact with patients and the potential for exposure to various pathogens. It is essential for healthcare professionals to follow standard precautions, including hand hygiene, personal protective equipment (PPE), and respiratory protection, to minimize the risk of transmission. Additionally, proper vaccination and education on infection prevention and control measures can further reduce the risk of patient-to-professional transmission of infectious diseases.

Acute liver failure is a sudden and severe loss of liver function that occurs within a few days or weeks. It can be caused by various factors such as drug-induced liver injury, viral hepatitis, or metabolic disorders. In acute liver failure, the liver cannot perform its vital functions, including protein synthesis, detoxification, and metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

The symptoms of acute liver failure include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), coagulopathy (bleeding disorders), hepatic encephalopathy (neurological symptoms such as confusion, disorientation, and coma), and elevated levels of liver enzymes in the blood. Acute liver failure is a medical emergency that requires immediate hospitalization and treatment, which may include medications, supportive care, and liver transplantation.

Graft survival, in medical terms, refers to the success of a transplanted tissue or organ in continuing to function and integrate with the recipient's body over time. It is the opposite of graft rejection, which occurs when the recipient's immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and attacks it, leading to its failure.

Graft survival depends on various factors, including the compatibility between the donor and recipient, the type and location of the graft, the use of immunosuppressive drugs to prevent rejection, and the overall health of the recipient. A successful graft survival implies that the transplanted tissue or organ has been accepted by the recipient's body and is functioning properly, providing the necessary physiological support for the recipient's survival and improved quality of life.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Italy" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located in Southern Europe. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Claudin-1 is a protein that is a member of the claudin family, which are important components of tight junctions in cells. Tight junctions are specialized structures that help to regulate the paracellular permeability of liquids and solutes between cells, and play a crucial role in maintaining cell polarity and tissue integrity. Claudin-1 is primarily expressed in epithelial and endothelial cells, where it helps to form tight junctions and regulate the movement of molecules across these barriers. Mutations in the gene that encodes claudin-1 have been associated with various human diseases, including skin disorders and cancer.

Virus receptors are specific molecules (commonly proteins) on the surface of host cells that viruses bind to in order to enter and infect those cells. This interaction between the virus and its receptor is a critical step in the infection process. Different types of viruses have different receptor requirements, and identifying these receptors can provide important insights into the biology of the virus and potential targets for antiviral therapies.

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a term that encompasses a spectrum of liver disorders caused by excessive alcohol consumption. The three main stages of ALD are:

1. Fatty Liver: This is the earliest stage of ALD, characterized by the accumulation of fat droplets within liver cells (hepatocytes). It's often reversible with abstinence from alcohol.

2. Alcoholic Hepatitis: This is a more severe form of ALD, characterized by inflammation and damage to the liver cells. It can range from mild to severe, and severe cases can lead to liver failure. Symptoms may include jaundice, abdominal pain, and fever.

3. Cirrhosis: This is the most advanced stage of ALD, characterized by widespread scarring (fibrosis) and nodular transformation of the liver. It's irreversible and can lead to complications such as liver failure, portal hypertension, and increased risk of liver cancer.

The development and progression of ALD are influenced by various factors, including the amount and duration of alcohol consumption, genetic predisposition, nutritional status, and co-existing viral hepatitis or other liver diseases. Abstaining from alcohol is the most effective way to prevent and manage ALD.

Infectious canine hepatitis is a viral disease in dogs caused by canine adenovirus type 1 (CAV-1). The disease primarily affects the liver, but other organs such as the kidneys, eyes, and respiratory system may also be involved.

The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected dogs or their urine, feces, saliva, or ocular/nasal discharge. It can also be spread through contaminated objects, water, or food. After infection, the virus incubates for 4-7 days before signs of illness appear.

Clinical signs of infectious canine hepatitis can vary widely in severity, from mild to severe. They may include fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, increased thirst and urination, jaundice (yellowing of the skin, mucous membranes, and whites of the eyes), and cloudiness or bluish discoloration of the cornea. In severe cases, neurological signs such as seizures or coma may occur.

Treatment for infectious canine hepatitis is primarily supportive, as there is no specific antiviral therapy available. Treatment may include fluid therapy to maintain hydration and electrolyte balance, nutritional support, medications to control vomiting and diarrhea, and management of any secondary bacterial infections that may develop.

Prevention of infectious canine hepatitis is achieved through vaccination with a modified-live or inactivated vaccine containing CAV-1. Puppies should receive their first vaccination at 6-8 weeks of age, followed by a booster at 10-12 weeks and another booster at 14-16 weeks. Annual revaccination is recommended to maintain immunity.

Hepadnaviridae is a family of viruses that primarily infect the liver of various species, including humans. The most well-known member of this family is the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which causes serious human disease.

Hepadnaviridae infections, specifically HBV infection, can lead to a range of clinical manifestations, from acute self-limiting hepatitis to chronic liver inflammation, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and even hepatocellular carcinoma (liver cancer). The virus is transmitted through contact with infected blood or other bodily fluids, as well as during childbirth from an infected mother to her newborn.

The infection process begins when the viral envelope proteins bind to specific receptors on the surface of hepatocytes, allowing the virus to enter the cell. Once inside, the viral DNA is released and converted into a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) form, which serves as the template for viral replication. The host's immune response plays a crucial role in controlling the infection, but in some cases, it may also contribute to liver damage.

Prevention measures include vaccination against HBV and safe practices to avoid exposure to infected blood or bodily fluids. Treatment options for chronic HBV infection include antiviral medications that can suppress viral replication and reduce the risk of liver complications.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) is a soluble cytokine that is primarily produced by the activation of natural killer (NK) cells and T lymphocytes, especially CD4+ Th1 cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of the immune response against viral and intracellular bacterial infections, as well as tumor cells. IFN-γ has several functions, including activating macrophages to enhance their microbicidal activity, increasing the presentation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II molecules on antigen-presenting cells, stimulating the proliferation and differentiation of T cells and NK cells, and inducing the production of other cytokines and chemokines. Additionally, IFN-γ has direct antiproliferative effects on certain types of tumor cells and can enhance the cytotoxic activity of immune cells against infected or malignant cells.

Medical mass screening, also known as population screening, is a public health service that aims to identify and detect asymptomatic individuals in a given population who have or are at risk of a specific disease. The goal is to provide early treatment, reduce morbidity and mortality, and prevent the spread of diseases within the community.

A mass screening program typically involves offering a simple, quick, and non-invasive test to a large number of people in a defined population, regardless of their risk factors or symptoms. Those who test positive are then referred for further diagnostic tests and appropriate medical interventions. Examples of mass screening programs include mammography for breast cancer detection, PSA (prostate-specific antigen) testing for prostate cancer, and fecal occult blood testing for colorectal cancer.

It is important to note that mass screening programs should be evidence-based, cost-effective, and ethically sound, with clear benefits outweighing potential harms. They should also consider factors such as the prevalence of the disease in the population, the accuracy and reliability of the screening test, and the availability and effectiveness of treatment options.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid. It is the first antibody to be produced in response to an initial exposure to an antigen, making it an important part of the body's primary immune response. IgM antibodies are large molecules that are composed of five basic units, giving them a pentameric structure. They are primarily found on the surface of B cells as membrane-bound immunoglobulins (mlgM), where they function as receptors for antigens. Once an mlgM receptor binds to an antigen, it triggers the activation and differentiation of the B cell into a plasma cell that produces and secretes large amounts of soluble IgM antibodies.

IgM antibodies are particularly effective at agglutination (clumping) and complement activation, which makes them important in the early stages of an immune response to help clear pathogens from the bloodstream. However, they are not as stable or long-lived as other types of antibodies, such as IgG, and their levels tend to decline after the initial immune response has occurred.

In summary, Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the primary immune response to antigens by agglutination and complement activation. It is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid, and it is produced by B cells after they are activated by an antigen.

A tissue donor is an individual who has agreed to allow organs and tissues to be removed from their body after death for the purpose of transplantation to restore the health or save the life of another person. The tissues that can be donated include corneas, heart valves, skin, bone, tendons, ligaments, veins, and cartilage. These tissues can enhance the quality of life for many recipients and are often used in reconstructive surgeries. It is important to note that tissue donation does not interfere with an open casket funeral or other cultural or religious practices related to death and grieving.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Taiwan" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of an island nation located in East Asia. The official name of the country is the Republic of China (ROC). If you have any medical questions or inquiries, I would be happy to help answer those for you!

CD (cluster of differentiation) antigens are cell-surface proteins that are expressed on leukocytes (white blood cells) and can be used to identify and distinguish different subsets of these cells. They are important markers in the field of immunology and hematology, and are commonly used to diagnose and monitor various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

CD antigens are designated by numbers, such as CD4, CD8, CD19, etc., which refer to specific proteins found on the surface of different types of leukocytes. For example, CD4 is a protein found on the surface of helper T cells, while CD8 is found on cytotoxic T cells.

CD antigens can be used as targets for immunotherapy, such as monoclonal antibody therapy, in which antibodies are designed to bind to specific CD antigens and trigger an immune response against cancer cells or infected cells. They can also be used as markers to monitor the effectiveness of treatments and to detect minimal residual disease (MRD) after treatment.

It's important to note that not all CD antigens are exclusive to leukocytes, some can be found on other cell types as well, and their expression can vary depending on the activation state or differentiation stage of the cells.

Interferon-beta (IFN-β) is a type of cytokine - specifically, it's a protein that is produced and released by cells in response to stimulation by a virus or other foreign substance. It belongs to the interferon family of cytokines, which play important roles in the body's immune response to infection.

IFN-β has antiviral properties and helps to regulate the immune system. It works by binding to specific receptors on the surface of cells, which triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of genes involved in the antiviral response. This results in the production of proteins that inhibit viral replication and promote the death of infected cells.

IFN-β is used as a medication for the treatment of certain autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). In MS, the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective coating around nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord, causing inflammation and damage to the nerves. IFN-β has been shown to reduce the frequency and severity of relapses in people with MS, possibly by modulating the immune response and reducing inflammation.

It's important to note that while IFN-β is an important component of the body's natural defense system, it can also have side effects when used as a medication. Common side effects of IFN-β therapy include flu-like symptoms such as fever, chills, and muscle aches, as well as injection site reactions. More serious side effects are rare but can occur, so it's important to discuss the risks and benefits of this treatment with a healthcare provider.

Graft rejection is an immune response that occurs when transplanted tissue or organ (the graft) is recognized as foreign by the recipient's immune system, leading to the activation of immune cells to attack and destroy the graft. This results in the failure of the transplant and the need for additional medical intervention or another transplant. There are three types of graft rejection: hyperacute, acute, and chronic. Hyperacute rejection occurs immediately or soon after transplantation due to pre-existing antibodies against the graft. Acute rejection typically occurs within weeks to months post-transplant and is characterized by the infiltration of T-cells into the graft. Chronic rejection, which can occur months to years after transplantation, is a slow and progressive process characterized by fibrosis and tissue damage due to ongoing immune responses against the graft.

CD8-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD8+ T cells or cytotoxic T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the adaptive immune system. They are named after the CD8 molecule found on their surface, which is a protein involved in cell signaling and recognition.

CD8+ T cells are primarily responsible for identifying and destroying virus-infected cells or cancerous cells. When activated, they release cytotoxic granules that contain enzymes capable of inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in the target cells. They also produce cytokines such as interferon-gamma, which can help coordinate the immune response and activate other immune cells.

CD8+ T cells are generated in the thymus gland and are a type of T cell, which is a lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They recognize and respond to specific antigens presented on the surface of infected or cancerous cells in conjunction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules.

Overall, CD8+ T cells are an essential component of the immune system's defense against viral infections and cancer.

Serum, in the context of clinical and medical laboratory science, refers to the fluid that is obtained after blood coagulation. It is the yellowish, straw-colored liquid fraction of whole blood that remains after the clotting factors have been removed. Serum contains various proteins, electrolytes, hormones, antibodies, antigens, and other substances, which can be analyzed to help diagnose and monitor a wide range of medical conditions. It is commonly used for various clinical tests such as chemistry panels, immunological assays, drug screening, and infectious disease testing.

A disease outbreak is defined as the occurrence of cases of a disease in excess of what would normally be expected in a given time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or a large number of people spread over a wide area, even internationally. An outbreak may be caused by a new agent, a change in the agent's virulence or host susceptibility, or an increase in the size or density of the host population.

Outbreaks can have significant public health and economic impacts, and require prompt investigation and control measures to prevent further spread of the disease. The investigation typically involves identifying the source of the outbreak, determining the mode of transmission, and implementing measures to interrupt the chain of infection. This may include vaccination, isolation or quarantine, and education of the public about the risks and prevention strategies.

Examples of disease outbreaks include foodborne illnesses linked to contaminated food or water, respiratory infections spread through coughing and sneezing, and mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika virus and West Nile virus. Outbreaks can also occur in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes, where vulnerable populations may be at increased risk of infection.

'Infectious disease transmission, professional-to-patient' refers to the spread of an infectious agent or disease from a healthcare professional to a patient within a healthcare setting. This can occur through various routes such as:

1. Direct contact transmission: This involves physical contact between the healthcare professional and the patient, which may result in the transfer of microorganisms. Examples include touching, coughing, or sneezing on the patient.

2. Indirect contact transmission: This occurs when a healthcare professional contaminates an object or surface that is then touched by the patient, leading to the spread of infection. Common examples include contaminated medical equipment, bed rails, or doorknobs.

3. Droplet transmission: This type of transmission occurs when an infected individual generates respiratory droplets containing microorganisms, which can then be dispersed through the air and inhaled by a susceptible host. Healthcare professionals can transmit infectious diseases to patients via this route if they have close contact (within 1 meter) with the patient during procedures that generate aerosols or when coughing or sneezing.

4. Airborne transmission: This occurs when microorganisms are suspended in air and transmitted over long distances. Healthcare professionals can become sources of airborne infections through activities such as suctioning, endotracheal intubation, bronchoscopy, or cardiopulmonary resuscitation.

To prevent professional-to-patient transmission of infectious diseases, healthcare professionals should adhere to standard precautions, including hand hygiene, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), safe injection practices, and environmental cleaning and disinfection. Additionally, they should be vaccinated against vaccine-preventable diseases and follow respiratory etiquette, such as wearing masks and covering their mouths and noses when coughing or sneezing.

I cannot provide a medical definition for "equipment reuse" as it is not a term that is commonly used in the medical field. However, I can give you some general information about equipment reuse in healthcare settings.

Equipment reuse refers to the practice of using previously owned or disposable medical equipment and supplies multiple times after they have been sterilized or disinfected according to established protocols. This practice is often adopted by healthcare facilities as a way to reduce costs, conserve resources, and minimize waste.

