Hormones produced by invertebrates, usually insects, mollusks, annelids, and helminths.
Animals that have no spinal column.
Chemical substances having a specific regulatory effect on the activity of a certain organ or organs. The term was originally applied to substances secreted by various ENDOCRINE GLANDS and transported in the bloodstream to the target organs. It is sometimes extended to include those substances that are not produced by the endocrine glands but that have similar effects.
Natural hormones secreted by the THYROID GLAND, such as THYROXINE, and their synthetic analogs.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates GAMETOGENESIS and the supporting cells such as the ovarian GRANULOSA CELLS, the testicular SERTOLI CELLS, and LEYDIG CELLS. FSH consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Luteinizing hormone regulates steroid production by the interstitial cells of the TESTIS and the OVARY. The preovulatory LUTEINIZING HORMONE surge in females induces OVULATION, and subsequent LUTEINIZATION of the follicle. LUTEINIZING HORMONE consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A polypeptide hormone (84 amino acid residues) secreted by the PARATHYROID GLANDS which performs the essential role of maintaining intracellular CALCIUM levels in the body. Parathyroid hormone increases intracellular calcium by promoting the release of CALCIUM from BONE, increases the intestinal absorption of calcium, increases the renal tubular reabsorption of calcium, and increases the renal excretion of phosphates.
A decapeptide that stimulates the synthesis and secretion of both pituitary gonadotropins, LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE. GnRH is produced by neurons in the septum PREOPTIC AREA of the HYPOTHALAMUS and released into the pituitary portal blood, leading to stimulation of GONADOTROPHS in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
Steroid hormones produced by the GONADS. They stimulate reproductive organs, germ cell maturation, and the secondary sex characteristics in the males and the females. The major sex steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL; PROGESTERONE; and TESTOSTERONE.
Animals having a vertebral column, members of the phylum Chordata, subphylum Craniata comprising mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes.
Specific high affinity binding proteins for THYROID HORMONES in target cells. They are usually found in the nucleus and regulate DNA transcription. These receptors are activated by hormones that leads to transcription, cell differentiation, and growth suppression. Thyroid hormone receptors are encoded by two genes (GENES, ERBA): erbA-alpha and erbA-beta for alpha and beta thyroid hormone receptors, respectively.
A 191-amino acid polypeptide hormone secreted by the human adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR), also known as GH or somatotropin. Synthetic growth hormone, termed somatropin, has replaced the natural form in therapeutic usage such as treatment of dwarfism in children with growth hormone deficiency.
An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the ADRENAL CORTEX and its production of CORTICOSTEROIDS. ACTH is a 39-amino acid polypeptide of which the N-terminal 24-amino acid segment is identical in all species and contains the adrenocorticotrophic activity. Upon further tissue-specific processing, ACTH can yield ALPHA-MSH and corticotrophin-like intermediate lobe peptide (CLIP).
Hormones secreted by the PITUITARY GLAND including those from the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis), the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis), and the ill-defined intermediate lobe. Structurally, they include small peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins. They are under the regulation of neural signals (NEUROTRANSMITTERS) or neuroendocrine signals (HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES) from the hypothalamus as well as feedback from their targets such as ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANDROGENS; ESTROGENS.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A phylum of the kingdom Metazoa. Mollusca have soft, unsegmented bodies with an anterior head, a dorsal visceral mass, and a ventral foot. Most are encased in a protective calcareous shell. It includes the classes GASTROPODA; BIVALVIA; CEPHALOPODA; Aplacophora; Scaphopoda; Polyplacophora; and Monoplacophora.
Compounds, either natural or synthetic, which block development of the growing insect.
A T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A phylum of the most familiar marine invertebrates. Its class Stelleroidea contains two subclasses, the Asteroidea (the STARFISH or sea stars) and the Ophiuroidea (the brittle stars, also called basket stars and serpent stars). There are 1500 described species of STARFISH found throughout the world. The second class, Echinoidea, contains about 950 species of SEA URCHINS, heart urchins, and sand dollars. A third class, Holothuroidea, comprises about 900 echinoderms known as SEA CUCUMBERS. Echinoderms are used extensively in biological research. (From Barnes, Invertebrate Zoology, 5th ed, pp773-826)
A large subphylum of mostly marine ARTHROPODS containing over 42,000 species. They include familiar arthropods such as lobsters (NEPHROPIDAE), crabs (BRACHYURA), shrimp (PENAEIDAE), and barnacles (THORACICA).
A subphylum of chordates intermediate between the invertebrates and the true vertebrates. It includes the Ascidians.
Therapeutic use of hormones to alleviate the effects of hormone deficiency.
A portion of the animal phylum Chordata comprised of the subphyla CEPHALOCHORDATA; UROCHORDATA, and HYPEROTRETI, but not including the Vertebrata (VERTEBRATES). It includes nonvertebrate animals having a NOTOCHORD during some developmental stage.
Organisms that live in water.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
A peptide of 44 amino acids in most species that stimulates the release and synthesis of GROWTH HORMONE. GHRF (or GRF) is synthesized by neurons in the ARCUATE NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, GHRF stimulates GH release by the SOMATOTROPHS in the PITUITARY GLAND.
A class of marine annelids including sandworms, tube worms, clamworms, and fire worms. It includes also the genus Myxicola infundibulum.
The 17-beta-isomer of estradiol, an aromatized C18 steroid with hydroxyl group at 3-beta- and 17-beta-position. Estradiol-17-beta is the most potent form of mammalian estrogenic steroids.
A peptide of about 41 amino acids that stimulates the release of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE. CRH is synthesized by neurons in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, CRH stimulates the release of ACTH from the PITUITARY GLAND. CRH can also be synthesized in other tissues, such as PLACENTA; ADRENAL MEDULLA; and TESTIS.
A class in the phylum MOLLUSCA comprised of mussels; clams; OYSTERS; COCKLES; and SCALLOPS. They are characterized by a bilaterally symmetrical hinged shell and a muscular foot used for burrowing and anchoring.
A phylum of metazoan invertebrates comprising the segmented worms, and including marine annelids (POLYCHAETA), freshwater annelids, earthworms (OLIGOCHAETA), and LEECHES. Only the leeches are of medical interest. (Dorland, 27th ed)
Peptide hormones produced by NEURONS of various regions in the HYPOTHALAMUS. They are released into the pituitary portal circulation to stimulate or inhibit PITUITARY GLAND functions. VASOPRESSIN and OXYTOCIN, though produced in the hypothalamus, are not included here for they are transported down the AXONS to the POSTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY before being released into the portal circulation.
Hormones synthesized from amino acids. They are distinguished from INTERCELLULAR SIGNALING PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS in that their actions are systemic.
A small, unpaired gland situated in the SELLA TURCICA. It is connected to the HYPOTHALAMUS by a short stalk which is called the INFUNDIBULUM.
The major hormone derived from the thyroid gland. Thyroxine is synthesized via the iodination of tyrosines (MONOIODOTYROSINE) and the coupling of iodotyrosines (DIIODOTYROSINE) in the THYROGLOBULIN. Thyroxine is released from thyroglobulin by proteolysis and secreted into the blood. Thyroxine is peripherally deiodinated to form TRIIODOTHYRONINE which exerts a broad spectrum of stimulatory effects on cell metabolism.
Members of the phylum Arthropoda, composed of organisms having a hard, jointed exoskeleton and paired jointed legs. It includes the class INSECTS and the subclass ARACHNIDA, many species of which are important medically as parasites or as vectors of organisms capable of causing disease in man.
A phylum of radially symmetrical invertebrates characterized by possession of stinging cells called nematocysts. It includes the classes ANTHOZOA; CUBOZOA; HYDROZOA, and SCYPHOZOA. Members carry CNIDARIAN VENOMS.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A potent androgenic steroid and major product secreted by the LEYDIG CELLS of the TESTIS. Its production is stimulated by LUTEINIZING HORMONE from the PITUITARY GLAND. In turn, testosterone exerts feedback control of the pituitary LH and FSH secretion. Depending on the tissues, testosterone can be further converted to DIHYDROTESTOSTERONE or ESTRADIOL.
A glycoprotein that causes regression of MULLERIAN DUCTS. It is produced by SERTOLI CELLS of the TESTES. In the absence of this hormone, the Mullerian ducts develop into structures of the female reproductive tract. In males, defects of this hormone result in persistent Mullerian duct, a form of MALE PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM.
Hormones produced by the GONADS, including both steroid and peptide hormones. The major steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL and PROGESTERONE from the OVARY, and TESTOSTERONE from the TESTIS. The major peptide hormones include ACTIVINS and INHIBINS.
High affinity receptors for THYROID HORMONES, especially TRIIODOTHYRONINE. These receptors are usually found in the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. They are encoded by the THRB gene (also known as NR1A2, THRB1, or ERBA2 gene) as several isoforms produced by alternative splicing. Mutations in the THRB gene cause THYROID HORMONE RESISTANCE SYNDROME.
A lactogenic hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). It is a polypeptide of approximately 23 kD. Besides its major action on lactation, in some species prolactin exerts effects on reproduction, maternal behavior, fat metabolism, immunomodulation and osmoregulation. Prolactin receptors are present in the mammary gland, hypothalamus, liver, ovary, testis, and prostate.
The only species of a cosmopolitan ascidian.
Wormlike or grublike stage, following the egg in the life cycle of insects, worms, and other metamorphosing animals.
Specialized cells in the invertebrates that detect and transduce light. They are predominantly rhabdomeric with an array of photosensitive microvilli. Illumination depolarizes invertebrate photoreceptors by stimulating Na+ influx across the plasma membrane.
Hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Structurally, they include polypeptide, protein, and glycoprotein molecules.
Clusters of neuronal cell bodies in invertebrates. Invertebrate ganglia may also contain neuronal processes and non-neuronal supporting cells. Many invertebrate ganglia are favorable subjects for research because they have small numbers of functional neuronal types which can be identified from one animal to another.
A glycoprotein hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Thyrotropin stimulates THYROID GLAND by increasing the iodide transport, synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE). Thyrotropin consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH; LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
Hormones secreted by insects. They influence their growth and development. Also synthetic substances that act like insect hormones.
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
The class Insecta, in the phylum ARTHROPODA, whose members are characterized by division into three parts: head, thorax, and abdomen. They are the dominant group of animals on earth; several hundred thousand different kinds having been described. Three orders, HEMIPTERA; DIPTERA; and SIPHONAPTERA; are of medical interest in that they cause disease in humans and animals. (From Borror et al., An Introduction to the Study of Insects, 4th ed, p1)

Evidence for conservation of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily in Annelida. (1/320)

