A condition of elevated levels of TRIGLYCERIDES in the blood.
A hypertriglyceridemia disorder, often with autosomal dominant inheritance. It is characterized by the persistent elevations of plasma TRIGLYCERIDES, endogenously synthesized and contained predominantly in VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (pre-beta lipoproteins). In contrast, the plasma CHOLESTEROL and PHOSPHOLIPIDS usually remain within normal limits.
Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body, stored in fat cells and used as energy; they are measured in blood tests to assess heart disease risk, with high levels often resulting from dietary habits, obesity, physical inactivity, smoking, and alcohol consumption.
An enzyme of the hydrolase class that catalyzes the reaction of triacylglycerol and water to yield diacylglycerol and a fatty acid anion. The enzyme hydrolyzes triacylglycerols in chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoproteins, low-density lipoproteins, and diacylglycerols. It occurs on capillary endothelial surfaces, especially in mammary, muscle, and adipose tissue. Genetic deficiency of the enzyme causes familial hyperlipoproteinemia Type I. (Dorland, 27th ed) EC 3.1.1.34.
A 9-kDa protein component of VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS and CHYLOMICRON REMNANTS. Apo C-III, synthesized in the liver, is an inhibitor of LIPOPROTEIN LIPASE. Apo C-III modulates the binding of chylomicron remnants and VLDL to receptors (RECEPTORS, LDL) thus decreases the uptake of triglyceride-rich particles by the liver cells and subsequent degradation. The normal Apo C-III is glycosylated. There are several polymorphic forms with varying amounts of SIALIC ACID (Apo C-III-0, Apo C-III-1, and Apo C-III-2).
Conditions with excess LIPIDS in the blood.
A class of lipoproteins of very light (0.93-1.006 g/ml) large size (30-80 nm) particles with a core composed mainly of TRIGLYCERIDES and a surface monolayer of PHOSPHOLIPIDS and CHOLESTEROL into which are imbedded the apolipoproteins B, E, and C. VLDL facilitates the transport of endogenously made triglycerides to extrahepatic tissues. As triglycerides and Apo C are removed, VLDL is converted to INTERMEDIATE-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS, then to LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS from which cholesterol is delivered to the extrahepatic tissues.
A group of apolipoproteins that can readily exchange among the various classes of lipoproteins (HDL; VLDL; CHYLOMICRONS). After lipolysis of TRIGLYCERIDES on VLDL and chylomicrons, Apo-C proteins are normally transferred to HDL. The subtypes can modulate remnant binding to receptors, LECITHIN CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE, or LIPOPROTEIN LIPASE.
Lipid-protein complexes involved in the transportation and metabolism of lipids in the body. They are spherical particles consisting of a hydrophobic core of TRIGLYCERIDES and CHOLESTEROL ESTERS surrounded by a layer of hydrophilic free CHOLESTEROL; PHOSPHOLIPIDS; and APOLIPOPROTEINS. Lipoproteins are classified by their varying buoyant density and sizes.
Substances that lower the levels of certain LIPIDS in the BLOOD. They are used to treat HYPERLIPIDEMIAS.
The principal sterol of all higher animals, distributed in body tissues, especially the brain and spinal cord, and in animal fats and oils.
A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
The time frame after a meal or FOOD INTAKE.
A class of lipoproteins that carry dietary CHOLESTEROL and TRIGLYCERIDES from the SMALL INTESTINE to the tissues. Their density (0.93-1.006 g/ml) is the same as that of VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS.
A cluster of metabolic risk factors for CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES and TYPE 2 DIABETES MELLITUS. The major components of metabolic syndrome X include excess ABDOMINAL FAT; atherogenic DYSLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPERGLYCEMIA; INSULIN RESISTANCE; a proinflammatory state; and a prothrombotic (THROMBOSIS) state. (from AHA/NHLBI/ADA Conference Proceedings, Circulation 2004; 109:551-556)
A type of familial lipid metabolism disorder characterized by a variable pattern of elevated plasma CHOLESTEROL and/or TRIGLYCERIDES. Multiple genes on different chromosomes may be involved, such as the major late transcription factor (UPSTREAM STIMULATORY FACTORS) on CHROMOSOME 1.
Cholesterol which is contained in or bound to high-density lipoproteins (HDL), including CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and free cholesterol.
Structural proteins of the alpha-lipoproteins (HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS), including APOLIPOPROTEIN A-I and APOLIPOPROTEIN A-II. They can modulate the activity of LECITHIN CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE. These apolipoproteins are low in atherosclerotic patients. They are either absent or present in extremely low plasma concentration in TANGIER DISEASE.
Major structural proteins of triacylglycerol-rich LIPOPROTEINS. There are two forms, apolipoprotein B-100 and apolipoprotein B-48, both derived from a single gene. ApoB-100 expressed in the liver is found in low-density lipoproteins (LIPOPROTEINS, LDL; LIPOPROTEINS, VLDL). ApoB-48 expressed in the intestine is found in CHYLOMICRONS. They are important in the biosynthesis, transport, and metabolism of triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins. Plasma Apo-B levels are high in atherosclerotic patients but non-detectable in ABETALIPOPROTEINEMIA.
An antilipemic agent that lowers CHOLESTEROL and TRIGLYCERIDES. It decreases LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS and increases HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS.
Cholesterol which is contained in or bound to very low density lipoproteins (VLDL). High circulating levels of VLDL cholesterol are found in HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA TYPE IIB. The cholesterol on the VLDL is eventually delivered by LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS to the tissues after the catabolism of VLDL to INTERMEDIATE-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS, then to LDL.
Protein components on the surface of LIPOPROTEINS. They form a layer surrounding the hydrophobic lipid core. There are several classes of apolipoproteins with each playing a different role in lipid transport and LIPID METABOLISM. These proteins are synthesized mainly in the LIVER and the INTESTINES.
An inherited condition due to a deficiency of either LIPOPROTEIN LIPASE or APOLIPOPROTEIN C-II (a lipase-activating protein). The lack of lipase activities results in inability to remove CHYLOMICRONS and TRIGLYCERIDES from the blood which has a creamy top layer after standing.
Abnormalities in the serum levels of LIPIDS, including overproduction or deficiency. Abnormal serum lipid profiles may include high total CHOLESTEROL, high TRIGLYCERIDES, low HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL, and elevated LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL.
A 9-kDa protein component of VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS. It contains a cofactor for LIPOPROTEIN LIPASE and activates several triacylglycerol lipases. The association of Apo C-II with plasma CHYLOMICRONS; VLDL, and HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS is reversible and changes rapidly as a function of triglyceride metabolism. Clinically, Apo C-II deficiency is similar to lipoprotein lipase deficiency (HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA TYPE I) and is therefore called hyperlipoproteinemia type IB.
An enzyme of the hydrolase class that catalyzes the reaction of triacylglycerol and water to yield diacylglycerol and a fatty acid anion. It is produced by glands on the tongue and by the pancreas and initiates the digestion of dietary fats. (From Dorland, 27th ed) EC 3.1.1.3.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
Conditions with abnormally elevated levels of LIPOPROTEINS in the blood. They may be inherited, acquired, primary, or secondary. Hyperlipoproteinemias are classified according to the pattern of lipoproteins on electrophoresis or ultracentrifugation.
Diminished effectiveness of INSULIN in lowering blood sugar levels: requiring the use of 200 units or more of insulin per day to prevent HYPERGLYCEMIA or KETOSIS.
A collection of heterogenous conditions resulting from defective LIPID METABOLISM and characterized by ADIPOSE TISSUE atrophy. Often there is redistribution of body fat resulting in peripheral fat wasting and central adiposity. They include generalized, localized, congenital, and acquired lipodystrophy.
A lipid-regulating agent that lowers elevated serum lipids primarily by decreasing serum triglycerides with a variable reduction in total cholesterol.
Cholesterol which is contained in or bound to low density lipoproteins (LDL), including CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and free cholesterol.
Glucose in blood.
A status with BODY WEIGHT that is grossly above the acceptable or desirable weight, usually due to accumulation of excess FATS in the body. The standards may vary with age, sex, genetic or cultural background. In the BODY MASS INDEX, a BMI greater than 30.0 kg/m2 is considered obese, and a BMI greater than 40.0 kg/m2 is considered morbidly obese (MORBID OBESITY).
A class of lipoproteins of small size (4-13 nm) and dense (greater than 1.063 g/ml) particles. HDL lipoproteins, synthesized in the liver without a lipid core, accumulate cholesterol esters from peripheral tissues and transport them to the liver for re-utilization or elimination from the body (the reverse cholesterol transport). Their major protein component is APOLIPOPROTEIN A-I. HDL also shuttle APOLIPOPROTEINS C and APOLIPOPROTEINS E to and from triglyceride-rich lipoproteins during their catabolism. HDL plasma level has been inversely correlated with the risk of cardiovascular diseases.
A condition with abnormally high levels of CHOLESTEROL in the blood. It is defined as a cholesterol value exceeding the 95th percentile for the population.
An antilipemic agent which reduces both CHOLESTEROL and TRIGLYCERIDES in the blood.
A monosaccharide in sweet fruits and honey that is soluble in water, alcohol, or ether. It is used as a preservative and an intravenous infusion in parenteral feeding.
One of three major isoforms of apolipoprotein E. In humans, Apo E2 differs from APOLIPOPROTEIN E3 at one residue 158 where arginine is replaced by cysteine (R158--C). In contrast to Apo E3, Apo E2 displays extremely low binding affinity for LDL receptors (RECEPTORS, LDL) which mediate the internalization and catabolism of lipoprotein particles in liver cells. ApoE2 allelic homozygosity is associated with HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA TYPE III.
INFLAMMATION of the PANCREAS. Pancreatitis is classified as acute unless there are computed tomographic or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatographic findings of CHRONIC PANCREATITIS (International Symposium on Acute Pancreatitis, Atlanta, 1992). The two most common forms of acute pancreatitis are ALCOHOLIC PANCREATITIS and gallstone pancreatitis.
Physiological processes in biosynthesis (anabolism) and degradation (catabolism) of LIPIDS.
A 6.6-kDa protein component of VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS; INTERMEDIATE-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS; and HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS. Apo C-I displaces APO E from lipoproteins, modulate their binding to receptors (RECEPTORS, LDL), and thereby decrease their clearance from plasma. Elevated Apo C-I levels are associated with HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA and ATHEROSCLEROSIS.
FATTY ACIDS found in the plasma that are complexed with SERUM ALBUMIN for transport. These fatty acids are not in glycerol ester form.
An antilipemic agent that is the biologically active metabolite of CLOFIBRATE.
Abstaining from all food.
A water-soluble vitamin of the B complex occurring in various animal and plant tissues. It is required by the body for the formation of coenzymes NAD and NADP. It has PELLAGRA-curative, vasodilating, and antilipemic properties.
A syndrome with excessively high INSULIN levels in the BLOOD. It may cause HYPOGLYCEMIA. Etiology of hyperinsulinism varies, including hypersecretion of a beta cell tumor (INSULINOMA); autoantibodies against insulin (INSULIN ANTIBODIES); defective insulin receptor (INSULIN RESISTANCE); or overuse of exogenous insulin or HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS.
Lipid infiltration of the hepatic parenchymal cells resulting in a yellow-colored liver. The abnormal lipid accumulation is usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES, either as a single large droplet or multiple small droplets. Fatty liver is caused by an imbalance in the metabolism of FATTY ACIDS.
A class of protein components which can be found in several lipoproteins including HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS; VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS; and CHYLOMICRONS. Synthesized in most organs, Apo E is important in the global transport of lipids and cholesterol throughout the body. Apo E is also a ligand for LDL receptors (RECEPTORS, LDL) that mediates the binding, internalization, and catabolism of lipoprotein particles in cells. There are several allelic isoforms (such as E2, E3, and E4). Deficiency or defects in Apo E are causes of HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA TYPE III.
Fats present in food, especially in animal products such as meat, meat products, butter, ghee. They are present in lower amounts in nuts, seeds, and avocados.
A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).
The metabolic process of breaking down LIPIDS to release FREE FATTY ACIDS, the major oxidative fuel for the body. Lipolysis may involve dietary lipids in the DIGESTIVE TRACT, circulating lipids in the BLOOD, and stored lipids in the ADIPOSE TISSUE or the LIVER. A number of enzymes are involved in such lipid hydrolysis, such as LIPASE and LIPOPROTEIN LIPASE from various tissues.
A class of lipoproteins of small size (18-25 nm) and light (1.019-1.063 g/ml) particles with a core composed mainly of CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and smaller amounts of TRIGLYCERIDES. The surface monolayer consists mostly of PHOSPHOLIPIDS, a single copy of APOLIPOPROTEIN B-100, and free cholesterol molecules. The main LDL function is to transport cholesterol and cholesterol esters to extrahepatic tissues.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
The second most abundant protein component of HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS or HDL. It has a high lipid affinity and is known to displace APOLIPOPROTEIN A-I from HDL particles and generates a stable HDL complex. ApoA-II can modulate the activation of LECITHIN CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE in the presence of APOLIPOPROTEIN A-I, thus affecting HDL metabolism.
Compounds that either share the structure of fibric acid in their molecular arrangement or are considered variants of the fibric acid structure.
Congenital disorders, usually autosomal recessive, characterized by severe generalized lack of ADIPOSE TISSUE, extreme INSULIN RESISTANCE, and HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA.
The most abundant protein component of HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS or HDL. This protein serves as an acceptor for CHOLESTEROL released from cells thus promoting efflux of cholesterol to HDL then to the LIVER for excretion from the body (reverse cholesterol transport). It also acts as a cofactor for LECITHIN CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE that forms CHOLESTEROL ESTERS on the HDL particles. Mutations of this gene APOA1 cause HDL deficiency, such as in FAMILIAL ALPHA LIPOPROTEIN DEFICIENCY DISEASE and in some patients with TANGIER DISEASE.
Conditions with abnormally low levels of ALPHA-LIPOPROTEINS (high-density lipoproteins) in the blood. Hypoalphalipoproteinemia can be associated with mutations in genes encoding APOLIPOPROTEIN A-I; LECITHIN CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE; and ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS.
Partially saturated 1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene compounds.
A severe type of hyperlipidemia, sometimes familial, that is characterized by the elevation of both plasma CHYLOMICRONS and TRIGLYCERIDES contained in VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS. Type V hyperlipoproteinemia is often associated with DIABETES MELLITUS and is not caused by reduced LIPOPROTEIN LIPASE activity as in HYPERLIPOPROTEINEMIA TYPE I .
Specialized connective tissue composed of fat cells (ADIPOCYTES). It is the site of stored FATS, usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES. In mammals, there are two types of adipose tissue, the WHITE FAT and the BROWN FAT. Their relative distributions vary in different species with most adipose tissue being white.
A condition of having excess fat in the abdomen. Abdominal obesity is typically defined as waist circumferences of 40 inches or more in men and 35 inches or more in women. Abdominal obesity raises the risk of developing disorders, such as diabetes, hypertension and METABOLIC SYNDROME X.
A subclass of DIABETES MELLITUS that is not INSULIN-responsive or dependent (NIDDM). It is characterized initially by INSULIN RESISTANCE and HYPERINSULINEMIA; and eventually by GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HYPERGLYCEMIA; and overt diabetes. Type II diabetes mellitus is no longer considered a disease exclusively found in adults. Patients seldom develop KETOSIS but often exhibit OBESITY.
A family of structurally-related angiogenic proteins of approximately 70 kDa in size. They have high specificity for members of the TIE RECEPTOR FAMILY.
A heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by HYPERGLYCEMIA and GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE.
A major primary bile acid produced in the liver and usually conjugated with glycine or taurine. It facilitates fat absorption and cholesterol excretion.
A sterol regulatory element binding protein that regulates expression of GENES involved in FATTY ACIDS metabolism and LIPOGENESIS. Two major isoforms of the protein exist due to ALTERNATIVE SPLICING.
Carbohydrates present in food comprising digestible sugars and starches and indigestible cellulose and other dietary fibers. The former are the major source of energy. The sugars are in beet and cane sugar, fruits, honey, sweet corn, corn syrup, milk and milk products, etc.; the starches are in cereal grains, legumes (FABACEAE), tubers, etc. (From Claudio & Lagua, Nutrition and Diet Therapy Dictionary, 3d ed, p32, p277)
Oils high in unsaturated fats extracted from the bodies of fish or fish parts, especially the LIVER. Those from the liver are usually high in VITAMIN A. The oils are used as DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS. They are also used in soaps and detergents and as protective coatings.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
(Z)-9-Octadecenoic acid 1,2,3-propanetriyl ester.
Abnormally high BLOOD GLUCOSE level.
Generic term for diseases caused by an abnormal metabolic process. It can be congenital due to inherited enzyme abnormality (METABOLISM, INBORN ERRORS) or acquired due to disease of an endocrine organ or failure of a metabolically important organ such as the liver. (Stedman, 26th ed)
A plant genus of the family ARECACEAE. It is a tropical palm tree that yields a large, edible hard-shelled fruit from which oil and fiber are also obtained.
A 241-kDa protein synthesized only in the INTESTINES. It serves as a structural protein of CHYLOMICRONS. Its exclusive association with chylomicron particles provides an indicator of intestinally derived lipoproteins in circulation. Apo B-48 is a shortened form of apo B-100 and lacks the LDL-receptor region.
Two populations of Zucker rats have been cited in research--the "fatty" or obese and the lean. The "fatty" rat (Rattus norvegicus) appeared as a spontaneous mutant. The obese condition appears to be due to a single recessive gene.
A life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus, primarily of TYPE 1 DIABETES MELLITUS with severe INSULIN deficiency and extreme HYPERGLYCEMIA. It is characterized by KETOSIS; DEHYDRATION; and depressed consciousness leading to COMA.
Enlargement of the liver.
Persistently high systemic arterial BLOOD PRESSURE. Based on multiple readings (BLOOD PRESSURE DETERMINATION), hypertension is currently defined as when SYSTOLIC PRESSURE is consistently greater than 140 mm Hg or when DIASTOLIC PRESSURE is consistently 90 mm Hg or more.
Thickening and loss of elasticity of the walls of ARTERIES of all sizes. There are many forms classified by the types of lesions and arteries involved, such as ATHEROSCLEROSIS with fatty lesions in the ARTERIAL INTIMA of medium and large muscular arteries.
A phenotypic outcome (physical characteristic or disease predisposition) that is determined by more than one gene. Polygenic refers to those determined by many genes, while oligogenic refers to those determined by a few genes.
Emulsions of fats or lipids used primarily in parenteral feeding.
Receptors on the plasma membrane of nonhepatic cells that specifically bind LDL. The receptors are localized in specialized regions called coated pits. Hypercholesteremia is caused by an allelic genetic defect of three types: 1, receptors do not bind to LDL; 2, there is reduced binding of LDL; and 3, there is normal binding but no internalization of LDL. In consequence, entry of cholesterol esters into the cell is impaired and the intracellular feedback by cholesterol on 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase is lacking.
A group of fatty acids, often of marine origin, which have the first unsaturated bond in the third position from the omega carbon. These fatty acids are believed to reduce serum triglycerides, prevent insulin resistance, improve lipid profile, prolong bleeding times, reduce platelet counts, and decrease platelet adhesiveness.
'Blood Protein Disorders' refer to conditions characterized by an abnormal amount, structure, or function of proteins present in the blood, including immunoglobulins, coagulation factors, complement components, and transport proteins, which can lead to various clinical manifestations such as immune dysfunction, bleeding disorders, or metabolic imbalances.
An autosomal recessively inherited disorder characterized by the accumulation of intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL or broad-beta-lipoprotein). IDL has a CHOLESTEROL to TRIGLYCERIDES ratio greater than that of VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS. This disorder is due to mutation of APOLIPOPROTEINS E, a receptor-binding component of VLDL and CHYLOMICRONS, resulting in their reduced clearance and high plasma levels of both cholesterol and triglycerides.
Inherited conditions characterized by the partial loss of ADIPOSE TISSUE, either confined to the extremities with normal or increased fat deposits on the face, neck and trunk (type 1), or confined to the loss of SUBCUTANEOUS FAT from the limbs and trunk (type 2). Type 3 is associated with mutation in the gene encoding PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR-ACTIVATED RECEPTOR GAMMA.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
A 513-kDa protein synthesized in the LIVER. It serves as the major structural protein of low-density lipoproteins (LIPOPROTEINS, LDL; LIPOPROTEINS, VLDL). It is the ligand for the LDL receptor (RECEPTORS, LDL) that promotes cellular binding and internalization of LDL particles.
Organic, monobasic acids derived from hydrocarbons by the equivalent of oxidation of a methyl group to an alcohol, aldehyde, and then acid. Fatty acids are saturated and unsaturated (FATTY ACIDS, UNSATURATED). (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Cell surface proteins that bind lipoproteins with high affinity. Lipoprotein receptors in the liver and peripheral tissues mediate the regulation of plasma and cellular cholesterol metabolism and concentration. The receptors generally recognize the apolipoproteins of the lipoprotein complex, and binding is often a trigger for endocytosis.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
Fluorinated hydrocarbons are organic compounds consisting primarily of carbon and fluorine atoms, where hydrogen atoms may also be present, known for their high stability, chemical resistance, and various industrial applications, including refrigerants, fire extinguishing agents, and electrical insulation materials.
Laboratory tests demonstrating the presence of physiologically significant substances in the blood, urine, tissue, and body fluids with application to the diagnosis or therapy of disease.
Sucrose present in the diet. It is added to food and drinks as a sweetener.
Regular course of eating and drinking adopted by a person or animal.
A broad category of receptor-like proteins that may play a role in transcriptional-regulation in the CELL NUCLEUS. Many of these proteins are similar in structure to known NUCLEAR RECEPTORS but appear to lack a functional ligand-binding domain, while in other cases the specific ligands have yet to be identified.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Defective metabolism leading to fat maldistribution in patients infected with HIV. The etiology appears to be multifactorial and probably involves some combination of infection-induced alterations in metabolism, direct effects of antiretroviral therapy, and patient-related factors.
Conditions with abnormally low levels of LIPOPROTEINS in the blood. This may involve any of the lipoprotein subclasses, including ALPHA-LIPOPROTEINS (high-density lipoproteins); BETA-LIPOPROTEINS (low-density lipoproteins); and PREBETA-LIPOPROTEINS (very-low-density lipoproteins).
Pathological conditions involving the CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM including the HEART; the BLOOD VESSELS; or the PERICARDIUM.
Fatty acid esters of cholesterol which constitute about two-thirds of the cholesterol in the plasma. The accumulation of cholesterol esters in the arterial intima is a characteristic feature of atherosclerosis.
A country in northern Africa between ALGERIA and LIBYA. Its capital is Tunis.
Rats bearing mutant genes which are phenotypically expressed in the animals.
An indicator of body density as determined by the relationship of BODY WEIGHT to BODY HEIGHT. BMI=weight (kg)/height squared (m2). BMI correlates with body fat (ADIPOSE TISSUE). Their relationship varies with age and gender. For adults, BMI falls into these categories: below 18.5 (underweight); 18.5-24.9 (normal); 25.0-29.9 (overweight); 30.0 and above (obese). (National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Proteins that bind to and transfer CHOLESTEROL ESTERS between LIPOPROTEINS such as LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS and HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS.
An individual having different alleles at one or more loci regarding a specific character.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.

