Antibacterial agent used primarily as a tuberculostatic. It remains the treatment of choice for tuberculosis.
Drugs used in the treatment of tuberculosis. They are divided into two main classes: "first-line" agents, those with the greatest efficacy and acceptable degrees of toxicity used successfully in the great majority of cases; and "second-line" drugs used in drug-resistant cases or those in which some other patient-related condition has compromised the effectiveness of primary therapy.
A semisynthetic antibiotic produced from Streptomyces mediterranei. It has a broad antibacterial spectrum, including activity against several forms of Mycobacterium. In susceptible organisms it inhibits DNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity by forming a stable complex with the enzyme. It thus suppresses the initiation of RNA synthesis. Rifampin is bactericidal, and acts on both intracellular and extracellular organisms. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1160)
A species of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria that produces TUBERCULOSIS in humans, other primates, CATTLE; DOGS; and some other animals which have contact with humans. Growth tends to be in serpentine, cordlike masses in which the bacilli show a parallel orientation.
A pyrazine that is used therapeutically as an antitubercular agent.
An antitubercular agent that inhibits the transfer of mycolic acids into the cell wall of the tubercle bacillus. It may also inhibit the synthesis of spermidine in mycobacteria. The action is usually bactericidal, and the drug can penetrate human cell membranes to exert its lethal effect. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p863)
Substances obtained from various species of microorganisms that are, alone or in combination with other agents, of use in treating various forms of tuberculosis; most of these agents are merely bacteriostatic, induce resistance in the organisms, and may be toxic.
Tuberculosis resistant to chemotherapy with two or more ANTITUBERCULAR AGENTS, including at least ISONIAZID and RIFAMPICIN. The problem of resistance is particularly troublesome in tuberculous OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS associated with HIV INFECTIONS. It requires the use of second line drugs which are more toxic than the first line regimens. TB with isolates that have developed further resistance to at least three of the six classes of second line drugs is defined as EXTENSIVELY DRUG-RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS.
Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of MYCOBACTERIUM.
MYCOBACTERIUM infections of the lung.
A second-line antitubercular agent that inhibits mycolic acid synthesis.
An antibiotic produced by the soil actinomycete Streptomyces griseus. It acts by inhibiting the initiation and elongation processes during protein synthesis.
A group of 2-hydroxybenzoic acids that can be substituted by amino groups at any of the 3-, 4-, 5-, or 6-positions.
An antitubercular agent often administered in association with ISONIAZID. The sodium salt of the drug is better tolerated than the free acid.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Heterocyclic acids that are derivatives of 4-pyridinecarboxylic acid (isonicotinic acid).
An oxidoreductase that catalyzes the conversion of HYDROGEN PEROXIDE to water and oxygen. It is present in many animal cells. A deficiency of this enzyme results in ACATALASIA.
A thiosemicarbazone that is used in association with other antimycobacterial agents in the initial and continuation phases of antituberculosis regimens. Thiacetazone containing regimens are less effective than the short-course regimen recommended by the International Union Against Tuberculosis and are used in some developing countries to reduce drug costs. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p217)
Mycolic acids are complex, long-chain fatty acids that are a major component of the cell wall of Mycobacterium species, including the causative agents of tuberculosis and leprosy, providing them with unique characteristics such as resistance to acid-alkali stability, pigmentation, and protection against host immune responses.
A genus of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria. Most species are free-living in soil and water, but the major habitat for some is the diseased tissue of warm-blooded hosts.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to several structurally and functionally distinct drugs simultaneously. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
The dormant form of TUBERCULOSIS where the person shows no obvious symptoms and no sign of the causative agent (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in the SPUTUM despite being positive for tuberculosis infection skin test.
The ability of microorganisms, especially bacteria, to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Viruses whose host is one or more Mycobacterium species. They include both temperate and virulent types.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
'Azā compounds' are a class of organic molecules containing at least one nitrogen atom in a five-membered ring, often found in naturally occurring substances and pharmaceuticals, with the name derived from the Arabic word "azZa" meaning 'strong' referring to the ring's aromatic stability.
Material coughed up from the lungs and expectorated via the mouth. It contains MUCUS, cellular debris, and microorganisms. It may also contain blood or pus.
One of several skin tests to determine past or present tuberculosis infection. A purified protein derivative of the tubercle bacilli, called tuberculin, is introduced into the skin by scratch, puncture, or interdermal injection.
A rapid-growing, nonphotochromogenic species of MYCOBACTERIUM originally isolated from human smegma and found also in soil and water. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
A fat-soluble riminophenazine dye used for the treatment of leprosy. It has been used investigationally in combination with other antimycobacterial drugs to treat Mycobacterium avium infections in AIDS patients. Clofazimine also has a marked anti-inflammatory effect and is given to control the leprosy reaction, erythema nodosum leprosum. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1993, p1619)
An enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of acetyl groups from ACETYL-COA to arylamines. It can also catalyze acetyl transfer between arylamines without COENZYME A and has a wide specificity for aromatic amines, including SEROTONIN. However, arylamine N-acetyltransferase should not be confused with the enzyme ARYLALKYLAMINE N-ACETYLTRANSFERASE which is also referred to as SEROTONIN ACETYLTRANSFERASE.
A group of ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS characterized by a chromophoric naphthohydroquinone group spanned by an aliphatic bridge not previously found in other known ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS. They have been isolated from fermentation broths of Streptomyces mediterranei.
Hydrazines are organic compounds containing the functional group R-NH-NH2, where R represents an organic group, and are used in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and rocket fuels, but can be highly toxic and carcinogenic with potential for environmental damage.
The class of all enzymes catalyzing oxidoreduction reactions. The substrate that is oxidized is regarded as a hydrogen donor. The systematic name is based on donor:acceptor oxidoreductase. The recommended name will be dehydrogenase, wherever this is possible; as an alternative, reductase can be used. Oxidase is only used in cases where O2 is the acceptor. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992, p9)
Enumeration by direct count of viable, isolated bacterial, archaeal, or fungal CELLS or SPORES capable of growth on solid CULTURE MEDIA. The method is used routinely by environmental microbiologists for quantifying organisms in AIR; FOOD; and WATER; by clinicians for measuring patients' microbial load; and in antimicrobial drug testing.

Genetic evidence that InhA of Mycobacterium smegmatis is a target for triclosan. (1/1316)

Three Mycobacterium smegmatis mutants selected for resistance to triclosan each had a different mutation in InhA, an enoyl reductase involved in fatty acid synthesis. Two expressed some isoniazid resistance. A mutation originally selected on isoniazid also mediated triclosan resistance, as did the wild-type inhA gene on a multicopy plasmid. Replacement of the mutant chromosomal inhA genes with wild-type inhA eliminated resistance. These results suggest that M. smegmatis InhA, like its Escherichia coli homolog FabI, is a target for triclosan.  (+info)

Use of site-directed mutagenesis to probe the structure, function and isoniazid activation of the catalase/peroxidase, KatG, from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. (2/1316)

A series of mutants bearing single amino acid substitutions often encountered in the catalase/peroxidase, KatG, from isoniazid-resistant isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been produced by site-directed mutagenesis. The resultant enzymes were overexpressed, purified and characterized. Replacing Cys-20 by Ser abolished disulphide-bridge formation, but did not affect either dimerization of the enzyme or catalysis. The substitution of Thr-275, which is probably involved in electron transfer from the haem, by proline resulted in a highly unstable enzyme with insignificant enzyme activities. The most commonly occurring substitution in drug-resistant clinical isolates is the replacement of Ser-315 by Thr; this lowered catalase and peroxidase activities by 50% and caused a significant decrease in the KatG-mediated inhibition of the activity of the NADH-dependent enoyl-[acyl-carrier protein] reductase, InhA, in vitro. The ability of this enzyme to produce free radicals from isoniazid was severely impaired, as judged by its loss of NitroBlue Tetrazolium reduction activity. Replacement of Leu-587 by Pro resulted in marked instability of KatG, indicating that the C-terminal domain is also important for structural and functional integrity.  (+info)

Molecular evidence for heterogeneity of the multiple-drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis population in Scotland (1990 to 1997). (3/1316)

Multiple-drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MDR-MTB) has been well studied in hospitals or health care institutions and in human immunodeficiency virus-infected populations. However, the characteristics of MDR-MTB in the community have not been well investigated. An understanding of its prevalence and circulation within the community will help to estimate the problem and optimize the strategies for control and prevention of its development and transmission. In this study, MDR-MTB isolates from Scotland collected between 1990 and 1997 were characterized, along with non-drug-resistant isolates. The results showed that they were genetically diverse, suggesting they were unrelated to each other and had probably evolved independently. Several new alleles of rpoB, katG, and ahpC were identified: rpoB codon 525 (ACC-->AAC; Thr525Asn); katG codon 128 (CGG-->CAG; Arg128Gln) and codon 291 (GCT-->CCT; Ala291Pro); and the ahpC synonymous substitution at codon 6 (ATT-->ATC). One of the MDR-MTB isolates from an Asian patient had an IS6110 restriction fragment length polymorphism pattern very similar to that of the MDR-MTB W strain and had the same drug resistance-related alleles but did not have any epidemiological connection with the W strains. Additionally, a cluster of M. tuberculosis isolates was identified in our collection of 715 clinical isolates; the isolates in this cluster had genetic backgrounds very similar to those of the W strains, one of which had already developed multiple drug resistances. The diverse population of MDR-MTB in Scotland, along with a low incidence of drug-resistant M. tuberculosis, has implications for the control of the organism and prevention of its spread.  (+info)

Rapid film-based determination of antibiotic susceptibilities of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains by using a luciferase reporter phage and the Bronx Box. (4/1316)

Detecting antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis is becoming increasingly important with the global recognition of drug-resistant strains and their adverse impact on clinical outcomes. Current methods of susceptibility testing are either time-consuming or costly; rapid, reliable, simple, and inexpensive methods would be highly desirable, especially in the developing world where most tuberculosis is found. The luciferase reporter phage is a unique reagent well-suited for this purpose: upon infection with viable mycobacteria, it produces quantifiable light which is not observed in mycobacterial cells treated with active antimicrobials. In this report, we describe a modification of our original assay, which allows detection of the emitted light with a Polaroid film box designated the Bronx Box. The technique has been applied to 25 M. tuberculosis reference and clinical strains, and criteria are presented which allow rapid and simple discrimination among strains susceptible or resistant to isoniazid and rifampin, the major antituberculosis agents.  (+info)