Annetocin is a structurally and functionally oxytocin-related peptide isolated from the earthworm Eisenia foetida. We present the characterization of the annetocin cDNA. Sequence analyses of the deduced precursor polypeptide revealed that the annetocin precursor is composed of three segments: a signal peptide, an annetocin sequence flanked by a Gly C-terminal amidation signal and a Lys-Arg dibasic processing site, and a neurophysin domain, similar to other oxytocin family precursors. The proannetocin showed 37.4-45.8% amino acid homology to other prohormones. In the neurophysin domain, 14 cysteines and amino acid residues essential for association of a neurophysin with a vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily peptide were conserved, suggesting that the Eisenia neurophysin can bind to annetocin. Furthermore, in situ hybridization experiments demonstrated that the annetocin gene is expressed exclusively in neurons of the central nervous system predicted to be involved in regulation of reproductive behavior. These findings confirm that annetocin is a member of the vasopressin/oxytocin superfamily. This is the first identification of the cDNA encoding the precursor of an invertebrate oxytocin-related peptide and also the first report of the identification of an annelid vasopressin/oxytocin-related precursor.  (+info)

Expression and developmental regulation of the Hydra-RFamide and Hydra-LWamide preprohormone genes in Hydra: evidence for transient phases of head formation. (2/320)

Hydra magnipapillata has three distinct genes coding for preprohormones A, B, and C, each yielding a characteristic set of Hydra-RFamide (Arg-Phe-NH2) neuropeptides, and a fourth gene coding for a preprohormone that yields various Hydra-LWamide (Leu-Trp-NH2) neuropeptides. Using a whole-mount double-labeling in situ hybridization technique, we found that each of the four genes is specifically expressed in a different subset of neurons in the ectoderm of adult Hydra. The preprohormone A gene is expressed in neurons of the tentacles, hypostome (a region between tentacles and mouth opening), upper gastric region, and peduncle (an area just above the foot). The preprohormone B gene is exclusively expressed in neurons of the hypostome, whereas the preprohormone C gene is exclusively expressed in neurons of the tentacles. The Hydra-LWamide preprohormone gene is expressed in neurons located in all parts of Hydra with maxima in tentacles, hypostome, and basal disk (foot). Studies on animals regenerating a head showed that the prepro-Hydra-LWamide gene is expressed first, followed by the preprohormone A and subsequently the preprohormone C and the preprohormone B genes. This sequence of events could be explained by a model based on positional values in a morphogen gradient. Our head-regeneration experiments also give support for transient phases of head formation: first tentacle-specific preprohormone C neurons (frequently associated with a small tentacle bud) appear at the center of the regenerating tip, which they are then replaced by hypostome-specific preprohormone B neurons. Thus, the regenerating tip first attains a tentacle-like appearance and only later this tip develops into a hypostome. In a developing bud of Hydra, tentacle-specific preprohormone C neurons and hypostome-specific preprohormone B neurons appear about simultaneously in their correct positions, but during a later phase of head development, additional tentacle-specific preprohormone C neurons appear as a ring at the center of the hypostome and then disappear again. Nerve-free Hydra consisting of only epithelial cells do not express the preprohormone A, B, or C or the LWamide preprohormone genes. These animals, however, have a normal phenotype, showing that the preprohormone A, B, and C and the LWamide genes are not essential for the basic pattern formation of Hydra.  (+info)

Transcript titers of ecdysteroid receptor components vary between tissues and stages during Drosophila development. (3/320)

In Drosophila, the ecdysteroids trigger the key regulatory cascades controlling the coordinated changes in the developmental pathway of molting and metamorphosis. Ecdysone action is mediated by a heterodimer consisting of the three ecdysone receptor (EcR) isoforms and the ultraspiracle proteins (USP). Heterodimers of these proteins bind to the ecdysone response element and ecdysone to modulate gene transcription. In this study, we developed a competitive reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method to quantify the transcripts of functional ecdysone receptor components in individual tissues and for the whole body. The relatively small amount of variation in usp transcripts of the different tissues indicates that this gene does not perform a spatially restricted function in the late third instar wandering larvae while EcR isoforms were expressed in a more tissue-restricted pattern in the same stage. EcR-B1 was expressed at higher levels in larval tissues that are fated for histolysis, whereas EcR-A predominates in the imaginal discs. This result supports the hypothesis that a particular metamorphic response requires particular EcR isoforms. The transcript levels of the functional ecdysone receptor components fluctuate dramatically during development, suggesting that the regulations of the transcriptional and posttranscriptional levels of these genes play some role in ecdysteroid response during Drosophila development.  (+info)

1-Methyladenine production from ATP by starfish ovarian follicle cells. (4/320)

1-Methyladenine (1-MeAde), the oocyte maturation-inducing substance in starfish, is produced by ovarian follicle cells upon stimulation with a gonad-stimulating substance (GSS) released from the radial nerves. We have shown previously that GSS causes a reduction in the intracellular levels of ATP coincident with 1-MeAde production. The present study examined whether the adenine molecule of 1-MeAde is directly derived from ATP. When isolated follicle cells from the starfish Asterina pectinifera were preloaded with [U-14C]adenine or [U-14C]adenosine, there was an increase in the intracellular levels of radiolabeled adenine nucleotides, particularly ATP. Following further incubation with GSS, the intracellular levels of radiolabeled ATP decreased, concomitant with a marked increase in the levels of [14C]1-MeAde in the medium. The amount of ATP consumed under the influence of GSS was similar to the amount of 1-MeAde produced. However, there was no change in the levels of ADP and AMP regardless of the presence or absence of GSS. These findings strongly suggest that 1-MeAde is synthesized from ATP as a substrate in follicle cells under the influence of GSS. Furthermore, using [methyl-3H]methionine, the methyl group of 1-MeAde was found to be derived from methionine. Thus GSS appears to stimulate the synthesis of 1-MeAde from ATP via the methylation process in starfish ovarian follicle cells.  (+info)

Advances in direct methods for protein crystallography. (5/320)

Recent advances in ab initio direct methods have enabled the solution of crystal structures of small proteins from native X-ray data alone, that is, without the use of fragments of known structure or the need to prepare heavy-atom or selenomethionine derivatives, provided that the data are available to atomic resolution. These methods are also proving to be useful for locating the selenium atoms or other anomalous scatterers in the multiple wavelength anomalous diffraction phasing of larger proteins at lower resolution.  (+info)

Egg-laying hormone peptides in the aplysiidae family. (6/320)

The neuropeptidergic bag cells of the marine mollusc Aplysia californica are involved in the egg-laying behavior of the animal. These neurosecretory cells synthesize an egg-laying hormone (ELH) precursor protein, yielding multiple bioactive peptides, including ELH, several bag cell peptides (BCP) and acidic peptide (AP). While immunohistochemical studies have involved a number of species, homologous peptides have been biochemically characterized in relatively few Aplysiidae species. In this study, a combination of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MS) and electrospray ionization Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance MS is used to characterize and compare the ELH peptides from related opisthobranch molluscs including Aplysia vaccaria and Phyllaplysia taylori. The peptide profiles of bag cells from these two Aplysiidae species are similar to that of A. californica bag cells. In an effort to characterize further several of these peptides, peptides from multiple groups of cells of each species were extracted, and microbore liquid chromatography was used to separate and isolate them. Several MS-based sequencing approaches are applied to obtain the primary structures of bag cell peptides and ELH. Our studies reveal that (&agr;)-BCPs are 100 % conserved across all species studied. In addition, the complete sequences of (&egr;)-BCP and ELH of A. vaccaria were determined. They show a high degree of homology to their counterparts in A. californica, with only a few amino acid residue substitutions.  (+info)

Expression of a recombinant molt-inhibiting hormone of the kuruma prawn Penaeus japonicus in Escherichia coli. (7/320)

The crustacean molt-inhibiting hormone (MIH) suppresses ecdysteroid synthesis by the Y-organ. The MIH of the kuruma prawn Penaeus japonicus has recently been isolated and its cDNA cloned. In this study, we expressed the MIH in Escherichia coli to obtain a large quantity of this hormone with biological activity. The MIH cDNA was processed and ligated into an expression plasmid. E. coli was transformed with this plasmid, and then the recombinant MIH (r-MIH) was expressed. The r-MIH was put through the refolding reaction and was purified by reverse-phase HPLC. N-terminal amino acid sequence and time-of-flight mass spectral analyses supported the idea that the r-MIH had the entire sequence. By in vitro bioassay using the Y-organ of the crayfish, the r-MIH was found to be comparable to natural MIH in inhibiting ecdysteroid synthesis.  (+info)

A remarkable, precisely timed release of hyperglycemic hormone from endocrine cells in the gut is associated with ecdysis in the crab Carcinus maenas. (8/320)

Molting or ecdysis is the most fundamentally important process in arthropod life history, because shedding of the exoskeleton is an absolute prerequisite for growth and metamorphosis. Although the hormonal mechanisms driving ecdysis in insects have been studied extensively, nothing is known about these processes in crustaceans. During late premolt and during ecdysis in the crab Carcinus maenas, we observed a precise and reproducible surge in hemolymph hyperglycemic hormone (CHH) levels, which was over 100-fold greater than levels seen in intermolt animals. The source of this hormone surge was not from the eyestalk neurosecretory tissues but from previously undescribed endocrine cells (paraneurons), in defined areas of the foregut and hindgut. During premolt (the only time when CHH is expressed by these tissues), the gut is the largest endocrine tissue in the crab. The CHH surge, which is a result of an unusual, almost complete discharge of the contents of the gut endocrine cell, regulates water and ion uptake during molting, thus allowing the swelling necessary for successful ecdysis and the subsequent increase in size during postmolt. This study defines an endocrine brain/gut axis in the arthropods. We propose that the ionoregulatory process controlled by CHH may be common to arthropods, in that, for insects, a similar mechanism seems to be involved in antidiuresis. It also seems likely that a cascade of very precisely coordinated release of (neuro) hormones controls ecdysis.  (+info)

Invertebrate hormones refer to the chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes in invertebrate animals, which include insects, mollusks, worms, and other animals without a backbone. These hormones are produced by specialized endocrine cells or glands and released into the bloodstream to target organs, where they elicit specific responses that help control growth, development, reproduction, metabolism, and behavior.

Examples of invertebrate hormones include:

1. Ecdysteroids: These are steroid hormones found in arthropods such as insects and crustaceans. They regulate molting (ecdysis) and metamorphosis by stimulating the growth and differentiation of new cuticle layers.
2. Juvenile hormone (JH): This is a sesquiterpenoid hormone produced by the corpora allata glands in insects. JH plays a crucial role in maintaining the juvenile stage, regulating reproduction, and controlling diapause (a period of suspended development during unfavorable conditions).
3. Neuropeptides: These are short chains of amino acids that act as hormones or neurotransmitters in invertebrates. They regulate various functions such as feeding behavior, growth, reproduction, and circadian rhythms. Examples include the neuropeptide F (NPF), which controls food intake and energy balance, and the insulin-like peptides (ILPs) that modulate metabolism and growth.
4. Molluscan cardioactive peptides: These are neuropeptides found in mollusks that regulate heart function by controlling heart rate and contractility. An example is FMRFamide, which has been identified in various mollusk species and influences several physiological processes, including feeding behavior, muscle contraction, and reproduction.
5. Vertebrate-like hormones: Some invertebrates produce hormones that are structurally and functionally similar to those found in vertebrates. For example, some annelids (segmented worms) and cephalopods (squid and octopus) have insulin-like peptides that regulate metabolism and growth, while certain echinoderms (starfish and sea urchins) produce steroid hormones that control reproduction.

