Malignant lymphoma composed of large B lymphoid cells whose nuclear size can exceed normal macrophage nuclei, or more than twice the size of a normal lymphocyte. The pattern is predominantly diffuse. Most of these lymphomas represent the malignant counterpart of B-lymphocytes at midstage in the process of differentiation.
A group of heterogeneous lymphoid tumors generally expressing one or more B-cell antigens or representing malignant transformations of B-lymphocytes.
A general term for various neoplastic diseases of the lymphoid tissue.
Any of a group of malignant tumors of lymphoid tissue that differ from HODGKIN DISEASE, being more heterogeneous with respect to malignant cell lineage, clinical course, prognosis, and therapy. The only common feature among these tumors is the absence of giant REED-STERNBERG CELLS, a characteristic of Hodgkin's disease.
Malignant lymphoma in which the lymphomatous cells are clustered into identifiable nodules within the LYMPH NODES. The nodules resemble to some extent the GERMINAL CENTER of lymph node follicles and most likely represent neoplastic proliferation of lymph node-derived follicular center B-LYMPHOCYTES.
A group of heterogeneous lymphoid tumors representing malignant transformations of T-lymphocytes.
Extranodal lymphoma of lymphoid tissue associated with mucosa that is in contact with exogenous antigens. Many of the sites of these lymphomas, such as the stomach, salivary gland, and thyroid, are normally devoid of lymphoid tissue. They acquire mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) type as a result of an immunologically mediated disorder.
The activated center of a lymphoid follicle in secondary lymphoid tissue where B-LYMPHOCYTES are stimulated by antigens and helper T cells (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER) are stimulated to generate memory cells.
A DNA-binding protein that represses GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of target genes by recruiting HISTONE DEACETYLASES. Aberrant Blc-6 expression is associated with certain types of human B-CELL LYMPHOMA.
Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.
A group of malignant lymphomas thought to derive from peripheral T-lymphocytes in lymph nodes and other nonlymphoid sites. They include a broad spectrum of lymphocyte morphology, but in all instances express T-cell markers admixed with epithelioid histiocytes, plasma cells, and eosinophils. Although markedly similar to large-cell immunoblastic lymphoma (LYMPHOMA, LARGE-CELL, IMMUNOBLASTIC), this group's unique features warrant separate treatment.
Malignant lymphoma characterized by the presence of immunoblasts with uniformly round-to-oval nuclei, one or more prominent nucleoli, and abundant cytoplasm. This class may be subdivided into plasmacytoid and clear-cell types based on cytoplasmic characteristics. A third category, pleomorphous, may be analogous to some of the peripheral T-cell lymphomas (LYMPHOMA, T-CELL, PERIPHERAL) recorded in both the United States and Japan.
A form of undifferentiated malignant LYMPHOMA usually found in central Africa, but also reported in other parts of the world. It is commonly manifested as a large osteolytic lesion in the jaw or as an abdominal mass. B-cell antigens are expressed on the immature cells that make up the tumor in virtually all cases of Burkitt lymphoma. The Epstein-Barr virus (HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN) has been isolated from Burkitt lymphoma cases in Africa and it is implicated as the causative agent in these cases; however, most non-African cases are EBV-negative.
Antibodies obtained from a single clone of cells grown in mice or rats.
An antitumor alkaloid isolated from VINCA ROSEA. (Merck, 11th ed.)
A component of the B-cell antigen receptor that is involved in B-cell antigen receptor heavy chain transport to the PLASMA MEMBRANE. It is expressed almost exclusively in B-LYMPHOCYTES and serves as a useful marker for B-cell NEOPLASMS.
Tumors or cancer of the MEDIASTINUM.
A family of MARVEL domain-containing proteolipid proteins involved in vesicular trafficking cycling between the GOLGI COMPLEX and the apical PLASMA MEMBRANE.
A synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from CORTISONE. It is biologically inert and converted to PREDNISOLONE in the liver.
Infection with human herpesvirus 4 (HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN); which may facilitate the development of various lymphoproliferative disorders. These include BURKITT LYMPHOMA (African type), INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS, and oral hairy leukoplakia (LEUKOPLAKIA, HAIRY).
A malignant disease characterized by progressive enlargement of the lymph nodes, spleen, and general lymphoid tissue. In the classical variant, giant usually multinucleate Hodgkin's and REED-STERNBERG CELLS are present; in the nodular lymphocyte predominant variant, lymphocytic and histiocytic cells are seen.
A type of chromosome aberration characterized by CHROMOSOME BREAKAGE and transfer of the broken-off portion to another location, often to a different chromosome.
Unglycosylated phosphoproteins expressed only on B-cells. They are regulators of transmembrane Ca2+ conductance and thought to play a role in B-cell activation and proliferation.
Precursor of an alkylating nitrogen mustard antineoplastic and immunosuppressive agent that must be activated in the LIVER to form the active aldophosphamide. It has been used in the treatment of LYMPHOMA and LEUKEMIA. Its side effect, ALOPECIA, has been used for defleecing sheep. Cyclophosphamide may also cause sterility, birth defects, mutations, and cancer.
Antineoplastic antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces peucetius. It is a hydroxy derivative of DAUNORUBICIN.
A form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma having a usually diffuse pattern with both small and medium lymphocytes and small cleaved cells. It accounts for about 5% of adult non-Hodgkin lymphomas in the United States and Europe. The majority of mantle-cell lymphomas are associated with a t(11;14) translocation resulting in overexpression of the CYCLIN D1 gene (GENES, BCL-1).
Disorders characterized by proliferation of lymphoid tissue, general or unspecified.
Process of classifying cells of the immune system based on structural and functional differences. The process is commonly used to analyze and sort T-lymphocytes into subsets based on CD antigens by the technique of flow cytometry.
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
A group of lymphomas exhibiting clonal expansion of malignant T-lymphocytes arrested at varying stages of differentiation as well as malignant infiltration of the skin. MYCOSIS FUNGOIDES; SEZARY SYNDROME; LYMPHOMATOID PAPULOSIS; and PRIMARY CUTANEOUS ANAPLASTIC LARGE CELL LYMPHOMA are the best characterized of these disorders.
A family of intracellular signaling adaptor proteins that contain caspase activation and recruitment domains. Proteins that contain this domain play a role in APOPTOSIS-related signal transduction by associating with other CARD domain-containing members and in activating INITIATOR CASPASES that contain CARD domains within their N-terminal pro-domain region.
The largest of polypeptide chains comprising immunoglobulins. They contain 450 to 600 amino acid residues per chain, and have molecular weights of 51-72 kDa.
FEVER accompanied by a significant reduction in NEUTROPHIL count associated with CHEMOTHERAPY.
B-cell lymphoid tumors that occur in association with AIDS. Patients often present with an advanced stage of disease and highly malignant subtypes including BURKITT LYMPHOMA; IMMUNOBLASTIC LARGE-CELL LYMPHOMA; PRIMARY EFFUSION LYMPHOMA; and DIFFUSE, LARGE B-CELL, LYMPHOMA. The tumors are often disseminated in unusual extranodal sites and chromosomal abnormalities are frequently present. It is likely that polyclonal B-cell lymphoproliferation in AIDS is a complex result of EBV infection, HIV antigenic stimulation, and T-cell-dependent HIV activation.
A classification of B-lymphocytes based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.
The use of two or more chemicals simultaneously or sequentially in the drug therapy of neoplasms. The drugs need not be in the same dosage form.
The type species of LYMPHOCRYPTOVIRUS, subfamily GAMMAHERPESVIRINAE, infecting B-cells in humans. It is thought to be the causative agent of INFECTIOUS MONONUCLEOSIS and is strongly associated with oral hairy leukoplakia (LEUKOPLAKIA, HAIRY;), BURKITT LYMPHOMA; and other malignancies.
A systemic, large-cell, non-Hodgkin, malignant lymphoma characterized by cells with pleomorphic appearance and expressing the CD30 ANTIGEN. These so-called "hallmark" cells have lobulated and indented nuclei. This lymphoma is often mistaken for metastatic carcinoma and MALIGNANT HISTIOCYTOSIS.
A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual's condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
A cell line derived from cultured tumor cells.
Membrane proteins encoded by the BCL-2 GENES and serving as potent inhibitors of cell death by APOPTOSIS. The proteins are found on mitochondrial, microsomal, and NUCLEAR MEMBRANE sites within many cell types. Overexpression of bcl-2 proteins, due to a translocation of the gene, is associated with follicular lymphoma.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in neoplastic tissue.
Molecular products metabolized and secreted by neoplastic tissue and characterized biochemically in cells or body fluids. They are indicators of tumor stage and grade as well as useful for monitoring responses to treatment and predicting recurrence. Many chemical groups are represented including hormones, antigens, amino and nucleic acids, enzymes, polyamines, and specific cell membrane proteins and lipids.
Therapeutic act or process that initiates a response to a complete or partial remission level.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
The determination of the pattern of genes expressed at the level of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
An immunoglobulin which accounts for less than 1% of plasma immunoglobulin. It is found on the membrane of many circulating B LYMPHOCYTES.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
Genes encoding the different subunits of the IMMUNOGLOBULINS, for example the IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAIN GENES and the IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAIN GENES. The heavy and light immunoglobulin genes are present as gene segments in the germline cells. The completed genes are created when the segments are shuffled and assembled (B-LYMPHOCYTE GENE REARRANGEMENT) during B-LYMPHOCYTE maturation. The gene segments of the human light and heavy chain germline genes are symbolized V (variable), J (joining) and C (constant). The heavy chain germline genes have an additional segment D (diversity).
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
Ordered rearrangement of B-lymphocyte variable gene regions coding for the IMMUNOGLOBULIN CHAINS, thereby contributing to antibody diversity. It occurs during the differentiation of the IMMATURE B-LYMPHOCYTES.
Glycoproteins expressed on all mature T-cells, thymocytes, and a subset of mature B-cells. Antibodies specific for CD5 can enhance T-cell receptor-mediated T-cell activation. The B-cell-specific molecule CD72 is a natural ligand for CD5. (From Abbas et al., Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 2d ed, p156)
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
A chronic leukemia characterized by abnormal B-lymphocytes and often generalized lymphadenopathy. In patients presenting predominately with blood and bone marrow involvement it is called chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL); in those predominately with enlarged lymph nodes it is called small lymphocytic lymphoma. These terms represent spectrums of the same disease.
They are oval or bean shaped bodies (1 - 30 mm in diameter) located along the lymphatic system.
Ordered rearrangement of B-lymphocyte variable gene regions of the IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS, thereby contributing to antibody diversity. It occurs during the first stage of differentiation of the IMMATURE B-LYMPHOCYTES.
Differentiation antigens expressed on B-lymphocytes and B-cell precursors. They are involved in regulation of B-cell proliferation.
An extranodal neoplasm, usually possessing an NK-cell phenotype and associated with EPSTEIN-BARR VIRUS. These lymphomas exhibit a broad morphologic spectrum, frequent necrosis, angioinvasion, and most commonly present in the midfacial region, but also in other extranodal sites.