EPR spin trapping and 2-deoxyribose degradation studies of the effect of pyridoxal isonicotinoyl hydrazone (PIH) on *OH formation by the Fenton reaction. (5/1316)

The search for effective iron chelating agents was primarily driven by the need to treat iron-loading refractory anemias such as beta-thalassemia major. However, there is a potential for therapeutic use of iron chelators in non-iron overload conditions. Iron can, under appropriate conditions, catalyze the production of toxic oxygen radicals which have been implicated in numerous pathologies and, hence, iron chelators may be useful as inhibitors of free radical-mediated tissue damage. We have developed the orally effective iron chelator pyridoxal isonicotinoyl hydrazone (PIH) and demonstrated that it inhibits iron-mediated oxyradical formation and their effects (e.g. 2-deoxyribose oxidative degradation, lipid peroxidation and plasmid DNA breaks). In this study we further characterized the mechanism of the antioxidant action of PIH and some of its analogs against *OH formation from the Fenton reaction. Using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) with 5, 5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide (DMPO) as a spin trap for *OH we showed that PIH and salicylaldehyde isonicotinoyl hydrazone (SIH) inhibited Fe(II)-dependent production of *OH from H2O2. Moreover, PIH protected 2-deoxyribose against oxidative degradation induced by Fe(II) and H2O2. The protective effect of PIH against both DMPO hydroxylation and 2-deoxyribose degradation was inversely proportional to Fe(II) concentration. However, PIH did not change the primary products of the Fenton reaction as indicated by EPR experiments on *OH-mediated ethanol radical formation. Furthermore, PIH dramatically enhanced the rate of Fe(II) oxidation to Fe(III) in the presence of oxygen, suggesting that PIH decreases the concentration of Fe(II) available for the Fenton reaction. These results suggest that PIH and SIH deserve further investigation as inhibitors of free-radical mediated tissue damage.  (+info)

Potentiation of isoniazid activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis by melatonin. (6/1316)

The limited number of effective antituberculosis drugs available necessitates optimizing current treatments. We show that melatonin, which is synthesized in the pineal gland, can cause at least a threefold increase in the efficacy of isoniazid. This suggests that tuberculosis chemotherapy can be improved by innate molecules such as melatonin.  (+info)

A five-year assessment of controlled trials of in-patient and out-patient treatment and of plaster-of-Paris jackets for tuberculosis of the spine in children on standard chemotherapy. Studies in Masan and Pusan, Korea. Fifth report of the Medical Research Council Working Party on tuberculosis of the spine. (7/1316)

In two centres in Korea 350 patients with a diagnosis of tuberculosis of the thoracic and/or lumbar spine were allocated at random: in Masan to in-patient rest in bed (IP) for six months followed by out-patient treatment or to ambulatory out-patient treatment (OP) from the start; in Pusan to out-patient treatment with a plaster-of-Paris jacket (J) for nine months or to ambulatory treatment without any support (No J). All patients recieved chemotherapy with PAS with isoniazid for eighteen months, either supplemented with streptomycin for the first three months (SPH) or without this supplement (PH), by random allocation. The main analysis of this report concerns 299 patients (eighty-three IP, eighty-three OP, sixty-three J, seventy No J; 143 SPH, 156 PH). Pre-treatment factors were similar in both centres except that the patients in Pusan had, on average, less extensive lesions although in a greater proportion the disease was radiographically active. One patient (J/SPH) died with active spinal disease and three (all No J/SPH) with paraplegia. A fifth patient (IP/PH) who died from cardio respiratory failure also had pulmonary tuberculosis. Twenty-three patients required operation and/or additional chemotherapy for the spinal lesion. A sinus or clinically evident abscess was either present initially or developed during treatment in 41 per cent of patients. Residual lesions persisted in ten patients (four IP, two OP, one J, three No J; six SPH, four PH) at five years. Thirty-two patients had paraparesis on admission or developing later. Complete resolution occurred in twenty on the allocated regimen and in eight after operation or additional chemotherapy or both. Of the remaining four atients, all of whom had operation and additional chemotherapy, three died and one still had paraparesis at five years. Of 295 patients assessed at five years 89 per cent had a favourable status. The proportions of the patients responding favourably were similar in the IP (91 per cent) and OP (89 per cent) series, in the J (90 per cent) and No J (84 per cent) series and in the SPH (86 per cent) and PH (92 per cent) series.  (+info)

Inhibition of isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity in rabbits by pretreatment with an amidase inhibitor. (8/1316)

Isoniazid (INH), a widely used drug in the prophylaxis and treatment of tuberculosis, is associated with a 1 to 2% risk of severe and potentially fatal hepatotoxicity. There is evidence that the INH metabolite hydrazine plays an important role in the mechanism of this toxicity. Metabolism of INH leads to the production of hydrazine via both direct and indirect pathways. In both cases, the activity of an INH amidase is required to hydrolyze an amide bond. In the present study, using a model of INH-induced hepatotoxicity in rabbits, pretreatment of rabbits with the amidase inhibitor bis-p-nitrophenyl phosphate 30 min before injection of INH inhibited the formation of INH-derived hydrazine and decreased measures of hepatocellular damage, hepatic triglyceride accumulation, and hypertriglyceridemia. Bis-p-nitrophenyl phosphate also potently inhibited the production of hydrazine from INH in in vitro microsomal incubations (IC50 2 microM). Although hepatic glutathione stores are decreased, they are not depleted in animals with INH-induced hepatotoxicity. Significant effects on hepatic microsomal cytochrome P-450 1A1/2 and cytochrome P-450 2E1 activities suggest that these isozymes may be involved in the mechanism of the toxicity. In conclusion, this study demonstrates the importance of amidase activity in this rabbit model of hepatotoxicity and provides additional evidence in support of the role of hydrazine in the mechanism of INH-induced hepatotoxicity.  (+info)

Isoniazid is an antimicrobial medication used for the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis (TB). It is a first-line medication, often used in combination with other TB drugs, to kill the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria that cause TB. Isoniazid works by inhibiting the synthesis of mycolic acids, which are essential components of the bacterial cell wall. This leads to bacterial death and helps to control the spread of TB.

Isoniazid is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquid solutions. It can be taken orally or given by injection. The medication is generally well-tolerated, but it can cause side effects such as peripheral neuropathy, hepatitis, and skin rashes. Regular monitoring of liver function tests and supplementation with pyridoxine (vitamin B6) may be necessary to prevent or manage these side effects.

It is important to note that Isoniazid is not effective against drug-resistant strains of TB, and its use should be guided by the results of drug susceptibility testing. Additionally, it is essential to complete the full course of treatment as prescribed to ensure the successful eradication of the bacteria and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

Antitubercular agents, also known as anti-tuberculosis drugs or simply TB drugs, are a category of medications specifically used for the treatment and prevention of tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These drugs target various stages of the bacteria's growth and replication process to eradicate it from the body or prevent its spread.

There are several first-line antitubercular agents, including:

1. Isoniazid (INH): This is a bactericidal drug that inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acids, essential components of the mycobacterial cell wall. It is primarily active against actively growing bacilli.
2. Rifampin (RIF) or Rifampicin: A bactericidal drug that inhibits DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing the transcription of genetic information into mRNA. This results in the interruption of protein synthesis and ultimately leads to the death of the bacteria.
3. Ethambutol (EMB): A bacteriostatic drug that inhibits the arabinosyl transferase enzyme, which is responsible for the synthesis of arabinan, a crucial component of the mycobacterial cell wall. It is primarily active against actively growing bacilli.
4. Pyrazinamide (PZA): A bactericidal drug that inhibits the synthesis of fatty acids and mycolic acids in the mycobacterial cell wall, particularly under acidic conditions. PZA is most effective during the initial phase of treatment when the bacteria are in a dormant or slow-growing state.

These first-line antitubercular agents are often used together in a combination therapy to ensure complete eradication of the bacteria and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains. Treatment duration typically lasts for at least six months, with the initial phase consisting of daily doses of INH, RIF, EMB, and PZA for two months, followed by a continuation phase of INH and RIF for four months.

Second-line antitubercular agents are used when patients have drug-resistant TB or cannot tolerate first-line drugs. These include drugs like aminoglycosides (e.g., streptomycin, amikacin), fluoroquinolones (e.g., ofloxacin, moxifloxacin), and injectable bacteriostatic agents (e.g., capreomycin, ethionamide).

It is essential to closely monitor patients undergoing antitubercular therapy for potential side effects and ensure adherence to the treatment regimen to achieve optimal outcomes and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

Rifampin is an antibiotic medication that belongs to the class of drugs known as rifamycins. It works by inhibiting bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, thereby preventing bacterial growth and multiplication. Rifampin is used to treat a variety of infections caused by bacteria, including tuberculosis, Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Legionella pneumophila. It is also used to prevent meningococcal disease in people who have been exposed to the bacteria.

Rifampin is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and injectable solutions. The medication is usually taken two to four times a day, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated. Rifampin may be given alone or in combination with other antibiotics.

It is important to note that rifampin can interact with several other medications, including oral contraceptives, anticoagulants, and anti-seizure drugs, among others. Therefore, it is essential to inform your healthcare provider about all the medications you are taking before starting treatment with rifampin.

Rifampin may cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, headache, and changes in the color of urine, tears, sweat, and saliva to a reddish-orange color. These side effects are usually mild and go away on their own. However, if they persist or become bothersome, it is important to consult your healthcare provider.

In summary, rifampin is an antibiotic medication used to treat various bacterial infections and prevent meningococcal disease. It works by inhibiting bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing bacterial growth and multiplication. Rifampin may interact with several other medications, and it can cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, headache, and changes in the color of body fluids.