In summary, invertebrates utilize various types of hormones to regulate their physiological functions, including neuropeptides, cardioactive peptides, insulin-like peptides, and vertebrate-like hormones. These hormones play crucial roles in controlling growth, development, reproduction, feeding behavior, and other essential processes that maintain homeostasis and ensure survival. Understanding the mechanisms of hormone action in invertebrates can provide valuable insights into the evolution of hormonal systems and their functions across different animal taxa.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Invertebrates" is not a medical term. It is a term used in biology to describe a vast group of animals that do not have a vertebral column or spinal cord. This includes creatures such as insects, worms, starfish, and shellfish, among many others. They are classified as invertebrates because they lack a backbone, which is a characteristic of vertebrates, or animals that include humans and other mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish.

Hormones are defined as chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands or specialized cells and are transported through the bloodstream to tissues and organs, where they elicit specific responses. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes such as growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood. Examples of hormones include insulin, estrogen, testosterone, adrenaline, and thyroxine.

Thyroid hormones are hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small endocrine gland located in the neck that helps regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. The two main thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which contain iodine atoms. These hormones play a crucial role in various bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, digestion, and brain development. They help regulate the rate at which your body uses energy, affects how sensitive your body is to other hormones, and plays a vital role in the development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland through a feedback mechanism that helps maintain proper balance.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, it promotes the growth and development of ovarian follicles in the ovary, which ultimately leads to the maturation and release of an egg (ovulation). In males, FSH stimulates the testes to produce sperm. It works in conjunction with luteinizing hormone (LH) to regulate reproductive processes. The secretion of FSH is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and its release is influenced by the levels of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), estrogen, inhibin, and androgens.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is a glycoprotein hormone, which is primarily produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In women, a surge of LH triggers ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovaries during the menstrual cycle. During pregnancy, LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone. In men, LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. It plays a crucial role in sexual development, reproduction, and maintaining the reproductive system.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a polypeptide hormone that plays a crucial role in the regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in the body. It is produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands, which are four small endocrine glands located on the back surface of the thyroid gland.

The primary function of PTH is to maintain normal calcium levels in the blood by increasing calcium absorption from the gut, mobilizing calcium from bones, and decreasing calcium excretion by the kidneys. PTH also increases phosphate excretion by the kidneys, which helps to lower serum phosphate levels.

In addition to its role in calcium and phosphate homeostasis, PTH has been shown to have anabolic effects on bone tissue, stimulating bone formation and preventing bone loss. However, chronic elevations in PTH levels can lead to excessive bone resorption and osteoporosis.

Overall, Parathyroid Hormone is a critical hormone that helps maintain mineral homeostasis and supports healthy bone metabolism.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH), also known as Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone (LHRH), is a hormonal peptide consisting of 10 amino acids. It is produced and released by the hypothalamus, an area in the brain that links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

GnRH plays a crucial role in regulating reproduction and sexual development through its control of two gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These gonadotropins, in turn, stimulate the gonads (ovaries or testes) to produce sex steroids and eggs or sperm.

GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary gland by binding to its specific receptors, leading to the release of FSH and LH. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is under negative feedback control, meaning that when sex steroid levels are high, they inhibit the release of GnRH, which subsequently decreases FSH and LH secretion.

GnRH agonists and antagonists have clinical applications in various medical conditions, such as infertility treatments, precocious puberty, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, prostate cancer, and hormone-responsive breast cancer.

Gonadal steroid hormones, also known as gonadal sex steroids, are hormones that are produced and released by the gonads (i.e., ovaries in women and testes in men). These hormones play a critical role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics, reproductive function, and overall health.

The three main classes of gonadal steroid hormones are:

1. Androgens: These are male sex hormones that are primarily produced by the testes but also produced in smaller amounts by the ovaries and adrenal glands. The most well-known androgen is testosterone, which plays a key role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.
2. Estrogens: These are female sex hormones that are primarily produced by the ovaries but also produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands. The most well-known estrogen is estradiol, which plays a key role in the development of female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and the menstrual cycle.
3. Progestogens: These are hormones that are produced by the ovaries during the second half of the menstrual cycle and play a key role in preparing the uterus for pregnancy. The most well-known progestogen is progesterone, which also plays a role in maintaining pregnancy and regulating the menstrual cycle.

Gonadal steroid hormones can have significant effects on various physiological processes, including bone density, cognitive function, mood, and sexual behavior. Disorders of gonadal steroid hormone production or action can lead to a range of health problems, including infertility, osteoporosis, and sexual dysfunction.

A group of chordate animals (Phylum Chordata) that have a vertebral column, or backbone, made up of individual vertebrae. This group includes mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates are characterized by the presence of a notochord, which is a flexible, rod-like structure that runs along the length of the body during development; a dorsal hollow nerve cord; and pharyngeal gill slits at some stage in their development. The vertebral column provides support and protection for the spinal cord and allows for the development of complex movements and behaviors.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), and regulate gene transcription in target cells. These receptors play a crucial role in the development, growth, and metabolism of an organism by mediating the actions of thyroid hormones. THRs are encoded by genes THRA and THRB, which give rise to two major isoforms: TRα1 and TRβ1. Additionally, alternative splicing results in other isoforms with distinct tissue distributions and functions. THRs function as heterodimers with retinoid X receptors (RXRs) and bind to thyroid hormone response elements (TREs) in the regulatory regions of target genes. The binding of T3 or T4 to THRs triggers a conformational change, which leads to recruitment of coactivators or corepressors, ultimately resulting in activation or repression of gene transcription.

Human Growth Hormone (HGH), also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone produced in the pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in human development and growth by stimulating the production of another hormone called insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). IGF-1 promotes the growth and reproduction of cells throughout the body, particularly in bones and other tissues. HGH also helps regulate body composition, body fluids, muscle and bone growth, sugar and fat metabolism, and possibly heart function. It is essential for human development and continues to have important effects throughout life. The secretion of HGH decreases with age, which is thought to contribute to the aging process.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) is a hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. ACTH plays a crucial role in the regulation of the body's stress response and has significant effects on various physiological processes.

The primary function of ACTH is to stimulate the adrenal glands, which are triangular-shaped glands situated on top of the kidneys. The adrenal glands consist of two parts: the outer cortex and the inner medulla. ACTH specifically targets the adrenal cortex, where it binds to specific receptors and initiates a series of biochemical reactions leading to the production and release of steroid hormones, primarily cortisol (a glucocorticoid) and aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid).

Cortisol is involved in various metabolic processes, such as regulating blood sugar levels, modulating the immune response, and helping the body respond to stress. Aldosterone plays a vital role in maintaining electrolyte and fluid balance by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.

ACTH release is controlled by the hypothalamus, another part of the brain, which produces corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete ACTH, which in turn triggers cortisol production in the adrenal glands. This complex feedback system helps maintain homeostasis and ensures that appropriate amounts of cortisol are released in response to various physiological and psychological stressors.

Disorders related to ACTH can lead to hormonal imbalances, resulting in conditions such as Cushing's syndrome (excessive cortisol production) or Addison's disease (insufficient cortisol production). Proper diagnosis and management of these disorders typically involve assessing the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and addressing any underlying issues affecting ACTH secretion.

Pituitary hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it controls several other endocrine glands and regulates various bodily functions.

There are two main types of pituitary hormones: anterior pituitary hormones and posterior pituitary hormones, which are produced in different parts of the pituitary gland and have distinct functions.

Anterior pituitary hormones include:

1. Growth hormone (GH): regulates growth and metabolism.
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH): regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
5. Prolactin: stimulates milk production in lactating women.
6. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): regulates skin pigmentation and appetite.

Posterior pituitary hormones include:

1. Oxytocin: stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during lactation.
2. Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH): regulates water balance in the body by controlling urine production in the kidneys.

Overall, pituitary hormones play crucial roles in regulating growth, development, metabolism, reproductive function, and various other bodily functions. Abnormalities in pituitary hormone levels can lead to a range of medical conditions, such as dwarfism, acromegaly, Cushing's disease, infertility, and diabetes insipidus.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Mollusca is not a medical term per se, but a major group of invertebrate animals that includes snails, clams, octopuses, and squids. However, medically, some mollusks can be relevant as they can act as vectors for various diseases, such as schistosomiasis (transmitted by freshwater snails) and fascioliasis (transmitted by aquatic snails). Therefore, a medical definition might describe Mollusca as a phylum of mostly marine invertebrates that can sometimes play a role in the transmission of certain infectious diseases.

Juvenile hormones (JHs) are a class of sesquiterpenoid compounds that play a crucial role in the regulation of insect development, reproduction, and other physiological processes. They are primarily produced by the corpora allata, a pair of endocrine glands located in the head of insects.

JHs are essential for maintaining the larval or nymphal stage of insects, preventing the expression of adult characteristics during molting. As the concentration of JH decreases in the hemolymph (insect blood), a molt to the next developmental stage occurs, and if the insect has reached its final instar, it will metamorphose into an adult.

In addition to their role in development, JHs also influence various aspects of insect reproductive physiology, such as vitellogenesis (yolk protein synthesis), oocyte maturation, and spermatogenesis. Furthermore, JHs have been implicated in regulating diapause (a period of suspended development during unfavorable environmental conditions) and caste determination in social insects like bees and ants.

Overall, juvenile hormones are vital regulators of growth, development, and reproduction in insects, making them attractive targets for the development of novel pest management strategies.

Triiodothyronine (T3) is a thyroid hormone, specifically the active form of thyroid hormone, that plays a critical role in the regulation of metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. It is produced by the thyroid gland through the iodination and coupling of the amino acid tyrosine with three atoms of iodine. T3 is more potent than its precursor, thyroxine (T4), which has four iodine atoms, as T3 binds more strongly to thyroid hormone receptors and accelerates metabolic processes at the cellular level.

In circulation, about 80% of T3 is bound to plasma proteins, while the remaining 20% is unbound or free, allowing it to enter cells and exert its biological effects. The primary functions of T3 include increasing the rate of metabolic reactions, promoting protein synthesis, enhancing sensitivity to catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline), and supporting normal brain development during fetal growth and early infancy. Imbalances in T3 levels can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, which may require clinical intervention and management.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Echinodermata is a phylum in the animal kingdom that includes various marine organisms such as sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, brittle stars, and sea cucumbers. The name Echinodermata comes from the Greek words "echinos," meaning spiny, and "derma," meaning skin, which refers to the characteristic spiny skin of many echinoderms.

Echinoderms are bilaterally symmetrical as larvae but become radially symmetrical as adults, with their bodies organized around a central axis. They have a unique water vascular system that helps them move and respire, and most species have specialized structures called pedicellariae that help them clean and defend themselves.

Echinoderms are also known for their ability to regenerate lost body parts, and some species can even undergo asexual reproduction through fragmentation. They play important ecological roles in marine ecosystems, including grazing on algae and other organisms, breaking down organic matter, and serving as prey for larger animals.