Examples of medical equipment that may be reused include anesthesia breathing circuits, blood pressure cuffs, stethoscopes, and electronic thermometers. It's important to note that any reprocessed or reused medical equipment must undergo strict cleaning, disinfection, and sterilization procedures to ensure the safety of patients and healthcare workers.

Reusing medical equipment can have benefits such as reducing costs and waste, but it also carries risks if not done properly. Proper training and adherence to established protocols are crucial to ensuring that reused equipment is safe for use.

Silymarin is not a medical term itself, but it's the active compound found in the milk thistle plant (Silybum marianum). Medically, silymarin is often referred to as a standardized extract from the seeds of the milk thistle plant. It is a complex mixture of flavonolignans, mainly consisting of silybin, isosilybin, silychristin, and silydianin.

Silymarin has been reported to have various biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hepatoprotective effects. It is commonly used in complementary and alternative medicine for the treatment of liver diseases such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, and toxic liver damage due to alcohol or drug abuse. However, its clinical efficacy remains a subject of ongoing research and debate among medical professionals.

Logistic models, specifically logistic regression models, are a type of statistical analysis used in medical and epidemiological research to identify the relationship between the risk of a certain health outcome or disease (dependent variable) and one or more independent variables, such as demographic factors, exposure variables, or other clinical measurements.

In contrast to linear regression models, logistic regression models are used when the dependent variable is binary or dichotomous in nature, meaning it can only take on two values, such as "disease present" or "disease absent." The model uses a logistic function to estimate the probability of the outcome based on the independent variables.

Logistic regression models are useful for identifying risk factors and estimating the strength of associations between exposures and health outcomes, adjusting for potential confounders, and predicting the probability of an outcome given certain values of the independent variables. They can also be used to develop clinical prediction rules or scores that can aid in decision-making and patient care.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Romania" is not a medical term. It is a country located in southeastern Europe. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help. Could you please clarify your question?

Oligopeptides are defined in medicine and biochemistry as short chains of amino acids, typically containing fewer than 20 amino acid residues. These small peptides are important components in various biological processes, such as serving as signaling molecules, enzyme inhibitors, or structural elements in some proteins. They can be found naturally in foods and may also be synthesized for use in medical research and therapeutic applications.

Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (RTIs) are a class of antiretroviral drugs that are primarily used in the treatment and management of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection. They work by inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is essential for the replication of HIV.

HIV is a retrovirus, meaning it has an RNA genome and uses a unique enzyme called reverse transcriptase to convert its RNA into DNA. This process is necessary for the virus to integrate into the host cell's genome and replicate. Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors interfere with this process by binding to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, preventing it from converting the viral RNA into DNA.

RTIs can be further divided into two categories: nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs). NRTIs are analogs of the building blocks of DNA, which get incorporated into the growing DNA chain during replication, causing termination of the chain. NNRTIs bind directly to the reverse transcriptase enzyme, causing a conformational change that prevents it from functioning.

By inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, RTIs can prevent the virus from replicating and reduce the viral load in an infected individual, thereby slowing down the progression of HIV infection and AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

Antiretroviral Therapy, Highly Active (HAART) is a medical treatment regimen used to manage HIV infection. It involves the combination of three or more antiretroviral drugs from at least two different classes, aiming to maximally suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance. The goal of HAART is to reduce the amount of HIV in the body to undetectable levels, preserve immune function, and improve quality of life for people living with HIV. Commonly used antiretroviral classes include nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), protease inhibitors (PIs), integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs), and fusion inhibitors.

A CD4 lymphocyte count is a laboratory test that measures the number of CD4 T-cells (also known as CD4+ T-cells or helper T-cells) in a sample of blood. CD4 cells are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the body's immune response, particularly in fighting off infections caused by viruses and other pathogens.

CD4 cells express a protein on their surface called the CD4 receptor, which is used by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to infect and destroy these cells. As a result, people with HIV infection or AIDS often have low CD4 lymphocyte counts, which can make them more susceptible to opportunistic infections and other complications.

A normal CD4 lymphocyte count ranges from 500 to 1,200 cells per cubic millimeter of blood (cells/mm3) in healthy adults. A lower than normal CD4 count is often used as a marker for the progression of HIV infection and the development of AIDS. CD4 counts are typically monitored over time to assess the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy (ART) and to guide clinical decision-making regarding the need for additional interventions, such as prophylaxis against opportunistic infections.

Interferon type I is a class of signaling proteins, also known as cytokines, that are produced and released by cells in response to the presence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites. These interferons play a crucial role in the body's innate immune system and help to establish an antiviral state in surrounding cells to prevent the spread of infection.

Interferon type I includes several subtypes, such as interferon-alpha (IFN-α), interferon-beta (IFN-β), and interferon-omega (IFN-ω). When produced, these interferons bind to specific receptors on the surface of nearby cells, triggering a cascade of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation of genes involved in the antiviral response.

The activation of these genes results in the production of enzymes that inhibit viral replication and promote the destruction of infected cells. Interferon type I also enhances the adaptive immune response by promoting the activation and proliferation of immune cells such as T-cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which can directly target and eliminate infected cells.

Overall, interferon type I plays a critical role in the body's defense against viral infections and is an important component of the immune response to many different types of pathogens.

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric syndrome associated with liver dysfunction and/or portosystemic shunting. It results from the accumulation of toxic substances, such as ammonia and inflammatory mediators, which are normally metabolized by the liver. HE can present with a wide range of symptoms, including changes in sleep-wake cycle, altered mental status, confusion, disorientation, asterixis (flapping tremor), and in severe cases, coma. The diagnosis is based on clinical evaluation, neuropsychological testing, and exclusion of other causes of cognitive impairment. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying liver dysfunction, reducing ammonia production through dietary modifications and medications, and preventing further episodes with lactulose or rifaximin therapy.

Comorbidity is the presence of one or more additional health conditions or diseases alongside a primary illness or condition. These co-occurring health issues can have an impact on the treatment plan, prognosis, and overall healthcare management of an individual. Comorbidities often interact with each other and the primary condition, leading to more complex clinical situations and increased healthcare needs. It is essential for healthcare professionals to consider and address comorbidities to provide comprehensive care and improve patient outcomes.

Autoantibodies are defined as antibodies that are produced by the immune system and target the body's own cells, tissues, or organs. These antibodies mistakenly identify certain proteins or molecules in the body as foreign invaders and attack them, leading to an autoimmune response. Autoantibodies can be found in various autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and thyroiditis. The presence of autoantibodies can also be used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Biliary cirrhosis is a specific type of liver cirrhosis that results from chronic inflammation and scarring of the bile ducts, leading to impaired bile flow, liver damage, and fibrosis. It can be further classified into primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and secondary biliary cirrhosis. PBC is an autoimmune disease, while secondary biliary cirrhosis is often associated with chronic gallstones, biliary tract obstruction, or recurrent pyogenic cholangitis. Symptoms may include fatigue, itching, jaundice, and abdominal discomfort. Diagnosis typically involves blood tests, imaging studies, and sometimes liver biopsy. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms, slowing disease progression, and preventing complications.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Japan" is not a medical term. Japan is the name of a country, officially known as Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku in Japanese, and is located in East Asia. It is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean with a population of about 126 million people.

If you have any medical questions or terms that you would like me to define, please let me know!

Recombinant fusion proteins are artificially created biomolecules that combine the functional domains or properties of two or more different proteins into a single protein entity. They are generated through recombinant DNA technology, where the genes encoding the desired protein domains are linked together and expressed as a single, chimeric gene in a host organism, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells.

The resulting fusion protein retains the functional properties of its individual constituent proteins, allowing for novel applications in research, diagnostics, and therapeutics. For instance, recombinant fusion proteins can be designed to enhance protein stability, solubility, or immunogenicity, making them valuable tools for studying protein-protein interactions, developing targeted therapies, or generating vaccines against infectious diseases or cancer.

Examples of recombinant fusion proteins include:

1. Etaglunatide (ABT-523): A soluble Fc fusion protein that combines the heavy chain fragment crystallizable region (Fc) of an immunoglobulin with the extracellular domain of the human interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R). This fusion protein functions as a decoy receptor, neutralizing IL-6 and its downstream signaling pathways in rheumatoid arthritis.
2. Etanercept (Enbrel): A soluble TNF receptor p75 Fc fusion protein that binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inhibits its proinflammatory activity, making it a valuable therapeutic option for treating autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriasis.
3. Abatacept (Orencia): A fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) linked to the Fc region of an immunoglobulin, which downregulates T-cell activation and proliferation in autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Belimumab (Benlysta): A monoclonal antibody that targets B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) protein, preventing its interaction with the B-cell surface receptor and inhibiting B-cell activation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
5. Romiplostim (Nplate): A fusion protein consisting of a thrombopoietin receptor agonist peptide linked to an immunoglobulin Fc region, which stimulates platelet production in patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP).
6. Darbepoetin alfa (Aranesp): A hyperglycosylated erythropoiesis-stimulating protein that functions as a longer-acting form of recombinant human erythropoietin, used to treat anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease or cancer.
7. Palivizumab (Synagis): A monoclonal antibody directed against the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which prevents RSV infection and is administered prophylactically to high-risk infants during the RSV season.
8. Ranibizumab (Lucentis): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody fragment that binds and inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), used in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and other ocular disorders.
9. Cetuximab (Erbitux): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), used in the treatment of colorectal cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
10. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully humanized monoclonal antibody that targets tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn's disease.
11. Bevacizumab (Avastin): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to VEGF-A, used in the treatment of various cancers, including colorectal, lung, breast, and kidney cancer.
12. Trastuzumab (Herceptin): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets HER2/neu receptor, used in the treatment of breast cancer.
13. Rituximab (Rituxan): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to CD20 antigen on B cells, used in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and rheumatoid arthritis.
14. Palivizumab (Synagis): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus, used in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.
15. Infliximab (Remicade): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
16. Natalizumab (Tysabri): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to α4β1 integrin, used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and Crohn's disease.
17. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis.
18. Golimumab (Simponi): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and ulcerative colitis.
19. Certolizumab pegol (Cimzia): A PEGylated Fab' fragment of a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and Crohn's disease.
20. Ustekinumab (Stelara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-12 and IL-23, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and Crohn's disease.
21. Secukinumab (Cosentyx): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
22. Ixekizumab (Taltz): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.
23. Brodalumab (Siliq): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17 receptor A, used in the treatment of psoriasis.
24. Sarilumab (Kevzara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
25. Tocilizumab (Actemra): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis, giant cell arteritis, and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-induced cytokine release syndrome.
26. Siltuximab (Sylvant): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment of multicentric Castleman disease.
27. Satralizumab (Enspryng): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6 receptor alpha, used in the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.
28. Sirukumab (Plivensia): A human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment

Immunoblotting, also known as western blotting, is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology and immunogenetics to detect and quantify specific proteins in a complex mixture. This technique combines the electrophoretic separation of proteins by gel electrophoresis with their detection using antibodies that recognize specific epitopes (protein fragments) on the target protein.

The process involves several steps: first, the protein sample is separated based on size through sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Next, the separated proteins are transferred onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric field. The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies.

After blocking, the membrane is incubated with a primary antibody that specifically recognizes the target protein. Following this, the membrane is washed to remove unbound primary antibodies and then incubated with a secondary antibody conjugated to an enzyme such as horseradish peroxidase (HRP) or alkaline phosphatase (AP). The enzyme catalyzes a colorimetric or chemiluminescent reaction that allows for the detection of the target protein.

Immunoblotting is widely used in research and clinical settings to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and disease biomarkers. It provides high specificity and sensitivity, making it a valuable tool for identifying and quantifying proteins in various biological samples.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Hep G2 cells are a type of human liver cancer cell line that were isolated from a well-differentiated hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in a patient with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. These cells have the ability to grow and divide indefinitely in culture, making them useful for research purposes. Hep G2 cells express many of the same markers and functions as normal human hepatocytes, including the ability to take up and process lipids and produce bile. They are often used in studies related to hepatitis viruses, liver metabolism, drug toxicity, and cancer biology. It is important to note that Hep G2 cells are tumorigenic and should be handled with care in a laboratory setting.

Proline is an organic compound that is classified as a non-essential amino acid, meaning it can be produced by the human body and does not need to be obtained through the diet. It is encoded in the genetic code as the codon CCU, CCC, CCA, or CCG. Proline is a cyclic amino acid, containing an unusual secondary amine group, which forms a ring structure with its carboxyl group.

In proteins, proline acts as a structural helix breaker, disrupting the alpha-helix structure and leading to the formation of turns and bends in the protein chain. This property is important for the proper folding and function of many proteins. Proline also plays a role in the stability of collagen, a major structural protein found in connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, and skin.

In addition to its role in protein structure, proline has been implicated in various cellular processes, including signal transduction, apoptosis, and oxidative stress response. It is also a precursor for the synthesis of other biologically important compounds such as hydroxyproline, which is found in collagen and elastin, and glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a protein produced by the yolk sac and the liver during fetal development. In adults, AFP is normally present in very low levels in the blood. However, abnormal production of AFP can occur in certain medical conditions, such as:

* Liver cancer or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)
* Germ cell tumors, including non-seminomatous testicular cancer and ovarian cancer
* Hepatitis or liver inflammation
* Certain types of benign liver disease, such as cirrhosis or hepatic adenomas

Elevated levels of AFP in the blood can be detected through a simple blood test. This test is often used as a tumor marker to help diagnose and monitor certain types of cancer, particularly HCC. However, it's important to note that an elevated AFP level alone is not enough to diagnose cancer, and further testing is usually needed to confirm the diagnosis. Additionally, some non-cancerous conditions can also cause elevated AFP levels, so it's important to interpret the test results in the context of the individual's medical history and other diagnostic tests.

Superinfection is a medical term that refers to a secondary infection which occurs during or following the treatment of an initial infection. This second infection is often caused by a different microorganism that is resistant to the medication used to treat the first infection. Superinfections can occur in various parts of the body, such as the skin, respiratory system, gastrointestinal tract, or urinary tract, and are more common in individuals with weakened immune systems, chronic illnesses, or those who have been on antibiotics for an extended period.

Superinfections can lead to more severe complications, prolonged hospital stays, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates if not promptly diagnosed and treated appropriately. Healthcare providers must be vigilant in monitoring patients' responses to treatment and recognizing signs of superinfection, such as worsening symptoms or the development of new ones, to ensure timely intervention and optimal patient outcomes.

Neutralizing antibodies are a type of antibody that defends against pathogens such as viruses or bacteria by neutralizing their ability to infect cells. They do this by binding to specific regions on the surface proteins of the pathogen, preventing it from attaching to and entering host cells. This renders the pathogen ineffective and helps to prevent or reduce the severity of infection. Neutralizing antibodies can be produced naturally in response to an infection or vaccination, or they can be generated artificially for therapeutic purposes.

Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) is a type of glomerulonephritis, which is a group of kidney disorders characterized by inflammation and damage to the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys responsible for filtering waste and excess fluids from the blood.

MPGN is specifically characterized by thickening of the glomerular basement membrane and proliferation (increased number) of cells in the mesangium, a region within the glomerulus. This condition can be primary or secondary to other diseases such as infections, autoimmune disorders, or monoclonal gammopathies.

MPGN is typically classified into three types based on the pattern of injury seen on electron microscopy: Type I, Type II (Dense Deposit Disease), and Type III. Each type has distinct clinical features, laboratory findings, and treatment approaches. Symptoms of MPGN may include hematuria (blood in urine), proteinuria (protein in urine), hypertension (high blood pressure), edema (swelling), and eventually progress to chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease if left untreated.

In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.

CD4-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD4+ T cells or helper T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune response. They express the CD4 receptor on their surface and help coordinate the immune system's response to infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria.

CD4+ T cells recognize and bind to specific antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages. Once activated, they can differentiate into various subsets of effector cells, including Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells, each with distinct functions in the immune response.

CD4+ T cells are particularly important in the immune response to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which targets and destroys these cells, leading to a weakened immune system and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections. The number of CD4+ T cells is often used as a marker of disease progression in HIV infection, with lower counts indicating more advanced disease.

Macrocyclic compounds are organic compounds containing a large ring structure, typically consisting of 12 or more atoms in the ring. These molecules can be found naturally occurring in some organisms, such as certain antibiotics and toxins, or they can be synthesized in the laboratory for various applications, including pharmaceuticals, catalysts, and materials science.

The term "macrocyclic" is used to distinguish these compounds from smaller ring structures, known as "cyclic" or "small-ring" compounds, which typically contain 5-7 atoms in the ring. Macrocyclic compounds can have a wide range of shapes and sizes, including crown ethers, cyclodextrins, calixarenes, and porphyrins, among others.

The unique structure of macrocyclic compounds often imparts special properties to them, such as the ability to bind selectively to specific ions or molecules, form stable complexes with metals, or act as catalysts for chemical reactions. These properties make macrocyclic compounds useful in a variety of applications, including drug delivery, chemical sensors, and environmental remediation.

Epitope mapping is a technique used in immunology to identify the specific portion or regions (called epitopes) on an antigen that are recognized and bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. This process helps to understand the molecular basis of immune responses against various pathogens, allergens, or transplanted tissues.

Epitope mapping can be performed using different methods such as:

1. Peptide scanning: In this method, a series of overlapping peptides spanning the entire length of the antigen are synthesized and tested for their ability to bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. The peptide that shows binding is considered to contain the epitope.
2. Site-directed mutagenesis: In this approach, specific amino acids within the antigen are altered, and the modified antigens are tested for their ability to bind to antibodies or T-cell receptors. This helps in identifying the critical residues within the epitope.
3. X-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy: These techniques provide detailed information about the three-dimensional structure of antigen-antibody complexes, allowing for accurate identification of epitopes at an atomic level.

The results from epitope mapping can be useful in various applications, including vaccine design, diagnostic test development, and understanding the basis of autoimmune diseases.

The Predictive Value of Tests, specifically the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), are measures used in diagnostic tests to determine the probability that a positive or negative test result is correct.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the proportion of patients with a positive test result who actually have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true positives divided by the total number of positive results (true positives + false positives). A higher PPV indicates that a positive test result is more likely to be a true positive, and therefore the disease is more likely to be present.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the proportion of patients with a negative test result who do not have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true negatives divided by the total number of negative results (true negatives + false negatives). A higher NPV indicates that a negative test result is more likely to be a true negative, and therefore the disease is less likely to be present.

The predictive value of tests depends on the prevalence of the disease in the population being tested, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the test. A test with high sensitivity and specificity will generally have higher predictive values than a test with low sensitivity and specificity. However, even a highly sensitive and specific test can have low predictive values if the prevalence of the disease is low in the population being tested.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

Immune evasion is a term used in immunology to describe the various strategies employed by pathogens (such as viruses, bacteria, parasites) to avoid or subvert the host's immune system. This can include mechanisms that allow the pathogen to directly inhibit or escape the actions of immune cells, like T cells and neutrophils, or to prevent the detection of their presence by masking themselves from the immune system.

For example, some viruses may change their surface proteins to avoid recognition by antibodies, while others may block the presentation of their antigens to T cells. Similarly, some bacteria can produce enzymes that degrade or modify components of the immune system, allowing them to evade detection and destruction.

Immune evasion is a major challenge in the development of effective vaccines and therapies for infectious diseases, as it allows pathogens to persist and cause chronic infections. Understanding the mechanisms of immune evasion can help researchers develop strategies to overcome these challenges and improve outcomes for patients.

Glycyrrhizic acid is a compound derived from the root of the licorice plant (Glycyrrhiza glabra). It has been defined medically as a triterpene glycoside with anti-inflammatory and expectorant properties. It is known to inhibit the enzyme 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, which can lead to increased levels of cortisol in the body, potentially causing side effects such as hypertension and hypokalemia if consumed in large amounts or over an extended period.

In some medical contexts, glycyrrhizic acid may be used for its potential benefits, including its ability to suppress viral replication and inflammation. However, due to the risk of side effects, it is often used in modified forms or at reduced concentrations.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the adaptive immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are several different types of T-cells, including CD4+ helper T-cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, and regulatory T-cells (Tregs).

CD4+ helper T-cells assist in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages. They also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response. CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic substances. Regulatory T-cells help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes are important in the immune response to viral infections, cancer, and other diseases. Dysfunction or depletion of T-cells can lead to immunodeficiency and increased susceptibility to infections. On the other hand, an overactive T-cell response can contribute to autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

Cyclophilins are a family of proteins that have peptidyl-prolyl isomerase activity, which means they help with the folding and functioning of other proteins in cells. They were first identified as binding proteins for the immunosuppressive drug cyclosporine A, hence their name.

Cyclophilins are found in various organisms, including humans, and play important roles in many cellular processes such as signal transduction, protein trafficking, and gene expression. In addition to their role in normal cell function, cyclophilins have also been implicated in several diseases, including viral infections, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

In medicine, the most well-known use of cyclophilins is as a target for immunosuppressive drugs used in organ transplantation. Cyclosporine A and its derivatives work by binding to cyclophilins, which inhibits their activity and subsequently suppresses the immune response.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "France" is not a medical term or concept. France is the largest country in Western Europe and the third-largest in Europe after Russia and Ukraine. It has been a major player in world affairs for centuries, with a significant cultural and artistic influence. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help answer those for you.

Risk assessment in the medical context refers to the process of identifying, evaluating, and prioritizing risks to patients, healthcare workers, or the community related to healthcare delivery. It involves determining the likelihood and potential impact of adverse events or hazards, such as infectious diseases, medication errors, or medical devices failures, and implementing measures to mitigate or manage those risks. The goal of risk assessment is to promote safe and high-quality care by identifying areas for improvement and taking action to minimize harm.

Lichen Planus is a chronic, autoimmune skin condition that can also affect the mucous membranes inside the mouth, genitals, and eyes. It is characterized by the appearance of purplish, flat-topped bumps or lesions on the skin, which may be itchy. The exact cause of Lichen Planus is unknown, but it is believed to occur when the immune system mistakenly attacks cells in the skin or mucous membranes. Certain medications, viral infections, and genetic factors may increase the risk of developing this condition. Treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms and may include topical corticosteroids, oral medications, or light therapy.

'Tumor cells, cultured' refers to the process of removing cancerous cells from a tumor and growing them in controlled laboratory conditions. This is typically done by isolating the tumor cells from a patient's tissue sample, then placing them in a nutrient-rich environment that promotes their growth and multiplication.

The resulting cultured tumor cells can be used for various research purposes, including the study of cancer biology, drug development, and toxicity testing. They provide a valuable tool for researchers to better understand the behavior and characteristics of cancer cells outside of the human body, which can lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments.

It is important to note that cultured tumor cells may not always behave exactly the same way as they do in the human body, so findings from cell culture studies must be validated through further research, such as animal models or clinical trials.

A "Drug Administration Schedule" refers to the plan for when and how a medication should be given to a patient. It includes details such as the dose, frequency (how often it should be taken), route (how it should be administered, such as orally, intravenously, etc.), and duration (how long it should be taken) of the medication. This schedule is often created and prescribed by healthcare professionals, such as doctors or pharmacists, to ensure that the medication is taken safely and effectively. It may also include instructions for missed doses or changes in the dosage.

Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), also known as gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase, is an enzyme found in many tissues, including the liver, bile ducts, and pancreas. GGT is involved in the metabolism of certain amino acids and plays a role in the detoxification of various substances in the body.

GGT is often measured as a part of a panel of tests used to evaluate liver function. Elevated levels of GGT in the blood may indicate liver disease or injury, bile duct obstruction, or alcohol consumption. However, it's important to note that several other factors can also affect GGT levels, so abnormal results should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and diagnostic tests.

Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, also known as CD8+ T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the cell-mediated immune system. They are responsible for identifying and destroying virus-infected cells and cancer cells. When a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte recognizes a specific antigen presented on the surface of an infected or malignant cell, it becomes activated and releases toxic substances such as perforins and granzymes, which can create pores in the target cell's membrane and induce apoptosis (programmed cell death). This process helps to eliminate the infected or malignant cells and prevent the spread of infection or cancer.

Cyclophilin A is a type of intracellular protein that belongs to the immunophilin family. It has peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase activity, which means it helps in folding and assembling other proteins by catalyzing the cis-trans isomerization of proline residues.

Cyclophilin A is widely distributed in various tissues and cells, including immune cells such as T lymphocytes. It plays a crucial role in the immune system by binding to and activating the immunosuppressive drug cyclosporine A, which is used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs.

In addition to its role in protein folding and immunosuppression, Cyclophilin A has been implicated in various cellular processes such as signal transduction, gene expression, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). It also plays a role in viral replication, particularly of HIV-1, the virus that causes AIDS.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

A syringe is a medical device used to administer or withdraw fluids, typically liquids or gases. It consists of a narrow tube, usually made of plastic or glass, connected to a handle that contains a plunger. The plunger is used to draw fluid into the tube by creating a vacuum, and then to expel the fluid when pressure is applied to the plunger. Syringes come in various sizes and are used for a wide range of medical procedures, including injections, wound care, and specimen collection. They are an essential tool in the medical field and are used daily in hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare settings.

A nucleoside is a biochemical molecule that consists of a pentose sugar (a type of simple sugar with five carbon atoms) covalently linked to a nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous base can be one of several types, including adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, or uracil. Nucleosides are important components of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, which are the genetic materials found in cells. They play a crucial role in various biological processes, including cell division, protein synthesis, and gene expression.

Protein precursors, also known as proproteins or prohormones, are inactive forms of proteins that undergo post-translational modification to become active. These modifications typically include cleavage of the precursor protein by specific enzymes, resulting in the release of the active protein. This process allows for the regulation and control of protein activity within the body. Protein precursors can be found in various biological processes, including the endocrine system where they serve as inactive hormones that can be converted into their active forms when needed.

Elasticity imaging techniques are non-invasive medical diagnostic methods used to evaluate the stiffness or elasticity of various tissues in the body, such as organs, muscles, and breast tissue. These techniques can help detect and diagnose abnormalities, including tumors, lesions, and other conditions that may affect tissue stiffness.

There are several types of elasticity imaging techniques, including:

1. Ultrasound Elastography: This technique uses ultrasound waves to apply pressure to tissues and measure their deformation or strain. The degree of deformation is then used to calculate the stiffness of the tissue.
2. Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE): MRE uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to create images of tissue elasticity. A mechanical device is used to apply vibrations to the body, and the resulting motion is measured using MRI to determine tissue stiffness.
3. Shear Wave Elastography: This technique uses acoustic radiation force impulses to generate shear waves in tissues. The speed of these waves is then measured to calculate tissue stiffness.
4. Strain Imaging: This technique measures the amount of deformation or strain that occurs in tissues when they are compressed or stretched. It can be used to detect areas of increased stiffness, such as tumors or scar tissue.

Elasticity imaging techniques have several advantages over traditional diagnostic methods, including their non-invasive nature and ability to provide real-time images of tissue elasticity. They are also useful for monitoring changes in tissue stiffness over time, making them valuable tools for evaluating the effectiveness of treatments and monitoring disease progression.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

Ribosomes are complex macromolecular structures composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins that play a crucial role in protein synthesis within cells. They serve as the site for translation, where messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into a specific sequence of amino acids to create a polypeptide chain, which eventually folds into a functional protein.

Ribosomes consist of two subunits: a smaller subunit and a larger subunit. These subunits are composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and proteins. In eukaryotic cells, the smaller subunit is denoted as the 40S subunit, while the larger subunit is referred to as the 60S subunit. In prokaryotic cells, these subunits are named the 30S and 50S subunits, respectively. The ribosome's overall structure resembles a "doughnut" or a "cotton reel," with grooves and binding sites for various factors involved in protein synthesis.

Ribosomes can be found floating freely within the cytoplasm of cells or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane, forming part of the rough ER. Membrane-bound ribosomes are responsible for synthesizing proteins that will be transported across the ER and ultimately secreted from the cell or inserted into the membrane. In contrast, cytoplasmic ribosomes synthesize proteins destined for use within the cytoplasm or organelles.

In summary, ribosomes are essential components of cells that facilitate protein synthesis by translating mRNA into functional polypeptide chains. They can be found in various cellular locations and exist as either free-floating entities or membrane-bound structures.

Synthetic vaccines are artificially produced, designed to stimulate an immune response and provide protection against specific diseases. Unlike traditional vaccines that are derived from weakened or killed pathogens, synthetic vaccines are created using synthetic components, such as synthesized viral proteins, DNA, or RNA. These components mimic the disease-causing agent and trigger an immune response without causing the actual disease. The use of synthetic vaccines offers advantages in terms of safety, consistency, and scalability in production, making them valuable tools for preventing infectious diseases.

A platelet count is a laboratory test that measures the number of platelets, also known as thrombocytes, in a sample of blood. Platelets are small, colorless cell fragments that circulate in the blood and play a crucial role in blood clotting. They help to stop bleeding by sticking together to form a plug at the site of an injured blood vessel.

A normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter (µL) of blood. A lower than normal platelet count is called thrombocytopenia, while a higher than normal platelet count is known as thrombocytosis.