Endothelium-dependent relaxation by acetylcholine is impaired in hypertriglyceridemic humans with normal levels of plasma LDL cholesterol. (1/963)

OBJECTIVES: Patients with high triglyceride (of which very low density lipoproteins [VLDL] are the main carriers), but with normal low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, were examined for in vivo endothelium function status. BACKGROUND: Very low density lipoproteins inhibit endothelium-dependent, but not -independent, vasorelaxation in vitro. METHODS: Three groups were studied: 1) healthy volunteers (n = 10; triglyceride 1.24+/-0.14 mmol/liter, LDL cholesterol 2.99+/-0.24 mmol/liter); 2) hypertriglyceridemic (n = 11; triglyceride 6.97+/-1.19 mmol/liter, LDL cholesterol 2.17+/-0.2 mmol/liter, p < 0.05); and 3) hypercholesterolemic (n = 10; triglyceride 2.25+/-0.29 mmol/liter, LDL cholesterol 5.61+/-0.54 mmol/liter; p < 0.05) patients. Vasoactive responses to acetylcholine, sodium nitroprusside, noradrenaline, N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine and postischemic hyperemia were determined using forearm venous occlusion plethysmography. RESULTS: Responses to acetylcholine (37 microg/min) were significantly dampened both in hypercholesterolemic (% increase in forearm blood flow: 268.2+/-62) and hypertriglyceridemic patients (232.6+/-45.2) when compared with controls (547.8+/-108.9; ANOVA p < 0.05). Responses to sodium nitroprusside (at 1.6 microg/min: controls vs. hypercholesterolemics vs. hypertriglyceridemic: 168.7+/- 25.1 vs. 140.6+/-38.9 vs. 178.5+/-54.5% increase), noradrenaline, N(G)-monomethyl-L-arginine and postischemic hyperemic responses were not different among the groups examined. CONCLUSIONS: Acetylcholine responses are impaired in patients with pathophysiologic levels of plasma triglycerides but normal plasma levels of LDL cholesterol. The impairment observed was comparable to that obtained in hypercholesterolemic patients. We conclude that impaired responses to acetylcholine normally associated with hypercholesterolemia also occur in hypertriglyceridemia. These findings identify a potential mechanism by which high plasma triglyceride levels may be atherogenic independent of LDL cholesterol levels.  (+info)

Apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins in renal failure: the relation to mode of dialysis. (2/963)

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to establish whether there is a differential effect of mode of dialysis, hemodialysis (HD), or continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) on the dyslipidemia of renal failure. METHODS: The lipoprotein profile was determined in 61 non-diabetic patients on chronic HD (N = 30) and CAPD treatment (N = 31), and in a control group of 27 healthy subjects. The analysis included the measurement of individual apolipoprotein (apo) A- and apo B-containing lipoproteins (LPs) separated by sequential immunoaffinity chromatography. Apo A-containing lipoproteins include lipoprotein A-I with apo A-I and lipoprotein A-I:A-II with apo A-I and apo A-II as the main protein constituents, whereas apo B-containing lipoproteins comprise simple cholesterol-rich lipoprotein B (LP-B), with apo B as the only protein moiety and complex triglyceride (TG)-rich lipoprotein B complex (LP-Bc) particles with apo B, apo A-II, apo C, and/or apo E as the protein constituents. RESULTS: CAPD patients had significantly higher concentrations of total cholesterol (6.8 vs. 5.1 mmol/liter), low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (4.6 vs. 3.2 mmol/liter), TG (2.3 vs. 1.5 mmol/liter), apo B (155.3 vs. 105.7 mg/dl), LP-B (136.0 vs. 91.9 mg/dl), and LP-Bc (19.3 vs. 13.8 mg/dl) than HD patients. Both HD and CAPD patients had significantly higher TG, VLDL cholesterol, apo C-III, and apo E and significantly lower high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apo A-II, and lipoprotein A-I:A-II levels than control subjects. The distribution of apo C-III in high-density lipoprotein and VLDL-LDL was altered in CAPD patients in comparison with control subjects. This suggests that the removal of TG-rich lipoproteins is less efficient in patients on CAPD. Normotriglyceridemic (NTG; TG < or = 1.7 mmol/liter, 150 mg/dl) CAPD patients had significantly higher levels of TC, LDL cholesterol, apo B, and LP-B than NTG-HD patients. There was little difference in the LP-Bc levels between NTG-CAPD, NTG-HD, and controls. Similarly, hypertriglyceridemic (HTG) CAPD patients had significantly higher TC, LDL cholesterol, apo B, and LP-B levels than HTG-HD patients. The LP-Bc levels were significantly increased in HTG-HD and HTG-CAPD patients compared with controls, but the slightly higher levels in the CAPD patients did not differ significantly from the HD group. CONCLUSION: CAPD and HD patients have a lipoprotein profile characteristic of renal failure. Patients on long-term CAPD have higher levels of cholesterol-rich apo B-containing lipoproteins unrelated to TG levels. Many patients on CAPD also have a substantial elevation of the plasma concentrations of TG-rich LPs. The clinical significance of increased levels of potentially atherogenic LP-B during CAPD remains to be investigated.  (+info)

Overexpression of human apolipoprotein A-II in mice induces hypertriglyceridemia due to defective very low density lipoprotein hydrolysis. (3/963)

Two lines of transgenic mice, hAIItg-delta and hAIItg-lambda, expressing human apolipoprotein (apo)A-II at 2 and 4 times the normal concentration, respectively, displayed on standard chow postprandial chylomicronemia, large quantities of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL) but greatly reduced high density lipoprotein (HDL). Hypertriglyceridemia may result from increased VLDL production, decreased VLDL catabolism, or both. Post-Triton VLDL production was comparable in transgenic and control mice. Postheparin lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and hepatic lipase activities decreased at most by 30% in transgenic mice, whereas adipose tissue and muscle LPL activities were unaffected, indicating normal LPL synthesis. However, VLDL-triglyceride hydrolysis by exogenous LPL was considerably slower in transgenic compared with control mice, with the apparent Vmax of the reaction decreasing proportionately to human apoA-II expression. Human apoA-II was present in appreciable amounts in the VLDL of transgenic mice, which also carried apoC-II. The addition of purified apoA-II in postheparin plasma from control mice induced a dose-dependent decrease in LPL and hepatic lipase activities. In conclusion, overexpression of human apoA-II in transgenic mice induced the proatherogenic lipoprotein profile of low plasma HDL and postprandial hypertriglyceridemia because of decreased VLDL catabolism by LPL.  (+info)

Non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and hypertriglyceridemia impair lipoprotein metabolism in chronic hemodialysis patients. (4/963)

Patients with diabetes mellitus undergoing chronic hemodialysis treatment have the worst outcome on dialysis due to an increased rate of cardiovascular complications. Nearly all patients present with dyslipidemia, a prominent vascular risk factor, probably responsible for the high rate of vascular injury. Since both uremia and diabetes predispose to hypertriglyceridemia, the present study was conducted to investigate the influence of diabetes mellitus and/or hypertriglyceridemia on lipoprotein metabolism in hemodialysis patients. LDL was isolated and characterized from hyper- and normotriglyceridemic diabetic and nondiabetic hemodialysis patients (n = 40; 10 in each group); also, LDL-receptor-dependent uptake and intracellular cholesterol metabolism were studied in HepG2 cells. In addition, scavenger-receptor-mediated uptake was examined in mouse peritoneal macrophages. LDL isolated from nondiabetic normotriglyceridemic hemodialysis patients exhibited impaired cellular uptake via the LDL receptor. Additionally, intracellular sterol synthesis was less inhibited and cholesterol esterification was reduced compared with LDL from healthy control subjects. Reduction of catabolic capacities was more marked in hemodialysis patients who were either diabetic or hypertriglyceridemic and even more pronounced in patients presenting with a combination of both diabetes and hypertriglyceridemia. Hypertriglyceridemic and diabetic patients showed reduced lipase activity and increased LDL oxidation. Furthermore, they accumulated a fraction of small, dense LDL, and LDL was predominantly taken up via the scavenger-receptor pathway in peritoneal macrophages. This study elucidates the distinct influence of diabetes and/or hypertriglyceridemia in hemodialysis patients on cellular LDL metabolism via specific and nonspecific metabolic pathways. Furthermore, it underscores the cumulative impact of these pathologic entities on impairment of lipoprotein metabolism and increase of cardiovascular risk.  (+info)

A thymidine to cytosine substitution for codon 26 of exon 3 of apolipoprotein C-II gene in a patient with apolipoprotein C-II deficiency. (5/963)

A 52-year-old Japanese woman was evaluated for severe hypertriglyceridemia and recurrent acute pancreatitis. This hypertriglyceridemia was found to be due to the absence of serum apolipoprotein C-II (apo C-II) which was identified by Western blotting using polyclonal anti-apo C-II antiserum. DNA sequence analysis of the apo C-II gene from the patient revealed a homozygous nucleotide change: a thymidine (T) to cytosine (C) substitution in codon 26 (TGG->CGG) at the third exon of the apo C-II gene, that resulted in a Trp26 to Arg substitution. The mutation was also confirmed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis with the restriction enzyme Hpa II. The same mutation has been found in a case previously reported in Japan, and was named apo C-II Wakayama. However, the case in Wakayama prefecture showed two concomitant point mutations at the 5'-flanking region upstream from the first exon, which were not identified in our case by RFLP analysis with the restriction enzyme BstXI. Considering that the prefectures of these two cases, Nara and Wakayama, are next to each other, the mutation in our case may be a genetic forebear of apo C-II Wakayama. However, no familial relationship between the two cases has been documented.  (+info)

Isolated low HDL cholesterol: an insulin-resistant state only in the presence of fasting hypertriglyceridemia. (6/963)

Individuals with isolated low HDL cholesterol are at increased risk of coronary artery disease. It has been reported previously that this is an insulin-resistant state. We analyzed data from the 1992 Singapore National Health Survey with the objective of defining the clinical and metabolic parameters associated with isolated low HDL cholesterol. A total of 3,568 individuals were selected by stratified random sampling. Subjects with low HDL cholesterol (<0.9 mmol/l) and "ideal" total cholesterol (<5.2 mmol/l) were identified. Data on anthropometry, blood pressure (BP), insulin resistance, glucose tolerance, sex, smoking habit, and ethnic group were examined. We found that this group was heterogeneous. Those with fasting triglyceride (TG) >1.7 mmol/l (low HDL/high TG) displayed features of the insulin resistance syndrome characterized by obesity, higher diastolic BP, greater insulin resistance, and a greater tendency to have diabetes or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT). If fasting TG was <1.7 mmol/l (isolated low HDL cholesterol), individuals were similar to the general population in terms of insulin resistance and obesity. Both groups were more commonly men and Asian Indian. The ethnic difference in prevalence could not be explained by differences in diet, exercise, alcohol ingestion, or smoking. Our data support the view that Asian Indians are genetically predisposed to isolated low HDL cholesterol as well as the insulin resistance syndrome. The higher prevalence of isolated low HDL cholesterol, the young age at which individuals exhibit this phenotype (mean age 32.5 years), along with the greater propensity for Asian Indians to develop insulin resistance and IGT contribute to the threefold increased incidence of myocardial infarction in those <65 years of age in this ethnic group.  (+info)

Induction of obesity and hyperleptinemia by central glucocorticoid infusion in the rat. (7/963)

It has been claimed that factors favoring the development or maintenance of animal or human obesity may include increases in glucocorticoid production or hyperresponsiveness of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. In normal rats, glucocorticoids have been shown to be necessary for chronic intracerebroventricular infusion of neuropeptide Y to produce obesity and related abnormalities. Conversely, glucocorticoids inhibited the body weight-lowering effect of leptin. Such dual action of glucocorticoids may occur within the central nervous system, since both neuropeptide Y and leptin act within the hypothalamus. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of glucocorticoids (dexamethasone) given intracerebroventricularly to normal rats on body weight homeostasis and hypothalamic levels of neuropeptide Y and corticotropin-releasing hormone. Continuous central glucocorticoid infusion for 3 days resulted in marked sustained increases in food intake and body weight relative to saline-infused controls. The infusion abolished endogenous corticosterone output and produced hyperinsulinemia, hypertriglyceridemia, and hyperleptinemia, three salient abnormalities of obesity syndromes. Central glucocorticoid infusion also produced a marked decrease in the expression of uncoupling protein (UCP)-1 and UCP-3 in brown adipose tissue and UCP-3 in muscle. Finally, chronic central glucocorticoid administration increased the hypothalamic levels of neuropeptide Y and decreased those of corticotropin-releasing hormone. When the same dose of glucocorticoids was administered peripherally, it resulted in decreases in food intake and body weight, in keeping with the decrease in hypothalamic neuropeptide Y levels. These results suggest that glucocorticoids induce an obesity syndrome in rodents by acting centrally and not peripherally.  (+info)

Improvement of endothelial vasomotor dysfunction by treatment with alpha-tocopherol in patients with high remnant lipoproteins levels. (8/963)

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to examine whether oral intake of alpha-tocopherol, an antioxidant, could improve endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation in patients with high remnant lipoproteins levels. BACKGROUND: Remnant lipoproteins are known to be atherogenic and impair endothelium-dependent arterial relaxation, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Oxidative stress is a common feature of various risk factors for atherosclerosis. METHODS: Flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery during reactive hyperemia was examined by high resolution ultrasound technique before and at the end of 4 weeks treatment with oral administration of alpha-tocopherol acetate (300 IU/day) or placebo, which was randomly assigned, in 40 patients with high serum levels of remnants and in 30 patients with low remnants levels in the fasting state (>75th percentile and <25th percentile, respectively, of the distribution of remnants levels in 150 consecutive hospitalized patients). RESULTS: Before treatment, flow-mediated vasodilation was lower in patients with high remnants levels than in those with low levels (4.1 +/- 0.3% vs. 6.0 +/- 0.5%, p < 0.01). Treatment with alpha-tocopherol but not with placebo significantly increased flow-mediated dilation in patients with high remnants levels (7.5 +/- 0.4% after alpha-tocopherol vs. 4.2 +/- 0.4% after placebo, p < 0.01). In patients with low remnants levels, alpha-tocopherol was not effective. The beneficial effect with alpha-tocopherol in high remnants patients was associated with decrease in plasma levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, an indicator of lipid peroxidation (6.6 +/- 0.3 nmol/ml before alpha-tocopherol vs. 4.6 +/- 0.3 after alpha-tocopherol, p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Alpha-tocopherol improved impairment of endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with high remnants levels. The increase in oxidative stress may at least partly contribute to endothelial vasomotor dysfunction, in patients with high remnants levels.  (+info)

Hypertriglyceridemia is a medical condition characterized by an elevated level of triglycerides in the blood. Triglycerides are a type of fat (lipid) found in your blood that can increase the risk of developing heart disease, especially when levels are very high.

In general, hypertriglyceridemia is defined as having triglyceride levels greater than 150 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) of blood. However, the specific definition of hypertriglyceridemia may vary depending on individual risk factors and medical history.

Hypertriglyceridemia can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, obesity, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, and certain medications. In some cases, it may also be a secondary consequence of other medical conditions such as diabetes or hypothyroidism. Treatment for hypertriglyceridemia typically involves lifestyle modifications such as dietary changes, increased exercise, and weight loss, as well as medication if necessary.

Hyperlipoproteinemia Type IV is a genetic disorder characterized by an increased level of very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) in the blood. This leads to elevated levels of triglycerides, which are a type of fat found in the blood. The condition is also sometimes referred to as "Fredrickson Type IV."

People with Hyperlipoproteinemia Type IV have an increased risk of developing pancreatitis, a potentially life-threatening inflammation of the pancreas, due to high levels of triglycerides. They may also have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease due to elevated levels of VLDL and other atherogenic lipoproteins.

The condition is usually inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that a child has a 50% chance of inheriting the disorder if one parent has it. However, some cases may be caused by mutations in multiple genes or by environmental factors such as obesity, diabetes, and excessive alcohol consumption.