Crustacea is a subphylum of Arthropoda, which is a phylum that includes animals without backbones and with jointed appendages. Crustaceans are characterized by their segmented bodies, usually covered with a hard exoskeleton made of chitin, and paired, jointed limbs.

Examples of crustaceans include crabs, lobsters, shrimps, crayfish, krill, barnacles, and copepods. Many crustaceans are aquatic, living in both freshwater and marine environments, while some are terrestrial. They can vary greatly in size, from tiny planktonic organisms to large crabs and lobsters.

Crustaceans have a complex life cycle that typically involves several distinct stages, including larval and adult forms. They are an important part of many aquatic ecosystems, serving as both predators and prey. Crustaceans also have economic importance as a source of food for humans, with crabs, lobsters, and shrimps being among the most commonly consumed.

Urochordata is a phylum in the animal kingdom that includes sessile, marine organisms commonly known as tunicates or sea squirts. The name "Urochordata" means "tail-cord animals," which refers to the notochord, a flexible, rod-like structure found in the tails of these animals during their larval stage.

Tunicates are filter feeders that draw water into their bodies through a siphon and extract plankton and other organic particles for nutrition. They have a simple body plan, consisting of a protective outer covering called a tunic, an inner body mass with a muscular pharynx, and a tail-like structure called the post-anal tail.

Urochordates are of particular interest to biologists because they are considered to be the closest living relatives to vertebrates (animals with backbones), sharing a common ancestor with them around 550 million years ago. Despite their simple appearance, tunicates have complex developmental processes that involve the formation of notochords, dorsal nerve cords, and other structures that are similar to those found in vertebrate embryos.

Overall, Urochordata is a fascinating phylum that provides important insights into the evolutionary history of animals and their diverse body plans.

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) is a medical treatment that involves the use of hormones to replace or supplement those that the body is no longer producing or no longer producing in sufficient quantities. It is most commonly used to help manage symptoms associated with menopause and conditions related to hormonal imbalances.

In women, HRT typically involves the use of estrogen and/or progesterone to alleviate hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, and mood changes that can occur during menopause. In some cases, testosterone may also be prescribed to help improve energy levels, sex drive, and overall sense of well-being.

In men, HRT is often used to treat low testosterone levels (hypogonadism) and related symptoms such as fatigue, decreased muscle mass, and reduced sex drive.

It's important to note that while HRT can be effective in managing certain symptoms, it also carries potential risks, including an increased risk of blood clots, stroke, breast cancer (in women), and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, the decision to undergo HRT should be made carefully and discussed thoroughly with a healthcare provider.

Chordata is a phylum in the animal kingdom that includes animals with a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal gill slits, and a post-anal tail at some point during their development. Nonvertebrate Chordates include two classes: Tunicata (sea squirts and salps) and Cephalochordata (lancelets). These animals do not have a backbone or vertebral column, which is why they are considered nonvertebrate. Despite the lack of a vertebral column, these animals share other common characteristics with Vertebrates, such as a circulatory system and a complex nervous system.

'Aquatic organisms' are living beings that inhabit bodies of water, such as oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and ponds. This group includes a wide variety of species, ranging from tiny microorganisms like plankton to large marine mammals like whales. Aquatic organisms can be divided into several categories based on their specific adaptations to their environment, including:

1. Plankton: small organisms that drift with the water currents and include both plants (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton).
2. Nekton: actively swimming aquatic organisms, such as fish, squid, and marine mammals.
3. Benthos: organisms that live on or in the bottom of bodies of water, including crustaceans, mollusks, worms, and some types of algae.
4. Neuston: organisms that live at the air-water interface, such as certain species of insects and small fish.

Aquatic organisms play a critical role in maintaining the health and balance of aquatic ecosystems, providing food and habitat for other species, and contributing to global nutrient cycling and climate regulation.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH) is a hormone that is produced and released by the hypothalamus, a small gland located in the brain. Its primary function is to stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to release growth hormone (GH) into the bloodstream. GH plays a crucial role in growth and development, particularly during childhood and adolescence, by promoting the growth of bones and muscles.

GHRH is a 44-amino acid peptide that binds to specific receptors on the surface of pituitary cells, triggering a series of intracellular signals that ultimately lead to the release of GH. The production and release of GHRH are regulated by various factors, including sleep, stress, exercise, and nutrition.

Abnormalities in the production or function of GHRH can lead to growth disorders, such as dwarfism or gigantism, as well as other hormonal imbalances. Therefore, understanding the role of GHRH in regulating GH release is essential for diagnosing and treating these conditions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Polychaeta" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in zoology, specifically referring to a class of annelid worms commonly known as bristle worms or polychaetes. These are segmented worms that have pairs of fleshy protrusions called parapodia on most or all segments, which they use for locomotion. Some species live in marine environments, while others can be found in fresh water or even terrestrial habitats. If you have a medical term you would like me to define, I'd be happy to help!

Estradiol is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It is the most potent and dominant form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and regulation of the menstrual cycle. It also helps maintain bone density, protect the lining of the uterus, and is involved in cognition and mood regulation.

Estradiol is produced primarily by the ovaries, but it can also be synthesized in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estradiol is produced from testosterone through a process called aromatization. Abnormal levels of estradiol can contribute to various health issues, such as hormonal imbalances, infertility, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer.

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) is a hormone that is produced and released by the hypothalamus, a small gland located in the brain. CRH plays a critical role in the body's stress response system.

When the body experiences stress, the hypothalamus releases CRH, which then travels to the pituitary gland, another small gland located at the base of the brain. Once there, CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland.

ACTH then travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands, which are located on top of the kidneys. ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce and release cortisol, a hormone that helps the body respond to stress by regulating metabolism, immune function, and blood pressure, among other things.

Overall, CRH is an important part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which regulates many bodily functions related to stress response, mood, and cognition. Dysregulation of the HPA axis and abnormal levels of CRH have been implicated in various psychiatric and medical conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and Cushing's syndrome.

Bivalvia is a class of mollusks, also known as "pelecypods," that have a laterally compressed body and two shells or valves. These valves are hinged together on one side and can be opened and closed to allow the animal to feed or withdraw into its shell for protection.

Bivalves include clams, oysters, mussels, scallops, and numerous other species. They are characterized by their simple body structure, which consists of a muscular foot used for burrowing or anchoring, a soft mantle that secretes the shell, and gills that serve both as respiratory organs and feeding structures.

Bivalves play an important role in aquatic ecosystems as filter feeders, helping to maintain water quality by removing particles and organic matter from the water column. They are also commercially important as a source of food for humans and other animals, and their shells have been used historically for various purposes such as tools, jewelry, and building materials.

Annelida is a phylum of bilaterally symmetrical, segmented animals that includes earthworms, leeches, and marine polychaetes (bristle worms). The name "Annelida" comes from the Latin word "annellus," meaning "little ring," which refers to the distinct segments found in these animals.

Each segment in annelids contains a pair of bundled nerves called the ventral nerve cord, and many also contain circular and longitudinal muscles that enable the animal to move by contracting and relaxing these muscles in a wave-like motion. Some annelids have specialized segments for functions such as reproduction or respiration.

Annelids are primarily aquatic animals, although some terrestrial species like earthworms have evolved to live on land. They vary in size from tiny marine worms that are only a few millimeters long to large marine polychaetes that can reach over a meter in length.

Annelids are important decomposers and help break down dead organic matter, returning nutrients to the soil or water. Some species of annelids are also parasitic, feeding on the blood or tissues of other animals. Overall, annelids play a crucial role in many aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.

Hypothalamic hormones are a group of hormones that are produced and released by the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the brain. These hormones play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and emotional behavior.

The hypothalamus produces two main types of hormones: releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones. Releasing hormones stimulate the pituitary gland to release its own hormones, while inhibiting hormones prevent the pituitary gland from releasing hormones.

Some examples of hypothalamic hormones include:

* Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland.
* Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin, which regulate the release of growth hormone (GH) from the pituitary gland.
* Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn regulate reproductive function.
* Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland, which regulates the stress response.
* Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) and prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH), which regulate the release of prolactin from the pituitary gland, which is involved in lactation.

Overall, hypothalamic hormones play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis in the body by regulating various physiological processes.

Peptide hormones are a type of hormone consisting of short chains of amino acids known as peptides. They are produced and released by various endocrine glands and play crucial roles in regulating many physiological processes in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, stress response, and reproductive functions.

Peptide hormones exert their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in cell behavior or function. Some examples of peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, prolactin, oxytocin, and vasopressin.

Peptide hormones are synthesized as larger precursor proteins called prohormones, which are cleaved by enzymes to release the active peptide hormone. They are water-soluble and cannot pass through the cell membrane, so they exert their effects through autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine mechanisms. Autocrine signaling occurs when a cell releases a hormone that binds to receptors on the same cell, while paracrine signaling involves the release of a hormone that acts on nearby cells. Endocrine signaling, on the other hand, involves the release of a hormone into the bloodstream, which then travels to distant target cells to exert its effects.

The pituitary gland is a small, endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It is often called the "master gland" because it controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger many body functions. The pituitary gland measures about 0.5 cm in height and 1 cm in width, and it weighs approximately 0.5 grams.

The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe is further divided into three zones: the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis. Each part of the pituitary gland has distinct functions and produces different hormones.

The anterior pituitary gland produces and releases several important hormones, including:

* Growth hormone (GH), which regulates growth and development in children and helps maintain muscle mass and bone strength in adults.
* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which controls the production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
* Prolactin, which stimulates milk production in pregnant and lactating women.

The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases two hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus:

* Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which helps regulate water balance in the body by controlling urine production.
* Oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk release during breastfeeding.

Overall, the pituitary gland plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating various bodily functions, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproductive function.

Thyroxine (T4) is a type of hormone produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of your neck. It is one of two major hormones produced by the thyroid gland, with the other being triiodothyronine (T3).

Thyroxine plays a crucial role in regulating various metabolic processes in the body, including growth, development, and energy expenditure. Specifically, T4 helps to control the rate at which your body burns calories for energy, regulates protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism, and influences the body's sensitivity to other hormones.

T4 is produced by combining iodine and tyrosine, an amino acid found in many foods. Once produced, T4 circulates in the bloodstream and gets converted into its active form, T3, in various tissues throughout the body. Thyroxine has a longer half-life than T3, which means it remains active in the body for a more extended period.

Abnormal levels of thyroxine can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) or hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid). These conditions can cause a range of symptoms, including weight gain or loss, fatigue, mood changes, and changes in heart rate and blood pressure.

Arthropods are a phylum of animals characterized by the presence of a segmented body, a pair of jointed appendages on each segment, and a tough exoskeleton made of chitin. This phylum includes insects, arachnids (spiders, scorpions, mites), crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, shrimp), and myriapods (centipedes, millipedes). They are the largest group of animals on Earth, making up more than 80% of all described species. Arthropods can be found in nearly every habitat, from the deep sea to mountaintops, and play important roles in ecosystems as decomposers, pollinators, and predators.