'Mycobacterium tuberculosis' is a species of slow-growing, aerobic, gram-positive bacteria that demonstrates acid-fastness. It is the primary causative agent of tuberculosis (TB) in humans. This bacterium has a complex cell wall rich in lipids, including mycolic acids, which provides a hydrophobic barrier and makes it resistant to many conventional antibiotics. The ability of M. tuberculosis to survive within host macrophages and resist the immune response contributes to its pathogenicity and the difficulty in treating TB infections.

M. tuberculosis is typically transmitted through inhalation of infectious droplets containing the bacteria, which primarily targets the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body (extrapulmonary TB). The infection may result in a spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from latent TB infection (LTBI) to active disease. LTBI represents a dormant state where individuals are infected with M. tuberculosis but do not show symptoms and cannot transmit the bacteria. However, they remain at risk of developing active TB throughout their lifetime, especially if their immune system becomes compromised.

Effective prevention and control strategies for TB rely on early detection, treatment, and public health interventions to limit transmission. The current first-line treatments for drug-susceptible TB include a combination of isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for at least six months. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of M. tuberculosis present significant challenges in TB control and require more complex treatment regimens.

Pyrazinamide is an antituberculosis agent, a type of medication used to treat tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is an antimicrobial drug that works by inhibiting the growth of the bacterium. Pyrazinamide is often used in combination with other TB drugs such as isoniazid, rifampin, and ethambutol.

The medical definition of Pyrazinamide is: a synthetic antituberculosis agent, C6H5N3O (a pyridine derivative), used in the treatment of tuberculosis, especially in combination with isoniazid and rifampin. It is converted in the body to its active form, pyrazinoic acid, which inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by interfering with bacterial cell wall synthesis.

It's important to note that Pyrazinamide should be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional and is usually prescribed for several months to ensure complete eradication of the TB bacteria. As with any medication, it can cause side effects, and individuals should report any unusual symptoms to their healthcare provider.

Ethambutol is an antimycobacterial medication used for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB). It works by inhibiting the synthesis of mycobacterial cell walls, which leads to the death of the bacteria. Ethambutol is often used in combination with other TB drugs, such as isoniazid and rifampin, to prevent the development of drug-resistant strains of the bacteria.

The most common side effect of ethambutol is optic neuritis, which can cause visual disturbances such as decreased vision, color blindness, or blurred vision. This side effect is usually reversible if the medication is stopped promptly. Other potential side effects include skin rashes, joint pain, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting.

Ethambutol is available in oral tablet and solution forms, and is typically taken once or twice daily. The dosage of ethambutol is based on the patient's weight, and it is important to follow the healthcare provider's instructions carefully to avoid toxicity. Regular monitoring of visual acuity and liver function is recommended during treatment with ethambutol.

Antitubercular antibiotics are a class of medications specifically used to treat tuberculosis (TB) and other mycobacterial infections. Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which can affect various organs, primarily the lungs.

There are several antitubercular antibiotics available, with different mechanisms of action that target the unique cell wall structure and metabolism of mycobacteria. Some commonly prescribed antitubercular antibiotics include:

1. Isoniazid (INH): This is a first-line medication for treating TB. It inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acids, a crucial component of the mycobacterial cell wall. Isoniazid can be bactericidal or bacteriostatic depending on the concentration and duration of treatment.
2. Rifampin (RIF): Also known as rifampicin, this antibiotic inhibits bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing the transcription of genetic information into mRNA. It is a potent bactericidal agent against mycobacteria and is often used in combination with other antitubercular drugs.
3. Ethambutol (EMB): This antibiotic inhibits the synthesis of arabinogalactan and mycolic acids, both essential components of the mycobacterial cell wall. Ethambutol is primarily bacteriostatic but can be bactericidal at higher concentrations.
4. Pyrazinamide (PZA): This medication is active against dormant or slow-growing mycobacteria, making it an essential component of TB treatment regimens. Its mechanism of action involves the inhibition of fatty acid synthesis and the disruption of bacterial membrane potential.
5. Streptomycin: An aminoglycoside antibiotic that binds to the 30S ribosomal subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis in mycobacteria. It is primarily used as a second-line treatment for drug-resistant TB.
6. Fluoroquinolones: These are a class of antibiotics that inhibit DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, essential enzymes involved in bacterial DNA replication. Examples include ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and levofloxacin, which can be used as second-line treatments for drug-resistant TB.

These antitubercular drugs are often used in combination to prevent the development of drug resistance and improve treatment outcomes. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a standardized regimen consisting of isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for the initial two months, followed by isoniazid and rifampicin for an additional four to seven months. However, treatment regimens may vary depending on the patient's clinical presentation, drug susceptibility patterns, and local guidelines.

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a form of tuberculosis (TB) infection caused by bacteria that are resistant to at least two of the first-line anti-TB drugs, isoniazid and rifampin. This makes MDR-TB more difficult and expensive to treat, requiring longer treatment durations and the use of second-line medications, which can have more severe side effects.

MDR-TB can occur when there are errors in prescribing or taking anti-TB drugs, or when people with TB do not complete their full course of treatment. It is a significant global health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where TB is more prevalent and resources for diagnosis and treatment may be limited.

MDR-TB can spread from person to person through the air when someone with the infection coughs, speaks, or sneezes. People at higher risk of contracting MDR-TB include those who have been in close contact with someone with MDR-TB, people with weakened immune systems, and healthcare workers who treat TB patients.

Preventing the spread of MDR-TB involves early detection and prompt treatment, as well as infection control measures such as wearing masks, improving ventilation, and separating infected individuals from others. It is also important to ensure that anti-TB drugs are used correctly and that patients complete their full course of treatment to prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs but can also involve other organs and tissues in the body. The infection is usually spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

The symptoms of pulmonary TB include persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, chest X-ray, and microbiological tests such as sputum smear microscopy and culture. In some cases, molecular tests like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may be used for rapid diagnosis.

Treatment usually consists of a standard six-month course of multiple antibiotics, including isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. In some cases, longer treatment durations or different drug regimens might be necessary due to drug resistance or other factors. Preventive measures include vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine and early detection and treatment of infected individuals to prevent transmission.

Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs and can spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The infection typically enters the body when a person inhales droplets containing the bacteria, which are released into the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

The symptoms of pulmonary TB can vary but often include:

* Persistent cough that lasts for more than three weeks and may produce phlegm or blood-tinged sputum
* Chest pain or discomfort, particularly when breathing deeply or coughing
* Fatigue and weakness
* Unexplained weight loss
* Fever and night sweats
* Loss of appetite

Pulmonary TB can cause serious complications if left untreated, including damage to the lungs, respiratory failure, and spread of the infection to other parts of the body. Treatment typically involves a course of antibiotics that can last several months, and it is essential for patients to complete the full treatment regimen to ensure that the infection is fully eradicated.

Preventive measures include vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, which can provide some protection against severe forms of TB in children, and measures to prevent the spread of the disease, such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, wearing a mask in public places, and avoiding close contact with people who have active TB.

Ethionamide is an antimicrobial medication used to treat tuberculosis (TB) caused by drug-resistant strains of the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It belongs to a class of drugs called thioamides, which work by inhibiting the bacteria's ability to synthesize its cell wall.

Ethionamide is often used in combination with other TB medications to prevent the development of drug-resistant strains and improve treatment outcomes. Common side effects of ethionamide include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite, as well as neurological symptoms such as dizziness, headache, and peripheral neuropathy.

It is important to note that the use of ethionamide should be under the close supervision of a healthcare professional, as it can cause serious side effects and its effectiveness may be affected by drug interactions or individual patient factors.

Streptomycin is an antibiotic drug derived from the actinobacterium Streptomyces griseus. It belongs to the class of aminoglycosides and works by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis and leading to bacterial death.

Streptomycin is primarily used to treat a variety of infections caused by gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, including tuberculosis, brucellosis, plague, tularemia, and certain types of bacterial endocarditis. It is also used as part of combination therapy for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB).

Like other aminoglycosides, streptomycin has a narrow therapeutic index and can cause ototoxicity (hearing loss) and nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) with prolonged use or high doses. Therefore, its use is typically limited to cases where other antibiotics are ineffective or contraindicated.

It's important to note that the use of streptomycin requires careful monitoring of drug levels and kidney function, as well as regular audiometric testing to detect any potential hearing loss.

Aminosalicylic acids are a group of medications that contain a chemical structure related to salicylic acid, which is the active ingredient in aspirin. These medications are primarily used to treat inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. The most common aminosalicylates used for IBD include mesalamine, sulfasalazine, and olsalazine.

These drugs work by reducing the production of chemicals in the body that cause inflammation in the lining of the intestines. By decreasing inflammation, they can help alleviate symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal pain, and rectal bleeding associated with IBD. Additionally, aminosalicylates may also have a protective effect on the lining of the intestines, helping to prevent further damage.

Aminosalicylates are available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, suppositories, and enemas, depending on the specific medication and the location of the inflammation within the digestive tract. While these medications are generally well-tolerated, they can cause side effects such as headache, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain in some individuals. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking aminosalicylates to ensure their safe and effective use.

Aminosalicylic acid is an anti-inflammatory medication that is primarily used to treat inflammatory bowel diseases such as ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. It works by reducing the production of chemicals in the body that cause inflammation in the intestines.

Aminosalicylic acid is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and enema formulations. The medication is typically taken at regular intervals, often several times a day, to maintain its effectiveness in reducing inflammation.

Common side effects of aminosalicylic acid include headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. In some cases, the medication may cause more serious side effects such as kidney or liver problems, allergic reactions, or blood disorders. It is important to discuss any potential risks or side effects with a healthcare provider before starting treatment with aminosalicylic acid.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

Isonicotinic acids are a group of chemical compounds that are structurally similar to nicotinic acid (also known as vitamin B3 or niacin). The term "isonicotinic" refers to the fact that these acids have a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) in the same position as the pyridine nitrogen atom in isonicotinic acid, which is a derivative of nicotinic acid.

Isonicotinic acids do not have a specific medical definition, but they may be used in various chemical and pharmaceutical applications. For example, isonicotinic acid hydrazide (also known as isoniazid) is an important anti-tuberculosis drug that has been widely used for many years.