Treatment for Hyperlipoproteinemia Type IV typically involves lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, exercise, and dietary changes to reduce triglyceride levels. In some cases, medication may be necessary to control the condition.

Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body, and they're found in the food we eat. They're carried in the bloodstream to provide energy to the cells in our body. High levels of triglycerides in the blood can increase the risk of heart disease, especially in combination with other risk factors such as high LDL (bad) cholesterol, low HDL (good) cholesterol, and high blood pressure.

It's important to note that while triglycerides are a type of fat, they should not be confused with cholesterol, which is a waxy substance found in the cells of our body. Both triglycerides and cholesterol are important for maintaining good health, but high levels of either can increase the risk of heart disease.

Triglyceride levels are measured through a blood test called a lipid panel or lipid profile. A normal triglyceride level is less than 150 mg/dL. Borderline-high levels range from 150 to 199 mg/dL, high levels range from 200 to 499 mg/dL, and very high levels are 500 mg/dL or higher.

Elevated triglycerides can be caused by various factors such as obesity, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, and certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypothyroidism, and kidney disease. Medications such as beta-blockers, steroids, and diuretics can also raise triglyceride levels.

Lifestyle changes such as losing weight, exercising regularly, eating a healthy diet low in saturated and trans fats, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and quitting smoking can help lower triglyceride levels. In some cases, medication may be necessary to reduce triglycerides to recommended levels.

Lipoprotein lipase (LPL) is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of lipids. It is responsible for breaking down triglycerides, which are the main constituent of dietary fats and chylomicrons, into fatty acids and glycerol. These products are then taken up by cells for energy production or storage.

LPL is synthesized in various tissues, including muscle and fat, where it is attached to the inner lining of blood vessels (endothelium). The enzyme is activated when it comes into contact with lipoprotein particles, such as chylomicrons and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), which transport triglycerides in the bloodstream.

Deficiencies or mutations in LPL can lead to various metabolic disorders, including hypertriglyceridemia, a condition characterized by high levels of triglycerides in the blood. Conversely, overexpression of LPL has been associated with increased risk of atherosclerosis due to excessive uptake of fatty acids by macrophages and their conversion into foam cells, which contribute to plaque formation in the arteries.

Apolipoprotein C-III (APOC3) is a protein that is produced in the liver and circulates in the bloodstream. It is a component of certain lipoproteins, including very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and chylomicrons, which are responsible for transporting fat molecules, such as triglycerides and cholesterol, throughout the body.

APOC3 plays a role in regulating the metabolism of these lipoproteins. Specifically, it inhibits the activity of an enzyme called lipoprotein lipase, which breaks down triglycerides in VLDL and chylomicrons. As a result, high levels of APOC3 can lead to an increase in triglyceride levels in the blood, which is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.

Genetic variations in the APOC3 gene have been associated with differences in triglyceride levels and risk of cardiovascular disease. Some studies have suggested that reducing APOC3 levels through genetic editing or other means may be a promising strategy for lowering triglycerides and reducing the risk of heart disease.

Hyperlipidemias are a group of disorders characterized by an excess of lipids (fats) or lipoproteins in the blood. These include elevated levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, or both. Hyperlipidemias can be inherited (primary) or caused by other medical conditions (secondary). They are a significant risk factor for developing cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.

There are two main types of lipids that are commonly measured in the blood: low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, often referred to as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, known as "good" cholesterol. High levels of LDL cholesterol can lead to the formation of plaques in the arteries, which can narrow or block them and increase the risk of heart attack or stroke. On the other hand, high levels of HDL cholesterol are protective because they help remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream.

Triglycerides are another type of lipid that can be measured in the blood. Elevated triglyceride levels can also contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease, particularly when combined with high LDL cholesterol and low HDL cholesterol levels.

Hyperlipidemias are typically diagnosed through a blood test that measures the levels of various lipids and lipoproteins in the blood. Treatment may include lifestyle changes, such as following a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, losing weight, and quitting smoking, as well as medication to lower lipid levels if necessary.

VLDL (Very Low-Density Lipoproteins) are a type of lipoprotein that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fat molecules, known as triglycerides, in the body. They are produced by the liver and consist of a core of triglycerides surrounded by a shell of proteins called apolipoproteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol.

VLDL particles are responsible for delivering fat molecules from the liver to peripheral tissues throughout the body, where they can be used as an energy source or stored for later use. During this process, VLDL particles lose triglycerides and acquire more cholesterol, transforming into intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) and eventually low-density lipoproteins (LDL), which are also known as "bad" cholesterol.

Elevated levels of VLDL in the blood can contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease due to their association with increased levels of triglycerides and LDL cholesterol, as well as decreased levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL), which are considered "good" cholesterol.

Apolipoprotein C (apoC) is a group of proteins that are associated with lipoproteins, which are complex particles composed of lipids and proteins that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of lipids in the body. There are three main types of apoC proteins: apoC-I, apoC-II, and apoC-III.

ApoC-I is involved in the regulation of lipoprotein metabolism and has been shown to inhibit the activity of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), which is an enzyme that facilitates the transfer of cholesteryl esters from high-density lipoproteins (HDL) to low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL).

ApoC-II is a cofactor for lipoprotein lipase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides in chylomicrons and VLDL, leading to the formation of smaller, denser lipoproteins. A deficiency in apoC-II can lead to hypertriglyceridemia, a condition characterized by elevated levels of triglycerides in the blood.

ApoC-III is also involved in the regulation of lipoprotein metabolism and has been shown to inhibit the activity of lipoprotein lipase and CETP. Elevated levels of apoC-III have been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, possibly due to its effects on lipoprotein metabolism.

In summary, apolipoprotein C is a group of proteins that are involved in the regulation of lipoprotein metabolism and have important roles in the transport and metabolism of lipids in the body.

Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of multiple proteins and lipids (fats) that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fat molecules in the body. They consist of an outer shell of phospholipids, free cholesterols, and apolipoproteins, enclosing a core of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters.

There are several types of lipoproteins, including:

1. Chylomicrons: These are the largest lipoproteins and are responsible for transporting dietary lipids from the intestines to other parts of the body.
2. Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL): Produced by the liver, VLDL particles carry triglycerides to peripheral tissues for energy storage or use.
3. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL): Often referred to as "bad cholesterol," LDL particles transport cholesterol from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL in the blood can lead to plaque buildup in artery walls and increase the risk of heart disease.
4. High-density lipoproteins (HDL): Known as "good cholesterol," HDL particles help remove excess cholesterol from cells and transport it back to the liver for excretion or recycling. Higher levels of HDL are associated with a lower risk of heart disease.

Understanding lipoproteins and their roles in the body is essential for assessing cardiovascular health and managing risks related to heart disease and stroke.

Hypolipidemic agents are a class of medications that are used to lower the levels of lipids (fats) in the blood, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides. These drugs work by reducing the production or increasing the breakdown of fats in the body, which can help prevent or treat conditions such as hyperlipidemia (high levels of fats in the blood), atherosclerosis (hardening and narrowing of the arteries), and cardiovascular disease.

There are several different types of hypolipidemic agents, including:

1. Statins: These drugs block the action of an enzyme called HMG-CoA reductase, which is necessary for the production of cholesterol in the liver. By reducing the amount of cholesterol produced, statins can help lower LDL (bad) cholesterol levels and increase HDL (good) cholesterol levels.
2. Bile acid sequestrants: These drugs bind to bile acids in the intestines and prevent them from being reabsorbed into the bloodstream. This causes the liver to produce more bile acids, which requires it to use up more cholesterol, thereby lowering LDL cholesterol levels.
3. Nicotinic acid: Also known as niacin, this drug can help lower LDL and VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol levels and increase HDL cholesterol levels. It works by reducing the production of fatty acids in the liver.
4. Fibrates: These drugs are used to treat high triglyceride levels. They work by increasing the breakdown of fats in the body and reducing the production of VLDL cholesterol in the liver.
5. PCSK9 inhibitors: These drugs block the action of a protein called PCSK9, which helps regulate the amount of LDL cholesterol in the blood. By blocking PCSK9, these drugs can help lower LDL cholesterol levels.

It's important to note that hypolipidemic agents should only be used under the guidance and supervision of a healthcare provider, as they can have side effects and may interact with other medications.

Cholesterol is a type of lipid (fat) molecule that is an essential component of cell membranes and is also used to make certain hormones and vitamins in the body. It is produced by the liver and is also obtained from animal-derived foods such as meat, dairy products, and eggs.

Cholesterol does not mix with blood, so it is transported through the bloodstream by lipoproteins, which are particles made up of both lipids and proteins. There are two main types of lipoproteins that carry cholesterol: low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad" cholesterol, and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), also known as "good" cholesterol.

High levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke. On the other hand, high levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with a lower risk of these conditions because HDL helps remove LDL cholesterol from the bloodstream and transport it back to the liver for disposal.

It is important to maintain healthy levels of cholesterol through a balanced diet, regular exercise, and sometimes medication if necessary. Regular screening is also recommended to monitor cholesterol levels and prevent health complications.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

The postprandial period is the time frame following a meal, during which the body is engaged in the process of digestion, absorption, and assimilation of nutrients. In a medical context, this term generally refers to the few hours after eating when the body is responding to the ingested food, particularly in terms of changes in metabolism and insulin levels.

The postprandial period can be of specific interest in the study and management of conditions such as diabetes, where understanding how the body handles glucose during this time can inform treatment decisions and strategies for maintaining healthy blood sugar levels.

Chylomicrons are a type of lipoprotein that are responsible for carrying dietary lipids, such as triglycerides and cholesterol, from the intestines to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system and bloodstream. They are the largest lipoproteins and are composed of an outer layer of phospholipids, free cholesterol, and apolipoproteins, which surrounds a core of triglycerides and cholesteryl esters. Chylomicrons are produced in the intestinal mucosa after a meal containing fat, and their production is stimulated by the hormone cholecystokinin. Once in the bloodstream, chylomicrons interact with other lipoproteins and enzymes to deliver their lipid cargo to various tissues, including muscle and adipose tissue, where they are used for energy or stored for later use.

Metabolic syndrome, also known as Syndrome X, is a cluster of conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. It is not a single disease but a group of risk factors that often co-occur. According to the American Heart Association and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, a person has metabolic syndrome if they have any three of the following five conditions:

1. Abdominal obesity (waist circumference of 40 inches or more in men, and 35 inches or more in women)
2. Triglyceride level of 150 milligrams per deciliter of blood (mg/dL) or greater
3. HDL cholesterol level of less than 40 mg/dL in men or less than 50 mg/dL in women
4. Systolic blood pressure of 130 millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or greater, or diastolic blood pressure of 85 mmHg or greater
5. Fasting glucose level of 100 mg/dL or greater

Metabolic syndrome is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and lifestyle factors, such as physical inactivity and a diet high in refined carbohydrates and unhealthy fats. Treatment typically involves making lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, and losing weight if necessary. In some cases, medication may also be needed to manage individual components of the syndrome, such as high blood pressure or high cholesterol.

Familial Combined Hyperlipidemia (FCH) is a genetic disorder characterized by high levels of cholesterol and/or fats (lipids) in the blood. It is one of the most common inherited lipid disorders, affecting approximately 1 in 200 to 1 in 500 people.

FCH is caused by mutations in several genes involved in lipid metabolism, including the APOB, LDLR, and PCSK9 genes. These genetic defects lead to increased levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, triglycerides, or both in the blood.

Individuals with FCH may have elevated levels of total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and/or triglycerides, which can increase their risk for premature atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. The condition often presents in early adulthood and may manifest as mixed hyperlipidemia (high levels of both LDL cholesterol and triglycerides) or isolated hypercholesterolemia (high levels of LDL cholesterol only).

Familial combined hyperlipidemia is typically managed with lifestyle modifications, such as a heart-healthy diet, regular exercise, and weight management. Medications, such as statins, may also be prescribed to lower lipid levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Regular monitoring of lipid levels is essential for effective management and prevention of complications associated with FCH.

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) cholesterol is often referred to as "good" cholesterol. It is a type of lipoprotein that helps remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body. High levels of HDL cholesterol have been associated with a lower risk of heart disease and stroke.

Apolipoprotein A (apoA) is a type of apolipoprotein that is primarily associated with high-density lipoproteins (HDL), often referred to as "good cholesterol." There are several subtypes of apoA, including apoA-I, apoA-II, and apoA-IV.

ApoA-I is the major protein component of HDL particles and plays a crucial role in reverse cholesterol transport, which is the process by which excess cholesterol is removed from tissues and delivered to the liver for excretion. Low levels of apoA-I have been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

ApoA-II is another protein component of HDL particles, although its function is less well understood than that of apoA-I. Some studies suggest that apoA-II may play a role in regulating the metabolism of HDL particles.

ApoA-IV is found in both HDL and chylomicrons, which are lipoprotein particles that transport dietary lipids from the intestine to the liver. The function of apoA-IV is not well understood, but it may play a role in regulating appetite and energy metabolism.

Overall, apolipoproteins A are important components of HDL particles and play a critical role in maintaining healthy lipid metabolism and reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Apolipoprotein B (ApoB) is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the metabolism of lipids, particularly low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or "bad" cholesterol. ApoB is a component of LDL particles and serves as a ligand for the LDL receptor, which is responsible for the clearance of LDL from the bloodstream.

There are two main forms of ApoB: ApoB-100 and ApoB-48. ApoB-100 is found in LDL particles, very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) particles, and chylomicrons, while ApoB-48 is only found in chylomicrons, which are produced in the intestines and responsible for transporting dietary lipids.

Elevated levels of ApoB are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), as they indicate a higher concentration of LDL particles in the bloodstream. Therefore, measuring ApoB levels can provide additional information about CVD risk beyond traditional lipid profile tests that only measure total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides.

Bezafibrate is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called fibrates. It is primarily used to treat high cholesterol and related conditions, such as hyperlipidemia and mixed dyslipidemia. The medication works by reducing the levels of triglycerides and increasing the levels of "good" cholesterol (HDL) in the blood.

Bezafibrate achieves this effect by activating certain receptors in the body, known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), which play a role in regulating lipid metabolism. By binding to these receptors, bezafibrate helps to promote the breakdown of fats and reduce the production of cholesterol in the liver.

It is important to note that bezafibrate should be used in conjunction with lifestyle modifications, such as a healthy diet and regular exercise, to effectively manage high cholesterol and related conditions. Additionally, it may interact with other medications, so it is essential to inform your healthcare provider of all the drugs you are taking before starting bezafibrate therapy.

As with any medication, bezafibrate can cause side effects, including gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain, as well as headaches, muscle cramps, and skin rashes. In rare cases, it may also cause more serious side effects, such as liver or kidney damage, so regular monitoring of liver and kidney function is recommended during treatment.

Overall, bezafibrate is a valuable tool in the management of high cholesterol and related conditions, but it should be used under the guidance and supervision of a healthcare professional to ensure safe and effective use.

VLDL, or very low-density lipoproteins, are a type of lipoprotein that carries triglycerides and cholesterol from the liver to other parts of the body. Cholesterol is a fatty substance found in the blood, and VLDL contains both triglycerides and cholesterol.

Cholesterol itself cannot dissolve in the blood and needs to be transported around the body by lipoproteins, which are protein molecules that encapsulate and carry fat molecules, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, through the bloodstream. VLDL is one of several types of lipoproteins, including low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).

Elevated levels of VLDL in the blood can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke. Therefore, maintaining healthy levels of VLDL and other lipoproteins is an important part of overall cardiovascular health.

Apolipoproteins are a group of proteins that are associated with lipids (fats) in the body and play a crucial role in the metabolism, transportation, and regulation of lipids. They are structural components of lipoprotein particles, which are complexes of lipids and proteins that transport lipids in the bloodstream.

There are several types of apolipoproteins, including ApoA, ApoB, ApoC, ApoD, ApoE, and others. Each type has a specific function in lipid metabolism. For example, ApoA is a major component of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), often referred to as "good cholesterol," and helps remove excess cholesterol from cells and tissues and transport it to the liver for excretion. ApoB, on the other hand, is a major component of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad cholesterol," and plays a role in the delivery of cholesterol to cells and tissues.

Abnormal levels of apolipoproteins or dysfunctional forms of these proteins have been linked to various diseases, including cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, and metabolic disorders such as diabetes. Therefore, measuring apolipoprotein levels in the blood can provide valuable information for diagnosing and monitoring these conditions.

Hyperlipoproteinemia Type I, also known as Familial Lipoprotein Lipase Deficiency, is a rare genetic disorder characterized by an absence or deficiency of the enzyme lipoprotein lipase. This enzyme is responsible for breaking down chylomicrons, which are large lipoprotein particles that transport dietary triglycerides from the intestines to the liver and peripheral tissues.

As a result of this deficiency, chylomicrons accumulate in the bloodstream, leading to elevated levels of triglycerides (hypertriglyceridemia) and chylomicrons (chylomiconemia). This condition can cause eruptive xanthomas, which are collections of lipid-laden foam cells that form under the skin, and recurrent pancreatitis, which is inflammation of the pancreas.

Hyperlipoproteinemia Type I is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, meaning that an individual must inherit two copies of the mutated gene, one from each parent, to develop the condition. Treatment typically involves a low-fat diet and medications to reduce triglyceride levels.

Dyslipidemia is a condition characterized by an abnormal amount of cholesterol and/or triglycerides in the blood. It can be caused by genetic factors, lifestyle habits such as poor diet and lack of exercise, or other medical conditions such as diabetes or hypothyroidism.

There are several types of dyslipidemias, including:

1. Hypercholesterolemia: This is an excess of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, also known as "bad" cholesterol, in the blood. High levels of LDL cholesterol can lead to the formation of plaque in the arteries, increasing the risk of heart disease and stroke.
2. Hypertriglyceridemia: This is an excess of triglycerides, a type of fat found in the blood, which can also contribute to the development of plaque in the arteries.
3. Mixed dyslipidemia: This is a combination of high LDL cholesterol and high triglycerides.
4. Low high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol: HDL cholesterol, also known as "good" cholesterol, helps remove LDL cholesterol from the blood. Low levels of HDL cholesterol can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Dyslipidemias often do not cause any symptoms but can be detected through a blood test that measures cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Treatment typically involves lifestyle changes such as eating a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, and quitting smoking. In some cases, medication may also be necessary to lower cholesterol or triglyceride levels.

Apolipoprotein C-II (ApoC-II) is a type of apolipoprotein, which are proteins that bind to lipids to form lipoprotein complexes. ApoC-II is a component of several lipoproteins, including very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and chylomicrons, which are responsible for the transport of fat molecules, such as triglycerides and cholesterol, in the bloodstream.

ApoC-II plays a crucial role in the activation of lipoprotein lipase, an enzyme that breaks down triglycerides in VLDL and chylomicrons into fatty acids, which can then be taken up by cells for energy production or storage. Therefore, ApoC-II deficiency can lead to hypertriglyceridemia, a condition characterized by high levels of triglycerides in the blood.

In addition to its role in lipid metabolism, ApoC-II has been implicated in the development and progression of atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the arteries and can lead to serious cardiovascular complications, such as heart attack and stroke.

Lipase is an enzyme that is produced by the pancreas and found in the digestive system of most organisms. Its primary function is to catalyze the hydrolysis of fats (triglycerides) into smaller molecules, such as fatty acids and glycerol, which can then be absorbed by the intestines and utilized for energy or stored for later use.

In medical terms, lipase levels in the blood are often measured to diagnose or monitor conditions that affect the pancreas, such as pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas), pancreatic cancer, or cystic fibrosis. Elevated lipase levels may indicate damage to the pancreas and its ability to produce digestive enzymes.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Hyperlipoproteinemias are medical conditions characterized by elevated levels of lipoproteins in the blood. Lipoproteins are particles that consist of proteins and lipids, which are responsible for transporting all fat molecules, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, around the body within the water outside cells. These lipids cannot dissolve in the blood, so they must be carried by these lipoprotein particles.