Cnidaria is a phylum of aquatic animals that includes jellyfish, sea anemones, hydra, and corals. They are characterized by the presence of specialized stinging cells called cnidocytes, which they use for defense and capturing prey. Cnidarians have a simple body organization with two basic forms: polyps, which are typically cylindrical and attached to a substrate; and medusae, which are free-swimming and bell-shaped. Some species can exist in both forms during their life cycle.

Cnidarians have no true organs or organ systems, but they do have a unique tissue arrangement with two main layers: an outer epidermis and an inner gastrodermis, separated by a jelly-like mesoglea. They have a digestive cavity called the coelenteron, where they absorb nutrients after capturing and digesting prey. Cnidarians reproduce both sexually and asexually, with some species exhibiting complex life cycles involving multiple forms and reproductive strategies.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Testosterone is a steroid hormone that belongs to androsten class of hormones. It is primarily secreted by the Leydig cells in the testes of males and, to a lesser extent, by the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. Testosterone is the main male sex hormone and anabolic steroid. It plays a key role in the development of masculine characteristics, such as body hair and muscle mass, and contributes to bone density, fat distribution, red cell production, and sex drive. In females, testosterone contributes to sexual desire and bone health. Testosterone is synthesized from cholesterol and its production is regulated by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) is a glycoprotein hormone that belongs to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) family. It is primarily produced by the granulosa cells of developing follicles in the ovaries of females. AMH plays an essential role in female reproductive physiology, as it inhibits the recruitment and further development of primordial follicles, thereby regulating the size of the primordial follicle pool and the onset of puberty.

AMH levels are often used as a biomarker for ovarian reserve assessment in women. High AMH levels indicate a larger ovarian reserve, while low levels suggest a decreased reserve, which may be associated with reduced fertility or an earlier onset of menopause. Additionally, measuring AMH levels can help predict the response to ovarian stimulation during assisted reproductive technologies (ART) such as in vitro fertilization (IVF).

Gonadal hormones, also known as sex hormones, are steroid hormones that are primarily produced by the gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males). They play crucial roles in the development and regulation of sexual characteristics and reproductive functions. The three main types of gonadal hormones are:

1. Estrogens - predominantly produced by ovaries, they are essential for female sexual development and reproduction. The most common estrogen is estradiol, which supports the growth and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and wider hips. Estrogens also play a role in regulating the menstrual cycle and maintaining bone health.

2. Progesterone - primarily produced by ovaries during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, progesterone prepares the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and supports the growth and development of the fetus during pregnancy. It also plays a role in regulating the menstrual cycle.

3. Androgens - produced by both ovaries and testes, but primarily by testes in males. The most common androgen is testosterone, which is essential for male sexual development and reproduction. Testosterone supports the growth and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in men, such as facial hair, a deeper voice, and increased muscle mass. It also plays a role in regulating sex drive (libido) and bone health in both males and females.

In summary, gonadal hormones are steroid hormones produced by the gonads that play essential roles in sexual development, reproduction, and maintaining secondary sexual characteristics.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones and mediate their effects in target cells. There are two main types of THRs, referred to as THR alpha and THR beta. THR beta is further divided into two subtypes, THR beta1 and THR beta2.

THR beta is a type of nuclear receptor that is primarily expressed in the liver, kidney, and heart, as well as in the central nervous system. It plays an important role in regulating the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, as well as in the development and function of the heart. THR beta is also involved in the regulation of body weight and energy expenditure.

THR beta1 is the predominant subtype expressed in the liver and is responsible for many of the metabolic effects of thyroid hormones in this organ. THR beta2, on the other hand, is primarily expressed in the heart and plays a role in regulating cardiac function.

Abnormalities in THR beta function can lead to various diseases, including thyroid hormone resistance, a condition in which the body's cells are unable to respond properly to thyroid hormones. This can result in symptoms such as weight gain, fatigue, and cold intolerance.

Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain. Its primary function is to stimulate milk production in women after childbirth, a process known as lactation. However, prolactin also plays other roles in the body, including regulating immune responses, metabolism, and behavior. In men, prolactin helps maintain the sexual glands and contributes to paternal behaviors.

Prolactin levels are usually low in both men and non-pregnant women but increase significantly during pregnancy and after childbirth. Various factors can affect prolactin levels, including stress, sleep, exercise, and certain medications. High prolactin levels can lead to medical conditions such as amenorrhea (absence of menstruation), galactorrhea (spontaneous milk production not related to childbirth), infertility, and reduced sexual desire in both men and women.

'Ciona intestinalis' is a species of tunicate, also known as sea squirts. They are marine invertebrate animals that are characterized by their sac-like bodies and filter-feeding habits. Tunicates are members of the phylum Chordata, which includes all animals with dorsal, hollow nerve cords – a category that also contains vertebrates (animals with backbones).

'Ciona intestinalis' is often used as a model organism in biological research due to its simple anatomy and relatively small genome. It has been studied in various fields such as developmental biology, evolution, and biomedical research. The species is native to the waters of the North Atlantic Ocean but has been introduced to many other regions around the world.

A larva is a distinct stage in the life cycle of various insects, mites, and other arthropods during which they undergo significant metamorphosis before becoming adults. In a medical context, larvae are known for their role in certain parasitic infections. Specifically, some helminth (parasitic worm) species use larval forms to infect human hosts. These invasions may lead to conditions such as cutaneous larva migrans, visceral larva migrans, or gnathostomiasis, depending on the specific parasite involved and the location of the infection within the body.

The larval stage is characterized by its markedly different morphology and behavior compared to the adult form. Larvae often have a distinct appearance, featuring unsegmented bodies, simple sense organs, and undeveloped digestive systems. They are typically adapted for a specific mode of life, such as free-living or parasitic existence, and rely on external sources of nutrition for their development.

In the context of helminth infections, larvae may be transmitted to humans through various routes, including ingestion of contaminated food or water, direct skin contact with infective stages, or transmission via an intermediate host (such as a vector). Once inside the human body, these parasitic larvae can cause tissue damage and provoke immune responses, leading to the clinical manifestations of disease.

It is essential to distinguish between the medical definition of 'larva' and its broader usage in biology and zoology. In those fields, 'larva' refers to any juvenile form that undergoes metamorphosis before reaching adulthood, regardless of whether it is parasitic or not.

Photoreceptor cells in invertebrates are specialized sensory neurons that convert light stimuli into electrical signals. These cells are primarily responsible for the ability of many invertebrates to detect and respond to light, enabling behaviors such as phototaxis (movement towards or away from light) and vision.

Invertebrate photoreceptor cells typically contain light-sensitive pigments that absorb light at specific wavelengths. The most common type of photopigment is rhodopsin, which consists of a protein called opsin and a chromophore called retinal. When light hits the photopigment, it changes the conformation of the chromophore, triggering a cascade of molecular events that ultimately leads to the generation of an electrical signal.

Invertebrate photoreceptor cells can be found in various locations throughout the body, depending on their function. For example, simple eyespots containing a few photoreceptor cells may be scattered over the surface of the body in some species, while more complex eyes with hundreds or thousands of photoreceptors may be present in other groups. In addition to their role in vision, photoreceptor cells can also serve as sensory organs for regulating circadian rhythms, detecting changes in light intensity, and mediating social behaviors.

Anterior pituitary hormones are a group of six major hormones that are produced and released by the anterior portion (lobe) of the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various bodily functions and activities. The six main anterior pituitary hormones are:

1. Growth Hormone (GH): Also known as somatotropin, GH is essential for normal growth and development in children and adolescents. It helps regulate body composition, metabolism, and bone density in adults.
2. Prolactin (PRL): A hormone that stimulates milk production in females after childbirth and is also involved in various reproductive and immune functions in both sexes.
3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): FSH regulates the development, growth, and maturation of follicles in the ovaries (in females) and sperm production in the testes (in males).
4. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH plays a key role in triggering ovulation in females and stimulating testosterone production in males.
5. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): TSH regulates the function of the thyroid gland, which is responsible for producing and releasing thyroid hormones that control metabolism and growth.
6. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, a steroid hormone involved in stress response, metabolism, and immune function.

These anterior pituitary hormones are regulated by the hypothalamus, which is located above the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus releases releasing and inhibiting factors that control the synthesis and secretion of anterior pituitary hormones, creating a complex feedback system to maintain homeostasis in the body.

In invertebrate biology, ganglia are clusters of neurons that function as a centralized nervous system. They can be considered as the equivalent to a vertebrate's spinal cord and brain. Ganglia serve to process sensory information, coordinate motor functions, and integrate various neural activities within an invertebrate organism.

Invertebrate ganglia are typically found in animals such as arthropods (insects, crustaceans), annelids (earthworms), mollusks (snails, squids), and cnidarians (jellyfish). The structure of the ganglia varies among different invertebrate groups.

For example, in arthropods, the central nervous system consists of a pair of connected ganglia called the supraesophageal ganglion or brain, and the subesophageal ganglion, located near the esophagus. The ventral nerve cord runs along the length of the body, containing pairs of ganglia that control specific regions of the body.

In mollusks, the central nervous system is composed of several ganglia, which can be fused or dispersed, depending on the species. In cephalopods (such as squids and octopuses), the brain is highly developed and consists of several lobes that perform various functions, including learning and memory.

Overall, invertebrate ganglia are essential components of the nervous system that allow these animals to respond to environmental stimuli, move, and interact with their surroundings.

Thyrotropin, also known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Its primary function is to regulate the production and release of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) hormones from the thyroid gland. Thyrotropin binds to receptors on the surface of thyroid follicular cells, stimulating the uptake of iodide and the synthesis and release of T4 and T3. The secretion of thyrotropin is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis: thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of thyrotropin, while T3 and T4 inhibit its release through a negative feedback mechanism.

Insect hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological and behavioral processes in insects. They are produced and released by endocrine glands and organs, such as the corpora allata, prothoracic glands, and neurosecretory cells located in the brain. Insect hormones play crucial roles in the regulation of growth and development, reproduction, diapause (a state of dormancy), metamorphosis, molting, and other vital functions. Some well-known insect hormones include juvenile hormone (JH), ecdysteroids (such as 20-hydroxyecdysone), and neuropeptides like the brain hormone and adipokinetic hormone. These hormones act through specific receptors, often transmembrane proteins, to elicit intracellular signaling cascades that ultimately lead to changes in gene expression, cell behavior, or organ function. Understanding insect hormones is essential for developing novel strategies for pest management and control, as well as for advancing our knowledge of insect biology and evolution.

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

I apologize for any confusion, but "insects" are not a medical term. Insects are small air-breathing arthropods that have a segmented body with six legs and usually have wings. They make up the largest group of animals on Earth, with over a million described species.

If you're looking for information about a specific medical condition or topic, please provide more details so I can offer a relevant response.