Abnormal platelet counts can be a sign of various medical conditions, including bleeding disorders, infections, certain medications, and some types of cancer. It is important to consult with a healthcare provider if you have any concerns about your platelet count or if you experience symptoms such as easy bruising, prolonged bleeding, or excessive menstrual flow.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

The Chi-square distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is often used in statistical hypothesis testing. It is the distribution of a sum of squares of k independent standard normal random variables. The resulting quantity follows a chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom, denoted as χ²(k).

The probability density function (pdf) of the Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom is given by:

f(x; k) = (1/ (2^(k/2) * Γ(k/2))) \* x^((k/2)-1) \* e^(-x/2), for x > 0 and 0, otherwise.

Where Γ(k/2) is the gamma function evaluated at k/2. The mean and variance of a Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom are k and 2k, respectively.

The Chi-square distribution has various applications in statistical inference, including testing goodness-of-fit, homogeneity of variances, and independence in contingency tables.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

Nonparametric statistics is a branch of statistics that does not rely on assumptions about the distribution of variables in the population from which the sample is drawn. In contrast to parametric methods, nonparametric techniques make fewer assumptions about the data and are therefore more flexible in their application. Nonparametric tests are often used when the data do not meet the assumptions required for parametric tests, such as normality or equal variances.

Nonparametric statistical methods include tests such as the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (also known as the Mann-Whitney U test) for comparing two independent groups, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for comparing two related groups, and the Kruskal-Wallis test for comparing more than two independent groups. These tests use the ranks of the data rather than the actual values to make comparisons, which allows them to be used with ordinal or continuous data that do not meet the assumptions of parametric tests.

Overall, nonparametric statistics provide a useful set of tools for analyzing data in situations where the assumptions of parametric methods are not met, and can help researchers draw valid conclusions from their data even when the data are not normally distributed or have other characteristics that violate the assumptions of parametric tests.

Molecular epidemiology is a branch of epidemiology that uses laboratory techniques to identify and analyze the genetic material (DNA, RNA) of pathogens or host cells to understand their distribution, transmission, and disease associations in populations. It combines molecular biology methods with epidemiological approaches to investigate the role of genetic factors in disease occurrence and outcomes. This field has contributed significantly to the identification of infectious disease outbreaks, tracking the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, understanding the transmission dynamics of viruses, and identifying susceptible populations for targeted interventions.

In the context of medicine, risk-taking refers to the decision-making process where an individual or a healthcare provider knowingly engages in an activity or continues a course of treatment despite the potential for negative outcomes or complications. This could include situations where the benefits of the action outweigh the potential risks, or where the risks are accepted as part of the process of providing care.

For example, a patient with a life-threatening illness may choose to undergo a risky surgical procedure because the potential benefits (such as improved quality of life or increased longevity) outweigh the risks (such as complications from the surgery or anesthesia). Similarly, a healthcare provider may prescribe a medication with known side effects because the benefits of the medication for treating the patient's condition are deemed to be greater than the potential risks.

Risk-taking can also refer to behaviors that increase the likelihood of negative health outcomes, such as engaging in high-risk activities like substance abuse or dangerous sexual behavior. In these cases, healthcare providers may work with patients to identify and address the underlying factors contributing to their risky behaviors, such as mental health issues or lack of knowledge about safe practices.

Methadone is a synthetic opioid agonist, often used as a substitute for heroin or other opiates in detoxification programs or as a long-term maintenance drug for opiate addiction. It works by changing how the brain and nervous system respond to pain signals. It also helps to suppress the withdrawal symptoms and cravings associated with opiate dependence.

Methadone is available in various forms, including tablets, oral solutions, and injectable solutions. It's typically prescribed and dispensed under strict medical supervision due to its potential for abuse and dependence.

In a medical context, methadone may also be used to treat moderate to severe pain that cannot be managed with other types of medication. However, its use in this context is more limited due to the risks associated with opioid therapy.

3' Untranslated Regions (3' UTRs) are segments of messenger RNA (mRNA) that do not code for proteins. They are located after the last exon, which contains the coding sequence for a protein, and before the poly-A tail in eukaryotic mRNAs.

The 3' UTR plays several important roles in regulating gene expression, including:

1. Stability of mRNA: The 3' UTR contains sequences that can bind to proteins that either stabilize or destabilize the mRNA, thereby controlling its half-life and abundance.
2. Localization of mRNA: Some 3' UTRs contain sequences that direct the localization of the mRNA to specific cellular compartments, such as the synapse in neurons.
3. Translation efficiency: The 3' UTR can also contain regulatory elements that affect the translation efficiency of the mRNA into protein. For example, microRNAs (miRNAs) can bind to complementary sequences in the 3' UTR and inhibit translation or promote degradation of the mRNA.
4. Alternative polyadenylation: The 3' UTR can also contain multiple alternative polyadenylation sites, which can lead to different lengths of the 3' UTR and affect gene expression.

Overall, the 3' UTR plays a critical role in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, and mutations or variations in the 3' UTR can contribute to human diseases.

Viral activation, also known as viral reactivation or virus reactivation, refers to the process in which a latent or dormant virus becomes active and starts to replicate within a host cell. This can occur when the immune system is weakened or compromised, allowing the virus to evade the body's natural defenses and cause disease.

In some cases, viral activation can be triggered by certain environmental factors, such as stress, exposure to UV light, or infection with another virus. Once activated, the virus can cause symptoms similar to those seen during the initial infection, or it may lead to new symptoms depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response.

Examples of viruses that can remain dormant in the body and be reactivated include herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It is important to note that not all viruses can be reactivated, and some may remain dormant in the body indefinitely without causing any harm.

Phlebotomy is a medical term that refers to the process of making an incision in a vein, usually in the arm, in order to draw blood. It is also commonly known as venipuncture. This procedure is performed by healthcare professionals for various purposes such as diagnostic testing, blood donation, or therapeutic treatments like phlebotomy for patients with hemochromatosis (a condition where the body absorbs too much iron from food).

The person who performs this procedure is called a phlebotomist. They must be trained in the proper techniques to ensure that the process is safe and relatively pain-free for the patient, and that the blood sample is suitable for laboratory testing.

Torque teno virus (TTV) is a single-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the family Anelloviridae. It was first identified in 1997 and has since been found to be present in the majority of human populations worldwide. The virus is classified into several genotypes and subtypes, with TTV being the prototype member of the genus Alphainellovirus.

TTV is a small virus, measuring only about 30-40 nanometers in diameter. It has a circular genome that ranges in size from 2.8 to 3.9 kilobases and encodes for several non-structural proteins involved in viral replication. The virus does not appear to cause any specific disease symptoms, but it has been associated with various clinical conditions such as liver disease, respiratory tract infections, and cancer.

TTV is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, although other modes of transmission have also been suggested, including saliva, blood, and vertical transmission from mother to child during pregnancy or delivery. The virus has been detected in various body fluids, tissues, and organs, including blood, stool, respiratory secretions, and the liver.

The clinical significance of TTV infection remains unclear, as it is frequently found in both healthy individuals and those with various diseases. However, some studies have suggested that TTV viral load or genotype may be associated with certain clinical conditions, such as liver disease, transplant rejection, and cancer. Further research is needed to better understand the role of TTV in human health and disease.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

"Age distribution" is a term used to describe the number of individuals within a population or sample that fall into different age categories. It is often presented in the form of a graph, table, or chart, and can provide important information about the demographic structure of a population.

The age distribution of a population can be influenced by a variety of factors, including birth rates, mortality rates, migration patterns, and aging. Public health officials and researchers use age distribution data to inform policies and programs related to healthcare, social services, and other areas that affect the well-being of populations.

For example, an age distribution graph might show a larger number of individuals in the younger age categories, indicating a population with a high birth rate. Alternatively, it might show a larger number of individuals in the older age categories, indicating a population with a high life expectancy or an aging population. Understanding the age distribution of a population can help policymakers plan for future needs and allocate resources more effectively.

Blood safety is a term used to describe the measures taken to ensure that blood and blood products are free from infectious agents and are safe for transfusion. This includes rigorous screening processes for donors, testing of donated blood for various infectious diseases such as HIV, hepatitis B and C, syphilis, and West Nile virus, and proper handling, storage, and distribution of blood products. Additionally, strict quality control measures are in place to ensure the accuracy and reliability of test results. The goal of blood safety is to protect recipients from transfusion-transmitted infections while ensuring an adequate supply of safe blood for those in need.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

A Branched DNA (bDNA) Signal Amplification Assay is a medical diagnostic technique used to detect and quantify specific nucleic acid sequences, such as viral RNA or DNA. This method utilizes a series of hybridization and amplification steps to produce a measurable signal that is proportional to the amount of target nucleic acid present in a sample.

The bDNA assay involves several key components:

1. Probe Set: A set of synthetic oligonucleotides (DNA or RNA) designed to selectively bind to the target nucleic acid sequence. These probes are modified with unique sequences, called "branches," that serve as attachment points for additional probes in subsequent steps.
2. Amplifier Probes: A series of branched DNA molecules that hybridize to the probe set and contain multiple reporter molecules (e.g., enzymes or fluorophores) at their termini. These amplifier probes enhance the sensitivity of the assay by increasing the number of detectable signal molecules per target nucleic acid sequence.
3. Labeling Probes: Oligonucleotides that hybridize to the amplifier probes and contain a detectable label, such as a chemiluminescent or fluorescent moiety. These probes generate the measurable signal during the final step of the assay.
4. Signal Detection: The detection and quantification of the labeled probes can be performed using various methods, depending on the type of label used. For example, chemiluminescence or fluorescence can be measured using a luminometer or a fluorimeter, respectively.

The bDNA Signal Amplification Assay offers several advantages over other nucleic acid detection techniques, including its ability to detect low levels of target nucleic acids and its compatibility with a wide range of sample types (e.g., serum, plasma, tissue). However, it is generally more complex and time-consuming than alternative methods like PCR or real-time qPCR.

This technique has been widely used for the detection and quantification of various viruses, such as HIV, HCV, and HPV, in clinical settings to monitor viral loads and assess treatment efficacy.

Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It progresses in several stages if left untreated, with symptoms varying in each stage. The primary stage involves the appearance of a single, painless sore or multiple sores at the site where the bacteria entered the body, often on the genitals or around the mouth. During the secondary stage, individuals may experience rashes, fever, swollen lymph nodes, and other flu-like symptoms. In later stages, syphilis can lead to severe complications affecting the heart, brain, and other organs, known as tertiary syphilis. Neurosyphilis is a form of tertiary syphilis that affects the nervous system, causing various neurological problems. Congenital syphilis occurs when a pregnant woman with syphilis transmits the infection to her unborn child, which can result in serious birth defects and health issues for the infant. Early detection and appropriate antibiotic treatment can cure syphilis and prevent further complications.

Trans-activators are proteins that increase the transcriptional activity of a gene or a set of genes. They do this by binding to specific DNA sequences and interacting with the transcription machinery, thereby enhancing the recruitment and assembly of the complexes needed for transcription. In some cases, trans-activators can also modulate the chromatin structure to make the template more accessible to the transcription machinery.

In the context of HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection, the term "trans-activator" is often used specifically to refer to the Tat protein. The Tat protein is a viral regulatory protein that plays a critical role in the replication of HIV by activating the transcription of the viral genome. It does this by binding to a specific RNA structure called the Trans-Activation Response Element (TAR) located at the 5' end of all nascent HIV transcripts, and recruiting cellular cofactors that enhance the processivity and efficiency of RNA polymerase II, leading to increased viral gene expression.

Tertiary protein structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of all the elements (polypeptide chains) of a single protein molecule. It is the highest level of structural organization and results from interactions between various side chains (R groups) of the amino acids that make up the protein. These interactions, which include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, van der Waals forces, and disulfide bridges, give the protein its unique shape and stability, which in turn determines its function. The tertiary structure of a protein can be stabilized by various factors such as temperature, pH, and the presence of certain ions. Any changes in these factors can lead to denaturation, where the protein loses its tertiary structure and thus its function.

A genetic vector is a vehicle, often a plasmid or a virus, that is used to introduce foreign DNA into a host cell as part of genetic engineering or gene therapy techniques. The vector contains the desired gene or genes, along with regulatory elements such as promoters and enhancers, which are needed for the expression of the gene in the target cells.

The choice of vector depends on several factors, including the size of the DNA to be inserted, the type of cell to be targeted, and the efficiency of uptake and expression required. Commonly used vectors include plasmids, adenoviruses, retroviruses, and lentiviruses.

Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently in bacteria. They are often used as cloning vectors to amplify and manipulate DNA fragments. Adenoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of host cells, including human cells. They are commonly used as gene therapy vectors because they can efficiently transfer genes into both dividing and non-dividing cells.

Retroviruses and lentiviruses are RNA viruses that integrate their genetic material into the host cell's genome. This allows for stable expression of the transgene over time. Lentiviruses, a subclass of retroviruses, have the advantage of being able to infect non-dividing cells, making them useful for gene therapy applications in post-mitotic tissues such as neurons and muscle cells.

Overall, genetic vectors play a crucial role in modern molecular biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study gene function, develop new therapies, and modify organisms for various purposes.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

'Virus release' in a medical context typically refers to the point at which a virus that has infected a host cell causes that cell to rupture or disintegrate, releasing new viruses into the surrounding tissue or bodily fluids. This is a key step in the replication cycle of many viruses and can lead to the spread of infection throughout the body.

The process of virus release often follows a phase of viral replication inside the host cell, where the virus uses the cell's machinery to produce multiple copies of its genetic material and proteins. Once enough new viruses have been produced, they can cause the host cell membrane to break down, allowing the viruses to exit and infect other cells.

It is important to note that not all viruses follow this pattern of replication, and some may use alternative mechanisms such as budding or exocytosis to release new viruses from infected cells.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country in South Asia, the second-most populous country in the world, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and numerous contributions to various fields including medicine. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!