There are several types of hyperlipoproteinemias, classified based on the type of lipoprotein that is elevated and the pattern of inheritance. The most commonly recognized classification system is the Fredrickson classification, which includes five main types:

1. Type I - characterized by an excess of chylomicrons, a type of lipoprotein that carries dietary lipids, leading to extremely high levels of triglycerides in the blood. This rare disorder is usually caused by genetic mutations.
2. Type II - divided into two subtypes:
a. Type IIa - characterized by elevated LDL (low-density lipoprotein), or "bad" cholesterol, levels and often associated with premature cardiovascular disease. This condition can be caused by genetic factors, lifestyle choices, or both.
b. Type IIb - marked by increased levels of both LDL cholesterol and VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein), which leads to elevated triglycerides and cholesterol in the blood. This subtype can also be influenced by genetic factors, lifestyle choices, or both.
3. Type III - known as broad beta disease or remnant removal disease, this condition is characterized by an abnormal accumulation of remnant particles from VLDL and IDL (intermediate-density lipoprotein) metabolism, leading to increased levels of both cholesterol and triglycerides. This disorder can be caused by genetic mutations or secondary factors like diabetes, obesity, or hypothyroidism.
4. Type IV - characterized by elevated VLDL particles and high triglyceride levels in the blood. This condition is often associated with metabolic syndrome, obesity, diabetes, and alcohol consumption.
5. Type V - marked by increased VLDL and chylomicrons (lipoprotein particles that transport dietary lipids) in the blood, leading to extremely high triglyceride levels. This rare condition can be caused by genetic factors or secondary factors like diabetes, obesity, alcohol consumption, or uncontrolled lipid absorption.

It is important to note that these types are not mutually exclusive and can coexist in various combinations. Additionally, lifestyle choices such as diet, exercise, smoking, and alcohol consumption can significantly impact lipoprotein levels and contribute to the development of dyslipidemia (abnormal lipid levels).

Insulin resistance is a condition in which the body's cells become less responsive to insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels. In response to this decreased sensitivity, the pancreas produces more insulin to help glucose enter the cells. However, over time, the pancreas may not be able to keep up with the increased demand for insulin, leading to high levels of glucose in the blood and potentially resulting in type 2 diabetes, prediabetes, or other health issues such as metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Insulin resistance is often associated with obesity, physical inactivity, and genetic factors.

Lipodystrophy is a medical condition characterized by abnormal distribution or absence of fat (adipose tissue) in the body. It can lead to metabolic complications such as insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, high levels of fats in the blood (dyslipidemia), and liver disease. There are different types of lipodystrophy, including congenital generalized lipodystrophy, acquired generalized lipodystrophy, and partial lipodystrophy, which can affect different parts of the body and have varying symptoms and causes.

Gemfibrozil is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called fibrates. It is primarily used to lower elevated levels of triglycerides (a type of fat found in the blood) and increase levels of "good" cholesterol (HDL-C) in the blood.

Gemfibrozil works by reducing the production of triglycerides in the body, increasing the breakdown of fats in the liver, and improving the way the body handles fats and sugar. It is often prescribed for people with high triglyceride levels who are at risk for pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas) or those who have not responded well to other cholesterol-lowering medications, such as statins.

It's important to note that while gemfibrozil can help manage triglyceride and cholesterol levels, it is not a substitute for a healthy lifestyle. Regular exercise, a balanced diet, limiting alcohol consumption, and avoiding smoking are all crucial components of maintaining good cardiovascular health.

As with any medication, gemfibrozil should be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider, who can monitor its effectiveness and potential side effects. Common side effects of gemfibrozil include stomach pain, diarrhea, and muscle or joint pain. Rare but serious side effects may include liver damage, kidney problems, and an increased risk of gallstones.

LDL, or low-density lipoprotein, is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol. It is one of the lipoproteins that helps carry cholesterol throughout your body. High levels of LDL cholesterol can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Cholesterol is a type of fat (lipid) that is found in the cells of your body. Your body needs some cholesterol to function properly, but having too much can lead to health problems. LDL cholesterol is one of the two main types of cholesterol; the other is high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or "good" cholesterol.

It's important to keep your LDL cholesterol levels in a healthy range to reduce your risk of developing heart disease and stroke. A healthcare professional can help you determine what your target LDL cholesterol level should be based on your individual health status and risk factors.

Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.

The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.

Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.

Obesity is a complex disease characterized by an excess accumulation of body fat to the extent that it negatively impacts health. It's typically defined using Body Mass Index (BMI), a measure calculated from a person's weight and height. A BMI of 30 or higher is indicative of obesity. However, it's important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying obesity in populations, it does not directly measure body fat and may not accurately reflect health status in individuals. Other factors such as waist circumference, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and blood sugar levels should also be considered when assessing health risks associated with weight.

High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL) are a type of lipoprotein that play a crucial role in the transportation and metabolism of cholesterol in the body. They are often referred to as "good" cholesterol because they help remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body. This process is known as reverse cholesterol transport.

HDLs are composed of a lipid core containing cholesteryl esters and triglycerides, surrounded by a shell of phospholipids, free cholesterol, and apolipoproteins, primarily apoA-I. The size and composition of HDL particles can vary, leading to the classification of different subclasses of HDL with varying functions and metabolic fates.

Elevated levels of HDL have been associated with a lower risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, while low HDL levels increase the risk. However, it is essential to consider that HDL function and quality may be more important than just the quantity in determining cardiovascular risk.

Hypercholesterolemia is a medical term that describes a condition characterized by high levels of cholesterol in the blood. Specifically, it refers to an abnormally elevated level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, also known as "bad" cholesterol, which can contribute to the development of fatty deposits in the arteries called plaques. Over time, these plaques can narrow and harden the arteries, leading to atherosclerosis, a condition that increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular complications.

Hypercholesterolemia can be caused by various factors, including genetics, lifestyle choices, and underlying medical conditions. In some cases, it may not cause any symptoms until serious complications arise. Therefore, regular cholesterol screening is essential for early detection and management of hypercholesterolemia. Treatment typically involves lifestyle modifications, such as a healthy diet, regular exercise, and weight management, along with medication if necessary.

Fenofibrate is a medication that belongs to the class of drugs known as fibrates. It is primarily used to lower levels of cholesterol and other fats (triglycerides) in the blood. Fenofibrate works by increasing the breakdown and elimination of these fats from the body, which can help reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Fenofibrate is available in various forms, including tablets and capsules, and is typically taken once or twice a day with meals. Common side effects of fenofibrate include headache, nausea, and muscle pain. More serious side effects are rare but can include liver damage, kidney problems, and an increased risk of gallstones.

It's important to note that fenofibrate should be used in conjunction with a healthy diet, regular exercise, and other lifestyle changes to manage high cholesterol and triglyceride levels effectively. Additionally, patients taking fenofibrate should be monitored regularly by their healthcare provider to ensure that the medication is working properly and to check for any potential side effects.

Fructose is a simple monosaccharide, also known as "fruit sugar." It is a naturally occurring carbohydrate that is found in fruits, vegetables, and honey. Fructose has the chemical formula C6H12O6 and is a hexose, or six-carbon sugar.

Fructose is absorbed directly into the bloodstream during digestion and is metabolized primarily in the liver. It is sweeter than other sugars such as glucose and sucrose (table sugar), which makes it a popular sweetener in many processed foods and beverages. However, consuming large amounts of fructose can have negative health effects, including increasing the risk of obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.

Apolipoprotein E2 (ApoE2) is one of the three major isoforms of the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) protein, which is a component of lipoproteins that are involved in the transport and metabolism of cholesterol and other fats in the body. ApoE is produced by the APOE gene, which has three common alleles: ε2, ε3, and ε4.

The ApoE2 protein is encoded by the ε2 allele of the APOE gene. Compared to the other two isoforms (ApoE3 and ApoE4), ApoE2 has a different amino acid at position 112, where it has a cysteine instead of an arginine. This difference affects the protein's ability to interact with other molecules involved in lipid metabolism, such as the low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR).

Individuals who inherit two copies of the ε2 allele (ε2/ε2) have a higher risk of developing type III hyperlipoproteinemia, also known as dysbetalipoproteinemia, which is characterized by elevated levels of cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood due to impaired clearance of remnant lipoproteins. However, not all people with the ε2/ε2 genotype develop type III hyperlipoproteinemia, and other genetic and environmental factors may contribute to the development of this condition.

It's worth noting that having one or two copies of the ε2 allele has been associated with a reduced risk of developing Alzheimer's disease, although the mechanism by which ApoE2 protects against Alzheimer's is not fully understood.

Pancreatitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the pancreas, a gland located in the abdomen that plays a crucial role in digestion and regulating blood sugar levels. The inflammation can be acute (sudden and severe) or chronic (persistent and recurring), and it can lead to various complications if left untreated.

Acute pancreatitis often results from gallstones or excessive alcohol consumption, while chronic pancreatitis may be caused by long-term alcohol abuse, genetic factors, autoimmune conditions, or metabolic disorders like high triglyceride levels. Symptoms of acute pancreatitis include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, and increased heart rate, while chronic pancreatitis may present with ongoing abdominal pain, weight loss, diarrhea, and malabsorption issues due to impaired digestive enzyme production. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as intravenous fluids, pain management, and addressing the underlying cause. In severe cases, hospitalization and surgery may be necessary.

Lipid metabolism is the process by which the body breaks down and utilizes lipids (fats) for various functions, such as energy production, cell membrane formation, and hormone synthesis. This complex process involves several enzymes and pathways that regulate the digestion, absorption, transport, storage, and consumption of fats in the body.

The main types of lipids involved in metabolism include triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids, and fatty acids. The breakdown of these lipids begins in the digestive system, where enzymes called lipases break down dietary fats into smaller molecules called fatty acids and glycerol. These molecules are then absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to the liver, which is the main site of lipid metabolism.

In the liver, fatty acids may be further broken down for energy production or used to synthesize new lipids. Excess fatty acids may be stored as triglycerides in specialized cells called adipocytes (fat cells) for later use. Cholesterol is also metabolized in the liver, where it may be used to synthesize bile acids, steroid hormones, and other important molecules.

Disorders of lipid metabolism can lead to a range of health problems, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). These conditions may be caused by genetic factors, lifestyle habits, or a combination of both. Proper diagnosis and management of lipid metabolism disorders typically involves a combination of dietary changes, exercise, and medication.

Apolipoprotein C-I (apoC-I) is a small protein component of lipoproteins, which are particles that transport all fat molecules (lipids), including cholesterol, in the bloodstream. ApoC-I is primarily produced in the liver and intestines and plays a crucial role in the metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, such as very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and chylomicrons.

Apolipoprotein C-I has several functions:

1. Inhibition of lipoprotein lipase (LPL): ApoC-I inhibits the activity of LPL, an enzyme responsible for breaking down triglycerides in lipoproteins. This inhibition helps regulate the rate at which fatty acids are released from triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and taken up by cells for energy production or storage.
2. Activation of hepatic lipase (HL): ApoC-I activates HL, an enzyme involved in the catabolism of intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). This activation aids in the clearance of these particles from the circulation.
3. Regulation of cholesterol efflux: ApoC-I may also play a role in regulating cholesterol efflux, the process by which excess cholesterol is removed from cells and transported to the liver for excretion.

Genetic variations in the APOC1 gene, which encodes apoC-I, have been associated with alterations in lipid metabolism and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), also known as free fatty acids (FFA), refer to fatty acid molecules that are not bound to glycerol in the form of triglycerides or other esters. In the bloodstream, NEFAs are transported while bound to albumin and can serve as a source of energy for peripheral tissues. Under normal physiological conditions, NEFA levels are tightly regulated by the body; however, elevated NEFA levels have been associated with various metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes.

Clofibric acid is the main metabolic product of clofibrate, a medication that belongs to the class of drugs called fibrates. It works by lowering levels of total and LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood, while increasing HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol levels. Clofibric acid is an antihyperlipidemic agent that is used primarily for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia and mixed dyslipidemia. It may also be used to prevent pancreatitis caused by high triglyceride levels.

Clofibric acid is detectable in the urine and can be used as a biomarker for clofibrate exposure or use. However, it's important to note that clofibrate has largely been replaced by newer fibrates and statins due to its adverse effects profile and lower efficacy compared to these newer agents.

Fasting is defined in medical terms as the abstinence from food or drink for a period of time. This practice is often recommended before certain medical tests or procedures, as it helps to ensure that the results are not affected by recent eating or drinking.

In some cases, fasting may also be used as a therapeutic intervention, such as in the management of seizures or other neurological conditions. Fasting can help to lower blood sugar and insulin levels, which can have a variety of health benefits. However, it is important to note that prolonged fasting can also have negative effects on the body, including malnutrition, dehydration, and electrolyte imbalances.

Fasting is also a spiritual practice in many religions, including Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism. In these contexts, fasting is often seen as a way to purify the mind and body, to focus on spiritual practices, or to express devotion or mourning.

Niacin, also known as vitamin B3 or nicotinic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin that is essential for human health. It is a crucial component of the coenzymes NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), which play key roles in energy production, DNA repair, and cellular signaling.

Niacin can be obtained from various dietary sources, including meat, poultry, fish, legumes, whole grains, and fortified foods. It is also available as a dietary supplement and prescription medication. Niacin deficiency can lead to a condition called pellagra, which is characterized by symptoms such as diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and, if left untreated, death.

In addition to its role in energy metabolism and DNA repair, niacin has been shown to have potential benefits for cardiovascular health, including lowering LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol and triglyceride levels while raising HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol levels. However, high-dose niacin therapy can also have adverse effects, such as flushing, itching, and liver toxicity, so it should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Hyperinsulinism is a medical condition characterized by an excess production and release of insulin from the pancreas. Insulin is a hormone that helps regulate blood sugar levels by allowing cells in the body to take in sugar (glucose) for energy or storage. In hyperinsulinism, the increased insulin levels can cause low blood sugar (hypoglycemia), which can lead to symptoms such as sweating, shaking, confusion, and in severe cases, seizures or loss of consciousness.

There are several types of hyperinsulinism, including congenital forms that are present at birth and acquired forms that develop later in life. Congenital hyperinsulinism is often caused by genetic mutations that affect the way insulin is produced or released from the pancreas. Acquired hyperinsulinism can be caused by factors such as certain medications, hormonal disorders, or tumors of the pancreas.

Treatment for hyperinsulinism depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Treatment options may include dietary changes, medication to reduce insulin secretion, or surgery to remove part or all of the pancreas.

Fatty liver, also known as hepatic steatosis, is a medical condition characterized by the abnormal accumulation of fat in the liver. The liver's primary function is to process nutrients, filter blood, and fight infections, among other tasks. When excess fat builds up in the liver cells, it can impair liver function and lead to inflammation, scarring, and even liver failure if left untreated.

Fatty liver can be caused by various factors, including alcohol consumption, obesity, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), viral hepatitis, and certain medications or medical conditions. NAFLD is the most common cause of fatty liver in the United States and other developed countries, affecting up to 25% of the population.

Symptoms of fatty liver may include fatigue, weakness, weight loss, loss of appetite, nausea, abdominal pain or discomfort, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). However, many people with fatty liver do not experience any symptoms, making it essential to diagnose and manage the condition through regular check-ups and blood tests.

Treatment for fatty liver depends on the underlying cause. Lifestyle changes such as weight loss, exercise, and dietary modifications are often recommended for people with NAFLD or alcohol-related fatty liver disease. Medications may also be prescribed to manage related conditions such as diabetes, high cholesterol, or metabolic syndrome. In severe cases of liver damage, a liver transplant may be necessary.

Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is a protein involved in the metabolism of lipids, particularly cholesterol. It is produced primarily by the liver and is a component of several types of lipoproteins, including very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).

ApoE plays a crucial role in the transport and uptake of lipids in the body. It binds to specific receptors on cell surfaces, facilitating the delivery of lipids to cells for energy metabolism or storage. ApoE also helps to clear cholesterol from the bloodstream and is involved in the repair and maintenance of tissues.

There are three major isoforms of ApoE, designated ApoE2, ApoE3, and ApoE4, which differ from each other by only a few amino acids. These genetic variations can have significant effects on an individual's risk for developing certain diseases, particularly cardiovascular disease and Alzheimer's disease. For example, individuals who inherit the ApoE4 allele have an increased risk of developing Alzheimer's disease, while those with the ApoE2 allele may have a reduced risk.

In summary, Apolipoprotein E is a protein involved in lipid metabolism and transport, and genetic variations in this protein can influence an individual's risk for certain diseases.

Dietary fats, also known as fatty acids, are a major nutrient that the body needs for energy and various functions. They are an essential component of cell membranes and hormones, and they help the body absorb certain vitamins. There are several types of dietary fats:

1. Saturated fats: These are typically solid at room temperature and are found in animal products such as meat, butter, and cheese, as well as tropical oils like coconut and palm oil. Consuming a high amount of saturated fats can raise levels of unhealthy LDL cholesterol and increase the risk of heart disease.
2. Unsaturated fats: These are typically liquid at room temperature and can be further divided into monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. Monounsaturated fats, found in foods such as olive oil, avocados, and nuts, can help lower levels of unhealthy LDL cholesterol while maintaining levels of healthy HDL cholesterol. Polyunsaturated fats, found in foods such as fatty fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts, have similar effects on cholesterol levels and also provide essential omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids that the body cannot produce on its own.
3. Trans fats: These are unsaturated fats that have been chemically modified to be solid at room temperature. They are often found in processed foods such as baked goods, fried foods, and snack foods. Consuming trans fats can raise levels of unhealthy LDL cholesterol and lower levels of healthy HDL cholesterol, increasing the risk of heart disease.

It is recommended to limit intake of saturated and trans fats and to consume more unsaturated fats as part of a healthy diet.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.

Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.

Lipolysis is the process by which fat cells (adipocytes) break down stored triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids. This process occurs when the body needs to use stored fat as a source of energy, such as during fasting, exercise, or in response to certain hormonal signals. The breakdown products of lipolysis can be used directly by cells for energy production or can be released into the bloodstream and transported to other tissues for use. Lipolysis is regulated by several hormones, including adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), cortisol, glucagon, and growth hormone, which act on lipases, enzymes that mediate the breakdown of triglycerides.

Low-density lipoproteins (LDL), also known as "bad cholesterol," are a type of lipoprotein that carry cholesterol and other fats from the liver to cells throughout the body. High levels of LDL in the blood can lead to the buildup of cholesterol in the walls of the arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of proteins (apolipoproteins) and lipids (cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids) that are responsible for transporting fat molecules around the body in the bloodstream. LDL is one type of lipoprotein, along with high-density lipoproteins (HDL), very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), and chylomicrons.

LDL particles are smaller than HDL particles and can easily penetrate the artery walls, leading to the formation of plaques that can narrow or block the arteries. Therefore, maintaining healthy levels of LDL in the blood is essential for preventing cardiovascular disease.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Apolipoprotein A-II (ApoA-II) is a protein component of high-density lipoproteins (HDL), often referred to as "good cholesterol." It is one of the major apolipoproteins in HDL and plays a role in the structure, metabolism, and function of HDL particles. ApoA-II is produced primarily in the liver and intestine and helps facilitate the transport of cholesterol from tissues to the liver for excretion. Additionally, ApoA-II has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties and may play a role in the regulation of the immune response.

Fibric acids, also known as fibric acid derivatives, are a class of medications that are primarily used to lower elevated levels of triglycerides (a type of fat) in the blood. They work by increasing the breakdown and removal of triglycerides from the bloodstream, and reducing the production of very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), a type of particle that carries triglycerides in the blood.