... from invertebrates to humans". Stress. 20 (5): 449-464. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1322575. ISSN 1025-3890. PMC 7885796. PMID ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone binding protein (CRH-BP) binds corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and several related ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) plays multiple roles in vertebrate species. It is the major hypothalamic releasing factor ... Huising, Mark O.; Flik, Gert (May 2005). "The Remarkable Conservation of Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)-Binding Protein ...
In many types of invertebrates octopamine is an important neurotransmitter and hormone. In protostomes - arthropods, molluscs, ... Octopamine is often considered the major "fight-or-flight" neurohormone of invertebrates. Its name is derived from the fact ... Octopamine acts as the insect equivalent of norepinephrine and has been implicated in regulating aggression in invertebrates, ... Atwood HL, Klose MK (1 January 2009), "Neuromuscular Transmission Modulation at Invertebrate Neuromuscular Junctions", in ...
In invertebrates, freshwater leeches are found to contain the hormone. In leeches it is produced in the fat cells (adipocytes ... Peptide hormones, Fish hormones, Mammalian hormones, Hormones of calcium metabolism). ... Even though other calcium-decreasing hormone, calcitonin, is also present, these fishes require more efficient hormone as ... The first 33 residues comprise the pre-pro (inactive form) region of the hormone, whereas the remaining 223 residues make up ...
Thyroid-like hormone signaling in invertebrates and its potential role in initial screening of thyroid hormone system ... Olmstead, Allen W.; Leblanc, Gerald A. (December 1, 2002). "Juvenoid hormone methyl farnesoate is a sex determinant in the ... Ford, A. T., & LeBlanc, G. A. (2020). Endocrine disruption in invertebrates: A survey of research progress. Environmental ... He investigated the impacts of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on mammals, fishes, reptiles, and invertebrates. He identified ...
... hormones in invertebrates, in Progress in Invertebrate Reproduction and Aquaculture (Eds. T. Subramoniam and S. Varadarajan), ... "Invertebrate Reproduction & Development Editorial Board". Taylor & Francis Online. "Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates, ... Advances in Invertebrate Reproduction (Vol.I) published in 1977 was based on proceedings of the inaugural symposium. The ... K.G. Adiyodi felt the need to bring all areas of invertebrate reproductive biology into a comprehensive discipline of its own. ...
... ecology Insect pheromones Insect-borne diseases Prehistoric insects Pain in invertebrates Adipokinetic hormone The ... doi:10.1007/s12052-011-0357-y. "Palaeos invertebrates:Arthropoda". Palaeos Invertebrates. 3 May 2002. Archived from the ... It is sometimes argued that the various species of honey bee are the only invertebrates (and indeed one of the few non-human ... Nutrients, hormones, wastes, and other substances are transported throughout the insect body in the hemolymph. Hemocytes ...
In vitro analysis of factors regulating the juvenile hormone titer of insects, in: K., K.E.a.M. (Ed.), Invertebrate Tissue ... juvenile hormone I + H2O = juvenile hormone I acid + methanol (2) juvenile hormone III + H2O = juvenile hormone III acid + ... Effects of the anti hormone-hormone mimic ETB on the induction of insect juvenile hormone esterase in Trichoplusia ni. Life Sci ... Juvenile hormone production, juvenile hormone esterase, and juvenile hormone acid methyltransferase in corpora allata of ...
In invertebrates, these drugs were found to cause reproduction toxicity and hormone disruption and alter their behavior. ... were found to change fish behavior and caused disruption in the hormones of fish. ...
He discovered in the 1960s that thyroid hormones can be found in the lowest classes of vertebrates and invertebrates. At the ... His last research paper, published posthumously, covered the synthesis of thyroid hormones within the thyroglobulin molecule. ...
... glycoprotein hormones do not exist in invertebrates). The beta subunits vary. LH has a beta subunit of 120 amino acids (LHB) ... Peptide hormones, Sex hormones, Human hormones, Hormones of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis, Anterior pituitary hormones) ... Luteinizing hormone (LH, also known as luteinising hormone, lutropin and sometimes lutrophin) is a hormone produced by ... It is regulated by the gonadotropin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus. Inhibin, activin, and sex hormones do not affect ...
"AKH: A hormone for all seasons?". Advances in invertebrate (neuro)endocrinology : a collection of reviews in the post-genomic ... The hormone itself is part of a larger family, often referred to as red pigment concentrating hormones (RPCH) discovered in ... The typical makeup of hormones in this family includes a length between 8 and 10 amino acids, blocked N and C termini, with ... 48: p. 601-608 Goldsworthy, G.J., K. Opoku-Ware, and L.M. Mullen, Adipokinetic hormone and the immune responses of locusts to ...
"The activities of lipases and carnitine palmitoyltransferase in muscles from vertebrates and invertebrates". The Biochemical ... Hormone stimulation of lipolysis in humans is similar to rats. The main function of hormone-sensitive lipase is to mobilize ... Extracellular hormones, such as glucagon, epinephrine, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, or ACTH, bind to their respective G protein ... "Entrez Gene: LIPE lipase, hormone-sensitive". Kraemer FB, Shen WJ (October 2002). "Hormone-sensitive lipase: control of ...
... a novel relaxin system in reproduction of invertebrates". General and Comparative Endocrinology. 181: 241-245. doi:10.1016/j. ... Peptide hormones, Hormones of the ovary, Hormones of the placenta, Hormones of the pregnant female, Human female endocrine ... Relaxin family peptide hormones in humans are represented by seven members: three relaxin-like (RLN) and four insulin-like ( ... All members of the relaxin family peptide hormones bind to their cognate receptors via residues present in their α- and β- ...
The two most prominent physiological factors are hormones and differential allocation of internal resources. Hormones influence ... a fluid in invertebrates similar to blood), but are less able to disperse than their long-winged counterparts. This shows how ... Differential allocation of resources may be hormonally mediated; a juvenile hormone analog given to long-winged females reduced ... This reduced function may be regulated by hormones; in Tenebrio molitor, for example, immunosuppression was caused by increased ...
... relationships and publishes original research articles from laboratory or field studies on species ranging from invertebrates ... Hormones and Behavior is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering behavioral endocrinology. It is published by Elsevier and ... "Hormones and Behavior". NLM Catalog. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved 2014-06-23. Official website ( ... Hormones and Behavior, Elsevier, retrieved 21 June 2014 "Society of Behavioral Neuroendocrinology". Society for Behavioral ...
He proposed that secretion of higher levels of adrenal hormones were initially selected in women in order to increase endurance ... However, this hypothesis cannot account for extended female sexuality in invertebrates, which lack adrenal systems. ... Many of these contraceptives mimic a pregnancy state in females by altering hormone levels. Therefore, women who use these ... However, no empirical evidence has established the link between hormones and endurance walking as an adaptation and extended ...
DNA, hormone levels, infections and the overall health of the organism can all be tested from a single blood sample. Despite ... is a branch of endocrinology which deals with the study of the endocrine system in vertebrates as well as invertebrates. It ... Hormones can be measured via multiple biological matrices such as blood, urine, faeces, hair and saliva, the choice of which ... Palme, R (2012-08-01). "Monitoring stress hormone metabolites as a useful, non-invasive tool for welfare assessment in farm ...
Insulin, human growth hormone (HGH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) are self-administered by those looking to increase ... The insulin protein has been highly conserved across evolutionary time, and is present in both mammals and invertebrates. The ... However, insulin is a peptide hormone, which is digested in the stomach and gut and in order to be effective at controlling ... As a medication, insulin is any pharmaceutical preparation of the protein hormone insulin that is used to treat high blood ...
... may disrupt hormones critical to the developmental and endocrine processes in exposed animal wildlife. The ... Specifically, triclocarban has been shown to be toxic to amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and aquatic plants, and traces of the ... The amplification of sex hormones could promote the growth of breast and prostate cancer.[citation needed] The chemical ... However, further investigation is needed to determine whether triclocarban increases the activity of sex steroid hormones by ...
ISBN 978-0-12-814115-1. Norris, David O.; Lopez, Kristin H. (2010-11-25). Hormones and Reproduction of Vertebrates. Academic ... El-Bawab, Fatma (2020-01-18). Invertebrate Embryology and Reproduction. Academic Press. p. 431. ...
Invertebrate respiratory system, Articles containing video clips, All stub articles, Gastropod stubs, Respiratory system stubs) ... a response to dehydration controlled by hemolymph osmolality and peptide hormones. Dickinson PS, Prior DJ, Avery C. Source ... "Invertebrate Anatomy OnLine". Lander University. Retrieved 11 July 2012. Pneumostome's response to dehydration The pneumostome ...
Reproductive hormone cycles have been shown to mediate the timing of torpor and reproduction, and in mice have been shown to ... Invertebrate bet-hedging has also been observed in the mating systems of some species of spider. Female sierra dome spiders ( ... Many invertebrate species are known to exhibit various forms of bet hedging. Diaptomus sanguineus, an aquatic crustacean ... McAllan, B. M.; Feay, N.; Bradley, A. J.; Geiser, F. (2012). "The influence of reproductive hormones on the torpor patterns of ...
Endocrine system disorders affect human fertility by decreasing the body's ability to produce the level of hormones needed to ... Polyspermy, while physiologically possible in some species of vertebrates and invertebrates, is a lethal condition for the ... Polycystic ovary syndrome is a condition in which the woman does not produce enough follicle stimulating hormone and ...
The chemical formula of ecodysin hormone is (C27H44O6). They usually disappear in adults. Gilbert, L. I.; Song, Q.; Rybczynski ... Invertebrate neuroscience. 3 (2-3): 205-216. ISSN 1354-2516. PMID 9783446. Klowden, M. Physiological Systems in Insects ...
These tiny crustaceans will develop protective helmets as juveniles if exposed to kairomones, a type of hormone, secreted by ... The transgenerational transmission of immune-related traits are also described in plants and invertebrates. Plants have a ... Immunity in vertebrates can also be transferred from maternal through the passing of hormones, nutrients and antibodies. In ... the levels of hormones in the liver responsible for thermoregulation increased. The F1 generation also displayed the different ...
Exon A encodes a putative signal peptide, the arginine vasopressin hormone, and the N terminus of the NP carrier protein. Exon ... AVP and other AVP-like peptides are found in mammals, as well as mollusks, arthropods, nematodes, and other invertebrate ... In 1951, Turner and colleagues uncovered the amino acid sequence behind the hormone. The amino acid structure was composed of ... By sequencing complementary DNA strands that encoded for the hormone's mRNA, Land outlined the amino acid sequence of the ...
... the anterior pituitary hormone thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH); and the thyroid hormones T3 and T4. •The hypothalamic- ... various invertebrate species over time. The HPA axis plays a clear role in the production of corticosteroids, which govern many ... Vasopressin can be thought of as "water conservation hormone" and is also known as "antidiuretic hormone(ADH)". It is released ... the anterior pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and the gonadal steroids. Selye, Hans ( ...
Williams received postgraduate training in advanced invertebrate physiology at the Friday Harbor Laboratories of the University ... he became involved in basic science research on the role of adrenal steroid hormones in modifying the activity of regions ...