That region of the immunoglobulin molecule that varies in its amino acid sequence and composition, and comprises the binding site for a specific antigen. It is located at the N-terminus of the Fab fragment of the immunoglobulin. It includes hypervariable regions (COMPLEMENTARITY DETERMINING REGIONS) and framework regions.
A lectin and cell adhesion molecule found in B-LYMPHOCYTES. It interacts with SIALIC ACIDS and mediates signaling from B-CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS.
Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.
Multi-subunit proteins which function in IMMUNITY. They are produced by B LYMPHOCYTES from the IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES. They are comprised of two heavy (IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS) and two light chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAINS) with additional ancillary polypeptide chains depending on their isoforms. The variety of isoforms include monomeric or polymeric forms, and transmembrane forms (B-CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS) or secreted forms (ANTIBODIES). They are divided by the amino acid sequence of their heavy chains into five classes (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; IMMUNOGLOBULIN D; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M) and various subclasses.
A tumor necrosis factor superfamily member that plays a role in the regulation of B-LYMPHOCYTE survival. It occurs as a membrane-bound protein that is cleaved to release an biologically active soluble form with specificity to TRANSMEMBRANE ACTIVATOR AND CAML INTERACTOR PROTEIN; B-CELL ACTIVATION FACTOR RECEPTOR; and B-CELL MATURATION ANTIGEN.
A specific pair of GROUP D CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily with specificity for CD40 LIGAND. It is found on mature B-LYMPHOCYTES and some EPITHELIAL CELLS, lymphoid DENDRITIC CELLS. Evidence suggests that CD40-dependent activation of B-cells is important for generation of memory B-cells within the germinal centers. Mutations of the gene for CD40 antigen result in HYPER-IGM IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME, TYPE 3. Signaling of the receptor occurs through its association with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS.
Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
The ordered rearrangement of gene regions by DNA recombination such as that which occurs normally during development.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
T-cell enhancement of the B-cell response to thymic-dependent antigens.
A member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily that may play a role in the regulation of NF-KAPPA B and APOPTOSIS. They are found on activated T-LYMPHOCYTES; B-LYMPHOCYTES; NEUTROPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; MAST CELLS and NK CELLS. Overexpression of CD30 antigen in hematopoietic malignancies make the antigen clinically useful as a biological tumor marker. Signaling of the receptor occurs through its association with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Lymphocyte progenitor cells that are restricted in their differentiation potential to the B lymphocyte lineage. The pro-B cell stage of B lymphocyte development precedes the pre-B cell stage.
Membrane antigens associated with maturation stages of B-lymphocytes, often expressed in tumors of B-cell origin.
A specific pair of GROUP E CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A malignant disease of the B-LYMPHOCYTES in the bone marrow and/or blood.
A class of statistical procedures for estimating the survival function (function of time, starting with a population 100% well at a given time and providing the percentage of the population still well at later times). The survival analysis is then used for making inferences about the effects of treatments, prognostic factors, exposures, and other covariates on the function.
A group of genetically identical cells all descended from a single common ancestral cell by mitosis in eukaryotes or by binary fission in prokaryotes. Clone cells also include populations of recombinant DNA molecules all carrying the same inserted sequence. (From King & Stansfield, Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
A member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily that specifically binds B-CELL ACTIVATING FACTOR. It is found on B-LYMPHOCYTES and plays a role in maturation and survival of B-cells. Signaling by the activated receptor occurs through its association with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS.
Specialized tissues that are components of the lymphatic system. They provide fixed locations within the body where a variety of LYMPHOCYTES can form, mature and multiply. The lymphoid tissues are connected by a network of LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
The altered state of immunologic responsiveness resulting from initial contact with antigen, which enables the individual to produce antibodies more rapidly and in greater quantity in response to secondary antigenic stimulus.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Large cells, usually multinucleate, whose presence is a common histologic characteristic of classical HODGKIN DISEASE.
Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Tumors or cancer of the THYMUS GLAND.
Molecular sites on or in B-lymphocytes, follicular dendritic cells, lymphoid cells, and epithelial cells that recognize and combine with COMPLEMENT C3D. Human complement receptor 2 (CR2) serves as a receptor for both C3dg and the gp350/220 glycoprotein of HERPESVIRUS 4, HUMAN, and binds the monoclonal antibody OKB7, which blocks binding of both ligands to the receptor.
The class of heavy chains found in IMMUNOGLOBULIN M. They have a molecular weight of approximately 72 kDa and they contain about 57 amino acid residues arranged in five domains and have more oligosaccharide branches and a higher carbohydrate content than the heavy chains of IMMUNOGLOBULIN G.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A programmed mutation process whereby changes are introduced to the nucleotide sequence of immunoglobulin gene DNA during development.
One of the types of light chains of the immunoglobulins with a molecular weight of approximately 22 kDa.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
Antibodies which react with the individual structural determinants (idiotopes) on the variable region of other antibodies.
Benign and malignant neoplastic processes that arise from or secondarily involve the brain, spinal cord, or meninges.
A member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily found on most T-LYMPHOCYTES. Activation of the receptor by CD70 ANTIGEN results in the increased proliferation of CD4-POSITIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES and CD8-POSITIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES. Signaling by the activated receptor occurs through its association with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS.
A transcription factor that is essential for CELL DIFFERENTIATION of B-LYMPHOCYTES. It functions both as a transcriptional activator and repressor to mediate B-cell commitment.
The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue and is the site of production of erythrocytes and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made up of a framework of connective tissue containing branching fibers with the frame being filled with marrow cells.
Polypeptide chains, consisting of 211 to 217 amino acid residues and having a molecular weight of approximately 22 kDa. There are two major types of light chains, kappa and lambda. Two Ig light chains and two Ig heavy chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS) make one immunoglobulin molecule.
A group of disorders having a benign course but exhibiting clinical and histological features suggestive of malignant lymphoma. Pseudolymphoma is characterized by a benign infiltration of lymphoid cells or histiocytes which microscopically resembles a malignant lymphoma. (From Dorland, 28th ed & Stedman, 26th ed)
Ordered rearrangement of B-lymphocyte variable gene regions coding for the kappa or lambda IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAINS, thereby contributing to antibody diversity. It occurs during the second stage of differentiation of the IMMATURE B-LYMPHOCYTES.
A membrane glycoprotein and differentiation antigen expressed on the surface of T-cells that binds to CD40 ANTIGENS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and induces their proliferation. Mutation of the gene for CD40 ligand is a cause of HYPER-IGM IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME, TYPE 1.
Tumors or cancer of the EYE.
CXCR receptors isolated initially from BURKITT LYMPHOMA cells. CXCR5 receptors are expressed on mature, recirculating B-LYMPHOCYTES and are specific for CHEMOKINE CXCL13.
One of the types of light chain subunits of the immunoglobulins with a molecular weight of approximately 22 kDa.
Leukemia associated with HYPERPLASIA of the lymphoid tissues and increased numbers of circulating malignant LYMPHOCYTES and lymphoblasts.
Substances that inhibit or prevent the proliferation of NEOPLASMS.
Antigenic determinants recognized and bound by the B-cell receptor. Epitopes recognized by the B-cell receptor are located on the surface of the antigen.
A CXC chemokine that is chemotactic for B-LYMPHOCYTES. It has specificity for CXCR5 RECEPTORS.
Non-hematopoietic cells, with extensive dendritic processes, found in the primary and secondary follicles of lymphoid tissue (the B cell zones). They are different from conventional DENDRITIC CELLS associated with T-CELLS. They are derived from MESENCHYMAL STEM CELLS and are negative for class II MHC antigen and do not process or present antigen like the conventional dendritic cells do. Instead, follicular dendritic cells have FC RECEPTORS and C3B RECEPTORS that hold antigen in the form of ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY COMPLEXES on their surfaces for long periods for recognition by B-CELLS.
A progressive, malignant disease of the blood-forming organs, characterized by distorted proliferation and development of leukocytes and their precursors in the blood and bone marrow. Leukemias were originally termed acute or chronic based on life expectancy but now are classified according to cellular maturity. Acute leukemias consist of predominately immature cells; chronic leukemias are composed of more mature cells. (From The Merck Manual, 2006)
A chronic, malignant T-cell lymphoma of the skin. In the late stages, the LYMPH NODES and viscera are affected.
Tumors or cancer of the NOSE.
Antigens which may directly stimulate B lymphocytes without the cooperation of T lymphocytes.
The treatment of a disease or condition by several different means simultaneously or sequentially. Chemoimmunotherapy, RADIOIMMUNOTHERAPY, chemoradiotherapy, cryochemotherapy, and SALVAGE THERAPY are seen most frequently, but their combinations with each other and surgery are also used.
Tumors or cancer of the SKIN.
Process whereby the immune system reacts against the body's own tissues. Autoimmunity may produce or be caused by AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
Transplantation of an individual's own tissue from one site to another site.
DNA present in neoplastic tissue.
All of the processes involved in increasing CELL NUMBER including CELL DIVISION.
Family of retrovirus-associated DNA sequences (myc) originally isolated from an avian myelocytomatosis virus. The proto-oncogene myc (c-myc) codes for a nuclear protein which is involved in nucleic acid metabolism and in mediating the cellular response to growth factors. Truncation of the first exon, which appears to regulate c-myc expression, is crucial for tumorigenicity. The human c-myc gene is located at 8q24 on the long arm of chromosome 8.
The B-cell leukemia/lymphoma-2 genes, responsible for blocking apoptosis in normal cells, and associated with follicular lymphoma when overexpressed. Overexpression results from the t(14;18) translocation. The human c-bcl-2 gene is located at 18q24 on the long arm of chromosome 18.
Mice homozygous for the mutant autosomal recessive gene "scid" which is located on the centromeric end of chromosome 16. These mice lack mature, functional lymphocytes and are thus highly susceptible to lethal opportunistic infections if not chronically treated with antibiotics. The lack of B- and T-cell immunity resembles severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) syndrome in human infants. SCID mice are useful as animal models since they are receptive to implantation of a human immune system producing SCID-human (SCID-hu) hematochimeric mice.