Examples of fibric acids include gemfibrozil, fenofibrate, and clofibrate. These medications are often prescribed for people with high triglyceride levels who are at risk for pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas) or other complications related to high triglycerides.

Fibric acids may also have a modest effect on raising levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or "good" cholesterol, and lowering levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad" cholesterol, in some people. However, they are generally not as effective at lowering LDL cholesterol as statins, another class of cholesterol-lowering medications.

It's important to note that fibric acids can interact with other medications and may cause side effects such as stomach upset, muscle pain, and an increased risk of gallstones. As with any medication, it's important to use fibric acids under the guidance of a healthcare provider.

Congenital Generalized Lipodystrophy (CGL) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the near or complete absence of body fat at birth or in early childhood. It is also known as Berardinelli-Seip congenital lipodystrophy. The condition is caused by mutations in genes responsible for the development and function of adipose tissue (fat).

Individuals with CGL typically have a lack of subcutaneous fat, which gives them a muscular appearance, but they may have excess fat accumulation in other areas such as the neck, face, and liver. This can lead to various metabolic complications, including insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, hypertriglyceridemia (high levels of triglycerides in the blood), and hepatic steatosis (fatty liver disease).

CGL is a genetic disorder that is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. This means that an individual must inherit two copies of the mutated gene, one from each parent, to develop the condition. The diagnosis of CGL is typically based on clinical features and confirmed by genetic testing. Treatment for CGL focuses on managing the metabolic complications associated with the disorder.

Apolipoprotein A-I (ApoA-I) is a major protein component of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) in human plasma. It plays a crucial role in the metabolism and transport of lipids, particularly cholesterol, within the body. ApoA-I facilitates the formation of HDL particles, which are involved in the reverse transport of cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver for excretion. This process is known as reverse cholesterol transport and helps maintain appropriate cholesterol levels in the body. Low levels of ApoA-I or dysfunctional ApoA-I have been associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases.

Hypoalphalipoproteinemia is a condition characterized by decreased levels of alpha-lipoproteins, particularly the alpha-1 lipoprotein called high-density lipoprotein (HDL), in the blood. HDL plays a crucial role in removing excess cholesterol from tissues and carrying it back to the liver for excretion or recycling. Low levels of HDL are considered a risk factor for developing cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis, because they may lead to an accumulation of cholesterol in the blood vessels.

There are different types and causes of hypoalphalipoproteinemias, including:

1. Familial Hypoalphalipoproteinemia (FHA): An inherited condition characterized by low HDL levels due to mutations in the APOA1, APOC3, or ABCA1 genes, which are involved in HDL metabolism. FHA is often associated with an increased risk of premature cardiovascular disease.
2. Tangier Disease: A rare genetic disorder caused by mutations in the ABCA1 gene, leading to extremely low HDL levels and the accumulation of cholesterol deposits in various tissues, including the liver, spleen, and nerves. Tangier disease is characterized by enlarged, orange-colored tonsils, neuropathy, and an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases.
3. Secondary Hypoalphalipoproteinemia: Low HDL levels can also be caused by secondary factors such as obesity, physical inactivity, smoking, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, hypothyroidism, nephrotic syndrome, and the use of certain medications (e.g., corticosteroids, progestins, and beta-blockers).

In summary, hypoalphalipoproteinemia refers to a group of conditions characterized by decreased levels of alpha-lipoproteins, particularly HDL, in the blood. This can be due to genetic factors or secondary causes and may increase the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases.

Tetrahydronaphthalenes are organic compounds that consist of a naphthalene ring with two hydrogens replaced by saturated carbon chains. It is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) with a chemical formula C10H12. Tetrahydronaphthalenes can be found in various natural sources, including coal tar and some essential oils. They also have potential applications in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds.

Hyperlipoproteinemia Type V is a rare genetic disorder characterized by an excess of lipids (fats) in the blood. It is caused by mutations in genes responsible for the metabolism of lipoproteins, which are particles that transport fat molecules, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, throughout the body.

In Hyperlipoproteinemia Type V, there is a significant increase in the levels of both chylomicrons (lipoprotein particles that carry dietary lipids) and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs, lipoprotein particles that carry endogenous lipids produced by the liver). This results in extremely high levels of triglycerides and moderately elevated levels of cholesterol in the blood.

Individuals with Hyperlipoproteinemia Type V are at an increased risk for developing pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas), eruptive xanthomas (small, yellowish bumps on the skin caused by cholesterol deposits), and hepatosplenomegaly (enlargement of the liver and spleen). The diagnosis is typically made based on clinical presentation, family history, and laboratory tests that measure lipid levels. Treatment often involves dietary modifications, weight loss, exercise, and medications to lower lipid levels in the blood.

Adipose tissue, also known as fatty tissue, is a type of connective tissue that is composed mainly of adipocytes (fat cells). It is found throughout the body, but is particularly abundant in the abdominal cavity, beneath the skin, and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.

Adipose tissue serves several important functions in the body. One of its primary roles is to store energy in the form of fat, which can be mobilized and used as an energy source during periods of fasting or exercise. Adipose tissue also provides insulation and cushioning for the body, and produces hormones that help regulate metabolism, appetite, and reproductive function.

There are two main types of adipose tissue: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). WAT is the more common form and is responsible for storing energy as fat. BAT, on the other hand, contains a higher number of mitochondria and is involved in heat production and energy expenditure.

Excessive accumulation of adipose tissue can lead to obesity, which is associated with an increased risk of various health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

Abdominal obesity is a type of obesity that is defined by an excessive accumulation of fat in the abdominal region. It is often assessed through the measurement of waist circumference or the waist-to-hip ratio. Abdominal obesity has been linked to an increased risk of various health conditions, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain types of cancer.

In medical terms, abdominal obesity is also known as central obesity or visceral obesity. It is characterized by the accumulation of fat around internal organs in the abdomen, such as the liver and pancreas, rather than just beneath the skin (subcutaneous fat). This type of fat distribution is thought to be more harmful to health than the accumulation of fat in other areas of the body.

Abdominal obesity can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, lifestyle choices, and certain medical conditions. Treatment typically involves making lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet and getting regular exercise, as well as addressing any underlying medical conditions that may be contributing to the problem. In some cases, medication or surgery may also be recommended.

Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose (or sugar) levels resulting from the body's inability to produce sufficient amounts of insulin or effectively use the insulin it produces. This form of diabetes usually develops gradually over several years and is often associated with older age, obesity, physical inactivity, family history of diabetes, and certain ethnicities.

In Type 2 diabetes, the body's cells become resistant to insulin, meaning they don't respond properly to the hormone. As a result, the pancreas produces more insulin to help glucose enter the cells. Over time, the pancreas can't keep up with the increased demand, leading to high blood glucose levels and diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes is managed through lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, regular exercise, and a healthy diet. Medications, including insulin therapy, may also be necessary to control blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications associated with the disease, such as heart disease, nerve damage, kidney damage, and vision loss.

Angiopoietins are a family of growth factors that play crucial roles in the development and maintenance of blood vessels. They bind to the Tie2 receptor tyrosine kinase, which is primarily expressed on vascular endothelial cells. The interaction between angiopoietins and Tie2 regulates various aspects of vascular biology, including vasculogenesis, angiogenesis, and vascular stability.

There are four main members in the angiopoietin family: Ang1, Ang2, Ang3 (also known as Ang4 in humans), and Ang4 (also known as Ang5 in mice). Among these, Ang1 and Ang2 have been studied most extensively.

Ang1 is produced by perivascular cells, such as smooth muscle cells and pericytes, and it acts as a stabilizing factor for blood vessels. It promotes vascular maturation and quiescence by enhancing endothelial cell survival, reducing vascular permeability, and increasing the association between endothelial cells and mural cells (pericytes or smooth muscle cells).

Ang2, on the other hand, is produced mainly by endothelial cells and has context-dependent functions. During embryonic development, Ang2 acts as a pro-angiogenic factor in conjunction with vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) to promote the formation of new blood vessels. However, in adult tissues, Ang2 is upregulated during pathological conditions like inflammation and tumor growth, where it destabilizes existing vasculature by antagonizing Ang1's effects on Tie2 signaling. This leads to increased vascular permeability, inflammation, and the initiation of angiogenesis.

In summary, angiopoietins are essential regulators of blood vessel development and homeostasis, with distinct functions for different family members in promoting or inhibiting various aspects of vascular biology.

Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) due to absolute or relative deficiency in insulin secretion and/or insulin action. There are two main types: Type 1 diabetes, which results from the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to insulin deficiency, and Type 2 diabetes, which is associated with insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.

Type 1 diabetes typically presents in childhood or young adulthood, while Type 2 diabetes tends to occur later in life, often in association with obesity and physical inactivity. Both types of diabetes can lead to long-term complications such as damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and cardiovascular system if left untreated or not well controlled.

The diagnosis of diabetes is usually made based on fasting plasma glucose levels, oral glucose tolerance tests, or hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels. Treatment typically involves lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise, along with medications to lower blood glucose levels and manage associated conditions.

Cholic acid is a primary bile acid, which is a type of organic compound that plays a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins in the body. It is produced in the liver from cholesterol and is then conjugated with glycine or taurine to form conjugated bile acids, which are stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine during digestion.

Cholic acid helps to emulsify fats, allowing them to be broken down into smaller droplets that can be absorbed by the body. It also facilitates the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin A, D, E, and K. In addition to its role in digestion, cholic acid is also involved in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism and the excretion of bile acids from the body.

Abnormalities in cholic acid metabolism can lead to various medical conditions, such as cholestatic liver diseases, gallstones, and genetic disorders that affect bile acid synthesis.

Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Protein 1 (SREBP-1) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in the regulation of lipid metabolism, primarily cholesterol and fatty acid biosynthesis. It binds to specific DNA sequences called sterol regulatory elements (SREs), which are present in the promoter regions of genes involved in lipid synthesis.

SREBP-1 exists in two isoforms, SREBP-1a and SREBP-1c, encoded by a single gene through alternative splicing. SREBP-1a is a stronger transcriptional activator than SREBP-1c and can activate both cholesterol and fatty acid synthesis genes. In contrast, SREBP-1c primarily regulates fatty acid synthesis genes.

Under normal conditions, SREBP-1 is found in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane as an inactive precursor bound to another protein called SREBP cleavage-activating protein (SCAP). When cells detect low levels of cholesterol or fatty acids, SCAP escorts SREBP-1 to the Golgi apparatus, where it undergoes proteolytic processing to release the active transcription factor. The active SREBP-1 then translocates to the nucleus and binds to SREs, promoting the expression of genes involved in lipid synthesis.

Overall, SREBP-1 is a critical regulator of lipid homeostasis, and its dysregulation has been implicated in various diseases, including obesity, insulin resistance, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and atherosclerosis.

Dietary carbohydrates refer to the organic compounds in food that are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, with a general formula of Cm(H2O)n. They are one of the three main macronutrients, along with proteins and fats, that provide energy to the body.

Carbohydrates can be classified into two main categories: simple carbohydrates (also known as simple sugars) and complex carbohydrates (also known as polysaccharides).

Simple carbohydrates are made up of one or two sugar molecules, such as glucose, fructose, and lactose. They are quickly absorbed by the body and provide a rapid source of energy. Simple carbohydrates are found in foods such as fruits, vegetables, dairy products, and sweeteners like table sugar, honey, and maple syrup.

Complex carbohydrates, on the other hand, are made up of long chains of sugar molecules that take longer to break down and absorb. They provide a more sustained source of energy and are found in foods such as whole grains, legumes, starchy vegetables, and nuts.

It is recommended that adults consume between 45-65% of their daily caloric intake from carbohydrates, with a focus on complex carbohydrates and limiting added sugars.

Fish oils are a type of fat or lipid derived from the tissues of oily fish. They are a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids, specifically eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). These fatty acids have been associated with various health benefits such as reducing inflammation, decreasing the risk of heart disease, improving brain function, and promoting eye health. Fish oils can be consumed through diet or taken as a dietary supplement in the form of capsules or liquid. It is important to note that while fish oils have potential health benefits, they should not replace a balanced diet and medical advice should be sought before starting any supplementation.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

Triolein is a type of triglyceride, which is a kind of fat molecule. More specifically, triolein is the triglyceride formed from three molecules of oleic acid, a common monounsaturated fatty acid. It is often used in scientific research and studies involving lipid metabolism, and it can be found in various vegetable oils and animal fats.

Hyperglycemia is a medical term that refers to an abnormally high level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Fasting hyperglycemia is defined as a fasting blood glucose level greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter) on two separate occasions. Alternatively, a random blood glucose level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL in combination with symptoms of hyperglycemia (such as increased thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, and fatigue) can also indicate hyperglycemia.

Hyperglycemia is often associated with diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels due to insulin resistance or insufficient insulin production. However, hyperglycemia can also occur in other conditions such as stress, surgery, infection, certain medications, and hormonal imbalances.

Prolonged or untreated hyperglycemia can lead to serious complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), and long-term damage to various organs such as the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and blood vessels. Therefore, it is essential to monitor blood glucose levels regularly and maintain them within normal ranges through proper diet, exercise, medication, and lifestyle modifications.

Metabolic diseases are a group of disorders caused by abnormal chemical reactions in your body's cells. These reactions are part of a complex process called metabolism, where your body converts the food you eat into energy.

There are several types of metabolic diseases, but they most commonly result from:

1. Your body not producing enough of certain enzymes that are needed to convert food into energy.
2. Your body producing too much of certain substances or toxins, often due to a genetic disorder.

Examples of metabolic diseases include phenylketonuria (PKU), diabetes, and gout. PKU is a rare condition where the body cannot break down an amino acid called phenylalanine, which can lead to serious health problems if left untreated. Diabetes is a common disorder that occurs when your body doesn't produce enough insulin or can't properly use the insulin it produces, leading to high blood sugar levels. Gout is a type of arthritis that results from too much uric acid in the body, which can form crystals in the joints and cause pain and inflammation.

Metabolic diseases can be inherited or acquired through environmental factors such as diet or lifestyle choices. Many metabolic diseases can be managed with proper medical care, including medication, dietary changes, and lifestyle modifications.

I could not find a medical definition specifically for "Cocos." However, Cocos is a geographical name that may refer to:

* The Cocos (Keeling) Islands, an Australian territory in the Indian Ocean.
* Cocos nucifera, the scientific name for the coconut palm tree.

There are some medical conditions related to the consumption of coconuts or exposure to the coconut palm tree, such as allergies to coconut products, but there is no specific medical term "Cocos."

Apolipoprotein B-48 (apoB-48) is a protein component of chylomicrons, which are lipoprotein particles responsible for carrying dietary fat and cholesterol from the intestines to other parts of the body. ApoB-48 is produced in the intestines and is a shorter version of apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100), which is a component of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) or "bad cholesterol."

Chylomicrons are assembled and secreted by intestinal cells after a meal, and apoB-48 is essential for the formation and function of these particles. ApoB-48-containing chylomicrons transport dietary lipids to various tissues, including the liver, where they contribute to the maintenance of lipid homeostasis.

Elevated levels of apoB-48 in the blood have been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, particularly in individuals with familial chylomicronemia syndrome (FCS), a rare genetic disorder characterized by severely elevated triglyceride levels due to impaired clearance of chylomicrons.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Rats, Zucker" is not a standard medical term or abbreviation in human medicine. It seems to be an incorrect combination of two terms from the field of laboratory animal science.

1. "Rats" are commonly used laboratory animals.
2. "Zucker" is a surname and also refers to a strain of laboratory rats, specifically the Zucker Diabetic Fatty (ZDF) rat, which is a model for studying type 2 diabetes mellitus.

If you have any questions related to human medicine or healthcare, I would be happy to help clarify those for you.

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a serious metabolic complication characterized by the triad of hyperglycemia, metabolic acidosis, and increased ketone bodies. It primarily occurs in individuals with diabetes mellitus type 1, but it can also be seen in some people with diabetes mellitus type 2, particularly during severe illness or surgery.

The condition arises when there is a significant lack of insulin in the body, which impairs the ability of cells to take up glucose for energy production. As a result, the body starts breaking down fatty acids to produce energy, leading to an increase in ketone bodies (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone) in the bloodstream. This process is called ketosis.

In DKA, the excessive production of ketone bodies results in metabolic acidosis, which is characterized by a lower than normal pH level in the blood (< 7.35) and an elevated serum bicarbonate level (< 18 mEq/L). The hyperglycemia in DKA is due to both increased glucose production and decreased glucose utilization by cells, which can lead to severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalances.

Symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis include excessive thirst, frequent urination, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, fatigue, fruity breath odor, and altered mental status. If left untreated, DKA can progress to coma and even lead to death. Treatment typically involves administering insulin, fluid replacement, and electrolyte management in a hospital setting.

Hepatomegaly is a medical term that refers to an enlargement of the liver beyond its normal size. The liver is usually located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen and can be felt during a physical examination. A healthcare provider may detect hepatomegaly by palpating (examining through touch) the abdomen, noticing that the edge of the liver extends past the lower ribcage.

There are several possible causes for hepatomegaly, including:
- Fatty liver disease (both alcoholic and nonalcoholic)
- Hepatitis (viral or autoimmune)
- Liver cirrhosis
- Cancer (such as primary liver cancer, metastatic cancer, or lymphoma)
- Infections (e.g., bacterial, fungal, or parasitic)
- Heart failure and other cardiovascular conditions
- Genetic disorders (e.g., Gaucher's disease, Niemann-Pick disease, or Hunter syndrome)
- Metabolic disorders (e.g., glycogen storage diseases, hemochromatosis, or Wilson's disease)

Diagnosing the underlying cause of hepatomegaly typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies like ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI. Treatment depends on the specific cause identified and may include medications, lifestyle changes, or, in some cases, surgical intervention.

Hypertension is a medical term used to describe abnormally high blood pressure in the arteries, often defined as consistently having systolic blood pressure (the top number in a blood pressure reading) over 130 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number) over 80 mmHg. It is also commonly referred to as high blood pressure.

Hypertension can be classified into two types: primary or essential hypertension, which has no identifiable cause and accounts for about 95% of cases, and secondary hypertension, which is caused by underlying medical conditions such as kidney disease, hormonal disorders, or use of certain medications.

If left untreated, hypertension can lead to serious health complications such as heart attack, stroke, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease. Therefore, it is important for individuals with hypertension to manage their condition through lifestyle modifications (such as healthy diet, regular exercise, stress management) and medication if necessary, under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Arteriosclerosis is a general term that describes the hardening and stiffening of the artery walls. It's a progressive condition that can occur as a result of aging, or it may be associated with certain risk factors such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, smoking, and a sedentary lifestyle.

The process of arteriosclerosis involves the buildup of plaque, made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances, in the inner lining of the artery walls. Over time, this buildup can cause the artery walls to thicken and harden, reducing the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the body's organs and tissues.

Arteriosclerosis can affect any of the body's arteries, but it is most commonly found in the coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart, the cerebral arteries that supply blood to the brain, and the peripheral arteries that supply blood to the limbs. When arteriosclerosis affects the coronary arteries, it can lead to heart disease, angina, or heart attack. When it affects the cerebral arteries, it can lead to stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA). When it affects the peripheral arteries, it can cause pain, numbness, or weakness in the limbs, and in severe cases, gangrene and amputation.

Multifactorial inheritance is a type of genetic inheritance that involves the interaction of multiple genes (two or more) along with environmental factors in the development of a particular trait, disorder, or disease. Each gene can slightly increase or decrease the risk of developing the condition, and the combined effects of these genes, along with environmental influences, determine the ultimate outcome.