... changing their shape and impact affecting hormone synthesis or metabolism, causing an improper balance or quantity of hormones ... Most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers, although their ionic composition may be different from that of seawater. ... amplifying the effects of the hormone or compound interacting with naturally occurring hormones, ... One form of oxytocin functions as a hormone which is associated with human love. In 2012, researchers injected cichlids from ...
Contrary to an initial belief that hormones would be generally small chemical molecules, as the first peptide hormone known of ... Insulin in some invertebrates is quite similar in sequence to human insulin, and has similar physiological effects. The strong ... Hormones of glucose metabolism, Human hormones, Insulin receptor agonists, Insulin therapies, Insulin-like growth factor ... The C-peptide of proinsulin, however, differs much more among species; it is also a hormone, but a secondary one. Insulin is ...
It is solidly a biosynthesis metabolism and mode of action of invertebrate hormones to talking, to the party, to the interested ... click here to continue…] In biosynthesis metabolism and mode of action of invertebrate hormones units, the Legendre education ... 1818005, biosynthesis metabolism and mode of action of invertebrate hormones : have up go your OCLC or l abilitys extent ... A biosynthesis metabolism and mode of action of invertebrate hormones provides declaration practical than myself. It may know ...
... from invertebrates to humans". Stress. 20 (5): 449-464. doi:10.1080/10253890.2017.1322575. ISSN 1025-3890. PMC 7885796. PMID ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone binding protein (CRH-BP) binds corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and several related ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) plays multiple roles in vertebrate species. It is the major hypothalamic releasing factor ... Huising, Mark O.; Flik, Gert (May 2005). "The Remarkable Conservation of Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH)-Binding Protein ...
Categories: Invertebrate Hormones Image Types: Photo, Illustrations, Video, Color, Black&White, PublicDomain, ...
Although counterparts of insulin and glucagon have been identified in invertebrates, no hormone equivalent to incretin has been ... Fly hormone controls sugar metabolism. Nature Index: Profile page of the University of Tsukuba. Nature Index Research ... Now, researchers at the University of Tsukuba demonstrate that Neuropeptide F (NPF), a hormone produced by the midgut, performs ... Researchers at the University of Tsukuba show that the intestinal hormone Neuropeptide F, acting through glucagon-like and ...
Invertebrate Hormones (1986-1990). Public MeSH Note:. 98; see CYCLINS 1993-97. ...
Additives from plastic particles can disrupt the hormone system of vertebrates and invertebrates. Nano-sized particles may ...
A KS4 revision team game based on an old favourite TV quiz show. Teams need to complete a path across the grid by answering questions. Answers included.
Because fish are known to be generally the most sensitive species for effects of steroid hormones and invertebrates like ... Based on binding to the androgen receptor, binding to SHBG (Sex Hormone Binding Globulin) and studies on fish, norethisterone ... while for invertebrates (Daphnia magna) only an acute test has been performed. ...
Human Body Hormones and Their Functions , The Endocrine System - Optimal Health ... Hormone composition. Three major classes of molecules function as hormones invertebrates *Proteins and peptides (soluble) ... Anterior Pituitary Hormones *Produces both tropic and nontropical hormones. The four strictly tropic hormones are *Follicle- ... 5) Hormone composition 6) Three major classes of molecules function as hormones invertebrates ...
New insights into the evolution of vertebrate CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) and invertebrate DH44 (diuretic hormone 44 ... Ler mais acerca de New insights into the evolution of vertebrate CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) and invertebrate DH44 ( ... Pinto P, Oliveira-Junior JMax Barbos, Leitão F, et al. Development of a Metric of Aquatic Invertebrates for Volunteers (MAIV): ... Ler mais acerca de Development of a Metric of Aquatic Invertebrates for Volunteers (MAIV): A Simple and Friendly Biotic Metric ...
Temperature affects invertebrate hormone system, and the increased temperature induces expression of endocrine signaling genes ... seven in which were involved in metabolism and one involved in the steroid hormone biosynthesis. The UDP ... such as biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids and steroid hormone, metabolism of retinal, porphyrin, chlorophyll and drug. ...
These additives are known for their hormonal effects and can potentially disrupt the hormone system not only of vertebrates, ... but also of several invertebrates. In addition, nano-sized particles may cause inflammation; they may traverse or change ...
8 Discuss the role of hormones in the control of homeostasis, growth, metabolism, reproduction and development in both ... 2 Outline the structure and the function of the respiratory system: invertebrates vs vertebrates. ... 4 Outline the structure and the function of the reproductive system: invertebrates vs vertebrates. ... 5 Outline the structure and the function of the nervous system: invertebrates vs vertebrates. ...
Biosynthesis, metabolism and mode of action of invertebrate hormones. Berlin: Sprlnger-Verlag. 34. Silberkang, M., C. M. Havel ... 3). STEROID HORMONE BIOSYNTHESIS. Sterols have at least two major roles in animals. First, sterols function as integral ... Unfortunately, the biosynthesis of steroid hormones from a sterol precursor by nematodes has not yet been demonstrated. K n o w ... Sterols also serve as metabolic precursors to steroid hormones, which in vertebrates typically lack a side chain (e.g., ...
In particular, marine invertebrates such as Mytilus galloprovincialis, being filter-feeding organisms, are a non-target ... Subsequently, animals were sampled, and HSP, SOD, MDA and ubiquitin were quantified, as well as hormones (GABA, dopamine, ... Our study broadens the current knowledge on the mechanisms that might promote tolerance to OA in marine invertebrates. This is ... Data are reported on the effects of PES-MF in the marine invertebrate model, the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. In this ...
It is insufficient to say that old hormones and proteins get used in a new way because those old hormones and proteins must ... At least 95% of known fossils are of invertebrates, but the picture of invertebrate evolution is still very fuzzy. The major ... What We Really Know about the Origin of Invertebrates. Invertebrates are certainly the most abundant animals on earth, but how ... The Origin of Invertebrates. by Roger Patterson on April 12, 2007 Featured in Evolution Exposed: Biology ...
Memory formation and sleep regulation are critical for brain functions in animals from invertebrates to humans. Neuropeptides ... Diuretic hormone 31: Biological Overview , References Gene name - Diuretic hormone 31 Synonyms - Cytological map position - ... At the molecular level, a gut-derived, nutrient-specific neuropeptide hormone-Diuretic hormone 31 (Dh31)-propels a switch from ... Effects of diuretic hormone 31, drosokinin, and allatostatin A on transepithelial K(+) transport and contraction frequency in ...
... glands is considered as a general happening and specifically with respect to each of the vertebrate and invertebrate hormones. ... So, Comparative Endocrinology is all about comparing the complexities between vertebrate and invertebrate endocrine systems at ... Each and every mechanism of hormones and their actions on various ...
... invertebrate; invertebrate hormones; invertebrates; inverted; inverted cone bur; inverted follicular keratosis; inverted image ...
In vertebrate and invertebrate models, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) belongs to the melanocortin group of related peptides ... 2000 - Synergistic role of cAMP and IP3 in corticotropin-releasing hormone-induced cell shape changes in invertebrate ... The state of art on the immune and neuroendocrine functions of corticotrophin-releasing hormone and urocortin in invertebrates ... and activation of the adrenocorticotropin hormone system occur. These events observed in invertebrates are also reported in the ...
Ecdysone is a steroid hormone of the ecdysteroids family which is found in animals (vertebrates and invertebrates) and in ...
Ecdysone is a steroid hormone of the ecdysteroids family which is found in animals (vertebrates and invertebrates) and in ...
... and invertebrates. Its water retention, natural rooting hormones, and anti-fungal properties promote plant growth in your ...
... the pancreatic hormone insulin). Likewise, many invertebrate hormones have been discovered in the tissues of vertebrates, ... Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) that stimulates the development of ova. *Luteinising hormone (LH) that stimulates the ... Hormones are chemicals that are released into the blood by endocrine glands i.e. Glands with no ducts. Hormones act on specific ... 1. Growth hormone that stimulates body growth. 2. Prolactin that initiates milk production. 3. Follicle stimulating hormone ( ...
keywords = {Animals, Chromatography, Ecdysteroids, Female, Grasshoppers, High Pressure Liquid, hoffmann, Invertebrate Hormones ... keywords = {Age Factors, Animals, Chromatography, Ecdysone, Feces, Grasshoppers, hoffmann, Hydroxylation, Invertebrate Hormones ... Some 10% of the circulating hormone are bound to hemolymph macromolecules. The ratio of bound to free hormone is stage- ... Some 10% of the circulating hormone are bound to hemolymph macromolecules. The ratio of bound to free hormone is stage- ...
"Functional characterization of an invertebrate gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor in the Yesso scallop Mizuhopecten ... Functional characterization and related evolutionary implications of invertebrate gonadotropin-releasing hormone/corazonin in a ... 2020) "A novel G protein-coupled receptor for starfish gonadotropic hormone, relaxin-like gonad-stimulating peptide" PLoS One. ... and hormone-encoding genes in the Ciona intestinalis larval brain." Dev. Biol. 352, 202-214. [PubMed] open access ...
... is known as a hormone neurotransmitter molecule involved in several stress reactions in both vertebrates and invertebrates. ...
Fibroblast growth factor-8b (FGF8b) exerts nonredundant autocrine/paracrine functions in steroid hormone-regulated tumors. ... Pentraxins in invertebrates and vertebrates: From structure, function and evolution to clinical applications ... Long Pentraxin-3 Inhibits FGF8b-Dependent Angiogenesis and Growth of Steroid Hormone-Regulated Tumors. Mol Cancer Ther (2011) ... A long pentraxin-3-derived pentapeptide for the therapy of FGF8b-driven steroid hormone-regulated cancers ...
The small intestine secretes the hormone vasoactive intestinal peptide ... Two members of the secretin family of hormones, PACAP and VIP, have been isolated from invertebrates. The GI tract, the ... Two members of the secretin family of hormones, PACAP and VIP, have been isolated from invertebrates. The GI tract, the ... Glucose levels are stabilized, and new intestinal cells are encouraged to form, thanks to this hormones presence. VIP is ...
  • Additives from plastic particles can disrupt the hormone system of vertebrates and invertebrates. (forbesindia.com)
  • Ecdysone is a steroid hormone of the ecdysteroids family which is found in animals (vertebrates and invertebrates) and in plants. (bioquote.com)
  • Dopamine (DA) is known as a hormone neurotransmitter molecule involved in several stress reactions in both vertebrates and invertebrates. (potatobeetle.org)
  • Plastics also threaten soil fauna functions and can leach toxic additives into the soil and groundwater, some of which can disrupt the hormone systems of vertebrates and invertebrates. (climatereality.ph)
  • Each and every mechanism of hormones and their actions on various glands is considered as a general happening and specifically with respect to each of the vertebrate and invertebrate hormones. (longdom.org)
  • 105-112 Effect of some vertebrate and invertebrate hormones on the population growth, mictic female production, and body size of the marine rotifer Brachionus plicatilis Muller by W.G. Gallardo, A. Hagiwara, Y. Tomita, K. Soyano & T.W. Snell. (pdfroom.com)
  • Corticotropin-releasing hormone binding protein (CRH-BP) binds corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and several related peptide hormones (urocortin 1, urotensin 1, and sauvagine). (wikipedia.org)
  • Since invertebrates do not possess peptide hormones structurally related to angiotensin, bradykinin and N-acetylSDKP, understanding the physiological roles of these invertebrate ACEs is likely to reveal novel functions of ACE-like peptidases in biological processes. (lancs.ac.uk)
  • Hormones produced by the GONADS, including both steroid and peptide hormones. (bvsalud.org)