It's worth noting that nicotinic acid and its derivatives have important medical uses as well, particularly in the treatment of pellagra, a disease caused by niacin deficiency. However, isonicotic acids are not typically associated with these medical applications.

Catalase is a type of enzyme that is found in many living organisms, including humans. Its primary function is to catalyze the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into water (H2O) and oxygen (O2). This reaction helps protect cells from the harmful effects of hydrogen peroxide, which can be toxic at high concentrations.

The chemical reaction catalyzed by catalase can be represented as follows:

H2O2 + Catalase → H2O + O2 + Catalase

Catalase is a powerful antioxidant enzyme that plays an important role in protecting cells from oxidative damage. It is found in high concentrations in tissues that produce or are exposed to hydrogen peroxide, such as the liver, kidneys, and erythrocytes (red blood cells).

Deficiency in catalase activity has been linked to several diseases, including cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging. On the other hand, overexpression of catalase has been shown to have potential therapeutic benefits in various disease models, such as reducing inflammation and oxidative stress.

Thioacetazone is an antituberculous drug that is primarily used in the treatment of tuberculosis. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of mycobacterial cell walls, thereby preventing the growth and multiplication of the bacteria that cause tuberculosis. Thioacetazone is often used in combination with other antituberculous drugs such as isoniazid and rifampicin to improve treatment outcomes and prevent drug resistance.

The chemical formula for thioacetazone is C4H6Cl2N2OS, and it is available in the form of tablets or capsules for oral administration. Common side effects of thioacetazone include skin rashes, gastrointestinal disturbances, and abnormal liver function tests. Rare but serious side effects may include severe skin reactions, hepatitis, and blood disorders. Thioacetazone is generally well-tolerated, but it should be used with caution in patients with liver or kidney disease, as well as those taking other medications that may interact with thioacetazone.

Mycolic acids are complex, long-chain fatty acids that are a major component of the cell wall in mycobacteria, including the bacteria responsible for tuberculosis and leprosy. These acids contribute to the impermeability and resistance to chemical agents of the mycobacterial cell wall, making these organisms difficult to eradicate. Mycolic acids are unique to mycobacteria and some related actinomycetes, and their analysis can be useful in the identification and classification of these bacteria.

"Mycobacterium" is a genus of gram-positive, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are characterized by their complex cell walls containing large amounts of lipids. This genus includes several species that are significant in human and animal health, most notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis, and Mycobacterium leprae, which causes leprosy. Other species of Mycobacterium can cause various diseases in humans, including skin and soft tissue infections, lung infections, and disseminated disease in immunocompromised individuals. These bacteria are often resistant to common disinfectants and antibiotics, making them difficult to treat.

Multiple bacterial drug resistance (MDR) is a medical term that refers to the resistance of multiple strains of bacteria to several antibiotics or antimicrobial agents. This means that these bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive and multiply despite being exposed to drugs that were previously effective in treating infections caused by them.

MDR is a significant public health concern because it limits the treatment options available for bacterial infections, making them more difficult and expensive to treat. In some cases, MDR bacteria may cause severe or life-threatening infections that are resistant to all available antibiotics, leaving doctors with few or no effective therapeutic options.

MDR can arise due to various mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that inactivate antibiotics, changes in bacterial cell membrane permeability that prevent antibiotics from entering the bacteria, and the development of efflux pumps that expel antibiotics out of the bacteria. The misuse or overuse of antibiotics is a significant contributor to the emergence and spread of MDR bacteria.

Preventing and controlling the spread of MDR bacteria requires a multifaceted approach, including the judicious use of antibiotics, infection control measures, surveillance, and research into new antimicrobial agents.

Latent Tuberculosis (TB) infection is defined as a state of persistent immune response to stimulation by Mycobacterium tuberculosis without evidence of clinically manifest active TB disease. The individuals with latent TB infection do not feel ill and are not infectious. However, they may develop active TB disease later in their lives, typically within the first 2 years after infection. It's estimated that about 5-10% of people with latent TB infection will develop active TB disease during their lifetime. The risk is higher in people who have weakened immune systems due to HIV infection, malnutrition, aging, or use of immunosuppressive medications. Diagnosis of latent TB infection is typically made through a tuberculin skin test or an interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA). Treatment of latent TB infection can reduce the risk of developing active TB disease.

Microbial drug resistance is a significant medical issue that refers to the ability of microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand or survive exposure to drugs or medications designed to kill them or limit their growth. This phenomenon has become a major global health concern, particularly in the context of bacterial infections, where it is also known as antibiotic resistance.

Drug resistance arises due to genetic changes in microorganisms that enable them to modify or bypass the effects of antimicrobial agents. These genetic alterations can be caused by mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. The resistant microbes then replicate and multiply, forming populations that are increasingly difficult to eradicate with conventional treatments.

The consequences of drug-resistant infections include increased morbidity, mortality, healthcare costs, and the potential for widespread outbreaks. Factors contributing to the emergence and spread of microbial drug resistance include the overuse or misuse of antimicrobials, poor infection control practices, and inadequate surveillance systems.

To address this challenge, it is crucial to promote prudent antibiotic use, strengthen infection prevention and control measures, develop new antimicrobial agents, and invest in research to better understand the mechanisms underlying drug resistance.

Mycobacteriophages are viruses that infect and replicate within mycobacteria, which include species such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium smegmatis. These viruses are important tools in the study of mycobacterial biology, genetics, and evolution. They have also been explored for their potential therapeutic use in treating mycobacterial infections, including tuberculosis.

Mycobacteriophages typically have double-stranded DNA genomes that range in size from around 50 to 170 kilobases. They can be classified into different groups or "clusters" based on genetic similarities and differences. Some mycobacteriophages are temperate, meaning they can either replicate lytically (killing the host cell) or establish a persistent relationship with the host by integrating their genome into the host's chromosome as a prophage. Others are strictly lytic and always kill the host cell upon infection.

Understanding the biology of mycobacteriophages can provide insights into the basic mechanisms of virus-host interactions, DNA replication, gene regulation, and other fundamental processes. Additionally, studying the diversity of mycobacteriophages can shed light on evolutionary relationships among different mycobacterial species and strains.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

'Aza compounds' is a general term used in chemistry to describe organic compounds containing a nitrogen atom (denoted by the symbol 'N' or 'aza') that has replaced a carbon atom in a hydrocarbon structure. The term 'aza' comes from the Greek word for nitrogen, 'azote.'

In medicinal chemistry and pharmacology, aza compounds are of particular interest because the presence of the nitrogen atom can significantly affect the chemical and biological properties of the compound. For example, aza compounds may exhibit enhanced bioavailability, metabolic stability, or receptor binding affinity compared to their non-aza counterparts.

Some common examples of aza compounds in medicine include:

1. Aza-aromatic compounds: These are aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in the ring structure. Examples include pyridine, quinoline, and isoquinoline derivatives, which have been used as anti-malarial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer agents.
2. Aza-heterocyclic compounds: These are non-aromatic compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in a cyclic structure. Examples include azepine, diazepine, and triazole derivatives, which have been used as anxiolytic, anti-viral, and anti-fungal agents.
3. Aza-peptides: These are peptide compounds that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in the backbone structure. Examples include azapeptides and azabicyclopeptides, which have been used as enzyme inhibitors and neuroprotective agents.
4. Aza-sugars: These are sugar derivatives that contain one or more nitrogen atoms in the ring structure. Examples include azasugars and iminosugars, which have been used as glycosidase inhibitors and anti-viral agents.

Overall, aza compounds represent an important class of medicinal agents with diverse chemical structures and biological activities.

Sputum is defined as a mixture of saliva and phlegm that is expelled from the respiratory tract during coughing, sneezing or deep breathing. It can be clear, mucoid, or purulent (containing pus) depending on the underlying cause of the respiratory issue. Examination of sputum can help diagnose various respiratory conditions such as infections, inflammation, or other lung diseases.

A tuberculin test is a medical procedure used to determine if someone has developed an immune response to the bacterium that causes tuberculosis (TB), Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The test involves injecting a small amount of purified protein derivative (PPD) from the TB bacteria under the skin, usually on the forearm. After 48-72 hours, the area is examined for signs of a reaction, such as swelling, redness, or hardness. A positive result suggests that the person has been infected with TB at some point in the past, although it does not necessarily mean that they have active TB disease. However, individuals who have a positive tuberculin test should be evaluated further to determine if they need treatment for latent TB infection or active TB disease.

"Mycobacterium smegmatis" is a species of fast-growing, non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). It is commonly found in the environment, including soil and water. This bacterium is known for its ability to form resistant colonies called biofilms. While it does not typically cause disease in humans, it can contaminate medical equipment and samples, potentially leading to misdiagnosis or infection. In rare cases, it has been associated with skin and soft tissue infections. It is often used in research as a model organism for studying mycobacterial biology and drug resistance due to its relatively harmless nature and rapid growth rate.

Clofazimine is an antimycobacterial medication used mainly in the treatment of leprosy (Hansen's disease) and also has some activity against Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infections. It is an oral riminophenazine dye that accumulates in macrophages and bacterial cells, where it inhibits mycobacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Its side effects include skin discoloration, gastrointestinal symptoms, and potential eye toxicity.

Arylamine N-acetyltransferase (NAT) is a group of enzymes involved in the metabolism of aromatic amines, which are found in a variety of substances including tobacco smoke, certain drugs, and environmental contaminants. NAT catalyzes the transfer of an acetyl group from acetyl coenzyme A to the aromatic amine, which can help to detoxify these compounds and make them more water-soluble for excretion. There are two main forms of NAT in humans, known as NAT1 and NAT2, which have different tissue distributions and substrate specificities. Variations in NAT activity due to genetic polymorphisms can affect individual susceptibility to certain chemical exposures and diseases, including cancer.

Rifamycins are a class of antibiotics derived from the bacterium Amycolatopsis rifamycinica. They have a unique chemical structure and mechanism of action, which involves inhibiting bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase. This leads to the prevention of bacterial transcription and ultimately results in bacteriostatic or bactericidal activity, depending on the drug concentration and the susceptibility of the bacteria.