"Predictive factors for reactivation of hepatitis B following hepatitis B e antigen seroconversion in chronic hepatitis B". ... Chronic infection with hepatitis B virus may be asymptomatic or may be associated with chronic inflammation of the liver ( ... Mohsen RT, Al-azzawi RH, Ad'hiah AH (2019). "Hepatitis B virus genotypes among chronic hepatitis B patients from Baghdad, Iraq ... An HBV infection lasting longer than six months is usually considered chronic. The likelihood of developing chronic hepatitis B ...
Chronic hepatitis B and D is associated with a worse prognosis than chronic hepatitis B alone. Infection with both viruses is ... Hepatitis D is a type of viral hepatitis caused by the hepatitis delta virus (HDV). HDV is one of five known hepatitis viruses ... Vaccination against hepatitis B protects against hepatitis D viral infection as hepatitis D requires hepatitis B viral ... of acute nonfulminant hepatitis B cases, 74% of fulminant hepatitis B cases, and 100% of chronic hepatitis B cases. The delta ...
... especially chronic hepatitis) as well as chronic autoimmune hepatitis. > Defined as destruction of hepatocytes at the limiting ... Chronic hepatitis > Chapter 3 > PATHOLOGIC FEATURES Last Modified: Mar 12, 2010 v t e (Articles with short description, Short ... destruction of individual hepatocytes along the edges of the portal tract.It is a cardinal feature of chronic viral hepatitis ( ... Piecemeal necrosis in liver aka interface hepatitis is necrosis of the limiting plates, by inflammatory cells. It may be ...
The infection usually results in liver damage (hepatitis D); this is most often a chronic and severe hepatitis rapidly ... "Hepatitis delta virus infection in a large cohort of chronic hepatitis B patients in Ethiopia". Liver Int. 38 (6): 1000-1009. ... "Prevalence and risk factors of hepatitis D virus infection in patients with chronic hepatitis B infection attending the three ... Rizzetto, Mario (2019). "Hepatitis D Virus". In Wong, Robert J.; Gish, Robert G. (eds.). Clinical Epidemiology of Chronic Liver ...
Chronic viral hepatitis. Hepatic schistosomiasis, or intestinal schistosomiasis. This is caused by the parasite Schistosoma ...
Lok, AS (2007). "Chronic Hepatitis B" (PDF). Hepatology. 45 (2): 507-39. doi:10.1002/hep.21513. hdl:2027.42/55941. PMID ... This window period does not occur in persons who develop chronic hepatitis B, i.e. who continue to have detectable HBV DNA for ... Two periods may be referred to as window period in hepatitis B infection:[citation needed] (1) the period that elapses during ...
Lok AS, McMahon BJ (February 2007). "Chronic hepatitis B". Hepatology. 45 (2): 507-39. doi:10.1002/hep.21513. hdl:2027.42/55941 ... Chronic hepatitis C virus infection: Wide variability, typically normal to less than twice the URL, rarely more than 10 times ... 4 times the URL Acute viral hepatitis or toxin-related hepatitis with jaundice: AST and ALT > 25 times the URL Ischemic ... the URL Chronic hepatitis B virus infection: Levels fluctuate; the AST and ALT may be normal, though most patients have mild to ...
HCV is the leading cause of chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and liver cancer, and more than 180 million people are affected ... Rosen, Hugo R. (June 2011). "Chronic Hepatitis C Infection". The New England Journal of Medicine. 364 (25): 2429-2438. doi: ... "Hepatitis C Kills More Americans Than HIV/AIDS". Voice of America, Health. 27 February 2012. Retrieved 3 March 2012. Diamond DL ... doi:10.1002/hep.21751. PMID 17654742. Portal: Biology (Pages using infobox enzyme with unknown parameters, Use dmy dates from ...
In the context of hepatitis B, GGHs are only seen in chronic infections, i.e. they are not seen in acute hepatitis B. GGHs were ... Chronic hepatitis - pathconsultddx.com. v t e (Histopathology, All stub articles, Pathology stubs). ... "Different Types of Ground Glass Hepatocytes in Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection Contain Specific Pre-S Mutants that May ... "Ground glass hepatocytes contain pre-S mutants and represent preneoplastic lesions in chronic hepatitis B virus infection". J ...
A chronic HAV state has not been reported. Although HAV is excreted in the feces towards the end of the incubation period, ... World Hepatitis Day occurs each year on July 28 to bring awareness to viral hepatitis. Early symptoms of Hepatitis A infection ... Hepatitis A is an infectious disease of the liver caused by Hepatovirus A (HAV); it is a type of viral hepatitis. Many cases ... It is one of five known hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, and E. The hepatitis A vaccine is effective for prevention.[needs update ...
Hepatitis B is caused by the hepatitis B virus, a hepadnavirus that can cause both acute and chronic hepatitis. Chronic ... Hepatitis B infections result in 500,000 to 1,200,000 deaths per year worldwide due to the complications of chronic hepatitis, ... Hepatitis C usually leads to chronic hepatitis, culminating in cirrhosis in some people. It usually remains asymptomatic for ... Hepatitis D is caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV), or hepatitis delta virus; it belongs to the genus Deltavirus. HDV is ...
... chronic active hepatitis, and hepatic necrosis, occur rarely. The onset of chronic active hepatitis may be insidious, and ... Amit G, Cohen P, Ackerman Z (March 2002). "Nitrofurantoin-induced chronic active hepatitis". The Israel Medical Association ... Chronic pulmonary reactions caused by nitrofurantoin include diffuse interstitial pneumonitis, pulmonary fibrosis, or both. ... The pulmonary toxicity caused by nitrofurantoin can be categorized into acute, subacute, and chronic pulmonary reactions. The ...
Chronic Hepatitis B: An Update. 14 (3): 439-459. doi:10.1016/j.cld.2010.05.004. ISSN 1089-3261. PMID 20638024. Colclough, ...
"Chronic viral hepatitis - Helmholtz Munich". www.helmholtz-munich.de. Retrieved 2022-12-09. Rundfunk, Bayerischer (2021-05-01 ... the hepatitis B virus and her work is focused on developing new therapeutic approaches for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B ... The work of her research group focuses on Hepatitis B virus Protzer is a member of numerous professional societies. She has ... She has been a member of the organising committee of the International Meeting on Hepatitis B Viruses (HBV Meeting) since 2006 ...
This includes 350 million chronic carriers of the virus. The acute illness causes liver inflammation, vomiting and jaundice. ... 44 (3): 521-6. doi:10.1002/hep.21347. PMID 16941687. WHO , Hepatitis B FAQ about Hepatitis B Archived 2009-02-09 at the Wayback ... The 2009 Gujarat hepatitis B outbreak was a cluster of hepatitis B cases that appeared in Modasa, northern Gujarat, India in ... "Doctors held over hepatitis deaths". Press Association. 2009-02-22. Retrieved 2009-02-22. "Hepatitis outbreak: 2 doctors booked ...
When hepatitis is continued for more than six months it is termed chronic hepatitis. Chronic hepatitis is often asymptomatic ... and are self-limiting illnesses that do not lead to chronic hepatitis. Hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and hepatitis D are ... The hepatitis D virus causes chronic and fulminant hepatitis in the context of co-infection with the hepatitis B virus. It is ... Unlike hepatitis B, most cases of hepatitis C lead to chronic infection. Hepatitis C is the second most common cause of ...
"Chronic hepatitis C". Southern Medical Journal. 90 (9): 872-7. doi:10.1097/00007611-199709000-00002. PMID 9305294. S2CID ...
... is mainly used to treat chronic hepatitis B infection in adults and children two years and older with active viral ... Scott LJ, Keating GM (May 2009). "Entecavir: a review of its use in chronic hepatitis B". Drugs. 69 (8): 1003-1033. doi:10.2165 ... Sims KA, Woodland AM (December 2006). "Entecavir: a new nucleoside analog for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B infection". ... March 2006). "A comparison of entecavir and lamivudine for HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B". The New England Journal of ...
Pessayre D, Larrey D (April 1988). "Acute and chronic drug-induced hepatitis". Baillière's Clinical Gastroenterology. 2 (2): ... Amineptine-induced hepatitis, which is sometimes preceded by a rash, is believed to be due to an immunoallergic reaction. It ... Mixed hepatitis, which is very rare, generally occurs between the 15th and 30th day of treatment. Often preceded by sometimes ... Hepatitis is either of mixed type or with cholestatic prevalence. The evolution was, in all the cases, favorable to the ...
Chronic active hepatitis and febrile panniculitis. Gut 1989;30:1018-19 "Clinical Commissioning Policy: Rituximab for ... For example, Banerjee et al[1989] reported two patients with autoimmune hepatitis and febrile panniculitis. On each occasion ... IgG4-related disease (IgG4-RD), formerly known as IgG4-related systemic disease, is a chronic inflammatory condition ... Verghese George; Varaha Sairam Tammisetti; Venkateswar Rao Surabhi; Alampady K. Shanbhogue (July 2013). "Chronic Fibrosing ...
Chronic infections of WMHBV can go long periods of time before symptoms arise, especially when the woolly monkey is infected at ... Woolly monkey hepatitis B virus, like other hepatitis B viruses, is transmitted through bodily fluids, and from a mother to her ... WMHBV, like other hepatitis viruses, infects the hepatocytes, or liver cells, of its host organism. It can cause hepatitis, ... The woolly monkey hepatitis B virus (WMHBV) is a viral species of the Orthohepadnavirus genus of the Hepadnaviridae family. Its ...
the first trial of colchicine in PBC); Alkaline phosphatase isoenzymes; Hepatitis B & C; Tumour markers of primary liver cancer ... Oxidant stress in chronic liver disease; Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC); Portal hypertension; Development of new drug ...
Azzam HS, Goertz C, Fritts M, Jonas WB (February 2007). "Natural products and chronic hepatitis C virus". Liver International. ... Beside interacting with the cell membrane, lactoferrin also directly binds to viral particles, such as the hepatitis viruses. ... hepatitis C virus, hantaviruses, rotaviruses, poliovirus type 1, human respiratory syncytial virus, murine leukemia viruses and ... "Identification of a lactoferrin-derived peptide possessing binding activity to hepatitis C virus E2 envelope protein". The ...
Ectodermal dystrophy (skin, dental enamel, and nails). APS-1 may also cause: Autoimmune hepatitis. Hypogonadism. Vitiligo. ... Common symptoms of APS-1 include: Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis. Hypoparathyroidism. Addison's disease. ...
Implication for the treatment of chronic hepatitis). She is an associate professor of microbiology and teaches in the medical ... Implicación en la terapéutica de las hepatitis crónicas (Thesis) (in Spanish). Universidad del País Vasco = Euskal Herriko ... Implicación en la terapéutica de las hepatitis crónicas (Thesis). Universidad del País Vasco = Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea. " ... Implicación en la terapéutica de las hepatitis crónicas (Detection of RNA in HCV infections. ...
... can occur in patients with chronic alcoholic liver disease and alcoholic cirrhosis. Alcoholic hepatitis by ... Alcoholic hepatitis occurs in approximately 1/3 of chronic alcohol drinkers. 10-20% of patients with alcoholic hepatitis ... The chronic inflammation seen in alcoholic hepatitis leads to a distinctive fibrotic response, with fibrogenic cell type ... The chronic inflammation seen in alcoholic hepatitis also leads to impaired hepatocyte differentiation, impairments in ...
doi:10.1002/hep.20819. PMID 16149085. S2CID 21393716. Yu ML, Chuang WL (2009). "Treatment of chronic hepatitis C in Asia: when ... Sofosbuvir for use against chronic hepatitis C infection was approved by the FDA on December 6, 2013. It has been reported to ... Simeprevir has been approved in Japan for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection, genotype 1. There is also current ... "Medivir: Simeprevir has been approved in Japan for the treatment of genotype 1 chronic hepatitis C infection". The Wall Street ...
June 2005). "Chronic liver injury during obstructive sleep apnea". Hepatology. 41 (6): 1290-1296. doi:10.1002/hep.20725. PMID ... chronic hepatitis C, heredity or by deficiencies in parenteral nutrition such as choline and endocrine conditions. If any of ... blood tests are usually used to rule out viral hepatitis (hepatitis A, B, C and herpesviruses such as Epstein-Barr virus or ... doi:10.1002/hep.21262. PMID 16871574. Pagano G, Pacini G, Musso G, Gambino R, Mecca F, Depetris N, et al. (February 2002). " ...
doi:10.1002/hep.21784. PMID 17654490. "Liver Cancer Risk Factors". cancer.org. Retrieved 2018-04-26. "Chronic Liver Disease - ... Hepatitis B is especially prevalent amongst Asian Americans. A study conducted between 2001 and 2006 that provided hepatitis B ... Hepatitis B is one of the leading causes of the development of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Cirrhosis and ... Men were more likely to be infected than women, and hepatitis B infections were 19.4 times more likely in foreign born Asian ...
41 (6): 1290-6. doi:10.1002/hep.20725. PMID 15915459. Kumar R, Birrer BV, Macey PM, Woo MA, Gupta RK, Yan-Go FL, Harper RM ( ... Tanné F, Gagnadoux F, Chazouillères O, Fleury B, Wendum D, Lasnier E, Lebeau B, Poupon R, Serfaty L (June 2005). "Chronic liver ... but chronic severe obstructive sleep apnea requires treatment to prevent low blood oxygen (hypoxemia), sleep deprivation, and ... It is often a chronic condition. Other risk factors include being overweight, a family history of the condition, allergies, and ...
Wadhawan, M.; Rastogi, M.; Gupta, S.; and Kumar, A. (2010). "Peritransplant management of chronic hepatitis C.". Trop ... This work helped lay down the criteria for the correct management of chronic liver disease and acute liver failure and will ... such as liver transplantation without hepatitis B immunoglobulin prophylaxis and appropriate cytomegalovirus prophylaxis. He is ...
... the association of A1 with autoimmune hepatitis with no anti-viral antibody was stronger than with chronic active hepatitis ... Vogten AJ, Shorter RG, Opelz G (June 1979). "HLA and cell-mediated immunity in HBsAg negative chronic active hepatitis". Gut. ... Freudenberg J, Baumann H, Arnold W, Berger J, Büschenfelde KH (1977). "HLA in different forms of chronic active hepatitis. A ... Mackay IR, Morris PJ (October 1972). "Association of autoimmune active chronic hepatitis with HL-A1,8". Lancet. 2 (7781): 793-5 ...
Xia, Y; Luo, H; Liu, JP; Gluud, C (13 April 2011). "Phyllanthus species for chronic hepatitis B virus infection". The Cochrane ... benefits patients with chronic HBV (hepatitis B virus) infection." Niruri fruit Niruri proliferation "The Plant List: A Working ...
The system, now known as Li-NBAL, has significantly improved survival rates for people with severe chronic hepatitis. Instead ... Ning, Qin (2019). Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Hepatitis B: Volume 2. Diagnosis and Management. Springer. p. 332. ISBN 978-94- ... Acute liver failure caused by hepatitis B was very common in China. In 1986, Li and her team developed an artificial liver ...
Guidelines and tools regarding prevention and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and HCV-related chronic disease. ... Recommendations for Prevention and Control of Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Infection and HCV-Related Chronic Disease. ... Online Serology Training - Hepatitis A-E. Recommended Testing Sequence for Identifying Current Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) ... Source: Division of Viral Hepatitis, National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention ...
Hepatitis C is an infectious hepatitis caused by hepatitis C virus (HCV). . ... encoded search term (Chronic Hepatitis C Pathology) and Chronic Hepatitis C Pathology What to Read Next on Medscape ... Other viral hepatitis, including hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and hepatitis D, among others ... Chronic hepatitis. In contrast to the lobular activity in acute hepatitis, the portal activity is the predominant histologic ...
Fulminant hepatitis associated with hepatitis A virus superinfection in patients with chronic hepatitis C. N Engl J Med 1998; ... because ALT activity fluctuates in persons with chronic hepatitis C. Patients with chronic hepatitis C should be evaluated for ... Application of six hepatitis C virus genotyping systems to sera from chronic hepatitis C patients in the United States. J ... Reported cases of acute hepatitis C by selected risk .... Figure 2. Prevalence of hepatitis C virus .... Figure 3. Hepatitis C ...
See the number and rate of newly reported cases of chronic hepatitis C virus infection by sex and age in the US in 2021. ... 540 newly chronic hepatitis C cases were reported during 2021. A higher number of newly reported cases of chronic hepatitis C ... chronic hepatitis C cases are included. For the complete case definition, see Chronic Hepatitis C. ... Hepatitis C Figures and Tables. *Figure 3.1. Number of reported cases of acute hepatitis C virus infection and estimated ...