  • The major peptide hormones include ACTIVINS and INHIBINS. (bvsalud.org)
  • These additives are known for their hormonal effects and can potentially disrupt the hormone system not only of vertebrates, but also of several invertebrates. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Because fish are known to be generally the most sensitive species for effects of steroid hormones and invertebrates like daphnids lack a physiological function of sex steroids, it is highly unlikely that a chronic test with Daphnia magna would result in a lower NOEC than in fish. (janusinfo.se)
  • 2009). These effects include changes in the concentration and ratios of sex steroid hormones (Landry et al. (researchgate.net)
  • The major steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL and PROGESTERONE from the OVARY, and TESTOSTERONE from the TESTIS. (bvsalud.org)
  • Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) plays multiple roles in vertebrate species. (wikipedia.org)
  • Importantly, the action of the synthetic GSS on oocyte maturation and ovulation was mediated through the production of cAMP by isolated ovarian follicle cells, thereby producing the maturation-inducing hormone of this species, 1-methyladenine. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Endocrine systems are found in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animal species. (coastalwiki.org)
  • Across species comparisons of epigenetic effects on genetically predisposed nutrient-dependent and hormone-driven invertebrate and vertebrate social and sexual behavior indicate that human pheromones also alter the development of the brain and behavior via the same molecular mechanisms. (perfumingthemind.com)
  • ACE activity is also found in invertebrates from several phyla, including all insect species studied so far. (lancs.ac.uk)
  • The journal welcomes studies conducted on species ranging from invertebrates to mammals, including humans. (sbn.org)
  • Small cryptic invertebrates (the cryptofauna) are extremely abundant, ecologically important, and species rich on coral reefs. (bvsalud.org)
  • The project includes fieldwork, some level of invertebrate species identification (either through morphology or with the use of molecular methods) as well as an opportunity to investigate the level of parasite the caught vectors are carrying using molecular methods. (lu.se)
  • Fear and stress then activates the adrenal glands to secrete the hormone adrenaline which increases the heart and respiratory rates. (tomsk.ru)
  • True endocrine glands probably evolved later in the evolutionary history of the animal kingdom as separate, hormone-secreting structures. (tomsk.ru)
  • and it should not be surprising that the endocrine glands and associated hormones of the human endocrine system have their counterparts in the endocrine systems of more primitive vertebrates. (tomsk.ru)
  • The endocrine system is made up of glands which secrete hormones to body fluids, and receptor cells which detect and react to the hormones. (coastalwiki.org)
  • Tsukuba, Japan-Incretins are hormones secreted by intestinal cells that regulate pancreatic insulin and glucagon to control sugar metabolism in mammals. (tsukuba.ac.jp)
  • The App Amphibian Embryology MCQs e-Book PDF Download: hormones of invertebrates, hormones of vertebrates: birds and mammals, dna: genetic material, sexual reproduction in vertebrates, amphibian embryology test prep for online college classes. (mcqslearn.com)
  • The Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) has a central role on regulation of metabolism, growth and reproduction in mammals and non-mammalian vertebrates. (szn.it)
  • The posterior pituitary ( neurohypophysis): -an extension of the hypothalamus -stores and secretes two hormones from the hypothalamus. (optimalhealth.in)
  • The most primitive endocrine systems seem to be those of the neurosecretory type, in which the nervous system either secretes neurohormones (hormones that act on, or are secreted by, nervous tissue) directly into the circulation or stores them in neurohemal organs (neurons whose endings directly contact blood vessels, allowing neurohormones to be secreted into the circulation), from which they are released in large amounts as needed. (tomsk.ru)
  • The small intestine secretes the hormone vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) in reaction to ingested food. (healthbenefitstimes.com)
  • Although counterparts of insulin and glucagon have been identified in invertebrates, no hormone equivalent to incretin has been described. (tsukuba.ac.jp)
  • In response to dietary sugars, incretins from the mammalian gut stimulate pancreatic cells to produce insulin and to suppress its counter-regulatory hormone glucagon. (tsukuba.ac.jp)
  • It signals NPF receptor in the corpora cardiaca, a gland-like organ in insects, and stimulates insulin producing cells in the insect brain to suppress glucagon-like hormone while enhancing insulin-like peptide production. (tsukuba.ac.jp)
  • It has become obvious that many of the hormones previously ascribed only to vertebrates are secreted by invertebrates as well (for example, the pancreatic hormone insulin). (tomsk.ru)
  • We further show that central AdipoR signaling inhibits peripheral Juvenile Hormone (JH) response, promoting insulin signaling. (cnrs.fr)
  • Hormones bind to cells that contain matching receptors in or on their surfaces, much like a key would fit into a lock. (coastalwiki.org)
  • Some of these molecules are even synthesized and employed as chemical regulators, similar to hormones in higher animals, by unicellular animals and plants. (tomsk.ru)
  • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) acts on the kidneys, increasing water retention and thus decreasing urine volume. (optimalhealth.in)
  • Its water retention, natural rooting hormones, and anti-fungal properties promote plant growth in your terrarium. (radiofence.com)
  • In general the nervous system responds rapidly to short-term changes by sending electrical impulses along nerves and the endocrine system brings about longer-term adaptations by sending out chemical messengers called hormones into the blood stream. (tomsk.ru)
  • The hormones act as chemical messengers. (coastalwiki.org)
  • Temperature affects invertebrate hormone system, and the increased temperature induces expression of endocrine signaling genes of chironomids Chironomus riparius [ 14 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • 1 In particular, morpholino oligonucleotides (MOs) have been used to block the expression of targeted genes in several invertebrate and vertebrate models. (cdc.gov)
  • This wellknown fact has prompted several basic studies on organisms capable of adult regeneration, such as amphibians, bony fish, and invertebrates. (unimore.it)
  • The Exo Terra Plantation Soil makes an ideal substrate to create natural planted terrarium set-ups for humidity-loving reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates. (radiofence.com)
  • Hormones and Behavior publishes original research articles, reviews and special issues concerning hormone-brain-behavior relationships, broadly defined. (sbn.org)
  • The journal's scope ranges from laboratory and field studies concerning neuroendocrine as well as endocrine mechanisms controlling the development or adult expression of behavior to studies concerning the environmental control and evolutionary significance of hormone-behavior relationships. (sbn.org)
  • It is hardly surprising, then, that we have so many gaps in the evolutionary history of life, gaps in such key areas as the origin of the multicellular organisms, the origin of vertebrates, not to mention the origins of most invertebrate groups. (answersingenesis.org)
  • Studying the embryonic development of invertebrates reveals their evolutionary history. (answersingenesis.org)
  • Based on binding to the androgen receptor, binding to SHBG (Sex Hormone Binding Globulin) and studies on fish, norethisterone and levonogestrel are a higher environmental risk than medroxyprogesterone. (janusinfo.se)
  • In general Endocrine system is represented by a set of heterogeneous structure and origin of formations capable of internal secretion, ie the release of biologically active substances (hormones) that flow directly into the bloodstream. (tomsk.ru)
  • Still others directly stimulate or inhibit the endocrine system and cause overproduction or underproduction of hormones. (coastalwiki.org)
  • Rivera-Pérez C., Clifton M.E., Noriega F., Jindra M. (2020) Juvenile hormone regulation and function. (cas.cz)
  • The timing of juvenile hormone signalling supports homology between stages of hemimetabolous and holometabolous insects. (cas.cz)
  • Taking Fucus vesiculosus along with thyroid hormone medications might increase the effects of these medications. (medlineplus.gov)
  • 2 Outline the structure and the function of the respiratory system: invertebrates vs vertebrates. (bangor.ac.uk)
  • 4 Outline the structure and the function of the reproductive system: invertebrates vs vertebrates. (bangor.ac.uk)
  • Likewise, many invertebrate hormones have been discovered in the tissues of vertebrates, including those of humans. (tomsk.ru)
  • Drugs(s), dose(s), and how long serves to further though testosterone is confined to vertebrates, it is possible that studies with invertebrates may reveal similar effects on performance via different hormones. (publicequalsonline.com)
  • What is the target organ of growth hormone? (tomsk.ru)
  • The substances that show these effects are known as Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs) or Hormone Disrupting Chemicals (HDCs). (coastalwiki.org)
  • Fucus vesiculosus also might have antidiabetic effects and affect hormone levels. (medlineplus.gov)
  • So, Comparative Endocrinology is all about comparing the complexities between vertebrate and invertebrate endocrine systems at various levels (Sub-molecular, molecular, cellular and organismal levels). (longdom.org)
  • If mating occurs, other hormones stimulate the release of ova from the ovary of the female and a range of different hormones maintains pregnancy, delivery of the kittens and lactation. (tomsk.ru)
  • The appearance and diversity of these invertebrates cannot be explained on the basis of mutations accumulating and being selected for over time. (answersingenesis.org)
  • There was also variability in response between the two localities, despite their close proximity, as one control pH site displayed unusually low diversity and abundances for all invertebrate groups. (bvsalud.org)
  • The data illustrate the complexity of responses of the reef fauna to pH conditions, and the role of additional factors that influence the diversity and abundance of cryptic reef invertebrates. (bvsalud.org)
  • This is consistent with reports indicating the large and agranular hemocyte population as the most represented among the professional phagocytes of P. canaliculata and with the hypothesis that different hemocyte morphologies could exert diverse biological functions, as it has been observed in other invertebrates. (unimore.it)
  • [click here to continue…] In biosynthesis metabolism and mode of action of invertebrate hormones units, the Legendre education invites interventional to add, because the everything 's n't over a interesting advantage. (harfenistin-sonja-jahn.de)
  • We addressed these challenges by using Autonomous Reef Monitoring Structures (ARMS) for sampling reef-dwelling invertebrates >2 mm in size and by using DNA barcoding for taxonomic identifications. (bvsalud.org)
  • Hormone (from the Greek Hormone (from the Greek horman, to excite), to excite) is a chemical signal secreted into the circulatory system and communicates regulatory messages within the body. (optimalhealth.in)
  • Now, researchers at the University of Tsukuba demonstrate that Neuropeptide F (NPF), a hormone produced by the midgut, performs this complex role in the fruit fly. (tsukuba.ac.jp)
  • The brain plays a key role in energy homeostasis, detecting nutrients, metabolites and circulating hormones from peripheral organs and integrating this information to control food intake and energy expenditure. (cnrs.fr)
  • However, its role in invertebrates so far remains poorly investigated. (szn.it)
  • Two members of the secretin family of hormones, PACAP and VIP, have been isolated from invertebrates. (healthbenefitstimes.com)
  • PACAP and VIP are the only members of the secretin family of hormones that have so far been identified in invertebrates. (genx.bio)
  • Some chemicals mimic a natural hormone, fooling the body into over-responding to the stimulus, or responding at inappropriate times. (coastalwiki.org)
  • Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) is a hormone that is secreted by the small intestine in response to food. (genx.bio)
  • Both LPN types rhythmically express three neuropeptides, Allostatin A , Allostatin C , and Diuretic Hormone 31 with maxima in the morning and the evening. (sdbonline.org)