A soluble factor produced by activated T-LYMPHOCYTES that induces the expression of MHC CLASS II GENES and FC RECEPTORS on B-LYMPHOCYTES and causes their proliferation and differentiation. It also acts on T-lymphocytes, MAST CELLS, and several other hematopoietic lineage cells.
Genes and gene segments encoding the IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS. Gene segments of the heavy chain genes are symbolized V (variable), D (diversity), J (joining), and C (constant).
Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.
The number of LYMPHOCYTES per unit volume of BLOOD.
Products of proto-oncogenes. Normally they do not have oncogenic or transforming properties, but are involved in the regulation or differentiation of cell growth. They often have protein kinase activity.
Cell separation is the process of isolating and distinguishing specific cell types or individual cells from a heterogeneous mixture, often through the use of physical or biological techniques.
The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.
Cells of the lymphoid series that can react with antigen to produce specific cell products called antibodies. Various cell subpopulations, often B-lymphocytes, can be defined, based on the different classes of immunoglobulins that they synthesize.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
A type of IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION in which target sequences are stained with fluorescent dye so their location and size can be determined using fluorescence microscopy. This staining is sufficiently distinct that the hybridization signal can be seen both in metaphase spreads and in interphase nuclei.
The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.
Protein kinases that catalyze the PHOSPHORYLATION of TYROSINE residues in proteins with ATP or other nucleotides as phosphate donors.
The proportion of survivors in a group, e.g., of patients, studied and followed over a period, or the proportion of persons in a specified group alive at the beginning of a time interval who survive to the end of the interval. It is often studied using life table methods.
The classes of immunoglobulins found in any species of animal. In man there are nine classes that migrate in five different groups in electrophoresis; they each consist of two light and two heavy protein chains, and each group has distinguishing structural and functional properties.
A complex of related glycopeptide antibiotics from Streptomyces verticillus consisting of bleomycin A2 and B2. It inhibits DNA metabolism and is used as an antineoplastic, especially for solid tumors.
Antigens on surfaces of cells, including infectious or foreign cells or viruses. They are usually protein-containing groups on cell membranes or walls and may be isolated.
Enzyme that is a major constituent of kidney brush-border membranes and is also present to a lesser degree in the brain and other tissues. It preferentially catalyzes cleavage at the amino group of hydrophobic residues of the B-chain of insulin as well as opioid peptides and other biologically active peptides. The enzyme is inhibited primarily by EDTA, phosphoramidon, and thiorphan and is reactivated by zinc. Neprilysin is identical to common acute lymphoblastic leukemia antigen (CALLA Antigen), an important marker in the diagnosis of human acute lymphocytic leukemia. There is no relationship with CALLA PLANT.
Methods which attempt to express in replicable terms the extent of the neoplasm in the patient.
Proteins whose abnormal expression (gain or loss) are associated with the development, growth, or progression of NEOPLASMS. Some neoplasm proteins are tumor antigens (ANTIGENS, NEOPLASM), i.e. they induce an immune reaction to their tumor. Many neoplasm proteins have been characterized and are used as tumor markers (BIOMARKERS, TUMOR) when they are detectable in cells and body fluids as monitors for the presence or growth of tumors. Abnormal expression of ONCOGENE PROTEINS is involved in neoplastic transformation, whereas the loss of expression of TUMOR SUPPRESSOR PROTEINS is involved with the loss of growth control and progression of the neoplasm.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
A semisynthetic derivative of PODOPHYLLOTOXIN that exhibits antitumor activity. Etoposide inhibits DNA synthesis by forming a complex with topoisomerase II and DNA. This complex induces breaks in double stranded DNA and prevents repair by topoisomerase II binding. Accumulated breaks in DNA prevent entry into the mitotic phase of cell division, and lead to cell death. Etoposide acts primarily in the G2 and S phases of the cell cycle.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
Formation of LYMPHOCYTES and PLASMA CELLS from the lymphoid stem cells which develop from the pluripotent HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS in the BONE MARROW. These lymphoid stem cells differentiate into T-LYMPHOCYTES; B-LYMPHOCYTES; PLASMA CELLS; or NK-cells (KILLER CELLS, NATURAL) depending on the organ or tissues (LYMPHOID TISSUE) to which they migrate.
Period after successful treatment in which there is no appearance of the symptoms or effects of the disease.
Cellular DNA-binding proteins encoded by the c-myc genes. They are normally involved in nucleic acid metabolism and in mediating the cellular response to growth factors. Elevated and deregulated (constitutive) expression of c-myc proteins can cause tumorigenesis.
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
Nuclear antigens encoded by VIRAL GENES found in HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 4. At least six nuclear antigens have been identified.
A critical subpopulation of T-lymphocytes involved in the induction of most immunological functions. The HIV virus has selective tropism for the T4 cell which expresses the CD4 phenotypic marker, a receptor for HIV. In fact, the key element in the profound immunosuppression seen in HIV infection is the depletion of this subset of T-lymphocytes.
Cells contained in the bone marrow including fat cells (see ADIPOCYTES); STROMAL CELLS; MEGAKARYOCYTES; and the immediate precursors of most blood cells.
Reduction in the number of lymphocytes.
Proteins, glycoprotein, or lipoprotein moieties on surfaces of tumor cells that are usually identified by monoclonal antibodies. Many of these are of either embryonic or viral origin.
The specific failure of a normally responsive individual to make an immune response to a known antigen. It results from previous contact with the antigen by an immunologically immature individual (fetus or neonate) or by an adult exposed to extreme high-dose or low-dose antigen, or by exposure to radiation, antimetabolites, antilymphocytic serum, etc.
A chronic, relapsing, inflammatory, and often febrile multisystemic disorder of connective tissue, characterized principally by involvement of the skin, joints, kidneys, and serosal membranes. It is of unknown etiology, but is thought to represent a failure of the regulatory mechanisms of the autoimmune system. The disease is marked by a wide range of system dysfunctions, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and the formation of LE cells in the blood or bone marrow.
An enzyme that catalyzes the deamination of cytidine, forming uridine. EC 3.5.4.5.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Diseases of LYMPH; LYMPH NODES; or LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
Radiotherapy where cytotoxic radionuclides are linked to antibodies in order to deliver toxins directly to tumor targets. Therapy with targeted radiation rather than antibody-targeted toxins (IMMUNOTOXINS) has the advantage that adjacent tumor cells, which lack the appropriate antigenic determinants, can be destroyed by radiation cross-fire. Radioimmunotherapy is sometimes called targeted radiotherapy, but this latter term can also refer to radionuclides linked to non-immune molecules (see RADIOTHERAPY).
Syndromes in which there is a deficiency or defect in the mechanisms of immunity, either cellular or humoral.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
B-cells that have a role in regulating the immune response including the production of CYTOKINES. This function is in addition to their traditional role in making antibodies.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.
A species in the genus RHADINOVIRUS, subfamily GAMMAHERPESVIRINAE, isolated from patients with AIDS-related and "classical" Kaposi sarcoma.
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
Aggressive T-Cell malignancy with adult onset, caused by HUMAN T-LYMPHOTROPIC VIRUS 1. It is endemic in Japan, the Caribbean basin, Southeastern United States, Hawaii, and parts of Central and South America and sub-Saharan Africa.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
An experimental lymphocytic leukemia of mice.
Cell changes manifested by escape from control mechanisms, increased growth potential, alterations in the cell surface, karyotypic abnormalities, morphological and biochemical deviations from the norm, and other attributes conferring the ability to invade, metastasize, and kill.
A primary peripheral T-cell lymphoma in the gastrointestinal tract, most often in the jejunum, associated with a history of CELIAC DISEASE or other gastrointestinal diseases.
Proteins associated with the inner surface of the lipid bilayer of the viral envelope. These proteins have been implicated in control of viral transcription and may possibly serve as the "glue" that binds the nucleocapsid to the appropriate membrane site during viral budding from the host cell.
Endogenous tissue constituents that have the ability to interact with AUTOANTIBODIES and cause an immune response.
Cells artificially created by fusion of activated lymphocytes with neoplastic cells. The resulting hybrid cells are cloned and produce pure MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES or T-cell products, identical to those produced by the immunologically competent parent cell.
Inbred CBA mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical and uniform, which makes them useful for scientific research, particularly in the areas of immunology and cancer.
An antineoplastic antimetabolite with immunosuppressant properties. It is an inhibitor of TETRAHYDROFOLATE DEHYDROGENASE and prevents the formation of tetrahydrofolate, necessary for synthesis of thymidylate, an essential component of DNA.
Inbred AKR mice are a strain of laboratory mice that are homozygous at all gene loci and have a high incidence of developing certain diseases, such as leukemia and autoimmune disorders, making them useful for research purposes in biomedicine.
Tumors or cancer of the INTESTINES.
A 15 kD "joining" peptide that forms one of the linkages between monomers of IMMUNOGLOBULIN A or IMMUNOGLOBULIN M in the formation of polymeric immunoglobulins. There is one J chain per one IgA dimer or one IgM pentamer. It is also involved in binding the polymeric immunoglobulins to POLYMERIC IMMUNOGLOBULIN RECEPTOR which is necessary for their transcytosis to the lumen. It is distinguished from the IMMUNOGLOBULIN JOINING REGION which is part of the IMMUNOGLOBULIN VARIABLE REGION of the immunoglobulin light and heavy chains.
A single, unpaired primary lymphoid organ situated in the MEDIASTINUM, extending superiorly into the neck to the lower edge of the THYROID GLAND and inferiorly to the fourth costal cartilage. It is necessary for normal development of immunologic function early in life. By puberty, it begins to involute and much of the tissue is replaced by fat.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
Two or more distinct types of malignant lymphoid tumors occurring within a single organ or tissue at the same time. It may contain different types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma cells or both Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin lymphoma cells.
A specific pair of GROUP C CHROMOSOMES of the human chromosome classification.
A pyrimidine nucleoside analog that is used mainly in the treatment of leukemia, especially acute non-lymphoblastic leukemia. Cytarabine is an antimetabolite antineoplastic agent that inhibits the synthesis of DNA. Its actions are specific for the S phase of the cell cycle. It also has antiviral and immunosuppressant properties. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p472)
The class of heavy chains found in IMMUNOGLOBULIN D. They have a molecular weight of approximately 64 kDa and they contain about 500 amino acid residues arranged in four domains and an oligosaccharide component covalently bound to the Fc fragment constant region.
Represents 15-20% of the human serum immunoglobulins, mostly as the 4-chain polymer in humans or dimer in other mammals. Secretory IgA (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A, SECRETORY) is the main immunoglobulin in secretions.

Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma: a clinicopathologic study of 43 patients from the Nebraska Lymphoma Study Group. (1/2180)

PURPOSE: To investigate whether primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma (PMLBL) is a distinct clinicopathologic entity with a more aggressive course than other diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBL). MATERIALS AND METHODS: All patients with CD20-positive DLBL who presented with a mediastinal mass measuring at least 5.0 cm and were treated with curative intent were identified. A control group of 352 patients with nonmediastinal DLBL was selected for comparison. RESULTS: The 43 patients with PMLBL had a male to female ratio of 20:23 and a median age of 42 years. Stage I/II disease was present in 58% of the patients, with only 9% having bone marrow involvement. A complete remission was achieved in 63% of the patients, and the 5-year overall and failure-free survivals were 46% and 38%, respectively. Among the clinical variables, an elevated serum lactate dehydrogenase level, a low performance score, more than one extranodal site, and an intermediate or high International Prognostic Index score were predictive of poor survival. When compared with the DLBL group, a younger median age was the only clinical feature that was significantly different in the PMLBL group. CONCLUSION: The clinical features of PMLBL do not appear to be significantly different from those of nonmediastinal DLBL. Although the younger age of onset, slight female predominance, mediastinal location, and size of the mass may justify the recognition of PMLBL as a clinical syndrome, additional evidence is needed to define it as a distinct disease entity.  (+info)