Examples of multifactorial inheritance include height, skin color, and many common diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and mental disorders like schizophrenia and autism. These conditions tend to run in families but do not follow simple Mendelian patterns of inheritance (dominant or recessive). Instead, they show complex inheritance patterns that are influenced by multiple genetic and environmental factors.

It is important to note that having a family history of a multifactorial disorder does not guarantee that an individual will develop the condition. However, it does increase the likelihood, and the risk may be further modified by lifestyle choices, environmental exposures, and other health factors.

Fat emulsions for intravenous use are a type of parenteral nutrition solution that contain fat in the form of triglycerides, which are broken down and absorbed into the body to provide a source of energy and essential fatty acids. These emulsions are typically used in patients who are unable to consume food orally or enterally, such as those with gastrointestinal tract disorders, malabsorption syndromes, or severe injuries.

The fat emulsion is usually combined with other nutrients, such as carbohydrates and amino acids, to create a complete parenteral nutrition solution that meets the patient's nutritional needs. The emulsion is administered through a vein using a sterile technique to prevent infection.

Fat emulsions are typically made from soybean oil or a mixture of soybean and medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oils. MCTs are more easily absorbed than long-chain triglycerides (LCTs), which are found in soybean oil, and may be used in patients with malabsorption syndromes or other conditions that affect fat absorption.

It is important to monitor patients receiving intravenous fat emulsions for signs of complications such as infection, hyperlipidemia (elevated levels of fats in the blood), and liver function abnormalities.

LDL receptors (Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptors) are cell surface receptors that play a crucial role in the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis within the body. They are responsible for recognizing and binding to LDL particles, also known as "bad cholesterol," which are then internalized by the cell through endocytosis.

Once inside the cell, the LDL particles are broken down, releasing their cholesterol content, which can be used for various cellular processes such as membrane synthesis and hormone production. The LDL receptors themselves are recycled back to the cell surface, allowing for continued uptake of LDL particles.

Mutations in the LDL receptor gene can lead to a condition called familial hypercholesterolemia, which is characterized by high levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood and an increased risk of premature cardiovascular disease.

Omega-3 fatty acids are a type of polyunsaturated fats that are essential for human health. The "omega-3" designation refers to the location of a double bond in the chemical structure of the fatty acid, specifically three carbon atoms from the end of the molecule.

There are three main types of omega-3 fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA). EPA and DHA are primarily found in fatty fish, such as salmon, mackerel, and sardines, as well as in algae. ALA is found in plant sources, such as flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, and some vegetable oils.

Omega-3 fatty acids have been shown to have numerous health benefits, including reducing inflammation, lowering the risk of heart disease, improving brain function, and supporting eye health. They are also important for fetal development during pregnancy and breastfeeding. It is recommended that adults consume at least 250-500 milligrams of combined EPA and DHA per day, although higher intakes may be beneficial for certain conditions. ALA can be converted to EPA and DHA in the body, but this process is not very efficient, so it is important to consume preformed EPA and DHA from dietary sources or supplements.

Blood protein disorders refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the production or function of proteins in the blood. These proteins are crucial for maintaining the proper functioning of the body's immune system, transporting nutrients, and preventing excessive bleeding. Some examples of blood protein disorders include:

1. Hemophilia: A genetic disorder caused by a deficiency or absence of clotting factors in the blood, leading to prolonged bleeding and poor clot formation.
2. Von Willebrand disease: A genetic disorder characterized by abnormal or deficient von Willebrand factor, which is necessary for platelet function and proper clotting.
3. Dysproteinemias: Abnormal levels of certain proteins in the blood, such as immunoglobulins (antibodies) or paraproteins, which can indicate underlying conditions like multiple myeloma or macroglobulinemia.
4. Hypoproteinemia: Low levels of total protein in the blood, often caused by liver disease, malnutrition, or kidney disease.
5. Hyperproteinemia: Elevated levels of total protein in the blood, which can be caused by dehydration, inflammation, or certain types of cancer.
6. Hemoglobinopathies: Genetic disorders affecting the structure and function of hemoglobin, a protein found in red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. Examples include sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.
7. Disorders of complement proteins: Abnormalities in the complement system, which is a group of proteins involved in the immune response, can lead to conditions like autoimmune disorders or recurrent infections.

Treatment for blood protein disorders varies depending on the specific condition and its severity but may include medications, transfusions, or other medical interventions.

Hyperlipoproteinemia Type III, also known as Broad Beta Disease or Remnant Hyperlipidemia, is a genetic disorder characterized by an increased level of chylomicron remnants and intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL) in the blood. This results in elevated levels of both low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or "bad" cholesterol, and triglycerides, and decreased levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or "good" cholesterol. The condition can lead to premature atherosclerosis and an increased risk for cardiovascular disease. It is caused by mutations in the APOE gene, which encodes the apolipoprotein E protein, leading to abnormal clearance of lipoproteins from the blood.

Familial Partial Lipodystrophy (FPL) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the selective loss of fat tissue in various parts of the body. It is caused by mutations in specific genes involved in the regulation of fat metabolism. There are several types of FPL, but the most common one is called Dunnigan-type or FPLD2, which is caused by mutations in the LMNA gene.

In FPL, there is a lack of subcutaneous fat (the fat layer beneath the skin) in certain areas of the body, such as the face, arms, legs, and buttocks, while other areas may have excess fat accumulation, such as the neck, shoulders, and abdomen. This abnormal distribution of fat can lead to a variety of metabolic complications, including insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, high levels of triglycerides in the blood (hypertriglyceridemia), and an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

FPL is usually inherited as an autosomal dominant trait, which means that a person has a 50% chance of inheriting the mutated gene from an affected parent. However, some cases may occur spontaneously due to new mutations in the gene. The diagnosis of FPL is typically based on clinical examination, family history, and genetic testing. Treatment usually involves lifestyle modifications, such as diet and exercise, and medications to manage metabolic complications.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Apolipoprotein B-100 (apoB-100) is a large protein component of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), also known as "bad cholesterol." It plays a crucial role in the metabolism and transport of fats and cholesterol in the body. ApoB-100 is responsible for the binding of LDL to specific receptors on cell surfaces, facilitating the uptake of lipoprotein particles by cells. Elevated levels of apoB-100 in the blood are associated with an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, such as atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease.

Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a long aliphatic chain, which are important components of lipids and are widely distributed in living organisms. They can be classified based on the length of their carbon chain, saturation level (presence or absence of double bonds), and other structural features.

The two main types of fatty acids are:

1. Saturated fatty acids: These have no double bonds in their carbon chain and are typically solid at room temperature. Examples include palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0).
2. Unsaturated fatty acids: These contain one or more double bonds in their carbon chain and can be further classified into monounsaturated (one double bond) and polyunsaturated (two or more double bonds) fatty acids. Examples of unsaturated fatty acids include oleic acid (C18:1, monounsaturated), linoleic acid (C18:2, polyunsaturated), and alpha-linolenic acid (C18:3, polyunsaturated).

Fatty acids play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as energy storage, membrane structure, and cell signaling. Some essential fatty acids cannot be synthesized by the human body and must be obtained through dietary sources.

Lipoprotein receptors are specialized proteins found on the surface of cells that play a crucial role in the metabolism of lipoproteins, which are complex particles composed of lipids and proteins. These receptors bind to specific lipoproteins in the bloodstream, facilitating their uptake into the cell for further processing.

There are several types of lipoprotein receptors, including:

1. LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) Receptor: This receptor is responsible for recognizing and internalizing LDL particles, which are rich in cholesterol. Once inside the cell, LDL particles release their cholesterol, which can then be used for various cellular functions or stored for later use. Defects in the LDL receptor can lead to elevated levels of LDL cholesterol in the blood and an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease.
2. HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) Receptor: This receptor is involved in the clearance of HDL particles from the bloodstream. HDL particles are responsible for transporting excess cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver, where it can be processed and eliminated from the body.
3. VLDL (Very Low-Density Lipoprotein) Receptor: This receptor recognizes and internalizes VLDL particles, which are produced by the liver and carry triglycerides and cholesterol to peripheral tissues. VLDL particles are subsequently converted into LDL particles in the bloodstream.
4. LRP (Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein) Family: This family of receptors includes several members, such as LRP1 and LRP2, that play roles in various cellular processes, including lipid metabolism, protein trafficking, and cell signaling. They can bind to a variety of ligands, including lipoproteins, proteases, and extracellular matrix components.

In summary, lipoprotein receptors are essential for maintaining proper lipid metabolism and homeostasis by facilitating the uptake, processing, and elimination of lipoproteins in the body.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

Fluorinated hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain fluorine and carbon atoms. These compounds can be classified into two main groups: fluorocarbons (which consist only of fluorine and carbon) and fluorinated aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons (which contain hydrogen in addition to fluorine and carbon).

Fluorocarbons are further divided into three categories: fully fluorinated compounds (perfluorocarbons, PFCs), partially fluorinated compounds (hydrochlorofluorocarbons, HCFCs, and hydrofluorocarbons, HFCs), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These compounds have been widely used as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, fire extinguishing agents, and cleaning solvents due to their chemical stability, low toxicity, and non-flammability.

Fluorinated aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons are organic compounds that contain fluorine, carbon, and hydrogen atoms. Examples include fluorinated alcohols, ethers, amines, and halogenated compounds. These compounds have a wide range of applications in industry, medicine, and research due to their unique chemical properties.

It is important to note that some fluorinated hydrocarbons can contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming, making it essential to regulate their use and production.

Clinical chemistry tests are a type of laboratory test that measure the levels of various chemicals or substances in the body. These tests can be used to help diagnose and monitor a wide range of medical conditions, including diabetes, liver disease, heart disease, and kidney disease. Some common clinical chemistry tests include:

1. Blood glucose test: Measures the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. This test is commonly used to diagnose and monitor diabetes.
2. Electrolyte panel: Measures the levels of important electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate in the blood. Imbalances in these electrolytes can indicate a variety of medical conditions.
3. Liver function tests (LFTs): Measure the levels of various enzymes and proteins produced by the liver. Abnormal results can indicate liver damage or disease.
4. Kidney function tests: Measure the levels of various substances such as creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in the blood. Elevated levels of these substances can indicate kidney dysfunction or disease.
5. Lipid panel: Measures the levels of different types of cholesterol and triglycerides in the blood. Abnormal results can indicate an increased risk of heart disease.
6. Thyroid function tests: Measure the levels of hormones produced by the thyroid gland. Abnormal results can indicate thyroid dysfunction or disease.

Clinical chemistry tests are usually performed on a sample of blood, urine, or other bodily fluid. The results of these tests can provide important information to help doctors diagnose and manage medical conditions.

Dietary sucrose is a type of sugar that is commonly found in the human diet. It is a disaccharide, meaning it is composed of two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose. Sucrose is naturally occurring in many fruits and vegetables, but it is also added to a wide variety of processed foods and beverages as a sweetener.

In the body, sucrose is broken down into its component monosaccharides during digestion, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream and used for energy. While small amounts of sucrose can be part of a healthy diet, consuming large amounts of added sugars, including sucrose, has been linked to a variety of negative health outcomes, such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease. Therefore, it is recommended that people limit their intake of added sugars and focus on getting their sugars from whole foods, such as fruits and vegetables.

A diet, in medical terms, refers to the planned and regular consumption of food and drinks. It is a balanced selection of nutrient-rich foods that an individual eats on a daily or periodic basis to meet their energy needs and maintain good health. A well-balanced diet typically includes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy products.

A diet may also be prescribed for therapeutic purposes, such as in the management of certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypertension, or obesity. In these cases, a healthcare professional may recommend specific restrictions or modifications to an individual's regular diet to help manage their condition and improve their overall health.

It is important to note that a healthy and balanced diet should be tailored to an individual's age, gender, body size, activity level, and any underlying medical conditions. Consulting with a healthcare professional, such as a registered dietitian or nutritionist, can help ensure that an individual's dietary needs are being met in a safe and effective way.

Orphan nuclear receptors are a subfamily of nuclear receptor proteins that are classified as "orphans" because their specific endogenous ligands (natural activating molecules) have not yet been identified. These receptors are still functional transcription factors, which means they can bind to specific DNA sequences and regulate the expression of target genes when activated by a ligand. However, in the case of orphan nuclear receptors, the identity of these ligands remains unknown or unconfirmed.

These receptors play crucial roles in various biological processes, including development, metabolism, and homeostasis. Some orphan nuclear receptors have been found to bind to synthetic ligands (man-made molecules), which has led to the development of potential therapeutic agents for various diseases. Over time, as research progresses, some orphan nuclear receptors may eventually have their endogenous ligands identified and be reclassified as non-orphan nuclear receptors.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

HIV-Associated Lipodystrophy Syndrome is a term used to describe a range of body shape changes and metabolic abnormalities that can occur in some individuals receiving long-term combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) for HIV infection. The syndrome is characterized by the abnormal distribution of fat, including:

1. Lipoatrophy: Loss of subcutaneous fat from the face, limbs, and buttocks, leading to a gaunt appearance.
2. Lipohypertrophy: Accumulation of fat in the abdomen, breasts, and dorsocervical region (buffalo hump), resulting in an altered body shape.
3. Metabolic abnormalities: Insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and lactic acidosis, which can increase the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus.

The exact pathogenesis of HIV-Associated Lipodystrophy Syndrome is not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to a combination of factors, including the direct effects of HIV infection on adipose tissue, mitochondrial toxicity caused by certain antiretroviral medications, and chronic inflammation. The syndrome can have significant psychological and social consequences for affected individuals, and management typically involves a multidisciplinary approach that includes switching to alternative antiretroviral regimens, addressing metabolic abnormalities, and providing cosmetic interventions as needed.

Hypolipoproteinemias are a group of genetic disorders characterized by low levels of lipoproteins in the blood. Lipoproteins are complex particles composed of proteins and lipids that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fat molecules, such as cholesterol and triglycerides, in the body.

There are several types of hypolipoproteinemias, each associated with deficiencies in specific lipoproteins:

1. Hypobetalipoproteinemia: This disorder is characterized by low levels of beta-lipoproteins, also known as low-density lipoproteins (LDL), or "bad" cholesterol. It can lead to decreased absorption of fat-soluble vitamins and an increased risk of fatty liver disease.
2. Abetalipoproteinemia: This is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by the absence of beta-lipoproteins and apolipoprotein B, which results in very low levels of LDL cholesterol and high-density lipoproteins (HDL), or "good" cholesterol. It can lead to fat malabsorption, neurological symptoms, and retinal degeneration.
3. Tangier disease: This disorder is caused by a deficiency in apolipoprotein A-I and results in low levels of HDL cholesterol. It can cause enlarged orange-colored tonsils, neuropathy, and an increased risk of coronary artery disease.
4. Familial hypoalphalipoproteinemia: This disorder is characterized by low levels of HDL cholesterol due to a deficiency in apolipoprotein A-I or A-II. It can increase the risk of premature coronary artery disease.

It's important to note that while some hypolipoproteinemias are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, others may actually protect against it due to reduced levels of atherogenic lipoproteins. Treatment for these disorders typically involves dietary modifications and supplementation of fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids. In some cases, medication may be necessary to manage symptoms or prevent complications.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a class of diseases that affect the heart and blood vessels. They are the leading cause of death globally, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). The term "cardiovascular disease" refers to a group of conditions that include:

1. Coronary artery disease (CAD): This is the most common type of heart disease and occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the heart become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of cholesterol, fat, and other substances in the walls of the arteries. This can lead to chest pain, shortness of breath, or a heart attack.
2. Heart failure: This occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood efficiently to meet the body's needs. It can be caused by various conditions, including coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, and cardiomyopathy.
3. Stroke: A stroke occurs when the blood supply to a part of the brain is interrupted or reduced, often due to a clot or a ruptured blood vessel. This can cause brain damage or death.
4. Peripheral artery disease (PAD): This occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the limbs become narrowed or blocked, leading to pain, numbness, or weakness in the legs or arms.
5. Rheumatic heart disease: This is a complication of untreated strep throat and can cause damage to the heart valves, leading to heart failure or other complications.
6. Congenital heart defects: These are structural problems with the heart that are present at birth. They can range from mild to severe and may require medical intervention.
7. Cardiomyopathy: This is a disease of the heart muscle that makes it harder for the heart to pump blood efficiently. It can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, and certain medications.
8. Heart arrhythmias: These are abnormal heart rhythms that can cause the heart to beat too fast, too slow, or irregularly. They can lead to symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, or fainting.
9. Valvular heart disease: This occurs when one or more of the heart valves become damaged or diseased, leading to problems with blood flow through the heart.
10. Aortic aneurysm and dissection: These are conditions that affect the aorta, the largest artery in the body. An aneurysm is a bulge in the aorta, while a dissection is a tear in the inner layer of the aorta. Both can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

It's important to note that many of these conditions can be managed or treated with medical interventions such as medications, surgery, or lifestyle changes. If you have any concerns about your heart health, it's important to speak with a healthcare provider.

Cholesteryl esters are formed when cholesterol, a type of lipid (fat) that is important for the normal functioning of the body, becomes combined with fatty acids through a process called esterification. This results in a compound that is more hydrophobic (water-repelling) than cholesterol itself, which allows it to be stored more efficiently in the body.

Cholesteryl esters are found naturally in foods such as animal fats and oils, and they are also produced by the liver and other cells in the body. They play an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes, and they are also precursors to the synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D.

However, high levels of cholesteryl esters in the blood can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis, a condition characterized by the buildup of plaque in the arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke. Cholesteryl esters are typically measured as part of a lipid profile, along with other markers such as total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, and triglycerides.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Tunisia" is not a medical term. It is actually the name of a country located in North Africa, known for its rich history, beautiful coastline, and vibrant culture. If you have any questions about medical terms or if there's another topic you'd like to know more about, please let me know!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Rats, Mutant Strains" is not a recognized medical term or concept. It may be a term used in science fiction, gaming, or other non-medical contexts to refer to genetically modified rats with altered characteristics. However, in the field of medical research, scientists do conduct studies using various strains of lab rats, some of which have been selectively bred or genetically modified to exhibit specific traits, but these are not referred to as "mutant strains." If you have any questions related to medical definitions or concepts, I'd be happy to help with those!

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure used to assess whether a person has a healthy weight for their height. It's calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters. Here is the medical definition:

Body Mass Index (BMI) = weight(kg) / [height(m)]^2

According to the World Health Organization, BMI categories are defined as follows:

* Less than 18.5: Underweight
* 18.5-24.9: Normal or healthy weight
* 25.0-29.9: Overweight
* 30.0 and above: Obese

It is important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying weight issues in populations, it does have limitations when applied to individuals. For example, it may not accurately reflect body fat distribution or muscle mass, which can affect health risks associated with excess weight. Therefore, BMI should be used as one of several factors when evaluating an individual's health status and risk for chronic diseases.

Cholesteryl ester transfer proteins (CETP) are a group of plasma proteins that play a role in the transport and metabolism of lipids, particularly cholesteryl esters and triglycerides, between different lipoprotein particles in the bloodstream. These proteins facilitate the transfer of cholesteryl esters from high-density lipoproteins (HDL) to low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), while simultaneously promoting the transfer of triglycerides in the opposite direction, from VLDL and LDL to HDL.

The net effect of CETP activity is a decrease in HDL cholesterol levels and an increase in LDL and VLDL cholesterol levels. This shift in lipoprotein composition can contribute to the development of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, as lower HDL cholesterol levels and higher LDL cholesterol levels are associated with increased risk for these conditions.