Rifamycins are primarily used in the treatment of various types of infections caused by gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, as well as mycobacteria. Some examples of rifamycin antibiotics include rifampin (also known as rifampicin), rifabutin, and rifapentine. These drugs are often used to treat tuberculosis, meningitis, and other serious infections. It is important to note that resistance to rifamycins can develop rapidly if the drugs are not used appropriately or if they are used to treat infections caused by bacteria that are already resistant to these antibiotics.

Hydrazines are not a medical term, but rather a class of organic compounds containing the functional group N-NH2. They are used in various industrial and chemical applications, including the production of polymers, pharmaceuticals, and agrochemicals. However, some hydrazines have been studied for their potential therapeutic uses, such as in the treatment of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Exposure to high levels of hydrazines can be toxic and may cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system. Therefore, medical professionals should be aware of the potential health hazards associated with hydrazine exposure.

Oxidoreductases are a class of enzymes that catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, which involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule (the reductant) to another (the oxidant). These enzymes play a crucial role in various biological processes, including energy production, metabolism, and detoxification.

The oxidoreductase-catalyzed reaction typically involves the donation of electrons from a reducing agent (donor) to an oxidizing agent (acceptor), often through the transfer of hydrogen atoms or hydride ions. The enzyme itself does not undergo any permanent chemical change during this process, but rather acts as a catalyst to lower the activation energy required for the reaction to occur.

Oxidoreductases are classified and named based on the type of electron donor or acceptor involved in the reaction. For example, oxidoreductases that act on the CH-OH group of donors are called dehydrogenases, while those that act on the aldehyde or ketone groups are called oxidases. Other examples include reductases, peroxidases, and catalases.

Understanding the function and regulation of oxidoreductases is important for understanding various physiological processes and developing therapeutic strategies for diseases associated with impaired redox homeostasis, such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular disease.

A "colony count" is a method used to estimate the number of viable microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, in a sample. In this technique, a known volume of the sample is spread onto the surface of a solid nutrient medium in a petri dish and then incubated under conditions that allow the microorganisms to grow and form visible colonies. Each colony that grows on the plate represents an individual cell (or small cluster of cells) from the original sample that was able to divide and grow under the given conditions. By counting the number of colonies that form, researchers can make a rough estimate of the concentration of microorganisms in the original sample.

The term "microbial" simply refers to microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Therefore, a "colony count, microbial" is a general term that encompasses the use of colony counting techniques to estimate the number of any type of microorganism in a sample.

Colony counts are used in various fields, including medical research, food safety testing, and environmental monitoring, to assess the levels of contamination or the effectiveness of disinfection procedures. However, it is important to note that colony counts may not always provide an accurate measure of the total number of microorganisms present in a sample, as some cells may be injured or unable to grow under the conditions used for counting. Additionally, some microorganisms may form clusters or chains that can appear as single colonies, leading to an overestimation of the true cell count.