Rituximab therapy in hematologic malignancy patients with circulating blood tumor cells: association with increased infusion-related side effects and rapid blood tumor clearance. (2/2180)

PURPOSE: Rituximab was recently approved for use in relapsed, low-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma; however, few data exist regarding the safety of this agent in patients with a high number of tumor cells in the blood. METHODS AND RESULTS: After the observation at our institution of a rapid reduction of peripheral-blood tumor cells with associated severe pulmonary infusion-related toxicity in two patients with refractory hematologic malignancies, data on three additional cases were collected from physician-submitted reports of adverse events related to rituximab treatment. Five patients with hematologic malignancies possessing a high number of blood tumor cells were treated with rituximab and developed rapid tumor clearance. The median age was 68 years (range, 26 to 78 years). Patients were diagnosed with B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia (n = 2), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (n = 2), or transformed non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (n = 1). All of these patients had bulky adenopathy or organomegaly. All five patients developed a unique syndrome of severe infusion-related reactions, thrombocytopenia, rapid decrement in circulating tumor cell load, and mild electrolyte evidence of tumor lysis, and all required hospitalization. In addition, one patient developed ascites. These events resolved, and four patients were subsequently treated with rituximab without significant complications. CONCLUSION: Rituximab administration in patients who have a high number of tumor cells in the blood may have an increased likelihood of severe initial infusion-related reactions. These data also suggest that rituximab may have activity in a variety of other lymphoid neoplasms, such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia and B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia.  (+info)

Delivery of methoxymorpholinyl doxorubicin by interleukin 2-activated NK cells: effect in mice bearing hepatic metastases. (3/2180)

The possibility of using interleukin 2 (IL-2)-activated natural killer cells (A-NK) to carry methoxymorpholinyl doxorubicin (MMDX; PNU 152243) to liver-infiltrating tumours was explored in mice bearing 2-day established M5076 reticulum cell sarcoma hepatic metastases. In vitro, MMDX was 5.5-fold more potent than doxorubicin against M5076 tumour cells. MMDX uptake by A-NK cells correlated linearly with drug concentration in the incubation medium [correlation coefficient (r) = 0.999]; furthermore, as MMDX incorporation was readily reproducible in different experiments, the amount of drug delivered by A-NK cells could be modulated. In vivo experiments showed that intravenous (i.v.) injection of MMDX-loaded A-NK cells exerted a greater therapeutic effect than equivalent or even higher doses of free drug. The increase in lifespan (ILS) following A-NK cell delivery of 53 microg kg(-1) MMDX, a dosage that is ineffective when administered in free form, was similar to that observed in response to 92 microg kg(-1) free drug, a dosage close to the 10% lethal dose (ILS 42% vs. 38% respectively). These results correlated with pharmacokinetic studies showing that MMDX encapsulation in A-NK cells strongly modifies its organ distribution and targets it to tissues in which IL-2 activated lymphocytes are preferentially entrapped after i.v. injection.  (+info)

Autologous stem cell transplantation for T and null cell CD30-positive anaplastic large cell lymphoma: analysis of 64 adult and paediatric cases reported to the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT). (4/2180)

Anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) is a heterogeneous family of lymphoid tumours, among which the T and null cell types were recently listed in the REAL classification as a distinct entity. Reports on autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) in this group are only occasional. Sixty-four patients with T and null cell ALCL from 25 European centres had been registered with the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) at the onset of this study. The median age was 25 years (range 3.2-53.0). Thirty of the 64 patients (47%) were in complete remission (CR), 18 (28%) in partial remission (PR), and the remaining 16 (25%) had a more advanced or chemotherapy-refractory disease at transplant. Eighty-one percent of the patients were conditioned with chemotherapy alone and 75% received marrow stem cells. All the patients transplanted in first CR (15), except one, maintained the CR over time; six of 15 transplanted in CR subsequent to first, six of 18 transplanted in PR and 14 of 16 transplanted in refractory or relapsed disease progressed. Actuarial overall survival (OS) at 10 years is 70%. Multivariate analysis showed that good status at transplant, younger age, absence of B symptoms and absence of extranodal disease indicated a better prognosis. These data suggest that ASCT should be considered as a possible treatment for chemosensitive patients in CR or PR. However, definitive conclusions cannot be drawn from this study and a prospective randomised trial between ASCT and conventional chemotherapy may be indicated.  (+info)

Adverse effects of activated cytotoxic T lymphocytes on the clinical outcome of nodal anaplastic large cell lymphoma. (5/2180)

Systemic (nodal) anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) is a subgroup of T-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas with a relatively favorable clinical outcome. Part of systemic ALCLs harbor a genetic aberration (usually the t(2;5)(p23;q35) translocation) containing the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) gene at 2p23, which results in aberrant expression of the ALK protein. Recently, we have shown that the presence of high percentages of activated cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in tumor biopsy specimens of Hodgkin's disease (HD) is associated with a poor prognosis. In the present study, we investigated the prognostic value of percentages of activated CTLs in combination with ALK expression in primary nodal ALCL. Primary nodal biopsies of 42 patients with ALCL were investigated for the percentage of activated CTLs (quantified using Q-PRODIT) and the expression of ALK by immunohistochemistry using monoclonal antibodies (MoAbs) directed against T-cell antigen granzyme B (GrB) and ALK, respectively. These parameters were evaluated for their predictive value regarding progression-free and overall survival time. The presence of a high percentage of activated CTLs (ie, >/=15%) was found to be an unfavorable prognostic marker. In combination with a lack of ALK expression, it was possible to identify a group of patients with a very poor prognosis. In this group, 13 of 16 patients died within 2 years as a result of the disease. Of the remaining 26 patients, only three (all ALK negative) died (P <.0001). Furthermore, the percentage of activated CTLs combined with ALK status appeared to be of stronger prognostic value than the International Prognostic Index (IPI). We conclude that a high percentage of activated CTLs present in biopsy material of patients with primary nodal ALCL is a strong indicator for an unfavorable clinical outcome. The combination of ALK expression and percentage of activated CTLs appears to be more sensitive than the IPI in identifying a group of patients with a highly unfavorable clinical outcome who may be eligible for alternative (high dose) therapy schemes.  (+info)