... for treating some types of chronic hepatitis C (HCV) ... Hepatitis Sofosbuvir for treating chronic hepatitis C. ... of chronic hepatitis C. It is taken with other drugs (peginterferon alfa and ribavirin, or ribavirin alone). See table 1. ... Type of hepatitis C. Sofosbuvir with peginterferon alfa and ribavirin. Sofosbuvir with ribavirin alone. ... the persons hepatitis C has not been treated before and they cannot have interferon or ...
i,Background,/i,. Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) is a viral disease, common across the world, and associated with several ... From September 2011 to February 2012, 87 consecutive chronic hepatitis B patients (male/female: 54/33; mean age: years) who ... "A comparison of the prevalence of autoantibodies in individuals with chronic hepatitis C and those with autoimmune hepatitis: ... Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody Frequency in Chronic Hepatitis B Patients. Turan Calhan. ,1Abdurrahman Sahin. ,1Resul ...
Chronic Viral Hepatitis. Worldwide, the most common risk factor for liver cancer is chronic infection with the hepatitis B ... Chronic viral hepatitis infections (hepatitis B and hepatitis C) cause at least 80% of all liver cancers. In the United States ... chronic hepatitis B infections are the most common cause. People co-infected with hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or HIV have a ... Hepatitis C Infections. Chronic hepatitis C infections cause cirrhosis (scarring of the liver), which can lead to liver cancer ...
Immune responses to hepatitis C virus (HCV) fail to clear the virus in most individuals. Why patients who are less likely to ...
In patients with chronic hepatitis C, once-weekly peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin was tolerated as well as interferon alfa ... Peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C virus infection N Engl J Med. 2002 Sep 26;347(13):975-82. doi: ... Conclusions: In patients with chronic hepatitis C, once-weekly peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin was tolerated as well as ... and peginterferon alfa-2a alone in the initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C. ...
High hepatitis C viral load is associated with insulin resistance in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Liver Int. 2008 Feb;28( ... Study of prevalence and effects of insulin resistance in patients with chronic hepatitis C genotype 4 ... Insulin resistance in chronic hepatitis C: association with genotypes 1 and 4, serum HCV RNA level, and liver fibrosis. ... Inter-observes agreement of Ishak and Metavir scores in histological evaluation of chronic viral hepatitis B and C]. Ann Biol ...
Interferon alpha for chronic hepatitis B. This review has been withdrawn.. The reason for withdrawal and previous versions are ... Interferon alpha for chronic hepatitis B (Protocol). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2021, Issue 11. Art. No.: CD008560 ...
The first-proof-of-concept for a DNA-based therapeutic vaccination against chronic hepatitis C was announced today at EASL 2009 ... Hepatitis, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Hepatitis D, Hepatitis E, Immune Response, Immune System, in vivo, Laboratory ... In industrialised countries, hepatitis C accounts for 70% of chronic hepatitis cases. One of the main concerns is that HCV ... Proof-of-concept for a DNA-based therapeutic vaccination against chronic hepatitis C. *Download PDF Copy ...
Discover the efficacy of Pegylated Interferon in treating chronic viral hepatitis B and C. Explore hematologic side effects in ... Treatment of Chronic Viral Hepatitis with Pegylated Interferon in Ivory Coast () Henriette Ya Kissi Anzouan-Kacou1, Aboubacar ... We carried out a study on the results of treatment with PEG-IFN, in patients with chronic hepatitis during this period at the ... The free antiviral treatment program helped treat 10% of chronic viral hepatitis B and C. Our results are not different from ...
... chronic infection, extra-hepatic manifestations, and treatment. Download Prime PubMed App to iPhone, iPad, or Android ... Ribavirin for chronic hepatitis E virus infection in transplant recipients.. *Hepatitis E virus: Epidemiology, diagnosis, ... Hepatitis E: when to treat and how to treat.. *Treatment of HEV Infection in Patients with a Solid-Organ Transplant and Chronic ... "Hepatitis E Virus: Chronic Infection, Extra-hepatic Manifestations, and Treatment." Clinics and Research in Hepatology and ...
... Linda Piekuse, Madara Kreile, Agnese Zarina, ... Association between inherited monogenic liver disorders and chronic hepatitis C. World J Hepatol 2014; 6(2): 92-97 [PMID: ... Core tip: This is the first study to evaluate the association between hepatitis C and the most frequently inherited monogenic ... This case-control study revealed an association between hepatitis C and the mutation that causes Wilsons disease. In addition ...
Figure 1 Timeline of the knowledge evolution in the chronic viral hepatitis and sarcopenia fields. ... Sarcopenia in chronic viral hepatitis: From concept to clinical relevance. World J Hepatol 2023; 15(5): 649-665 ... Sarcopenia in chronic viral hepatitis: From concept to clinical relevance. World J Hepatol 2023; 15(5): 649-665 [PMID: 37305369 ...
... approach will add incrementally to our current knowledge of the HEV-genome organization and pathogenesis in chronic hepatitis E ... The awareness of hepatitis E virus (HEV) increased significantly in the last decade due to its unexpectedly high prevalence in ... A naturally occurring human/hepatitis E recombinant virus predominates in serum but not in faeces of a chronic hepatitis E ... Chronic hepatitis E patients and sample collection. To evaluate the newly established molecular methods, a total of nine plasma ...
Hispanics have a 40% greater chance of being infected with hepatitis C virus than the general population. In fact, chronic ... Chronic Hepatitis C Virus and the Hispanic Community: Cultural Factors Impacting Care ...
Keywords: Chronic hepatitis, Hepatitis B virus, Natural killer cells, Global-T cells, Virus-specific T cells, Natural history, ... Core tip: Chronic hepatitis B is a highly heterogeneous disease, which can be divided into four phases: immune tolerant, immune ... Chronic hepatitis B is a highly heterogeneous disease that can be divided into four phases: Immune tolerant (IT), immune active ... To investigate the immune status of natural killer (NK) and T cells in different phases of chronic hepatitis B. ...
Mark Mailliard on Chronic viral hepatitis B and C, part of a collection of multimedia lectures. ... Chronic viral hepatitis B and C. *Prof. Mark Mailliard - University of Nebraska College of Medicine, USA ... Mailliard, M. (2011, January 5). Chronic viral hepatitis B and C [Video file]. In The Biomedical & Life Sciences Collection, ... Hepatitis C virus: discovery, cure and protection Hepatitis C virus: discovery, cure and protection ...
PegIFN-induced acute liver failure in a patient with chronic hepatitis C. Learn about the autoimmune mechanism and potential ... "Autoimmune Hepatitis Induced by Pegylated Interferon in an HIVInfected Patient with Chronic Hepatitis C," Journal of ... "Latent Autoimmune Hepatitis Triggered during Interferon Therapy in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C," Gastroenterology, Vol. ... A 66yearold female was referred to a local clinic for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C. Her family physician started the ...
Chronic - Learn about the causes, symptoms, diagnosis & treatment from the MSD Manuals - Medical Consumer Version. ... Hepatitis can be Acute (short-lived) read more , Overview of Chronic Hepatitis Overview of Chronic Hepatitis Chronic hepatitis ... Overall, about 5 to 10% of people with acute hepatitis B develop chronic hepatitis B Hepatitis B, Chronic Chronic hepatitis B ... Having hepatitis B or hepatitis C or fatty liver disease, or drinking... read more . About 20% of people with chronic hepatitis ...
II and phase III randomized placebo-controlled trials examining the efficacy of boceprevir and telaprevir in chronic hepatitis ... Boceprevir and telaprevir for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C genotype 1 infection: an indirect comparison meta-analysis ... Boceprevir and telaprevir for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C genotype 1 infection: an indirect comparison meta-analysis. ... II and phase III randomized placebo-controlled trials examining the efficacy of boceprevir and telaprevir in chronic hepatitis ...
... ve hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1b (G1b) patients. This multicenter study involved 150 Asian treatment-naïve patients ... H. Kumada, T. Okanoue, M. Onji et al., "Guidelines for the treatment of chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis due to hepatitis C ... P. Bedossa and T. Poynard, "An algorithm for the grading of activity in chronic hepatitis C," Hepatology, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. ... Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection was generally treated with pegylated interferon (PEG-IFN) and ribavirin combination ...
Chronic Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections remain a major problem public health problem worldwide, as well as a therapeutic ... Chronic Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections remain a major problem public health problem worldwide, as well as a therapeutic ... Mechanism of viral persistence and resistance to nucleoside and nucleotide analogs in chronic hepatitis B virus infection ...
Characterization of chronic hepatitis E in Germany: molecular epidemiology, pathophysiology and clinical aspects (CHED). 03/ ... The mechanisms leading to chronic hepatitis E infection (CHE) are poorly understood. Accordingly, interdisciplinary studies are ... Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is the leading cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. In industrialized countries, HEV ... with a special focus on the differences between acute and chronic infections. In this context the question should be answered ...
A case of acute hepatitis B in a chronic hepatitis C patient after daclatasvir and asunaprevir combination therapy: hepatitis B ... Pretreatment Assessment in Adults With Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection; and 3) Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C Virus ... Hepatitis A and B immunity and vaccination in chronic hepatitis B and C patients in a large United States cohort. Clin Infect ... hepatitis A virus; HBsAg, hepatitis B surface antigen; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCV, hepatitis C virus; IgG, immunoglobulin G. ...
Classic patients with chronic hepatitis B are positive for hepatitis Be-antigen (HBeAg) and HBV-DNA. In the Mediterranean basin ... of patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB) are HBeAg-negative, in contrast to Northern European countries and the US, where ... IFN alfa2b and T-alfa1 is better tolerated and more likely to induce a sustained response in HbeAg-negative chronic hepatitis B ... Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, which can lead to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma, is a major health threat ...
... chronic hepatitis C) - Benefit assessment according to § 35a Social Code Book V ... Glecaprevir/pibrentasvir (chronic hepatitis C in children) - Benefit assessment according to §35a Social Code Book V Commission ... Glecaprevir/pibrentasvir (chronic hepatitis C in adolescents) - Benefit assessment according to §35a Social Code Book V ... A17-34] Glecaprevir/pibrentasvir (chronic hepatitis C) - Benefit assessment according to § 35a Social Code Book V. Last updated ...
  • Hepatitis C is an infectious hepatitis caused by hepatitis C virus (HCV).This systemic viral infection predominantly involves the liver hepatocytes and can result in both acute and chronic liver diseases. (medscape.com)
  • The clinical symptoms, if present, are similar to those of other acute viral hepatitis, including malaise, nausea, jaundice, and right upper quadrant pain, which typically last for 2-12 weeks. (medscape.com)
  • The histological features of acute hepatitis C differ very little from other acute viral hepatitis. (medscape.com)
  • Knowledge of hepatitis E in patients with hematologic aminotransferase levels or HEV viral loads. (cdc.gov)
  • Chronic hepatitis B (CHB) is a viral disease, common across the world, and associated with several extraintestinal manifestations including vasculitis. (hindawi.com)
  • Chronic viral hepatitis infections (hepatitis B and hepatitis C) cause at least 80% of all liver cancers. (hepb.org)
  • Hepatitis D is the most severe form of viral hepatitis and can only exist as a co-infection of hepatitis B, making all hepatitis B patients at risk. (hepb.org)
  • Objectives: To assess the efficacy of Pegylated Interferon in clinical practice in patients with chronic viral hepatitis B and C and determine the hematologic side effects. (scirp.org)
  • Results: Out of 1860 patients seen in hepatogastroenterology consultation 422 had viral hepatitis B or C that is a prevalence of 22.7% and 41 patients were treated (9.7%) by Pegylated Interferon. (scirp.org)
  • Conclusion: The free antiviral treatment program helped treat 10% of chronic viral hepatitis B and C. Our results are not different from those of the literature. (scirp.org)
  • Following "the Dakar Appeal" [3] , the Ivorian government, through the National Program of the Fight against Viral Hepatitis (NPFVH) has made freely available to patients of the 3 Teaching Hospitals of Abidjan, Pegylated Interferon (PEG-IFN) from February 2012 to November 2013 for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B and C. The pre, per and post therapeutic biological, radiological and histological tests remain the responsibility of patients. (scirp.org)
  • Among the studies carried out in this country on viral hepatitis, very few have focused on treatment. (scirp.org)
  • Figure 1 Timeline of the knowledge evolution in the chronic viral hepatitis and sarcopenia fields. (wjgnet.com)
  • Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is one of the main causes of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. (nature.com)
  • If the level of hepatitis B virus (viral load) is high in pregnant women, they are often given antiviral drugs during the last trimester of pregnancy to prevent transmission of the virus from mother to child. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is the leading cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide. (bund.de)
  • Hepatitis B viral infection presents a major global health concern and places a significant burden on the 257 million people living with the disease worldwide. (jnj.com)
  • 1 RNAi therapy candidates such as ARO-HBV have been shown to have an effect on hepatitis B viral infection replication pathways and on the production of viral proteins, providing another avenue for investigation into treatments in this area. (jnj.com)
  • We present a case of a 67-year-old male with a history of chronic viral hepatitis C infection who had an accidental finding on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of a liver arterially enhancing lesion. (physiciansweekly.com)
  • In China, caregivers of chronic viral hepatitis patients experience considerable burdens, stress and disruption of their own well-being and social activities. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The Family Burden Interview Schedule (FBIS) was primarily devised for the caregivers of schizophrenia patients, and the adverse effect of the disease was similar to the effect of chronic viral hepatitis on family caregivers. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In this study, we prospectively evaluated the psychometric properties of FBIS in the field of chronic viral hepatitis and used it to determine the factors affecting the caregiver burden on the family members of chronic viral hepatitis patients in Shanghai, China. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Thus, understanding the caregiver burdens and the needs of patients with chronic viral hepatitis is necessary. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In China, family members in the role of caregiver of patients with chronic viral hepatitis experience considerable burdens, stress, disruption of personal wellbeing and social activities. (biomedcentral.com)
  • All patients were tested for chronic viral hepatitis thereby providing an opportunity to compare various strategies for detection of this serious treatable disease. (bris.ac.uk)
  • METHODS: This study uses data from the BALLETS cohort to compare various testing strategies for viral hepatitis in patients who had received an abnormal LFT result. (bris.ac.uk)
  • The aim was to inform a strategy for identification of patients with chronic viral hepatitis. (bris.ac.uk)
  • We used a cost-minimisation analysis to define a base case and then calculated the incremental cost per case detected to inform a strategy that could guide testing for chronic viral hepatitis. (bris.ac.uk)