Inhibition of CETP has been investigated as a potential strategy for increasing HDL cholesterol levels and reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, clinical trials with CETP inhibitors have shown mixed results, and further research is needed to determine their safety and efficacy in preventing cardiovascular events.

A heterozygote is an individual who has inherited two different alleles (versions) of a particular gene, one from each parent. This means that the individual's genotype for that gene contains both a dominant and a recessive allele. The dominant allele will be expressed phenotypically (outwardly visible), while the recessive allele may or may not have any effect on the individual's observable traits, depending on the specific gene and its function. Heterozygotes are often represented as 'Aa', where 'A' is the dominant allele and 'a' is the recessive allele.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

... "secondary hypertriglyceridemia") or whether no such underlying cause exists ("primary hypertriglyceridaemia"). There is a ... "secondary hypertriglyceridemia") or whether no such underlying cause exists ("primary hypertriglyceridaemia"). There is a ... Hypertriglyceridemia is the presence of high amounts of triglycerides in the blood. Triglycerides are the most abundant fatty ... Hypertriglyceridemia itself is usually symptomless, although high levels may be associated with skin lesions known as xanthomas ...
... falls in the Fredrickson-Levy and Lee's (FLL) phenotypes. The phenotypes include types I, IIa, ... Familial hypertriglyceridemia is considered to be inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. However, it is important to ... Familial hypertriglyceridemia is considered a type IV familial dyslipidemia it is distinguished from other dyslipidemias based ... Treatment for familial hypertriglyceridemia should focus primarily on reducing serum triglyceride levels. If an individual has ...
Rosenson, Robert S; Eckel, Robert H (April 9, 2021). "Hypertriglyceridemia". UpToDate. Retrieved April 21, 2021. Wilson, Peter ... familial hypertriglyceridemia, combined hyperlipidemia, and HDL-C metabolism disorders. In familial hypercholesterolemia, a ... "Icosapent ethyl for the treatment of severe hypertriglyceridemia". Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management. 10: 485-492. doi: ... "Cardiovascular Risk Reduction with Icosapent Ethyl for Hypertriglyceridemia". New England Journal of Medicine. 380 (1): 11-22. ...
Pejic RN, Lee DT (2006-05-01). "Hypertriglyceridemia". Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine. 19 (3): 310-316. doi: ... They may result in increased risk of premature atherosclerosis or, when associated with marked hypertriglyceridemia, may lead ... It is associated with hypercholesterolemia (typically 8-12 mmol/L), hypertriglyceridemia (typically 5-20 mmol/L), a normal ApoB ... The receptor defect is an autosomal recessive mutation or polymorphism.[citation needed] Familial hypertriglyceridemia is an ...
It is used in combination with changes in diet in adults with hypertriglyceridemia ≥ 150 mg/dL. Further, it is often required ... September 2019). "Omega-3 Fatty Acids for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Science Advisory From the American Heart ... Weintraub HS (November 2014). "Overview of prescription omega-3 fatty acid products for hypertriglyceridemia". Postgraduate ... Sweeney ME (14 April 2015). Khardori R (ed.). "Hypertriglyceridemia Pharmacologic Therapy". Medscape Drugs & Diseases. Archived ...
Gotto AM, Jr (14 December 1992). "Hypertriglyceridemia: risks and perspectives". The American Journal of Cardiology. 70 (19): ... basic mechanisms underlying the common hypertriglyceridemia and low HDL cholesterol levels". Diabetes. 45 Suppl 3: S27-30. doi: ...
Insulin resistance and hypertriglyceridemia occur. Calf muscular hypertrophy may occur. Type 5 is due to mutations in the AKT2 ... The patients also had hypertension, insulin resistance and hypertriglyceridemia. Type 6 due to mutations in the CIDEC gene. It ... Complications include hypertension, insulin resistance and hypertriglyceridemia. The gene causing this condition is not yet ... Other conditions associated with this condition include acanthosis nigricans, fatty liver, hypertriglyceridemia and polycystic ...
Fibrates are indicated for hypertriglyceridemia. Fibrates typically lower triglycerides by 20% to 50%. Level of the good ...
Leslie Zieve described patients with a combination of alcoholic liver disease, hemolytic anemia and hypertriglyceridemia.[ ... "Zieveʼs Syndrome Presenting With Severe Hypertriglyceridemia". ACG Case Reports Journal. 6 (7): 1-3. doi:10.14309/crj. ... may require plasmapharesis to avoid complications associated with hypertriglyceridemia. Zieve's syndrome was initially ...
Reaven GM, Lerner RL, Stern MP, Farquhar JW (November 1967). "Role of insulin in endogenous hypertriglyceridemia". The Journal ...
"Investigation of Hypertriglyceridemia in Healthy Miniature Schnauzers". Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine. doi:10.1111/j. ...
Hypertriglyceridemia U.S. Department of Health & Human Services (n.d.), Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center. Retrieved ... This condition is known as pseudo-hypertriglyceridemia, a falsely elevated condition of triglycerides. Another group treated ... a pseudo-hypertriglyceridemia: a case report]. In Anales de pediatria (Barcelona, Spain: 2003) (Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 68-71) ... Pseudo-hypertriglyceridaemia or hyperglycerolemia?. Clínica e Investigación en Arteriosclerosis, 25(3), 123-126. Orphanet (n.d ...
Chatterjee C, Sparks DL (April 2011). "Hepatic lipase, high density lipoproteins, and hypertriglyceridemia". The American ...
Other possible conditions are hypertriglyceridemia and lipodystrophy. Other novel mutations resulting in the syndrome have also ...
... relative to a placebo in those with statin-resistant hypertriglyceridemia. EPA is obtained in the human diet by eating oily ... "Cardiovascular Risk Reduction with Icosapent Ethyl for Hypertriglyceridemia". New England Journal of Medicine. 380 (1): 11-22. ...
Kushner PA, Cobble ME (November 2016). "Hypertriglyceridemia: the importance of identifying patients at risk". Postgraduate ...
... occurs commonly with familial hypertriglyceridaemia, and rarely with combined hypertriglyceridaemia. ... Lipaemia retinalis is a retinal disease caused by hypertriglyceridemia or chylomicronemia. Depending on plasma triglyceride ... hypertriglyceridemia) or Lipoprotein lipase deficiency (chylomicronemia). In this condition the retinal arteries and veins, and ... retinal signs of LR are an important clinical sign of hypertriglyceridemia. Vinger and Sachs classified lipaemia retinalis into ...
Less frequent but important causes are hypertriglyceridemia, drugs, infections. Chronic pancreatitis is a long-standing ...
Chronic, excessive alcohol use increases the risk of hypertriglyceridemia. Smoking and not exercising may lead to ... Other disorders, such as diabetes mellitus, kidney disease, and hypothyroidism, may promote hypertriglyceridemia. Certain drugs ... may cause hypertriglyceridemia. Obesity increases the risk of hyperlipidemia. ...
Hypertriglyceridemia Pharmacologic Therapy for Medscape Drugs & Diseases, Ed. Khardori R. Updated: Apr 14, 2015, page accessed ... Karalis DG (February 2017). "A Review of Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Focus on ... Weintraub HS (November 2014). "Overview of prescription omega-3 fatty acid products for hypertriglyceridemia". Postgraduate ... hypertriglyceridemia. In the European Union and other major markets outside the US, omega-3 acid ethyl esters are indicated for ...
"Mutations in LMF1 cause combined lipase deficiency and severe hypertriglyceridemia". Nat Genet. 39 (12): 1483-1487. doi:10.1038 ...
Patients display hypertriglyceridemia, severe fatty liver disease and little or no adipose tissue. Average patient lifespan is ... The absence of fat tissue is associated with insulin resistance, hypertriglyceridemia, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD ... "Antisense Inhibition of Apolipoprotein C-III in Patients with Hypertriglyceridemia". The New England Journal of Medicine. 373 ( ...
Inhibition of ANGPTL8 represents a possible therapeutic strategy for hypertriglyceridemia. GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ...
Hypertriglyceridemia Pharmacologic Therapy for Medscape Drugs & Diseases, Ed. Khardori R. Updated: Apr 14, 2015, page accessed ... 2019). "Omega-3 Fatty Acids for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association ... Clinical trials of Epanova for severe hypertriglyceridemia showed good results. However, a clinical trial on mixed ... Weintraub, HS (2014). "Overview of prescription omega-3 fatty acid products for hypertriglyceridemia". Postgrad Med. 126 (7): 7 ...
September 2019). "Omega-3 Fatty Acids for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Science Advisory From the American Heart ... Weintraub HS (November 2014). "Overview of prescription omega-3 fatty acid products for hypertriglyceridemia". Postgraduate ...
This can affect expression of the resulting phenotype of hypertriglyceridemia. His laboratory was one of the first to use ... Stocks, J; Holdsworth, G; Galton, DJ (1979). "Hypertriglyceridaemia associated with an abnormal triglyceride-rich lipoprotein ... such as hypertriglyceridemia and atherosclerosis. This led eventually to the development of Genome Wide Association Studies ( ... relation to hypertriglyceridaemia". Lancet. 2 (8322): 444-446. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(83)91440-x. PMID 6131168. S2CID 29511911 ...
Digby M, Belli R, McGraw T, Lee A (January 2011). "Eruptive xanthomas as a cutaneous manifestation of hypertriglyceridemia: a ...
Rawla P, Sunkara T, Thandra KC, Gaduputi V (December 2018). "Hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis: updated review of ... and hypertriglyceridemia. Reasons for false positive elevated serum amylase include salivary gland disease (elevated salivary ... hypertriglyceridemia Respiratory Hypoxemia, atelectasis, effusion, pneumonitis, acute respiratory distress syndrome Renal Renal ... pancreas divisum Radiotherapy Autoimmune pancreatitis Severe hypertriglyceridemia Scorpion venom Chinese liver fluke Ischemia ...
Mutations in this gene are a cause of transient infantile hypertriglyceridemia. Alternatively spliced transcript variants ... and hypertriglyceridemia". Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 22 (10): 1229-32. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.8. PMC 4169545. PMID 24549054. This ... "Transient infantile hypertriglyceridemia, fatty liver, and hepatic fibrosis caused by mutated GPD1, encoding glycerol-3- ...
Birth control pills and HRT cause arterial thrombosis of the pancreas through the accumulation of fat (hypertriglyceridemia). ... Meanwhile, thiazide diuretics cause hypertriglyceridemia and hypercalcemia, where the latter is the risk factor for pancreatic ... Rawla P, Sunkara T, Thandra KC, Gaduputi V (December 2018). "Hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis: updated review of ...
... "secondary hypertriglyceridemia") or whether no such underlying cause exists ("primary hypertriglyceridaemia"). There is a ... "secondary hypertriglyceridemia") or whether no such underlying cause exists ("primary hypertriglyceridaemia"). There is a ... Hypertriglyceridemia is the presence of high amounts of triglycerides in the blood. Triglycerides are the most abundant fatty ... Hypertriglyceridemia itself is usually symptomless, although high levels may be associated with skin lesions known as xanthomas ...
Familial hypertriglyceridemia is a common disorder passed down through families. It causes a higher-than-normal level of ... Familial hypertriglyceridemia is a common disorder passed down through families. It causes a higher-than-normal level of ... Familial hypertriglyceridemia is a common disorder passed down through families. It causes a higher-than-normal level of ... You are more likely to have this condition if you have a family history of hypertriglyceridemia or heart disease before age 50. ...
A third fish-oil product has been approved for prescription use in the US for severe hypertriglyceridemia in adults. ... AstraZeneca says it plans to file for regulatory approval of Epanova for severe hypertriglyceridemia in other markets. ... Cite this: FDA Approves Epanova for Severe Hypertriglyceridemia - Medscape - May 07, 2014. ... for use as an adjunct to diet to reduce triglyceride levels in adults with severe hypertriglyceridemia (triglyceride levels , ...
Hypertriglyceridemia, a condition in which triglyceride levels are elevated, is a common disorder in the United States (see the ... encoded search term (Hypertriglyceridemia) and Hypertriglyceridemia What to Read Next on Medscape ... Signs and symptoms of hypertriglyceridemia. Hypertriglyceridemia is usually asymptomatic until triglycerides are greater than ... Workup in hypertriglyceridemia. On examination, findings may be normal, or they may include the following:. * GI: Tenderness to ...
In the hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia entire Great Chaos, there are not many masters, only more than a hundred, like ... Hypertriglyceridemia Vs. Hyperlipidemia ?. The guards outside the conference hall didnt even say a word this time, but lowered ... If you let her read the letter and guess it word by word, you can guess nine out of ten If hypertriglyceridemia vs. ... Back then when I was with Luo Haiying, I also heard from people in the village that the eldest son hypertriglyceridemia vs. ...
Hypertriglyceridemia is common in the United States; more than 25% of US adults have elevated triglycerides. Are you familiar ... Hypertriglyceridemia, a condition in which triglyceride levels are elevated, is a common disorder in the United States. It is ... Additional risk factors for hypertriglyceridemia include diet, stress, physical inactivity, and smoking. More than 25% of US ... Fast Five Quiz: How Much Do You Know About Hypertriglyceridemia? - Medscape - Sep 14, 2018. ...
The 2018 ACC/AHA classifies moderate hypertriglyceridemia as 150-499 mg/dL and severe hypertriglyceridemia as 500 mg/dL or more ... Hypertriglyceridemia Management According to the 2018 AHA/ACC Guideline. Jan 11, 2019 , Alan Jacobsen, MBBCH; Nazir Savji, MD, ... YOU ARE HERE: Home , Latest in Cardiology , Hypertriglyceridemia Management According to the 2018 AHA/ACC Guideline ... Also of note, our new guideline features a specific section on hypertriglyceridemia. This section is composed of one class I ...
Hypertriglyceridemia. J Am Board Fam Med 19 (3): 310-316, 2006.. *Nambi V and Ballantyne CM. Combination therapy with statins ... Hypertriglyceridemia : its etiology, effects and treatments. Yuan G., et al., Can. Medical Assoc. J., 176: 1113-1120 (2007).. ... Yuan, Al-Shali, and Hegele entitled "Hypertriglyceridemia: its etiology, effects and treatments" as published in CMAJ April 10 ... "for individuals with hypertriglyceridemia, 2 to 4g of DHA/EPA per day, provided as capsules under a physicians care, are ...
Severe hypertriglyceridemia (≥ 500 mg/dL) is also a risk factor for pancreatitis. Three omega-3 fatty acid (OM3FA) prescription ... Hypertriglyceridemia (triglycerides , 150 mg/dL) affects ~25 % of the United States (US) population and is associated with ... The clinical relevance of omega-3 fatty acids in the management of hypertriglyceridemia. ... OM3FAs appear to be an effective treatment option for patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia. ...
From the NLA 2013 Fall Clinical Lipid Update Daniel Gaudet discusses Genetics of Hypertriglyceridemia and Emerging Therapies. ... Genetics of Hypertriglyceridemia and Emerging Therapies. From the NLA 2013 Fall Clinical Lipid Update ...
LA-induced TG lowering was not due to the anorectic properties of LA, as pair-fed rats developed hypertriglyceridemia. Livers ... Lipoic acid improves hypertriglyceridemia by stimulating triacylglycerol clearance and downregulating liver triacylglycerol ... Lipoic acid improves hypertriglyceridemia by stimulating triacylglycerol clearance and downregulating liver triacylglycerol ... Hypertriglyceridemia, Lipoproteins, VLDL, Liver, Male, Oxidation-Reduction, PPAR alpha, Rats, Rats, Zucker, Thioctic Acid, ...
Severe and very severe hypertriglyceridemia increase the risk for pancreatitis, whereas mild or moderate hypertriglyceridemia ... and this range includes the vast majority of subjects with hypertriglyceridemia. Severe hypertriglyceridemia carries a ... Base the diagnosis of hypertriglyceridemia on fasting triglyceride levels and not on nonfasting triglyceride levels. (1, M) ... Presence of mild or moderate hypertriglyceridemia is commonly due to a dominant underlying cause in each patient, whereas ...
Additional file 1 of Identified lncRNAs functional modules and genes in prediabetes with hypertriglyceridemia by weighted gene ... Additional file 1 of Identified lncRNAs functional modules and genes in prediabetes with hypertriglyceridemia by weighted gene ...
Regulation of Lipoprotein Lipase by Glucose in Primary Cultures of Isolated Human Adipocytes: Relevance to Hypertriglyceridemia ... Relevance to Hypertriglyceridemia of Diabetes. Diabetes 1 November 1987; 36 (11): 1238-1245. https://doi.org/10.2337/diab.36.11 ...
Hypertriglyceridemia occurs when there are too many triglycerides, which are a type of fatty molecule, in the blood. This can ... Hypertriglyceridemia Causes. While diet and lack of physical activity are the driving forces behind hypertriglyceridemia ... Hypertriglyceridemia Testing and Diagnosis. A lipid profile test is used as a key diagnostic tool as part of a cardiac risk ... Hypertriglyceridemia Treatment in Mc Lean, VA. Triglycerides are fats that you take into your body from foods you eat. Your ...
The proteinuria-hypertriglyceridemia connection as a basis for novel therapeutics for nephrotic syndrome. Transl Res. 2015 Apr ... "Hypertriglyceridemia" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical ... This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Hypertriglyceridemia" by people in this website by year, and ... Carag C, Baxi PV, Behara V, Gashti CN, Rodby R. Pseudo-anion gap metabolic acidosis from severe hypertriglyceridemia corrected ...
There is usually no presentation in Familial hypertriglyceridemia[3] Cause. Familial hypertriglyceridemia is considered to be ... Familial hypertriglyceridemia falls in the Fredrickson-Levy and Lees (FLL) phenotypes. The phenotypes include types I, IIa, ... Familial hypertriglyceridemia is typically associated with other co-morbid conditions such as hypertension, obesity, and ... Individuals with severe hypertriglyceridemia should be promptly evaluated for the possibility of developing pancreatitis.[7] ...
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Hypertriglyceridemia answers are found in the 5-Minute Clinical Consult powered by Unbound Medicine. Available for iPhone, iPad ... Hypertriglyceridemia. (2020). In Domino, F. J., Baldor, R. A., Golding, J., & Stephens, M. B. (Eds.), 5-Minute Clinical Consult ... "Hypertriglyceridemia." 5-Minute Clinical Consult, 27th ed., Wolters Kluwer, 2020. Medicine Central, im.unboundmedicine.com/ ... medicine/view/5-Minute-Clinical-Consult/116303/all/Hypertriglyceridemia. Hypertriglyceridemia. In: Domino FJF, Baldor RAR, ...
This clinical research study is looking for volunteers with hypertriglyceridemia to assist in testing an experimental treatment ... a. Hypertriglyceridemia with fasting TG ≥200 mg/dL (2.26 millimoles per liter [mmol/L]) and ,500 mg/dL (5.65 mmol/L) with ... Do you suffer from hypertriglyceridemia?. This clinical research study is looking at the safety and effectiveness of a ... b. Severe hypertriglyceridemia with fasting TG ≥500 mg/dL (5.65 mmol/L) ...
HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA, TRANSIENT INFANTILE; HTGTI description, symptoms and related genes. Get the complete information in our ... Hypertriglyceridemia, Transient Infantile; Htgti. Description. Transient infantile hypertriglyceridemia is an autosomal ... Hypertriglyceridemia, Transient Infantile; Htgti Is also known as ;transient infantile hypertriglyceridemia and fatty liver. ... Hypertriglyceridemia, transient infantile (sequence analysis of GPD1 gene). By CGC Genetics in Portugal. GPD1 ...
Hypertriglyceridemia and atherosclerosis.. Peng J, Luo F, Ruan G, Peng R, Li X. Lipids Health Dis 2017 Dec 6;16(1):233. doi: ... Mechanisms linking hypertriglyceridemia to acute pancreatitis.. Kiss L, Fűr G, Pisipati S, Rajalingamgari P, Ewald N, Singh V, ... Hypertriglyceridemia - Common Causes, Prevention and Treatment Strategies.. Rygiel K. Curr Cardiol Rev 2018 Mar 14;14(1):67-76 ... Hypertriglyceridemia - Common Causes, Prevention and Treatment Strategies.. Rygiel K. Curr Cardiol Rev 2018 Mar 14;14(1):67-76 ...
title = "The Genetic Spectrum of Familial Hypertriglyceridemia in Oman",. abstract = "Familial hypertriglyceridemia (F-HTG) is ... The Genetic Spectrum of Familial Hypertriglyceridemia in Oman. / Al-Waili, Khalid; Al-Rasadi, Khalid; Al-Bulushi, Muna وآخرون. ... The Genetic Spectrum of Familial Hypertriglyceridemia in Oman. Khalid Al-Waili, Khalid Al-Rasadi, Muna Al-Bulushi, Mohammed ... Familial hypertriglyceridemia (F-HTG) is an autosomal disorder that causes severe elevation of serum triglyceride levels. It is ...
Primary Hypertriglyceridemia: Pathogenesis and Clinical Findings. Primary Hypertriglyceridemia: Pathogenesis and Clinical ...