ALK+ lymphoma: clinico-pathological findings and outcome. (6/2180)

A distinct pathologic entity (ALK+ lymphoma) that is characterized by expression of the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) protein has recently emerged within the heterogeneous group of CD30(+) anaplastic large-cell lymphomas. Information on clinical findings and treatment outcome of ALK+ lymphoma is still limited, and no data are available concerning the value of the International Prognostic Index when applied to this homogeneous disease entity. To clarify these issues, a recently developed monoclonal antibody ALKc (directed against the cytoplasmic portion of ALK) was used to detect expression of the ALK protein in paraffin-embedded biopsies from 96 primary, systemic T/null anaplastic large-cell lymphomas, and the ALK staining pattern was correlated with morphological features, clinical findings, risk factors (as defined by the International Prognostic Index), and outcome in 78 patients (53 ALK+ and 25 ALK-). Strong cytoplasmic and/or nuclear ALK positivity was detected in 58 of 96 ALCL cases (60.4%), and it was associated with a morphological spectrum (common type, 82.7%; giant cell, 3.5%; lymphohistiocytic, 8. 6%; and small cell, 5.2%) that reflected the ratio of large anaplastic elements (usually showing cytoplasmic and nuclear ALK positivity) to small neoplastic cells (usually characterized by nucleus-restricted ALK expression). Clinically, ALK+ lymphoma mostly occurred in children and young adults (mean age, 22.01 +/- 10.87 years) with a male predominance (male/female [M/F] ratio, 3.0) that was particularly striking in the second-third decades of life (M/F ratio, 6.5) and usually presented as an aggressive, stage III-IV disease, frequently associated with systemic symptoms (75%) and extranodal involvement (60%), especially skin (21%), bone (17%), and soft tissues (17%). As compared with ALK+ lymphoma, ALK- cases occurred in older individuals (mean age, 43.33 +/- 16.15 years) and showed a lower M/F ratio (0.9) as well as lower incidence of stage III-IV disease and extranodal involvement at presentation. Overall survival of ALK+ lymphoma was far better than that of ALK- anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (71% +/- 6% v 15% +/- 11%, respectively). However, within the good prognostic category of ALK+ lymphoma, survival was 94% +/- 5% for the low/low intermediate risk group (age-adjusted International Prognostic Index, 0 to 1) and 41% +/- 12% for the high/high intermediate risk group (age-adjusted International Prognostic Index, >/=2). Multivariate analysis identified ALK expression and the International Prognostic Index as independent variables that were able to predict survival among T/null primary, systemic anaplastic large-cell lymphoma. Thus, we suggest that such parameters should be taken into consideration for the design of future clinical trials.  (+info)

Lymphocyte-specific protein 1: a specific marker of human leucocytes. (7/2180)

While both murine and human homologues of the LSP1 gene (lymphocyte-specific gene 1) and its protein products have been identified, studies on human LSP1 have been limited. The present report describes a detailed immunocytochemical study of the distribution and localization of human LSP1 in both normal and neoplastic cells and tissues. The specificity of the monoclonal anti-LSP1 reagent was confirmed by expression cloning and transfection studies. The intracellular 60 000 MW LSP1 protein was found to be present in peripheral blood B cells, monocytes and granulocytes but absent in a subpopulation of circulating T cells (10-15% of CD3-positive T cells). The presence of LSP1 protein in medullary thymocytes, but only in scattered cortical thymocytes, provided additional evidence for heterogeneity of expression in T cells. Novel observations also included the presence of LSP1 in plasma cells, dendritic cells and Langerhans' cells. The leucocyte-restricted distribution of LSP1 protein means that it may play an important role in haematopathology. LSP1 protein was detected in a wide range of leukaemias and lymphomas, particularly of B-cell origin, and in tumour cells in classical Hodgkin's disease. Of interest was the indication of a reciprocal relationship in the expression of LSP1 and ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase) proteins in patients with anaplastic large cell lymphoma. As the anti-LSP1 reagent used in the present study recognizes a formalin-resistant epitope it should be of considerable value in the diagnosis of routinely fixed material.  (+info)

Clinical characteristics, treatment outcome and survival of 36 adult patients with primary anaplastic large cell lymphoma. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio dei Linfomi (GISL). (8/2180)

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Although in recent years anaplastic large-cell lymphoma (ALCL) has emerged as a distinct clinico-pathological entity, a gold standard for treatment has still not been defined. Goals of our histologic, phenotypic and clinical study were to present clinical findings, treatment outcome and survival rates of a small, but highly homogeneously treated, series of patients. DESIGN AND METHODS: From April 1991, 36 newly diagnosed adult patients with systemic ALCL CD30+, entered a prospective non-randomized trial in one of the institutions participating in a GISL (Gruppo Italiano per lo studio dei Linfomi) study and were treated with a MOPP/EBV/CAD hybrid scheme. Chemotherapy (CHT) was administered every 28 days, for a total of 6 cycles. After CHT, 19 patients received radiation therapy (RT) to the site of previously involved fields. Kaplan and Meier and log-rank tests were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: The overall complete remission rate was 78%, the partial remission rate was 6%. The overall survival rate at 74 months was 69%. No statistically significant differences in response or survival rates were noted comparing ALCL-HL and -CT subgroups, T+ Null- and B- subtypes, or ALCL-HL and -CT, with different phenotypes. In the analysis of patients with T+ Null phenotype treated with CHT+RT in comparison with B-ALCL patients who had the same treatment, we observed statistically significant differences in the survival rate (p=0.048). No prognostic factors predictive of response or survival were identified. INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that using MOPP/ABV/CAD the results, in terms of remission rate and survival, are similar to those obtained with 3rd generation CHT regimens. The diagnosis of T and Null ALCL is the most important prognostic factor, because it is associated with a very good survival, even in patients with a high prognostic index. Finally, we believe that longer follow-ups are needed to evaluate long-term survival and toxicity with different treatments.  (+info)

Large B-cell lymphoma, diffuse is a type of cancer that starts in cells called B-lymphocytes, which are part of the body's immune system. "Large B-cell" refers to the size and appearance of the abnormal cells when viewed under a microscope. "Diffuse" means that the abnormal cells are spread throughout the lymph node or tissue where the cancer has started, rather than being clustered in one area.

This type of lymphoma is typically aggressive, which means it grows and spreads quickly. It can occur almost anywhere in the body, but most commonly affects the lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow. Symptoms may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue.

Treatment for large B-cell lymphoma, diffuse typically involves chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of both. In some cases, stem cell transplantation or targeted therapy may also be recommended. The prognosis varies depending on several factors, including the stage and location of the cancer, as well as the patient's age and overall health.

B-cell lymphoma is a type of cancer that originates from the B-lymphocytes, which are a part of the immune system and play a crucial role in fighting infections. These cells can develop mutations in their DNA, leading to uncontrolled growth and division, resulting in the formation of a tumor.

B-cell lymphomas can be classified into two main categories: Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. B-cell lymphomas are further divided into subtypes based on their specific characteristics, such as the appearance of the cells under a microscope, the genetic changes present in the cancer cells, and the aggressiveness of the disease.