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Isoniazid is an antibiotic used for the treatment of tuberculosis. Common side effect include numbness in the hands and feet, ... "Isoniazid". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Retrieved 13 August 2021. Lheureux P, Penaloza A, Gris M (April ... Use of oral contraceptives and treatment with certain anticonvulsants, isoniazid, cycloserine, penicillamine, and ...
Isoniazid • Linezolid • Mebanazine • Metfendrazine • Nialamide • Octamoxin • Paraxazone • Phenelzine • Pheniprazine • ...
... side effects of isoniazid treatment and certain types of mushroom poisoning. Isoniazid is an antibiotic used for the treatment ... "Isoniazid". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Retrieved 13 August 2021. Lheureux P, Penaloza A, Gris M (April ... side effects or complications of isoniazid use, and certain types of mushroom poisoning. It is used by mouth or by injection. ...
Resistant to isoniazid. Differential characteristics Mycobacterium murale and Mycobacterium tokaiense share an identical 5'-16S ...
Resistant to isoniazid and ethambutol. Differential characteristics Most closely related to M. simiae. Phylogenetic position ...
Resistant to isoniazid and rifampin. Posttraumatic skin infections, catheter sepsis and respiratory isolates without clinical ...
Rifamate (Isoniazid/rifampicin), for tuberculosis. Rifater (Rifampicin/isoniazid/pyrazinamide), for tuberculosis. Tilade ( ...
Resistant to isoniazid and streptomycin. Differential characteristics Phylogenetic position between rapidly and slowly growing ...
Isoniazid is a prodrug and once it has entered the bacteria, it is activated by a peroxidase enzyme, which oxidizes the ... NAD+ is also a direct target of the drug isoniazid, which is used in the treatment of tuberculosis, an infection caused by ... Rawat R, Whitty A, Tonge PJ (2003). "The isoniazid-NAD adduct is a slow, tight-binding inhibitor of InhA, the Mycobacterium ... Timmins GS, Deretic V (2006). "Mechanisms of action of isoniazid". Mol. Microbiol. 62 (5): 1220-1227. doi:10.1111/j.1365- ...
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Resistant to isoniazid, pyrazinamide and streptomycin. Differential characteristics Similarities to M. tuberculosis include ...
Resistant to isoniazid, rifampicin and prothionamide. Like many heat tolerant rapid growers, M. hassiacum has an extended helix ...
Isoniazid is hydrophilic and has a molecular weight of 137.139 g/mol. Isoniazid is therefore expected to be excreted via the ... Iproniazid can also be metabolised by O-dealkylation from iproniazid to acetone and isoniazid. Isoniazid can undergo further ... "A novel metabolite of antituberculosis therapy demonstrates host activation of isoniazid and formation of the isoniazid-NAD+ ... Hydrazine (antidepressant) Isoniazid Maxwell RA, Eckhardt SB (1990). "Iproniazid". Drug Discovery. Humana Press. pp. 143-154. ...
Resistant to isoniazid, rifampicin, and sodium aminosalicylate. Differential characteristics 5 species-specific antigens, ...
They are resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin. M. goodii is found in many of the same settings as M. smegmatis and members of ...
Hydrazide derivatives include isoniazid, iproniazid, and nialamide. Amide and ester derivatives include ethionamide and ...
Smieja, M. J.; Marchettu, C. A.; Cook, D. J.; Smaill, F. M. (1999). "Isoniazid for preventing tuberculosis in non-HIV infected ... They included three trials conducted in South Africa and Botswana and found that isoniazid given to all children diagnosed with ... Zunza, M.; Gray, D. M.; Young, T.; Cotton, M.; Zar, H. J. (2017). "Isoniazid for preventing tuberculosis in HIV-infected ... When HIV-negative children take isoniazid after they have been exposed to tuberculosis, their risk to contract tuberculosis is ...
Generally resistant to isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol and streptomycin. Differential characteristics Phylogenetic analysis, ...
Bozek CB, Kastrukoff LF, Wright JM, Perry TL, Larsen TA (1987). "A controlled trial of isoniazid therapy for action tremor in ... Duquette P, Pleines J, du Souich P (1985). "Isoniazid for tremor in multiple sclerosis: a controlled trial". Neurology. 35 (12 ... Hallett M, Lindsey JW, Adelstein BD, Riley PO (1985). "Controlled trial of isoniazid therapy for severe postural cerebellar ... Information from the USA National library of medicine on Isoniazid [2] Koller WC (1984). "Pharmacologic trials in the treatment ...
Carum carvi, a herb from Apiaceae enhances the bioavailability of anti tuberculosis drugs such as rifampicin, isoniazid, and ... Besides the antibiotics rifampicin and isoniazid it contains piperine. Randhawa GK, Kullar JS, Rajkumar (January 2011). " ...
Overdose of salicylates or isoniazid can also cause ketoacidosis. Ketoacidosis can be the result of ingestion of methanol, ...
... self-administered regimen of isoniazid for nine months. The three-month rifapentine-isoniazid regimen had higher rates of ... In latent tuberculosis it is typically used with isoniazid. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include low neutrophil ... However, the rate of treatment-limiting adverse events was higher in the rifapentine-isoniazid regimen compared to the nine- ... Rifampicin Isoniazid Rifamycin Rifabutin "Rifapentine (Priftin) Use During Pregnancy". Drugs.com. 2 December 2019. Retrieved 16 ...
3HR - Isoniazid and rifampin may be given daily for three months. 2RZ - The two-month regimen of rifampin and pyrazinamide is ... In the U.S., the standard treatment is nine months of isoniazid, but this regimen is not widely used outside of the US.[ ... "Current standard therapy is isoniazid (INH) which reduce the risk of active TB by as much as 90 per cent (in patients with ... 3HP - three-month (12-dose) regimen of weekly rifapentine and isoniazid. The 3HP regimen has to be administered under DOT. A ...
The two antibiotics most commonly used are rifampicin and isoniazid. There are dangers, however, of a rise of antibiotic- ...
Does not grow in the presence of ethambutol or isoniazid. Differential characteristics Closely related to M. kansasii M. gastri ...
... helped develop isoniazid antibiotic treatment Doris Schattschneider - geometer and professor; first female editor of ...
Mdluli K, Swanson J, Fischer E, Lee RE, Barry CE (March 1998). "Mechanisms involved in the intrinsic isoniazid resistance of ... Rifampicin is used for the treatment of tuberculosis in combination with other antibiotics, such as pyrazinamide, isoniazid, ... The activity of rifampicin against some species of mycobacteria can be potentiated by isoniazid (through inhibiting mycolate ... compared to isoniazid for preventing tuberculosis in HIV-negative people at risk of active TB". The Cochrane Database of ...
The mode of antidepressant action of isoniazid is still unclear. It is speculated that its effect is due to the inhibition of ... In the following year, he and Harry Salzer reported that Isoniazid improved depression in two-thirds of their patients, so they ... In 1952, learning of the stimulating side effects of Isoniazid, the Cincinnati psychiatrist Max Lurie tried it on his patients ... In 1952 (before Lurie and Salzer), Delay, with the resident Jean-Francois Buisson, reported the positive effect of isoniazid on ...
Isoniazid works in part by disrupting the formation of the bacterias cell wall which results in cell death. Isoniazid was ... Isoniazid is a prodrug that inhibits the formation of the mycobacterial cell wall. Isoniazid must be activated by KatG, a ... Isoniazid and a related drug, iproniazid, were among the first drugs to be referred to as antidepressants. Isoniazid is an ... Isoniazid is available as a generic medication. Isoniazid is often used to treat latent and active tuberculosis infections. In ...
This article focuses on acute isoniazid (isonicotinic acid hydrazide [INH]) hepatotoxicity. Since 1952, this agent has been ... encoded search term (Isoniazid Toxicity) and Isoniazid Toxicity What to Read Next on Medscape ... In adults, acute ingestion of as little as 1.5 g of isoniazid (INH) can lead to mild toxicity. [27] Acute ingestion of over 20 ... Isoniazid-related hepatitis: a U.S. Public Health Service cooperative surveillance study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1978 Jun. 117(6): ...
In a study published on Wednesday in the Lancet, researchers from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that "[a]mong 1,278 patients who were resistant to two or more first-line tuberculosis drugs in Estonia, Latvia, Peru, Philippines, Russia, South Africa, South Korea and Thailand, 43.7 percent showed resistance to at least one second-line drug," which "suggest[s] the deadly disease may become virtually untreatable," according to the study, Bloomberg Businessweek reports.. ...
Twenty isoniazid-associated deaths in one state. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;140:700-5. * Snider DE, Caras GJ. Isoniazid-associated ... Isoniazid hepatitis. Ann Intern Med 1973;79:1-12. * Garibaldi RA, Drusin RE, Ferebee SH, Gregg MB. Isoniazid-associated ... Severe Isoniazid-Associated Hepatitis -- New York, 1991-1993 MMWR 42(28);545-547 Publication date: 07/23/1993. Table of ... Isoniazid-related hepatitis: a U.S. Public Health Service cooperative surveillance study. Am Rev Respir Dis 1978;117:991-1001. ...
Risk of environmental impact of isoniazid cannot be excluded, since no ecotoxicity data are available according to Fass ... Underlying data for B and T are from Fass environmental information for Tibinide (isoniazid) Meda downloaded 2019-04-01. ... Bioaccumulation: An experimentally derived Log Kow of -0,70 (unknown method) ... indicates that isoniazid has low potential ... Underlying data for P comes from Fasss environmental information for Tibinide (isoniazid) Meda downloaded 2011-03-14. The risk ...
Rifapentine and isoniazid once a week versus rifampicin and isoniazid twice a week for treatment of drug-susceptible pulmonary ... BOX 1. Dosage for a combination regimen of isoniazid and rifapentine in 12 once-weekly doses under direct observation for ... Isoniazid (INH) is formulated as 100 mg and 300 mg tablets. Rifapentine (RPT)is formulated as 150 mg tablets packed in blister ... Weekly rifapentine/isoniazid or daily rifampin/pyrazinamide for latent tuberculosis in household contacts. Am J Respir Crit ...
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... were susceptible to isoniazid and the other 447 (10.4%) were resistant to isoniazid. In terms of demographic associations, ... Isoniazid-monoresistant tuberculosis in the United States, 1993 to 2003. Arch Intern Med. 2008;168:1984-92. DOIPubMedGoogle ... had isoniazid-susceptible TB meningitis and a 50-year-old man had meningitis caused by isoniazid-resistant TB. ... Isoniazid-resistant tuberculous meningitis, United States, 1993-2005. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17:539-42.PubMedGoogle Scholar ...
isoniazid. An antibiotic that works by stopping the growth of bacteria. It is used with other medications to treat active ... Isoniazid is recommended as preventive treatment for TB for people living with HIV at higher risk of TB. However, the trials of ... Pregnant women with HIV who took isoniazid to prevent tuberculosis were more likely to have a live birth and less likely to ... Taking isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) during pregnancy not associated with adverse birth outcomes ...
Isoniazid (INH), the mainstay therapeutic for tuberculosis infection, has been associated with rare but serious hepatotoxicity ... Isoniazid (INH), the mainstay therapeutic for tuberculosis infection, has been associated with rare but serious hepatotoxicity ... A systems biology approach utilizing a mouse diversity panel identifies genetic differences influencing isoniazid-induced ...
isoniazid that is. absorbed from the intestine, and this can result in reduced blood levels and. effect of isoniazid. If ... What are the uses for isoniazid, INH?. *Isoniazid is used to prevent active tuberculosis in. persons who have an abnormal skin ... What else should I know about isoniazid, INH?. What preparations of isoniazid, INH are available?. Tablets: 100 or 300 mg. ... whites eliminate isoniazid slowly compared with only 10%-20% of Asians.. Individuals who eliminate isoniazid slowly are more ...
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Isoniazid treatment for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) who started TNF ... Liver Function Abnormality Linked to Isoniazid Use in Patients with RA on TNF-Blocker Therapy. Debra Hughes, MS ... 54.6%; P=0.79; HR 0.98 [95% CI 0.92-1.04]. Also, isoniazid treatment for LTBI was not associated with discontinuation of TNF ... However, there is a lack of safety data regarding the effect of isoniazid for patients with RA on the persistency of TNF ...
Early-onset severe isoniazid-induced motor-dominant neuropathy: a case report ... unlike the typical peripheral neuropathy related to isoniazid. Therefore, isoniazid should not be dismissed as a possible cause ... A search on PubMed/MEDLINE found the following cases of isoniazid-induced complications: isoniazid-induced lupus erythematosus ... Isoniazid-induced neuropathy usually manifests as paresthesia that begins in the feet and can reach the hands and arms. The ...