  • RESULTS: Of the 1,236 study patients with an abnormal LFT, 13 had chronic viral hepatitis (nine hepatitis B and four hepatitis C). The strategy advocated by the current guidelines (repeating the LFT with a view to testing for specific disease if it remained abnormal) was less efficient (more expensive per case detected) than a simple policy of testing all patients for viral hepatitis without repeating LFTs. (bris.ac.uk)
  • A more selective strategy of viral testing all patients for viral hepatitis if they were born in countries where viral hepatitis was prevalent provided high efficiency with little loss of sensitivity. (bris.ac.uk)
  • CONCLUSIONS: Based on this analysis and on widely accepted clinical principles, a "fast and frugal" heuristic was produced to guide general practitioners with respect to diagnosing cases of viral hepatitis in asymptomatic patients with abnormal LFTs. (bris.ac.uk)
  • It recommends testing all patients where a clear clinical indication of infection is present (e.g. evidence of intravenous drug use), followed by testing all patients who originated from countries where viral hepatitis is prevalent, and finally testing those who have a notably raised ALT level (more than twice the upper limit of normal). (bris.ac.uk)
  • Patients not picked up by this efficient algorithm had a risk of chronic viral hepatitis that is lower than the general population. (bris.ac.uk)
  • Someone with hepatitis B may have symptoms similar to those caused by other viral infections, like the flu. (kidshealth.org)
  • HA516 trade name] is indicated for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B in adults with: · compensated liver disease and evidence of immune active disease, i.e. active viral replication, persistently elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels and histological evidence of active inflammation and/or fibrosis. (who.int)
  • HA516 trade name] is indicated for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B in adolescents 12 to 18 years of age and weighing at least 35 kg with: · compensated liver disease and evidence of immune active disease, i.e. active viral replication, persistently elevated serum ALT levels and histological evidence of active inflammation and/or fibrosis. (who.int)
  • it is a type of viral hepatitis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Using antiviral prophylaxis to prevent mother-to-child transmission is also recommended, as is following safe sex practices, including the use of condoms In 2016, the WHO set a goal of eliminating viral hepatitis as a threat to global public health by 2030. (wikipedia.org)
  • Acute infection with hepatitis B virus is associated with acute viral hepatitis, an illness that begins with general ill-health, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, body aches, mild fever, and dark urine, and then progresses to development of jaundice. (wikipedia.org)
  • The most important outcome of chronic hepatitis C is the progression to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. (medscape.com)
  • It is estimated that up to 25% of patients with chronic hepatitis C will develop cirrhosis within 20 years. (medscape.com)
  • Approximately 400 million individuals are infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) globally [ 1 , 2 ] and 1 million patients die annually due to HBV-associated complications, such as liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma [ 3 , 4 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Among people chronically infected with hepatitis B, the risk of developing liver cancer increases as they get older or if they have been diagnosed with cirrhosis. (hepb.org)
  • Although liver cancer most often occurs in the presence of cirrhosis, individuals with chronic hepatitis B infection can develop liver cancer without having cirrhosis. (hepb.org)
  • Chronic hepatitis C infections cause cirrhosis (scarring of the liver), which can lead to liver cancer. (hepb.org)
  • People co-infected with hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or HIV have a significantly increased risk of developing liver damage, cirrhosis, and liver cancer. (hepb.org)
  • Coinfections can increase the risk of cirrhosis and liver cancer by up to three times compared to a hepatitis B infection alone. (hepb.org)
  • Background: In the Ivory Coast, chronic infection by hepatitis B and C virus is the leading cause of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. (scirp.org)
  • HEV infection is usually an acute self-limiting disease, but causes chronic infection with rapidly progressive cirrhosis in adult and pediatric organ-transplant-patients. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • About 20% of people with chronic hepatitis B develop cirrhosis or liver cancer and may die prematurely. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Some people who have chronic hepatitis B also have chronic hepatitis D. If untreated, the combination causes cirrhosis in up to 70% of affected people. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Aim of the Study: To detect the efficacy of Romiplostim use in thrombocytopenic patients with chronic hepatitis C and liver cirrhosis preoperatively. (omicsonline.org)
  • Subjects and Methods: Our study was performed on 12 patients in the Electricity Hospital, Cairo, Egypt, having chronic liver disease with liver cirrhosis and they were classified as Child-Pugh score C with thrombocytopenia. (omicsonline.org)
  • Conclusion: Romiplostim can be used under close follow up in chronic hepatitis C patients with liver cirrhosis and severe thrombocytopenia preoperatively in a dose of 2 mcg/kg once weekly for four weeks. (omicsonline.org)
  • Those with chronic hepatitis B virus infection have an elevated risk of developing cirrhosis with end-stage liver disease and a markedly elevated risk of hepatocellular carcinoma, independent of the presence of cirrhosis. (up.ac.za)
  • To perform a cost-effectiveness evaluation from the perspective of the Brazilian National Health System of alternatives strategies (i.e., conventional interferon , pegylated interferon , and lamivudine ) for the treatment of patients with chronic hepatitis B who present elevated aminotransferase levels and no evidence of cirrhosis at the beginning of treatment . (bvsalud.org)
  • In the sensitivity analysis , the ICER was more sensitive to variation in the probability of transition from chronic hepatitis B to compensated cirrhosis , discount rate, and medicine prices . (bvsalud.org)
  • For patients with chronic hepatitis B with elevated aminotransferase levels in the pretreatment and no cirrhosis who were HBeAg positive, pegylated interferon (48 weeks) provided more life -years gained when compared to conventional interferon (24 weeks), and the ICER surpasses the country's buying power , which makes conventional interferon the chosen alternative. (bvsalud.org)
  • In patients who are positive for hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg-positive patients) without cirrhosis, treatment should be continued - for at least 6-12 months after confirmed BeAG seroconversion (i.e. (who.int)
  • however, cirrhosis and liver cancer eventually develop in about 25% of those with chronic HBV. (wikipedia.org)
  • Chronic infection with hepatitis B virus may be asymptomatic or may be associated with chronic inflammation of the liver (chronic hepatitis), leading to cirrhosis over a period of several years. (wikipedia.org)
  • A study investigated the impact of oxidative stress and iron deposition on hepatocellular carcinoma development after therapy with pegylated interferon (PegIFN)+ribavirin in chronic hepatitis C patients. (medscape.com)
  • Treatment with peginterferon alfa-2a alone produces significantly higher sustained virologic responses than treatment with interferon alfa-2a alone in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. (nih.gov)
  • We compared the efficacy and safety of peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin, interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin, and peginterferon alfa-2a alone in the initial treatment of chronic hepatitis C. (nih.gov)
  • In patients with chronic hepatitis C, once-weekly peginterferon alfa-2a plus ribavirin was tolerated as well as interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin and produced significant improvements in the rate of sustained virologic response, as compared with interferon alfa-2b plus ribavirin or peginterferon alfa-2a alone. (nih.gov)
  • Our aim was to evaluate the prevalence of insulin resistance in Egyptian patients with chronic HCV genotype 4 infection, to assess factors associated with insulin resistance and to test the impact of insulin resistance on outcomes of treatment with pegylated interferon/ribavirin. (who.int)
  • Patients and Methods: A descriptive retrospective study from January 2012 to November 2013 on a cohort of patients chronic carriers of hepatitis B virus (n = 11) treated with Pegylated Interferon to 180 mcg per week and hepatitis C virus (n = 30) treated with a combination therapy associating pegylated Interferon to 180 mcg per week and Ribavirin assayed according to the genotype. (scirp.org)
  • H. Kato, H. Ikeuchi and M. Nakamura, "Acute Exacerbation of Liver Disease Induced by Pegylated Interferon Alpha2a Treatment for Chronic Hepatitis C," International Journal of Clinical Medicine , Vol. 1 No. 1, 2010, pp. 1-5. (scirp.org)
  • M. Shindo, A. M. D. Bisceglie and J. H. Hoofnagle, "Ac ute Exacerbation of Liver Disease during Interferon Alfa Therapy for Chronic Hepatitis C," Gastroenterology, Vol. 102, No. 4, 1992, pp. 14061408. (scirp.org)
  • Type CChronic Hepatitis Patients who had Autoimmune Phenomenon and Developed Jaundice during Interferon Therapy," Journal of Gastroenterology, Vol. 38, No. 5, 2003, pp. 493500. (scirp.org)
  • Peginterferon Alfa2b Plus Ribavirin Compared with Interferon Alfa2b Plus Ribavirin for Initial Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C: A Randomised Trial," Lancet,Vol. 358, No. 9286, 2001, pp. 958965. (scirp.org)
  • Induction of Antinuclear Antibody after Interferon Therapy in Patients with TypeC Chronic Hepatitis: Its Relation to the Efficacy of Therapy," Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology, Vol. 31, No. 7, 1996, pp. 716722. (scirp.org)
  • We evaluated the genetic variation in rs8099917, substitutions in core amino acid (aa) 70, and the number of aa substitutions in the interferon sensitivity-determining region (ISDR) on the prediction of sustained virological response (SVR) in treatment-naïve hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1b (G1b) patients. (hindawi.com)
  • Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection was generally treated with pegylated interferon (PEG-IFN) and ribavirin combination therapy. (hindawi.com)
  • Recently, several genome-wide association studies have revealed that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in proximity to IL28B predict spontaneous clearance of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection as well as outcome following pegylated interferon and ribavirin therapy among genotype 1 infected patients. (diva-portal.org)
  • Chronic hepatitis B treatment: the cost-effectiveness of interferon compared to lamivudine. (bvsalud.org)
  • We evaluated the impact of adherence to combination therapy with interferon or peginterferon plus ribavirin in chronic hepatitis C patients. (duke.edu)
  • In 1989, the hepatitis C virus was identified and found to account for most cases of non-A, non-B hepatitis. (medscape.com)
  • Terms and Abbreviations Used in This Publication Acute hepatitis C Newly acquired symptomatic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. (cdc.gov)
  • HBV Hepatitis B virus. (cdc.gov)
  • HCV Hepatitis C virus. (cdc.gov)
  • HCV RNA Hepatitis C virus ribonucleic acid. (cdc.gov)
  • Worldwide, the most common risk factor for liver cancer is chronic infection with the hepatitis B virus. (hepb.org)
  • In the United States, the leading cause is chronic hepatitis C virus infection because of the greater number of Americans infected with this virus. (hepb.org)
  • The hepatitis B virus is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as a known cancer-causing virus in humans because of the strong link between chronic hepatitis B infection and liver cancer. (hepb.org)
  • People chronically infected with hepatitis B are 100 times more likely to develop liver cancer than uninfected people because the virus directly and repeatedly attacks the liver. (hepb.org)
  • In the United States, hepatitis C infection is the most common cause of liver cancer due to the greater number of Americans infected with this virus, while in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, chronic hepatitis B infections are the most common cause. (hepb.org)
  • Immune responses to hepatitis C virus (HCV) fail to clear the virus in most individuals. (jci.org)
  • ABSTRACT There is strong epidemiological evidence linking hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and diabetes. (who.int)
  • Professor Matti Sallberg of Laboratory Medicine, the Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, who led the study, said: "In 50-80% of adult cases, the immune system fails to eliminate the HCV virus and the disease becomes chronic. (news-medical.net)
  • Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is a worldwide disease. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • The awareness of hepatitis E virus (HEV) increased significantly in the last decade due to its unexpectedly high prevalence in high-income countries. (nature.com)
  • Chronic Hepatitis C Virus a. (nursingcenter.com)
  • Hispanics have a 40% greater chance of being infected with hepatitis C virus than the general population. (nursingcenter.com)
  • Peginterferon Alfa2a Plus Ribavirin for Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection," The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 347, No. 13, 2002, pp. 975982. (scirp.org)
  • Chronic hepatitis B is inflammation of the liver that is caused by the hepatitis B virus and that has lasted more than 6 months. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Hepatitis B, Acute Acute hepatitis B is inflammation of the liver that is caused by the hepatitis B virus and that lasts from a few weeks up to 6 months. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Published phase II and phase III randomized placebo-controlled trials examining the efficacy of boceprevir and telaprevir in chronic hepatitis C virus genotype 1 infected adult populations were included. (dovepress.com)
  • Chronic Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infections remain a major problem public health problem worldwide, as well as a therapeutic challenge for clinicians. (nih.gov)
  • This guideline on pretreatment assessment of patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) was developed by the New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute (NYSDOH AI) to guide primary care providers and other practitioners in New York State in all aspects of treating and curing patients with chronic HCV. (hivguidelines.org)
  • Hepatitis C virus (HCV) represents the second most common blood-borne illness in the world, affecting up to 2% of the world?s population. (omicsonline.org)
  • SEATTLE --(BUSINESS WIRE)--Feb. 26, 2015-- Gilead Sciences, Inc. (NASDAQ:GILD) today announced results from a Phase 3 study, ION-4, evaluating the once-daily single tablet regimen Harvoni ® (ledipasvir 90 mg/sofosbuvir 400 mg) for the treatment of genotypes 1 or 4 chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection among patients co-infected with HIV. (gilead.com)
  • The 2002 National Institutes of Health Consensus Conference Statement recommended that both clinical and research efforts be made to increase the availability of hepatitis C virus (HCV) treatment to patients who were previously ineligible because of comorbid psychiatric illness and substance use disorders. (psychiatrist.com)
  • In 2014, the Swiss Hepatitis Strategy was developed to eliminate hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and the associated liver-related morbidity and mortality by 2030. (smw.ch)
  • Global prevalence and genotype distribution of hepatitis C virus infection in 2015: a modelling study. (smw.ch)
  • Strategies to manage hepatitis C virus (HCV) disease burden. (smw.ch)
  • Strategies to manage hepatitis C virus infection disease burden - volume 3. (smw.ch)
  • Hepatitis C virus prevalence and level of intervention required to achieve the WHO targets for elimination in the European Union by 2030: a modelling study. (smw.ch)
  • Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection and diabetes mellitus are major health problems associated with significant morbidity and mortality. (uwi.edu)
  • The majority of patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection suffer from disabling fatigue, cognitive dysfunction, and quality of life reduction. (bmj.com)
  • The challenge in South Africa remains prevention through the universal vaccination coverage of all children and the identification of those with chronic hepatitis B virus infection. (up.ac.za)