Some common types of B-cell lymphomas include diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, and Burkitt lymphoma. Treatment options for B-cell lymphomas depend on the specific subtype, stage of the disease, and other individual factors. Treatment may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, or stem cell transplantation.

Lymphoma is a type of cancer that originates from the white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are part of the immune system. These cells are found in various parts of the body such as the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and other organs. Lymphoma can be classified into two main types: Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).

HL is characterized by the presence of a specific type of abnormal lymphocyte called Reed-Sternberg cells, while NHL includes a diverse group of lymphomas that lack these cells. The symptoms of lymphoma may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue.

The exact cause of lymphoma is not known, but it is believed to result from genetic mutations in the lymphocytes that lead to uncontrolled cell growth and division. Exposure to certain viruses, chemicals, and radiation may increase the risk of developing lymphoma. Treatment options for lymphoma depend on various factors such as the type and stage of the disease, age, and overall health of the patient. Common treatments include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell transplantation.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) is a type of cancer that originates in the lymphatic system, which is part of the immune system. It involves the abnormal growth and proliferation of malignant lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell), leading to the formation of tumors in lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, or other organs. NHL can be further classified into various subtypes based on the specific type of lymphocyte involved and its characteristics.

The symptoms of Non-Hodgkin lymphoma may include:

* Painless swelling of lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin
* Persistent fatigue
* Unexplained weight loss
* Fever
* Night sweats
* Itchy skin

The exact cause of Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is not well understood, but it has been associated with certain risk factors such as age (most common in people over 60), exposure to certain chemicals, immune system deficiencies, and infection with viruses like Epstein-Barr virus or HIV.

Treatment for Non-Hodgkin lymphoma depends on the stage and subtype of the disease, as well as the patient's overall health. Treatment options may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, stem cell transplantation, or a combination of these approaches. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor the progression of the disease and manage any potential long-term side effects of treatment.

Follicular lymphoma is a specific type of low-grade or indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). It develops from the B-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell found in the lymphatic system. This lymphoma is characterized by the presence of abnormal follicles or nodules in the lymph nodes and other organs. The neoplastic cells in this subtype exhibit a distinct growth pattern that resembles normal follicular centers, hence the name "follicular lymphoma."

The majority of cases involve a translocation between chromosomes 14 and 18 [t(14;18)], leading to an overexpression of the BCL-2 gene. This genetic alteration contributes to the cancer cells' resistance to programmed cell death, allowing them to accumulate in the body.

Follicular lymphoma is typically slow-growing and may not cause symptoms for a long time. Common manifestations include painless swelling of lymph nodes, fatigue, weight loss, and night sweats. Treatment options depend on various factors such as the stage of the disease, patient's age, and overall health. Watchful waiting, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these approaches may be used to manage follicular lymphoma.

T-cell lymphoma is a type of cancer that affects the T-cells, which are a specific type of white blood cell responsible for immune function. These lymphomas develop from mature T-cells and can be classified into various subtypes based on their clinical and pathological features.

T-cell lymphomas can arise in many different organs, including the lymph nodes, skin, and other soft tissues. They often present with symptoms such as enlarged lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. The diagnosis of T-cell lymphoma typically involves a biopsy of the affected tissue, followed by immunophenotyping and genetic analysis to determine the specific subtype.

Treatment for T-cell lymphomas may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, or stem cell transplantation, depending on the stage and aggressiveness of the disease. The prognosis for T-cell lymphoma varies widely depending on the subtype and individual patient factors.

B-cell marginal zone lymphoma (MZL) is a type of indolent (slow-growing) non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). It arises from B-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell found in the lymphatic system. MZLs typically involve the marginal zone of lymphoid follicles, which are structures found in lymph nodes and other lymphatic tissues.

There are three subtypes of MZL: extranodal MZL (also known as mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue or MALT lymphoma), nodal MZL, and splenic MZL. Extranodal MZL is the most common form and can occur at various extranodal sites, such as the stomach, lungs, skin, eyes, and salivary glands. Nodal MZL involves the lymph nodes without evidence of extranodal disease, while splenic MZL primarily affects the spleen.

MZLs are typically low-grade malignancies, but they can transform into more aggressive forms over time. Treatment options depend on the stage and location of the disease, as well as the patient's overall health. Common treatments include watchful waiting, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination of these approaches.

A germinal center is a microanatomical structure found within the secondary lymphoid organs, such as the spleen, lymph nodes, and Peyer's patches. It is a transient structure that forms during the humoral immune response, specifically during the activation of B cells by antigens.

Germinal centers are the sites where activated B cells undergo rapid proliferation, somatic hypermutation, and class switch recombination to generate high-affinity antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory B cells. These processes help to refine the immune response and provide long-lasting immunity against pathogens.

The germinal center is composed of two main regions: the dark zone (or proliferation center) and the light zone (or selection area). The dark zone contains rapidly dividing B cells, while the light zone contains follicular dendritic cells that present antigens to the B cells. Through a process called affinity maturation, B cells with higher-affinity antibodies are selected for survival and further differentiation into plasma cells or memory B cells.

Overall, germinal centers play a critical role in the adaptive immune response by generating high-affinity antibodies and providing long-term immunity against pathogens.

Proto-oncogene proteins c-BCL-6, also known as B-cell lymphoma 6 protein, are normal cellular proteins that play a role in regulating gene expression and controlling cell growth and differentiation. They function as transcriptional repressors, which means they bind to DNA and inhibit the transcription of specific genes.

The c-BCL-6 proto-oncogene is located on chromosome 3 (3q27) and encodes a nuclear phosphoprotein that contains several functional domains, including a zinc finger domain, a BTB/POZ domain, and a C-terminal activation domain. These domains allow c-BCL-6 to interact with other proteins and regulate gene expression.

In normal cells, c-BCL-6 is involved in the development and differentiation of B cells, a type of white blood cell that produces antibodies. However, when the c-BCL-6 gene is mutated or its expression is deregulated, it can contribute to the development of cancer. In particular, c-BCL-6 has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several types of B-cell lymphomas, including diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), follicular lymphoma (FL), and Burkitt lymphoma (BL).

In these cancers, c-BCL-6 can act as an oncogene by inhibiting the transcription of tumor suppressor genes and promoting cell survival and proliferation. Overexpression of c-BCL-6 has been associated with poor clinical outcomes in patients with DLBCL and FL, making it a potential target for cancer therapy.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system's response to infection. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.

When a B-lymphocyte encounters a pathogen, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies specific to the antigens on the surface of the pathogen. These antibodies bind to the pathogen, marking it for destruction by other immune cells such as neutrophils and macrophages.

B-lymphocytes also have a role in presenting antigens to T-lymphocytes, another type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. This helps to stimulate the activation and proliferation of T-lymphocytes, which can then go on to destroy infected cells or help to coordinate the overall immune response.

Overall, B-lymphocytes are an essential part of the adaptive immune system, providing long-lasting immunity to previously encountered pathogens and helping to protect against future infections.

T-cell peripheral lymphoma is a type of cancer that affects the T-cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the body's immune system. This type of lymphoma is called "peripheral" because it typically develops in T-cells that have matured and are found in various tissues and organs outside of the bone marrow, such as the lymph nodes, spleen, skin, and digestive tract.

Peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCL) are relatively rare and can be aggressive, with a tendency to spread quickly throughout the body. They can arise from different types of T-cells, leading to various subtypes of PTCL that may have different clinical features, treatment options, and prognoses.