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A patient on RIPE therapy presenting with recurrent isoniazid-associated pleural effusions: a case report. Journal of medical ... Isoniazid (INH)-induced eosinophilic exudative pleural effusion and lupus erythematosus. A clinical reminder of drug side ... Paradoxical pleural response to antituberculous chemotherapy and isoniazid-induced lupus. Review and report of two cases. ...
Isoniazid Therapy for Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Infection in HIV Clinics, Los Angeles, California. The International Journal ...
Isoniazid is an organic compound that is effectively against tuberculosis and it is always used in combination with other ... Isoniazid is a prodrug and must be activated by a bacterial catalase-peroxidase enzyme called KatG. KatG couples the ... Click the button below to add the Isoniazid 50 g to your wish list. ...
This finding does not support the use of isoniazid prophylaxis in high-risk patients with HIV infection and anergy unless they ... As a public health measure, prophylactic treatment with isoniazid has been suggested for HIV-infected persons who have anergy ... tuberculosis was diagnosed in only 6 of 257 patients in the placebo group and 3 of 260 patients in the isoniazid group (risk ... placebo-controlled trial of six months of prophylactic isoniazid treatment in HIV-infected patients with anergy who have risk ...
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3-MC, OP citrate, isoniazid and dexamethasone phosphate (main inducers of CYP1A1/2, 2B1/2, 2E1 and 3A1/2, respectively, in rats ... 3-MC, OP citrate, isoniazid and dexamethasone phosphate (main inducers of CYP1A1/2, 2B1/2, 2E1 and 3A1/2, respectively, in rats ... 3-MC, OP citrate, isoniazid and dexamethasone phosphate (main inducers of CYP1A1/2, 2B1/2, 2E1 and 3A1/2, respectively, in rats ... 3-MC, OP citrate, isoniazid and dexamethasone phosphate (main inducers of CYP1A1/2, 2B1/2, 2E1 and 3A1/2, respectively, in rats ...
... including Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT). Zimbabwe adopted this policy in 2013 as a pilot that has since been rapidly ...
"Experiments with isoniazid as a preventive measure against tuberculosis" 70, no. 8 (1955). "Experiments with isoniazid as a ... Title : Experiments with isoniazid as a preventive measure against tuberculosis Published Date : Aug 1955;08-1955; Source : ...
At sqadia.com clinical pharmacology made incredibly easy to understand isoniazid mode of action. ... This short clip explains the mechanism of action of isoniazid. ...
Do NOT use Isoniazid if:. *you are allergic to any ingredient in Isoniazid or have had severe side effects from isoniazid, such ... Isoniazid is found in breast milk. If you are or will be breast-feeding while you use Isoniazid, check with your doctor. ... Isoniazid is used for treating or preventing tuberculosis (TB). If you are using Isoniazid to treat TB, it should always be ... Use Isoniazid with caution in black and Hispanic women; they may have a greater risk of severe liver problems from Isoniazid. ...
How does it work? Isoniazid stops the growth of the bacteria that causes TB. When and how do I take it? Do NOT take with food. ... Isoniazid is recommended for all forms of tuberculosis. It can be used on its own for latent TB, or in combination with other ... Why have I been prescribed Isoniazid?. * Isoniazid is recommended for all forms of tuberculosis. ... Isoniazid stops the growth of the bacteria that causes TB.. When and how do I take it?. Do NOT take with food. Take with a ...
This article focuses on acute isoniazid (isonicotinic acid hydrazide [INH]) hepatotoxicity. Since 1952, this agent has been ... encoded search term (Isoniazid Toxicity) and Isoniazid Toxicity What to Read Next on Medscape ... Isoniazid Toxicity Differential Diagnoses. Updated: Dec 16, 2014 * Author: Richard A Weisiger, MD, PhD; Chief Editor: BS Anand ... Isoniazid-related hepatitis: a U.S. Public Health Service cooperative surveillance study. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1978 Jun. 117(6): ...
Isoniazid, also known as isonicotinylhydrazide (or INH), is an organic compound that is the first-line medication in prevention ... Ürün bilgileri "Isoniazid" Isoniazid, also known as isonicotinylhydrazide (or INH), is an organic compound that is the first- ... Isoniazid is a prodrug and must be activated by a bacterial catalase-peroxidase enzyme that in mycobacterium tuberculosis is ... Isoniazid, also known as isonicotinylhydrazide (or INH), is an organic compound that is the... daha fazla ...
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  • Isoniazid was widely used in the treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex as part of a regimen including rifampicin and ethambutol. (wikipedia.org)
  • Evidence suggests that isoniazid prevents mycolic acid synthesis in M. avium complex as in M. tuberculosis and although this is not bactericidal to M. avium complex, it greatly potentiates the effect of rifampicin. (wikipedia.org)
  • Therapy was prescribed for the first 2 months of isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol and piazoline. (who.int)
  • The Tunisian regimen of antituberculosis treatment is: isoniazid 5 mg/kg per day + rifampicin 10 mg/kg per day + ethambutol 20 mg/kg per day + piazoline 30 mg/kg per day. (who.int)
  • Yue J, Peng R. Does CYP2E1 play a major role in the aggravation of isoniazid toxicity by rifampicin in human hepatocytes? (medscape.com)
  • Isoniazid- and rifampicin-induced oxidative hepatic injury--protection by N-acetylcysteine. (medscape.com)
  • Isoniazid is often used together with Rifampicin (M3144) > . (genaxxon.com)
  • For diagnosis of MDR TB, currently drug sensitivity testing is done for Rifampicin,Isoniazid,Streptomycin and Ethambutol. (medicoapps.org)
  • Isoniazid and rifampicin reach into the caseous material. (medicoapps.org)
  • Isoniazid tablets 100mg can be used alone for latent tuberculosis to prevent the progression to active disease, but for active tuberculosis is used in combination with other antitubercular agents such as rifampicin. (inhousepharmacy.vu)
  • This product is a compound preparation, and its components are: each capsule contains rifampicin (C 43 H 58 N 4 O 12 ) 0.15 g and isoniazid (C 6 H 7 N 3 O) 0.1 g. (hongqipharma.com)
  • 50kg, oral administration of 0.45g rifampicin, 0.3g isoniazid, once a day. (hongqipharma.com)
  • 1. People who are allergic to isoniazid, rifampicin and rifamycin antibacterial drugs are forbidden. (hongqipharma.com)
  • surprisingly, given the advent of mdr-tb when tb is resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin , research into developing isoniazid derivatives is not a hot area at present. (lafulana.org.ar)
  • For these patients, formulations containing more isoniazid/rifampicin should be used. (who.int)
  • For situations where discontinuation of therapy with one of the active agents of this medicine, or dose reduction is necessary, separate preparations of rifampicin and/or isoniazid should be used. (who.int)
  • If so, separate preparations of rifampicin and isoniazid should be administered (see section 4.4). (who.int)
  • Limited data indicate that the pharmacokinetics of rifampicin and isoniazid are altered in patients with hepatic impairment. (who.int)
  • Patients with multidrug-resistant TB were excluded on the basis of evidence for differences in the epidemiology of isoniazid-resistant (rifampin-susceptible) TB and multidrug-resistant TB ( 4 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Hepatotoxicity from isoniazid and rifampin in inner-city AIDS patients. (medscape.com)
  • Adverse events with 4 months of rifampin therapy or 9 months of isoniazid therapy for latent tuberculosis infection: a randomized trial. (medscape.com)
  • The fixed-combination preparation containing rifampin, isoniazid, and pyrazinamide (Rifater®) is designated an orphan drug by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the treatment of tuberculosis. (antiinfectivemeds.com)
  • Buy isoniazid side, Purchase isoniazid adverse, Isoniazid rifampin ethambutol viagra tablets name . (lafulana.org.ar)
  • Isoniazid rifampin ethambutol buy sertraline . (lafulana.org.ar)
  • The best 2 of these drugs are rifampin and isoniazid. (cdc.gov)
  • Isoniazid and its toxic metabolite hydrazine induce in vitro pyrazinamide toxicity. (medscape.com)
  • In November 1992, the New York State Department of Health was notified of a patient who underwent liver transplantation because of severe hepatitis that developed during the use of isoniazid (INH) preventive therapy (IPT) for latent tuberculous infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Another large retrospective study carried out in Kenya found no difference in the risk of premature birth or other adverse birth outcomes between women who started isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) during pregnancy and those who didn't. (aidsmap.com)
  • The two studies provide reassuring evidence that isoniazid preventive treatment does not result in a higher rate of adverse birth outcomes in pregnant women. (aidsmap.com)
  • Isoniazid is recommended as preventive treatment for TB for people living with HIV at higher risk of TB. (aidsmap.com)
  • Factors associated with uptake of Isoniazid Preventive Therapy among Human Immunodeficiency Virus-infected clients in Zimbabwe. (uwc.ac.za)
  • The WHO has developed normative guidance for helping to reduce the burden of TB among people living with HIV, including Isoniazid Preventive Therapy (IPT). (uwc.ac.za)
  • Previously, "preventive therapy" or "chemoprophylaxis" was used to describe a simple drug regimen (e.g., isoniazid monotherapy) used to prevent the development of active tuberculosis disease in individuals known or likely to be infected with M. tuberculosis. (antiinfectivemeds.com)
  • Not just antiretroviral therapy (ART), not just ART plus IPT [isoniazid preventive therapy], but other things as well, and if we do all of these things - and all of these things are achievable now - we could really start to make a big difference in terms of TB prevention. (aidsmap.com)
  • As previously reported by aidsmap , the Thibela TB study showed that giving a nine-month course of isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) to everyone working at randomly selected South African gold mines had no effect on TB incidence, TB prevalence or all-cause mortality in the population, when compared to a cluster of gold mines randomised to standard TB programme management. (aidsmap.com)
  • TB HIV Care's Prof. Harry Hausler presented on isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT) among key populations at a TB and HIV satellite session, while Dr Andrew Scheibe participated in an HIV and viral hepatitis pre-conference session - as well as sharing findings of South Africa's harm reduction coverage and gaps in an oral presentation (see article below). (tbhivcare.org)
  • Guidelines for intensified tuberculosis case-finding and isoniazid preventive therapy for people living with HIV in resource-constrained settings. (who.int)
  • In persons with isoniazid-sensitive Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, drug regimens based on isoniazid are usually effective when persons adhere to the prescribed treatment. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, in persons with isoniazid-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, drug regimens based on isoniazid have a high rate of failure. (wikipedia.org)
  • Vitamin B6 is used to prevent isoniazid-induced B6 deficiency and neuropathy in people with a risk factor, such as pregnancy, lactation, HIV infection, alcoholism, diabetes, kidney failure, or malnutrition. (wikipedia.org)
  • Isoniazid (INH), the mainstay therapeutic for tuberculosis infection, has been associated with rare but serious hepatotoxicity in the clinic. (nih.gov)
  • SAN DIEGO, CA -Isoniazid treatment for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) who started TNF inhibitors is associated with the occurrence of liver function abnormality, according to investigators at the 2013 ACR/ARHP Annual Meeting. (empr.com)
  • Isoniazid Therapy for Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Infection in HIV Clinics, Los Angeles, California. (aidshealth.org)
  • We conducted a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of six months of prophylactic isoniazid treatment in HIV-infected patients with anergy who have risk factors for tuberculosis infection. (columbia.edu)
  • This finding does not support the use of isoniazid prophylaxis in high-risk patients with HIV infection and anergy unless they have been exposed to active tuberculosis. (columbia.edu)
  • Isoniazid tablets 100mg contain the antibiotic isoniazid that is used to treat pulmonary tuberculosis in active form to prevent spread of infection and in latent form to prevent the progression to active disease. (inhousepharmacy.vu)
  • Isoniazid tablets 100mg are used to treat pulmonary tuberculosis, which is an infection of the lungs with the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. (inhousepharmacy.vu)
  • This action of Isoniazid in Isoniazid tablets 100mg prevents spread of the infection and relieves symptoms of tuberculosis. (inhousepharmacy.vu)