  • Global prevalence, treatment, and prevention of hepatitis B virus infection in 2016: a modelling study. (who.int)
  • Ott JJ, Stevens GA, Groeger J, Wiersma ST. Global epidemiology of hepatitis B virus infection: New estimates of age-specific HBsAg seroprevalence and endemicity. (who.int)
  • Hepatitis B is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). (kidshealth.org)
  • If a pregnant woman has the hepatitis B virus, her baby has a very high chance of having it unless the baby gets a special immune injection and the first dose of hepatitis B vaccine at birth. (kidshealth.org)
  • If you think you may have hepatitis B or you might have been exposed to the virus through sex or drug use, see your doctor or gynecologist to get tested. (kidshealth.org)
  • Clinical-stage immunology company Vir Biotechnology Inc. (VIR:NASDAQ) , which is focused on treating and preventing serious infectious diseases, today announced "initial topline data from its ongoing trial of VIR-3434 in patients with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection. (streetwisereports.com)
  • The firm advised that data from a cohort of eight randomized patients where six participants received a single 6 mg dose of VIR-3434 and two were given a placebo, showed that the six of the eight patients achieved a mean reduction of 1.3 log10 IU/mL in serum hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg) after eight days. (streetwisereports.com)
  • The company stated that its product pipeline candidates are being developed to target hepatitis B, influenza A, SARS-CoV-2, human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculosis. (streetwisereports.com)
  • evidence of lamivudine-resistant hepatitis B virus. (who.int)
  • Study 437, initiated in March 1999 and conducted in Australia, Europe, North America and Southeast Asia, is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial which is evaluating the safety and efficacy of adefovir dipivoxil at two active doses (10 mg and 30 mg) given once daily in hepatitis B "e" antigen positive patients. (gilead.com)
  • Study 438, initiated in January 2000, is a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial which is evaluating adefovir dipivoxil 10 mg for the treatment of hepatitis B "e" antigen negative patients (precore mutant HBV infection). (gilead.com)
  • Between 2014 and 2019, rapid hepatitis B surface antigen testing was performed on 4068 individuals in Oro Province. (who.int)
  • A Markov model was developed for chronic hepatitis B ( hepatitis B antigen e [ HBeAg ] positive and negative) with 40 years' time horizon. (bvsalud.org)
  • Vir Biotechnology shares traded higher after the company reported data from its Phase 1 Chronic Hepatitis B Study that showed VIR-3434 significantly and rapidly reduced hepatitis B surface antigen. (streetwisereports.com)
  • HBV) DNA loss with d detection of antibodies against HBeAG) or - until Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAG) seroconversion or - until loss of efficacy (see section 4.4). (who.int)
  • Sofosbuvir (also known as Sovaldi) is recommended as a possible treatment for adults with some types (called genotypes) of chronic hepatitis C. It is taken with other drugs (peginterferon alfa and ribavirin, or ribavirin alone). (nice.org.uk)
  • The aims of our work were to assess the effectiveness of treatment with PEG-INF alone or in combination with Ribavirin (RBV) in clinical practice in patients with chronic hepatitis B or C and to determine the hematologic side effects. (scirp.org)
  • A 66yearold female was referred to a local clinic for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C. Her family physician started the administration of PegIFN alpha2a in combination with ribavirin in September, 2008. (scirp.org)
  • More than 50% of all liver cancers could be prevented with increased use of the hepatitis B vaccine, better treatments for chronic hepatitis B, and curative treatments for hepatitis C infections. (hepb.org)
  • 1,2 While a prophylactic vaccine for hepatitis B exists, many people living with chronic hepatitis B remain uncured by current treatments and endure lifelong therapy. (jnj.com)
  • The introduction of the hepatitis B vaccine into the country some 18 years ago has demonstrated benefit, but the exposure to, and prevalence of chronic HBsAg positivity remain unacceptably high. (up.ac.za)
  • Newborn babies in the United States now routinely get the hepatitis B vaccine as a series of three shots over a 6-month period. (kidshealth.org)
  • As of 2022, the hepatitis B vaccine is between 98% and 100% effective in preventing infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • National programs have made the hepatitis B vaccine available for infants in 190 countries as of the end of 2021. (wikipedia.org)
  • The company stated that the Phase 1 clinical trial was structured as a randomized, placebo-controlled study to evaluate VIR-3434's immunomodulatory activity, pharmacokinetics, tolerability and safety in healthy volunteers and patients with chronic HBV infection with HBsAg levels less than 1,000 IU/ml. (streetwisereports.com)
  • In order to achieve the Swiss Hepatitis Strategy goals of a 30% reduction in new infections, total viraemic infections, liver transplants, and hepatocellular carcinoma cases by 2020 and a 90% reduction by 2030, all regions will need to increase the annual number of treated and diagnosed patients up to 2030. (smw.ch)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: Adherence to combination therapy enhances sustained response in genotype-1-infected patients with chronic hepatitis C. (duke.edu)
  • Globally, however, chronic infections with hepatitis B or C are responsible for making liver cancer the most common cancer in many parts of the world. (hepb.org)
  • To learn more about the prevention and treatment of chronic hepatitis B infections, visit www.hepb.org . (hepb.org)
  • The number of liver cancer cases related to hepatitis C infections is predicted to continue rising and could possibly double over the next 10 to 20 years. (hepb.org)
  • In this work package, the immune reaction against HEV will be investigated, with a special focus on the differences between acute and chronic infections. (bund.de)
  • An important objective within Janssen is to develop highly effective combination products that cure people living with chronic hepatitis B infections," said Mathai Mammen, M.D., Ph.D., Global Head, Janssen Research & Development, LLC. (jnj.com)
  • In most cases, teens who get hepatitis B recover and may develop a natural immunity to future hepatitis B infections. (kidshealth.org)
  • Achieving this goal would require the development of therapeutic treatments to cure chronic hepatitis B, as well as preventing its transmission and using vaccines to prevent new infections. (wikipedia.org)
  • An estimated 296 million people, or 3.8% of the global population, had chronic hepatitis B infections as of 2019. (wikipedia.org)
  • Hepatitis B (also called serum hepatitis ) is a serious infection. (kidshealth.org)
  • A higher number of newly reported cases of chronic hepatitis C were observed among males, compared with females across all age groups. (cdc.gov)
  • Most people with chronic hepatitis B have no symptoms, but some feel generally ill and tired and lose their appetite. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Most people with chronic hepatitis B have no symptoms, but some. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Many people with chronic hepatitis B, particularly children, have no symptoms. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Anyone who is at risk for hepatitis B (including health care and public safety workers, people with chronic liver disease, people who inject drugs, and others) also should be vaccinated. (kidshealth.org)
  • In areas where the disease is common, infection around the time of birth or from contact with other people's blood during childhood are the most frequent methods by which hepatitis B is acquired. (wikipedia.org)
  • J. H. Hoofnagle and L. B. Seeff, "Peginterferon and Riba virin for Chronic Hepatitis C," The New England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 355, No. 23, 2006, pp. 24442451. (scirp.org)
  • Intensified screening for chronic hepatitis C and increased access to direct-acting antivirals are necessary to meet the Swiss hepatitis strategy elimination goals over the next 12 years. (smw.ch)
  • We believe the compound has the potential to address the unmet medical need of many patients with chronic HBV infection. (gilead.com)
  • To learn more about the prevention and treatment of hepatitis C, visit our Resources page for links to nonprofit organizations that provide valuable information and support. (hepb.org)
  • If you have hepatitis B, talk to your doctor about your risk for hepatitis D. To learn more about this dangerous co-infection, and the prevention and treatment of hepatitis D, visit our Hepatitis Delta Connect website. (hepb.org)
  • Anyone who has ever tested positive for hepatitis B cannot be a blood donor . (kidshealth.org)
  • Acute hepatitis B becomes chronic in about 40% of people being treated with hemodialysis and in up to 20% of people with a weakened immune system. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Diagnosis of hepatitis E required liver enzyme malignanciesandhepatitisEvirus(HEV)infectionsupport abnormalities and detectable HEV RNA in serum or fecal thatHEVcaninducechronichepatitis.However,a3-month courseofribavirincaninducearapidviralclearance,reduc- samples. (cdc.gov)
  • Clinicians should assess all patients with a confirmed diagnosis of chronic HCV infection, defined as a positive HCV surface antibody test result and detectable HCV RNA, for treatment. (hivguidelines.org)
  • Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Accurate Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic Liver Diseases, Wenzhou, China. (bvsalud.org)
  • Two scenarios were developed to evaluate the disease burden in St Gallen, Geneva and Zurich: a Base 2016 scenario, representing the current standard of care in each canton, and a second, potential scenario to achieve the Swiss Hepatitis Strategy goals. (smw.ch)
  • The 2010 and 2016 case definitions change the name of Hepatitis C, past or present to Hepatitis C, chronic. (cdc.gov)
  • Hepatitis B remains a significant yet preventable health issue in South Africa. (up.ac.za)
  • This document draws on these guidelines and serves to contextualise, for South Africa, practice guidelines for the management of chronic hepatitis B. (up.ac.za)
  • Not everyone with chronic hepatitis B needs treatment, but if chronic hepatitis B is damaging the liver (causing inflammation or scarring), an antiviral drug is started. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) is a disorder that involves nerve swelling and irritation (inflammation) that leads to a loss of strength or sensation. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This integrated approach to clinical practice and research on hepatitis prevention requires monitoring the traditional physiological and biomedical outcomes and improving the community environment, family support, and health related quality of life [ 7 , 8 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Guidelines for the Prevention, Care and Treatment of Persons with Chronic Hepatitis B Infection. (who.int)
  • The recommended dose for the treatment or prevention of HIV as well as for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B is one tablet of [HA516 trade name] once daily taken orally with food or between meals. (who.int)
  • Clinical ed chronic hepatitis in 3 of them ( 6 ). (cdc.gov)
  • In the first clinical trial of a therapeutic vaccination using naked DNA delivered by in vivo electroporation (EP), antiviral effects were shown in patients with hepatitis C (HCV). (news-medical.net)
  • Provide evidence-based clinical recommendations to support the goals of the New York State Hepatitis C Elimination Plan (NY Cures HepC) . (hivguidelines.org)
  • The blood samples and clinical information were collected from chronic HBV-positive patients Group 1 (n = 120), and their age and gender were matched with those of the healthy control subjects Group 2 (n = 120). (uwi.edu)
  • Hepatitis C is a global disease. (medscape.com)
  • This is the first study to evaluate the association between hepatitis C and the most frequently inherited monogenic liver diseases (hereditary hemochromatosis, alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency, Gilbert's syndrome, and Wilson's disease) and their causative mutations. (wjgnet.com)
  • This case-control study revealed an association between hepatitis C and the mutation that causes Wilson's disease. (wjgnet.com)
  • In fact, chronic liver disease is the seventh highest cause of death in Hispanics, ages 25 to 44, and third highest in the 45 to 64 age group. (nursingcenter.com)
  • Having hepatitis B or hepatitis C or fatty liver disease, or drinking. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Accordingly, interdisciplinary studies are needed to better understand this zoonotic infectious disease with a chronic course. (bund.de)
  • Clinicians should refer patients with chronic HCV and decompensated liver disease and patients who are pre- or post-liver transplant to a liver disease specialist. (hivguidelines.org)
  • Incidental Finding of Hepatic Inflammatory Pseudotumor Immunoglobulin G4-Related Disease With Underlying Chronic Hepatitis C. (physiciansweekly.com)
  • HBV can cause a wide range of symptoms, from a mild illness and general feeling of being unwell to more serious chronic liver disease that can lead to liver cancer. (kidshealth.org)
  • The first-proof-of-concept for a DNA-based therapeutic vaccination against chronic hepatitis C was announced today at EASL 2009, the Annual Meeting of the European Association for the Study of the Liver in Copenhagen, Denmark. (news-medical.net)
  • Assessment of the hepatitis B birth dose vaccination program, Papua New Guinea, 2014. (who.int)
  • Hepatitis B infection has been preventable by vaccination since 1982. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, fulminant hepatitis is very rare in acute hepatitis C. HCV RNA can be detected in serum via polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as early as a few days following exposure, which is the earliest diagnostic marker. (medscape.com)
  • Approximately 80% of patients with acute hepatitis C develop chronic infection that manifests as persistent HCV RNA detected in the blood with or without abnormal liver function test results for more than 6 months. (medscape.com)
  • Direct-acting antiviral agents have revolutionised hepatitis C treatment. (smw.ch)
  • Health care providers will keep a close eye on patients who develop chronic hepatitis B. (kidshealth.org)
  • About 90% of those infected during or shortly after birth develop chronic hepatitis B, while less than 10% of those infected after the age of five develop chronic cases. (wikipedia.org)
  • Conclusion: sPD-1 may play a certain role in chronic hepatitis B and has a close relationship with the curative effect of entecavir. (tubitak.gov.tr)
  • Effect of liver steatosis on liver stiffness measurement in chronic hepatitis B patients with normal serum alanine aminotransferase levels: A multicentre cohort study. (bvsalud.org)
  • Working with the talented Arrowhead team and their RNAi therapy candidate adds to the strength of our hepatitis B portfolio and substantially increases our confidence that we can achieve our objective. (jnj.com)
  • Therapy should be initiated by a health care provider experienced in the management of HIV infection or treatment of chronic hepatitis B. (who.int)
  • Harvoni received regulatory approval for the treatment of chronic HCV genotype 1 infection in adults in the United States in October 2014 . (gilead.com)
  • According to some estimates, about a third of the world's population has been infected with hepatitis B at one point in their lives. (wikipedia.org)
  • Changes of serum sPD-1 levels in HBeAg-positive chronic hepatitis B pa" by CHUNHUA BI, DEYU HUANG et al. (tubitak.gov.tr)
  • Having chronic hepatitis B increases the risk of liver cancer. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Gilead Sciences, Inc. (Nasdaq: GILD) today announced that it has initiated Phase I trials of adefovir dipivoxil for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B (HBV) infection in China. (gilead.com)
  • Of the nearly 400 million patients who suffer from chronic HBV infection, more than 100 million live in China," said John C. Martin, Ph.D., President and Chief Executive Officer, Gilead Sciences. (gilead.com)
  • The study also reported that low baseline levels of the intracellular iron regulators of FBXL5 in addition to a suppressed hepcidin level might be associated with severe hepatic iron deposition in chronic hepatitis C patients. (medscape.com)
  • the person's hepatitis C has been treated before but has not responded well enough. (nice.org.uk)
  • It is one of five main hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, and E. During an initial infection, care is based on a person's symptoms. (wikipedia.org)