1.3 Hypertriglyceridemia 1.4 Primary Dysbetalipoproteinemia (Type III Hyperlipoproteinemia) 1.5 Adult Patients with Homozygous ... 14.3 Hypertriglyceridemia Dose-Response Study: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-response study in patients with ... 14.3 Hypertriglyceridemia 14.4 Primary Dysbetalipoproteinemia (Type III Hyperlipoproteinemia) 14.5 Homozygous Familial ... 1.3 Hypertriglyceridemia Rosuvastatin is indicated as adjunctive therapy to diet for the treatment of adult patients with ...
adult patients with hypertriglyceridemia as an adjunct to diet (1.3) * adult patients with primary dysbetalipoproteinemia (Type ... 14.3 Hypertriglyceridemia Dose-Response Study: In a double-blind, placebo-controlled dose-response study in patients with ... 1.3 Hypertriglyceridemia 1.4 Primary Dysbetalipoproteinemia (Type III Hyperlipoproteinemia) 1.5 Adult Patients with Homozygous ... 14.3 Hypertriglyceridemia 14.4 Primary Dysbetalipoproteinemia (Type III Hyperlipoproteinemia) 14.5 Homozygous Familial ...
But hypertriglyceridemia (many triglycerides in the blood) is part of a group of disorders called the metabolic syndrome.. ... Tags: about about health problems Blood pressure carbohydrates diabetes fatty omega-3 health heart disease hypertriglyceridemia ... Health problems caused by triglycerides - hypertriglyceridemia. By cip Published July 26, 2013. Endocrinology, Medical Analysis ... The cause of hypertriglyceridemia fecventa is obesity and poorly controlled diabetes (ie blood glucose levels are maintained ...
FEVER and HYPERTRIGLYCERIDEMIA related symptoms, diseases, and genetic alterations. Get the complete information with our ... Fever, and Hypertriglyceridemia. .site-footer{margin-bottom:80px}. If you liked this article maybe you will also find ...
However, triglyceride levels can get too high, a condition known as hypertriglyceridemia. This can be dangerous, as youre ... Home , High Triglycerides and Pancreatitis , What Causes Hypertriglyceridemia and How to Fix It ... High triglycerides may be passed down through your family, a disorder called familial hypertriglyceridemia. ... However, if you have severe hypertriglyceridemia, you have to completely abstain from alcohol. ...
Fenofibrate for Treatment of Hypertriglyceridemia BARBARA APGAR. Atherosclerosis and Cardiac Risk Factors in Young Persons ...
  • AstraZeneca says it plans to file for regulatory approval of Epanova for severe hypertriglyceridemia in other markets. (medscape.com)
  • Cite this: FDA Approves Epanova for Severe Hypertriglyceridemia - Medscape - May 07, 2014. (medscape.com)
  • The third recommendation (class IIa) endorses the initiation of statins in those with severe hypertriglyceridemia with ASCVD equal to or greater than 7.5% in concert with addressing secondary factors. (acc.org)
  • The fourth recommendation (class IIa) is directed towards those with severe hypertriglyceridemia and especially those with triglycerides ≥1,000 mg/dL (11.3mmol/L). It is more complex and addresses many of the factors traditionally discussed in the management of hypertriglyceridemia. (acc.org)
  • Although most cases of severe hypertriglyceridemia have a genetic component, secondary conditions often contribute and addressing secondary factors is again recommended. (acc.org)
  • An understanding of the biochemical makeup of patients with hypertriglyceridemia is key to following the intricacies for managing moderate vs severe hypertriglyceridemia. (acc.org)
  • There are two categories of hypertriglyceridemia, moderate and severe. (acc.org)
  • Severe hypertriglyceridemia (≥ 500 mg/dL) is also a risk factor for pancreatitis. (ku.edu)
  • OM3FAs appear to be an effective treatment option for patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia. (ku.edu)
  • Severe and very severe hypertriglyceridemia increase the risk for pancreatitis, whereas mild or moderate hypertriglyceridemia may be a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • very severe hypertriglyceridemia is indicative of risk for pancreatitis. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • Presence of mild or moderate hypertriglyceridemia is commonly due to a dominant underlying cause in each patient, whereas severe or very severe hypertriglyceridemia is more likely due to several contributing factors. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • re and very severe hypertriglyceridemia (>100. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • Carag C, Baxi PV, Behara V, Gashti CN, Rodby R. Pseudo-anion gap metabolic acidosis from severe hypertriglyceridemia corrected by plasma exchange? (rush.edu)
  • Treatment of severe hypertriglyceridaemia. (ox.ac.uk)
  • This clinical research study is looking at the safety and effectiveness of a medication for people with hypertriglyceridemia and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, or with severe hypertriglyceridemia. (joinastudy.ca)
  • Transient infantile hypertriglyceridemia is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by onset of moderate to severe transient hypertriglyceridemia in infancy that normalizes with age. (mendelian.co)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia (F-HTG) is an autosomal disorder that causes severe elevation of serum triglyceride levels. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled ENTRIGUE trial enrolled 85 patients with severe hypertriglyceridemia (SHTG) either on stable background therapy or not on any background therapy who were treated weekly or every two weeks with pegozafermin. (sweetwaterreporter.com)
  • Severe hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) is an uncommon complication of DKA and can be associated with acute pancreatitis (AP). (e-apem.org)
  • Hypertriglyceridemia occurs in various physiologic conditions and in various diseases, and high triglyceride levels are associated with atherosclerosis, even in the absence of hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol levels) and predispose to cardiovascular disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • Acute pancreatitis may occur in people whose triglyceride levels are above 1000 mg/dL (11.3 mmol/L). Hypertriglyceridemia is associated with 1-4% of all cases of pancreatitis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Hypertriglyceridemia, a condition in which triglyceride levels are elevated, is a common disorder in the United States. (medscape.com)
  • Base the diagnosis of hypertriglyceridemia on fasting triglyceride levels and not on nonfasting triglyceride levels. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • While diet and lack of physical activity are the driving forces behind hypertriglyceridemia development, other medical conditions can influence your triglyceride levels and cause the condition. (cardiology-doctors.com)
  • If your triglyceride levels are influenced by other medical conditions, your treatment plan will also focus on addressing the underlying cause of hypertriglyceridemia. (cardiology-doctors.com)
  • Treatment for familial hypertriglyceridemia should focus primarily on reducing serum triglyceride levels. (mdwiki.org)
  • However, triglyceride levels can get too high, a condition known as hypertriglyceridemia. (mightygoodness.com)
  • Lifestyle change is of great importance in the management of chronic hypertriglyceridaemia after pancreatitis, explains Professor Ulrich Laufs, but those with very high triglyceride levels should be referred to a lipid clinic where they may be considered for treatments addressing novel targets such as apoCIII and ANGPTL3. (triglycerideforum.org)
  • Determining which lipoprotein abnormality is the cause of hypertriglyceridemia is less straightforward. (medscape.com)
  • The cause of hypertriglyceridemia fecventa is obesity and poorly controlled diabetes (ie blood glucose levels are maintained within normal values​​). (about-health-problems.com)
  • The symptoms are similar to pancreatitis secondary to other causes, although the presence of xanthomas or risk factors for hypertriglyceridemia may offer clues. (wikipedia.org)
  • Given its strong safety record, LA may have potential clinical applications for the treatment or prevention of hypertriglyceridemia and diabetic dyslipidemia. (oregonstate.edu)
  • Evaluate patients with primary hypertriglyceridemia for family history of dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease to assess genetic causes and future cardiovascular risk. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia (type IV familial dyslipidemia) is a genetic disorder characterized by the liver overproducing very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL). (mdwiki.org)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia is considered a type IV familial dyslipidemia it is distinguished from other dyslipidemias based on the individual's lipid profile. (mdwiki.org)
  • Hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) is a common form of dyslipidemia characterized by an excess fasting plasma concentration of triglycerides (TGs). (unboundmedicine.com)
  • Lipaglyn™, is a novel drug targeted at bridging an unmet healthcare need for treating Hypertriglyceridemia or Diabetic Dyslipidemia in type 2 diabetes, not controlled by statins alone. (lipaglyn.com)
  • ATF4 protein deficiency protects against high fructose-induced hypertriglyceridemia in mice. (rush.edu)
  • Exercise prevents fructose-induced hypertriglyceridemia in healthy young subjects. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Since exercise improves insulin sensitivity in insulin-resistant patients, we hypothesized that it would also prevent fructose-induced hypertriglyceridemia. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Beyond the forms of hypertriglyceridemia due to altered eating behaviours, excess alcohol consumption or specific disorders, some are predominantly based on genetic alterations [Rygiel 2018]. (diabetologie-online.de)
  • It is also noteworthy that the American Heart Association Scientific Statement (3) states "for individuals with hypertriglyceridemia, 2 to 4g of DHA/EPA per day, provided as capsules under a physician's care, are recommended. (dhaomega3.org)
  • In rare cases, individuals with hypertriglyceridemia may develop pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas), which can cause sudden abdominal pain, intense, loss of appetite, nausea and vomiting, fever. (about-health-problems.com)
  • Some forms of primary hypertriglyceridemia can lead to specific symptoms: both familial chylomicronemia and primary mixed hyperlipidemia include skin symptoms (eruptive xanthoma), eye abnormalities (lipemia retinalis), hepatosplenomegaly (enlargement of the liver and spleen), and neurological symptoms. (wikipedia.org)
  • Typically, there are no symptoms of hypertriglyceridemia, which is why it is so important to have blood lipid levels drawn regularly. (cardiology-doctors.com)
  • Estrogen replacement therapy, used to control menopausal symptoms women may also cause hypertriglyceridemia. (about-health-problems.com)
  • Hypertriglyceridemia is the presence of high amounts of triglycerides in the blood. (wikipedia.org)
  • But hypertriglyceridemia (many triglycerides in the blood) is part of a group of disorders called the metabolic syndrome. (about-health-problems.com)
  • At 12-weeks of age, MPS IIIa mice exhibited fasting and postprandial hypertriglyceridemia compared with wildtype mice, with a reduction of white and brown adipose tissues. (wustl.edu)
  • The most common acute manifestation of hypertriglyceridemia is the occurrence of pancreatitis . (mdwiki.org)
  • However, the proportion of patients having at least one metabolic complication of acromegaly at last follow-up (mean, 72 months after remission) was 27% for altered glucose tolerance or diabetes, 39% for hypertension, 34.3% for hypercholesterolemia, and 13.3% for hypertriglyceridemia. (medscape.com)
  • Assess patients with primary hypertriglyceridemia for other cardiovascular risk factors such as central obesity, hypertension, abnormalities of glucose metabolism, and liver dysfunction. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia is typically associated with other co-morbid conditions such as hypertension , obesity , and hyperglycemia . (mdwiki.org)
  • Une recherche documentaire a été effectuée dans PubMed de 1980 à 2021 en utilisant diverses combinaisons de termes MeSH comme tabac, diabète, hypertension, dyslipidémie, trouble dépressif majeur, trouble bipolaire, schizophrénie. (who.int)
  • For each 5- unit increase in CES-D score, odds increased by 47.6% for having hypertriglyceridemia, by 51.8% for having hypertension, and by 56.7% for having glucose intolerance. (cdc.gov)
  • The proteinuria-hypertriglyceridemia connection as a basis for novel therapeutics for nephrotic syndrome. (rush.edu)
  • Circulating angiopoietin-like 4 links proteinuria with hypertriglyceridemia in nephrotic syndrome. (rush.edu)
  • Metabolic syndrome consists of the following elements: high blood pressure, obesity, low HDL cholesterol (a fat "good") and hypertriglyceridemia. (about-health-problems.com)
  • Hypertriglyceridemia is indeed often associated with visceral obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome [Dallinga-Thie 2016, Rizzo 2013]. (diabetologie-online.de)
  • Les apports énergétiques moyens, les apports moyens en macronutriments et la prévalence des facteurs de risque, notamment le syndrome métabolique, ont été comparés entre les deux groupes et au sein de chaque groupe. (who.int)
  • Niacin and omega-3 fatty acids as well as drugs from the statin class may be used in conjunction, with statins being the main drug treatment for moderate hypertriglyceridemia where reduction of cardiovascular risk is required. (wikipedia.org)
  • Epanova will be the third prescription formulation of an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty-acid (PUFA) product approved in the United States for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia. (medscape.com)
  • The hypertriglyceridemia is associated with hepatomegaly, moderately elevated transaminases, persistent fatty liver, and the development of hepatic fibrosis. (mendelian.co)
  • Htgti Is also known as ;transient infantile hypertriglyceridemia and fatty liver. (mendelian.co)
  • Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, fibrates and niacin as therapeutic options in the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia: a review of the literature. (nih.gov)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia is considered to be inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. (mdwiki.org)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia separates itself from other dyslipidemias with significantly high triglycerides and low HDL levels. (mdwiki.org)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia is most likely caused by genetic defects combined with environmental factors. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Beyond the classic understanding of single-gene mutation leading to disease, hypertriglyceridemia is also linked to several different genetic loci permitting additional aberrant changes to other lipid levels in the body. (mdwiki.org)
  • Individuals with insulin resistance can have even further elevated levels of hypertriglyceridemia due to the fact that insulin is a potent activator of LPL. (mdwiki.org)
  • Therefore, an individual who is resistant to the bioactivity of insulin will have decreased LPL activity and will therefore lead to further hypertriglyceridemia, helping push serum triglycerides to pathologic levels. (mdwiki.org)
  • The class I recommendation first identifies a population 20 years of age or older who have moderate hypertriglyceridemia defined as fasting or nonfasting triglycerides (TG) 175-499 mg/dL (1.9-5.6 mmol/L) and advises searching for and treating secondary factors (see Table 1). (acc.org)
  • The designations of mild and moderate hypertriglyceridemia correspond to the range of levels predominant in risk assessment for premature CVD , and this range includes the vast majority of subjects with hypertriglyceridemia. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • There is a hereditary predisposition to both primary and secondary hypertriglyceridemia. (wikipedia.org)
  • Physical activity is another important element of your hypertriglyceridemia treatment plan to help you maintain a healthy weight and burn off excess calories which would otherwise turn into additional triglycerides. (cardiology-doctors.com)
  • Hypertriglyceridemia and atherosclerosis. (nih.gov)
  • High triglycerides may be passed down through your family, a disorder called familial hypertriglyceridemia. (mightygoodness.com)
  • Inactivity of lipoprotein lipase (LPL) plays the predominant role in the development of familial hypertriglyceridemia. (mdwiki.org)
  • In the present article we will discuss hypertriglyceridemia determined by the deficiency of lipoprotein lipase, which is one of the two lipase enzymes with a key role in serum lipid metabolism. (diabetologie-online.de)
  • This section is composed of one class I and three class IIa recommendations followed by a synopsis and supportive text to assist clinicians in recognising and treating patients with hypertriglyceridemia. (acc.org)
  • AVOID the routine measurement of lipoprotein particle heterogeneity in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • The results of this research will be used to find out if the investigational medication being studied will be of benefit to others with hypertriglyceridemia, and whether it will be made widely available to all patients with hypertriglyceridemia. (joinastudy.ca)
  • Lipoic acid improves hypertriglyceridemia by stimulating triacylglycerol clearance and downregulating liver triacylglycerol secretion. (oregonstate.edu)
  • Therapeutic Effect of Curcumin on 5/6Nx Hypertriglyceridemia: Association with the Improvement of Renal Mitochondrial ß-Oxidation and Lipid Metabolism in Kidney and Liver. (bvsalud.org)
  • Our results showed that CUR reversed the increase in liver and kidney damage and hypertriglyceridemia induced by 5/6Nx. (bvsalud.org)
  • Therefore, we concluded that the therapeutic effect of curcumin on 5/6Nx hypertriglyceridemia is associated with the restoration of renal mitochondrial ß- oxidation and the reduction in lipid synthesis and uptake in the kidneys and liver . (bvsalud.org)
  • Even the Human Emperor sits and watches this farce, and it is even more inconvenient for them to intervene Contradictions are not beneficial to both parties, and this is not what hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia the Emperor wants. (jewishledger.com)
  • Lu Xiaoxing looked around, Ma Nong didn't know where to hide for a long time, he lost such a big face, I am afraid that he will not have the courage to hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia appear in front of Lu Xiaoxing in the future good! (jewishledger.com)
  • Jura reacted for a moment, and said quickly Mr. Lin Yu, since it is a protoss, then the protoss mage holding the key must be hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia nearby Before Jura finished speaking, he saw Lin Yu's figure Flash, then disappeared in place When he came out the next moment, he was holding a young girl in his hand. (jewishledger.com)
  • Well, so you have to be careful about hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia this matter. (jewishledger.com)
  • She released her divine sense to explore, but just after she released it, hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia she felt her divine sense hit a wall, followed by a dull pain, which made her body tremble As if a cold gaze warned her, Su Hanjin's face turned pale instantly. (jewishledger.com)
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  • The guards outside the conference hall didn't even say a word this time, but lowered their heads instead It seems that they have all been hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia explained. (jewishledger.com)
  • replied coldly, and at the same time raised her hand to swing her long hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia sword at the poisonous dragon slayer in front of her But suddenly, an exaggerated smile cracked the corner of Kebra's mouth. (jewishledger.com)
  • If you let her read the letter and guess it word by word, you can guess nine out of ten If hypertriglyceridemia vs. hyperlipidemia it's not true, then you really don't understand anything. (jewishledger.com)
  • The decision to treat hypertriglyceridemia with medication depends on the levels and on the presence of other risk factors for cardiovascular disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • You don't have access to Evaluation and Treatment of Hypertriglyceridemia Pocket Guide. (guidelinecentral.com)
  • Receive hypertriglyceridemia treatment today! (cardiology-doctors.com)
  • To develop the ideal elevated triglycerides treatment plan, your healthcare provider must first determine what is causing your hypertriglyceridemia. (cardiology-doctors.com)
  • [4] One of the most common mutations implicated in the development of familial hypertriglyceridemia is a heterozygous inactivating mutation of the LPL gene. (mdwiki.org)
  • Hypertriglyceridemia, transient infantile (sequence analysis of GPD1 gene). (mendelian.co)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia is a common disorder passed down through families. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Hypertriglyceridemia itself is usually symptomless, although high levels may be associated with skin lesions known as xanthomas. (wikipedia.org)
  • Familial hypertriglyceridemia falls in the Fredrickson-Levy and Lee's (FLL) phenotypes . (mdwiki.org)