  • Isoniazid usually is used alone for the treatment of latent tuberculosis infection to prevent the development of clinical tuberculosis. (antiinfectivemeds.com)
  • In several randomized, controlled trials, isoniazid therapy for 6-12 months substantially reduced the incidence of clinical tuberculosis in patients with HIV infection who had induration reactions to tuberculin skin tests of 5 mm or greater. (antiinfectivemeds.com)
  • Isoniazid is an antituberculous medication that works by preventing the growth and multiplication of the tuberculosis bacteria, which ultimately helps to bring the infection under control. (365chemists.com)
  • Isoniazid, also known as isonicotinic acid hydrazide (INH), is an antibiotic used for the treatment of tuberculosis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Isoniazid is an antibiotic and works by stopping the growth of bacteria. (healthwarehouse.com)
  • Isoniazid is an antibiotic and works by stopping the growth of bacteria.This antibiotic treats only bacterial infections . (webmd.com)
  • Isoniazid tablets 100mg contain the active ingredient isoniazid, an antibiotic used to treat tuberculosis. (inhousepharmacy.vu)
  • We previously reported that C10, a ring-fused thiazolo-2-pyridone, inhibits Mtb respiration , blocks biofilm formation, and restores the activity of the antibiotic isoniazid (INH) in INH-resistant Mtb isolates. (bvsalud.org)
  • Isoniazid has a boxed warning for severe and sometimes fatal hepatitis, which is age-dependent at a rate of 0.3% in people 21 to 35 years old and over 2% in those over age 50. (wikipedia.org)
  • Diagnosis of isoniazid (isonicotinic acid hydrazide [INH]) hepatotoxicity requires exclusion of other causes of hepatitis. (medscape.com)
  • Isoniazid-related hepatitis: a U.S. Public Health Service cooperative surveillance study. (medscape.com)
  • This article focuses on the acute and chronic isoniazid (isonicotinic acid hydrazide [INH] toxicity. (medscape.com)
  • If nausea occurs, ask your doctor if you can take Isoniazid with food. (canadianfamilypharmacy.su)
  • If nausea occurs, ask your doctor if you possibly could take Isoniazid with food. (med4treat.top)
  • When it happens, isoniazid-induced liver toxicity has been shown to occur in 50% of patients within the first 2 months of therapy. (wikipedia.org)
  • Three randomized controlled trials have shown that a new combination regimen of isoniazid (INH) and rifapentine (RPT) administered weekly for 12 weeks as directly observed therapy (DOT) is as effective for preventing TB as other regimens and is more likely to be completed than the U.S. standard regimen of 9 months of INH daily without DOT ( 2 5 ). (cdc.gov)
  • A patient on RIPE therapy presenting with recurrent isoniazid-associated pleural effusions: a case report. (pneumotox.com)
  • 2023. https://im.unboundmedicine.com/medicine/view/Davis-Drug-Guide/51418/all/isoniazid. (unboundmedicine.com)
  • Isoniazid has rarely caused very serious (possibly fatal) liver disease. (healthwarehouse.com)
  • Because of the potential impact that isoniazid has on liver function, it is essential that any history of liver disease or alcohol abuse be disclosed. (365chemists.com)
  • Effect of hydrazine and isoniazid on liver and brain glutathione. (cdc.gov)
  • ISONIAZID TABLET 100mg is approved to be sold in Singapore with effective from 1988-05-19 . (pharmfair.com)
  • This product contains Isoniazid 100mg in the form of TABLET . (pharmfair.com)
  • Unfortunately, Isoniazid (Isoniazid 100mg) Tablets is currently out of stock. (inhousepharmacy.vu)
  • Isoniazid tablets 100mg are also effective for treatment of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. (inhousepharmacy.vu)
  • Isoniazid in Isoniazid tablets 100mg has antibacterial activity only against Mycobacterium tuberculosis that causes tuberculosis. (inhousepharmacy.vu)
  • Isoniazid is often used to treat latent and active tuberculosis infections. (wikipedia.org)
  • CYP2E1 genotype and isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity in patients treated for latent tuberculosis. (medscape.com)
  • Black and Hispanic women are at higher risk for isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity. (wikipedia.org)
  • The potential for hepatotoxicity of isoniazid has been a concern in RA patients treated with DMARDs, including methotrexate. (empr.com)
  • N-acetyl transferase 2 and cytochrome P450 2E1 genes and isoniazid-induced hepatotoxicity in Brazilian patients. (medscape.com)
  • Genetic variations of NAT2 and CYP2E1 and isoniazid hepatotoxicity in a diverse population. (medscape.com)
  • Up to 20% of people taking isoniazid experience peripheral neuropathy when taking daily doses of 6 mg/kg of body weight or higher. (wikipedia.org)
  • Peripheral neuropathy is a rare adverse effect associated with isoniazid, and it occurs after the prolonged use of this drug [1]. (who.int)
  • Here we report a case of acute isoniazid-induced peripheral neuropathy with predominant motor functional impairment associated with tetraplegia. (who.int)
  • To our knowledge, there has been no report of a patient who developed severe peripheral neuropathy barely 2 weeks after the initial administration of conventional doses of isoniazid. (who.int)
  • Peripheral neuropathy due to isoniazid was suspected and the drug was stopped. (who.int)
  • However, patients should be closely monitored for signs of isoniazid toxicity, especially peripheral neuropathy. (who.int)
  • Isoniazid is the active component of the medication that is sold under the brand name Solonex 300mg Tablet. (365chemists.com)
  • Underlying data for B and T are from Fass environmental information for Tibinide (isoniazid) Meda downloaded 2019-04-01. (janusinfo.se)
  • indicates that isoniazid has low potential for bioaccumulation' (Fass downloaded 2019-04-01). (janusinfo.se)
  • Risk of environmental impact of isoniazid cannot be excluded, since no ecotoxicity data are available according to Fass downloaded 2019-04-01. (janusinfo.se)
  • Mutation in the genes involved in the biosynthesis of mycolic acid will result in different variety of mycolic acid which cannot be killed by the Isoniazid. (medicoapps.org)
  • Isoniazid inhibit phenytoin metabolism & can precipitate its toxicitiy. (medicoapps.org)
  • Your doctor may also direct you to take vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) to help prevent certain side effects (such as nerve problems) from isoniazid. (healthwarehouse.com)
  • During a randomized, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled clinical trial of isoniazid (plus pyridoxine) in Huntington's disease (HD), amino acids and related amino compounds were measured in both cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma utilizing a newly developed high-performance liquid chromatography ion-exchange/fluorometric assay method. (researchwithrowan.com)
  • Results showed that isoniazid (plus pyridoxine) significantly elevated the mean (± S.E.M.) levels of γ-aminobutyric acid, aspartate, homocarnosine, ornithine, histidine, α-aminobutyric acid, isoleucine, leucine and alanine in CSF and the levels of β-alanine in both CSF and plasma. (researchwithrowan.com)
  • A dose test of 300 mg isoniazid after 3 hours gave 1.2 mg/L which indicates rapid acetylator status. (who.int)
  • If you miss a dose of Isoniazid, use it as soon as possible. (canadianfamilypharmacy.su)
  • The differential influence of isoniazid on plasma and CSF amino acid profiles suggests that alterations of CNS amino acid metabolism may be reflected in CSF, and that isoniazid-induced alterations of amino acid metabolism in the CNS differ from those in the periphery. (researchwithrowan.com)
  • It is recommended that women with active tuberculosis who are pregnant or breastfeeding take isoniazid. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pregnant women with HIV who took isoniazid to prevent tuberculosis were more likely to have a live birth and less likely to experience a miscarriage, South African researchers reported this week at the Union World Conference On Lung Health. (aidsmap.com)
  • Tell your doctor if you are pregnant as he/she will have to weigh the benefits aginst the risks of treating you with isoniazid while pregnant. (telehealthpharmacy.ie)
  • org healthcare conference17 report20 purchase isoniazid cheap online a medicine you can take while pregnant. (lafulana.org.ar)
  • Acute isoniazid (INH) overdose results in decreased pyridoxal-5'-phosphate levels, decreased gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) synthesis, increased cerebral excitability, and seizures. (medscape.com)
  • Isoniazid is an organic compound that is effectively against tuberculosis and it is always used in combination with other antituberculosis medicines. (p212121.com)
  • Isoniazid is used in conjunction with other antituberculosis agents in the treatment of clinical tuberculosis. (antiinfectivemeds.com)
  • Isoniazid is considered a first-line antituberculosis agent for the treatment of all forms of tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis known or presumed to be susceptible to the drug. (antiinfectivemeds.com)
  • Because isoniazid was introduced to Taiwan for the treatment of TB in 1952, elderly persons in Taiwan probably did not receive isoniazid if their TB developed when they were young. (cdc.gov)
  • A total of 312 patients aged ≥18 years were enrolled in this study, of which 96 patients (30.8%) were taking isoniazid treatment for LTBI. (empr.com)
  • Also, isoniazid treatment for LTBI was not associated with discontinuation of TNF inhibitors in the Cox proportional hazard model. (empr.com)
  • As a public health measure, prophylactic treatment with isoniazid has been suggested for HIV-infected persons who have anergy and are in groups with a high prevalence of tuberculosis. (columbia.edu)
  • Isoniazid can also be used in the treatment of a BCG-oma. (canadianfamilypharmacy.su)
  • Your doctor may want you to have blood tests or other medical evaluations during treatment with isoniazid to monitor progress and side effects. (canadianfamilypharmacy.su)
  • Isoniazid, also known as isonicotinylhydrazide (or INH), is an organic compound that is the first-line medication in prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. (genaxxon.com)
  • Although oral isoniazid is preferred for the treatment of tuberculosis, the drug may be given IM for initial or retreatment of the disease when the drug cannot be given orally. (antiinfectivemeds.com)
  • Isoniazid remains the treatment of choice for tuberculosis. (lafulana.org.ar)
  • New drugs they may need to be requested by kyky spring collection laws and promotes health care or data management system can isoniazid cause strong opioid dihydrocodeine from regular pharmacies with worldwide marketing and handle everything in strength. (jaspi.social)
  • Isoniazid is a prodrug and must be activated by a bacterial catalase-peroxidase enzyme called KatG. (p212121.com)
  • kat G gene codes for catalase-peroxidase that activates the isoniazid (isoniazid is a prodrug). (medicoapps.org)
  • Paradoxical pleural response to antituberculous chemotherapy and isoniazid-induced lupus. (pneumotox.com)
  • however, current information about the patient characteristics associated with isoniazid-resistant tuberculosis (TB) in Taiwan is lacking. (cdc.gov)
  • Isoniazid is used for treating or preventing tuberculosis (TB). (canadianfamilypharmacy.su)
  • Isoniazid is used with other medications to treat active tuberculosis (TB) infections. (healthwarehouse.com)
  • Valifol (Isoniazid) is used to treat tuberculosis (TB) or prevent its return (reactivation). (comprar-medicina.com)
  • After excluding patients with multidrug-resistant TB, we analyzed 4,289 nonduplicate isolates, of which 3,842 (89.6%) were susceptible to isoniazid and the other 447 (10.4%) were resistant to isoniazid. (cdc.gov)
  • 74 years of age to have an isoniazid-resistant strain ( Table ). (cdc.gov)
  • In addition, patients with extrapulmonary TB were less likely than patients with pulmonary TB to be infected with isoniazid-resistant TB. (cdc.gov)
  • After excluding 2 patients with multidrug-resistant TB, we found that 31 patients (mean age 56.6 years) had isoniazid-susceptible TB meningitis and a 50-year-old man had meningitis caused by isoniazid-resistant TB. (cdc.gov)
  • 1 ), our results showed that isoniazid-resistant M. tuberculosis was significantly less likely to be isolated from nonrespiratory than from respiratory specimens. (cdc.gov)
  • Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Novel Δ 2 -Thiazolino 2-Pyridone Derivatives That Potentiate Isoniazid Activity in an Isoniazid-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis Mutant. (bvsalud.org)
  • At therapeutic levels isoniazid is bacteriocidal against actively growing intracellular and extracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis organisms. (pharmfair.com)
  • Isoniazid is considered the primary drug for the chemotherapy of tuberculosis. (medicoapps.org)
  • Isoniazid is bactericidal to rapidly dividing mycobacteria, but is bacteriostatic if the mycobacteria are slow-growing. (genaxxon.com)
  • Isoniazid is bacteriostatic for resting bacilli, but is bactericidal for rapidly dividing microorganisms. (medicoapps.org)
  • Another mechanism of resistance in Isoniazid is related to mutation in the mycobacterial inh A and kas A genes. (medicoapps.org)