Some common subtypes of peripheral T-cell lymphoma include:

1. PTCL, not otherwise specified (NOS): This is the most common subtype, accounting for about 25-30% of all PTCL cases. It includes cases that do not fit into any specific category or have features of more than one subtype.
2. Anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL): ALCL can be further divided into two groups: systemic ALCL and cutaneous ALCL. Systemic ALCL is a more aggressive form, while cutaneous ALCL tends to be less aggressive and primarily affects the skin.
3. Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL): AITL is an aggressive subtype that often involves the lymph nodes and can affect other organs such as the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. It frequently presents with B symptoms (fever, night sweats, and weight loss) and abnormal blood tests.
4. Enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma (EATL): EATL is a rare but aggressive subtype that primarily affects the intestines, particularly in individuals with a history of celiac disease or gluten sensitivity.
5. Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL): ATLL is caused by the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and primarily affects adults from regions where HTLV-1 is endemic, such as Japan, the Caribbean, and parts of Africa.

Treatment for PTCL depends on the specific subtype, stage, and individual patient factors. Common treatment options include chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, stem cell transplantation, or a combination of these approaches. Clinical trials are also available for eligible patients to test new therapies and combinations.

Large B-cell lymphoma, immunoblastic variant, is a type of cancer that starts in the white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are part of the body's immune system. It is a subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), which is an aggressive (fast-growing) lymphoma.

Immunoblastic large B-cell lymphoma is characterized by the presence of large, immunoblastic cells that have a specific appearance under the microscope. These cells are typically found in the lymph nodes or other lymphoid tissues, such as the spleen or bone marrow.

This type of lymphoma can be aggressive and may require prompt treatment with chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or stem cell transplantation. The prognosis for immunoblastic large B-cell lymphoma varies depending on several factors, including the stage of the disease at diagnosis, the patient's age and overall health, and the specific features of the tumor.

It is important to note that a medical definition may vary based on different medical sources or guidelines, and it is always best to consult with a healthcare professional for accurate information.

Burkitt lymphoma is a type of aggressive non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), which is a cancer that originates in the lymphatic system. It is named after Denis Parsons Burkitt, an Irish surgeon who first described this form of cancer in African children in the 1950s.

Burkitt lymphoma is characterized by the rapid growth and spread of abnormal B-lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell), which can affect various organs and tissues, including the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, gastrointestinal tract, and central nervous system.

There are three main types of Burkitt lymphoma: endemic, sporadic, and immunodeficiency-associated. The endemic form is most common in equatorial Africa and is strongly associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. The sporadic form occurs worldwide but is rare, accounting for less than 1% of all NHL cases in the United States. Immunodeficiency-associated Burkitt lymphoma is seen in individuals with weakened immune systems due to HIV/AIDS or immunosuppressive therapy after organ transplantation.

Burkitt lymphoma typically presents as a rapidly growing mass, often involving the jaw, facial bones, or abdominal organs. Symptoms may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue. Diagnosis is made through a biopsy of the affected tissue, followed by immunohistochemical staining and genetic analysis to confirm the presence of characteristic chromosomal translocations involving the MYC oncogene.

Treatment for Burkitt lymphoma typically involves intensive chemotherapy regimens, often combined with targeted therapy or immunotherapy. The prognosis is generally good when treated aggressively and promptly, with a high cure rate in children and young adults. However, the prognosis may be poorer in older patients or those with advanced-stage disease at diagnosis.

Monoclonal murine-derived antibodies are a type of laboratory-produced antibody that is identical in structure, having been derived from a single clone of cells. These antibodies are created using mouse cells and are therefore composed entirely of mouse immune proteins. They are designed to bind specifically to a particular target protein or antigen, making them useful tools for research, diagnostic testing, and therapeutic applications.

Monoclonal antibodies offer several advantages over polyclonal antibodies (which are derived from multiple clones of cells and can recognize multiple epitopes on an antigen). Monoclonal antibodies have a consistent and uniform structure, making them more reliable for research and diagnostic purposes. They also have higher specificity and affinity for their target antigens, allowing for more sensitive detection and measurement.

However, there are some limitations to using monoclonal murine-derived antibodies in therapeutic applications. Because they are composed entirely of mouse proteins, they can elicit an immune response in humans, leading to the production of human anti-mouse antibodies (HAMA) that can neutralize their effectiveness. To overcome this limitation, researchers have developed chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies that incorporate human protein sequences, reducing the risk of an immune response.

Vincristine is an antineoplastic agent, specifically a vinca alkaloid. It is derived from the Madagascar periwinkle plant (Catharanthus roseus). Vincristine binds to tubulin, a protein found in microtubules, and inhibits their polymerization, which results in disruption of mitotic spindles leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis (programmed cell death). It is used in the treatment of various types of cancer including leukemias, lymphomas, and solid tumors. Common side effects include peripheral neuropathy, constipation, and alopecia.

CD79 is a type of protein that is found on the surface of B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system. CD79 combines with another protein called CD19 to form a complex that helps to activate B cells and initiate an immune response when the body encounters an antigen.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, or other molecules found on the surface of viruses, bacteria, or other foreign substances. When a B cell encounters an antigen, it engulfs and processes the antigen, then displays a portion of it on its surface along with CD79 and CD19. This helps to activate the B cell and stimulate it to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies that recognize and bind to the antigen.

CD79 is an important marker for identifying and studying B cells, and it has been implicated in various B-cell malignancies such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).

Mediastinal neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors located in the mediastinum, which is the central compartment of the thoracic cavity that lies between the lungs and contains various vital structures such as the heart, esophagus, trachea, blood vessels, lymph nodes, and nerves. Mediastinal neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), and they can arise from any of the tissues or organs within the mediastinum.

Benign mediastinal neoplasms may include thymomas, lipomas, neurofibromas, or teratomas, among others. These tumors are typically slow-growing and rarely spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause symptoms or complications by compressing adjacent structures within the mediastinum, such as the airways, blood vessels, or nerves.

Malignant mediastinal neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissues and may spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body. Common types of malignant mediastinal neoplasms include thymic carcinomas, lymphomas, germ cell tumors, and neuroendocrine tumors. These tumors often require aggressive treatment, such as surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy, to control their growth and spread.

It is important to note that mediastinal neoplasms can present with various symptoms depending on their location, size, and type. Some patients may be asymptomatic, while others may experience cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing, hoarseness, or swallowing difficulties. A thorough diagnostic workup, including imaging studies and biopsies, is necessary to confirm the diagnosis and determine the best course of treatment for mediastinal neoplasms.

Myelin and lymphocyte-associated proteolipid proteins (MAL/PLP) are a family of proteolipid proteins that play crucial roles in the formation and maintenance of the myelin sheath in the central nervous system (CNS). The myelin sheath is a multilayered membrane that surrounds nerve cell axons, allowing for efficient and rapid electrical impulse transmission.

The MAL/PLP family includes two major proteins:

1. Myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL): This protein is primarily expressed in the plasma membrane of oligodendrocytes, the CNS glial cells responsible for myelination. MAL is involved in the organization and maintenance of the lipid rafts, which are specialized microdomains within the plasma membrane that facilitate signal transduction and membrane trafficking.

2. Proteolipid protein (PLP) or proteolipid protein 1 (PLP1): This is the most abundant protein in the CNS myelin sheath, constituting approximately 50% of its total protein content. PLP is primarily located within the intracellular leaflets of the multilayered myelin membrane and plays a critical role in maintaining the integrity and compaction of the myelin sheath.

Mutations in the genes encoding these proteins can lead to various demyelinating disorders, such as Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD) and spastic paraplegia type 2 (SPG2), which are characterized by abnormalities in the myelin sheath and neurological dysfunction.

Prednisone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, which is a type of corticosteroid hormone. It is primarily used to reduce inflammation in various conditions such as asthma, allergies, arthritis, and autoimmune disorders. Prednisone works by mimicking the effects of natural hormones produced by the adrenal glands, suppressing the immune system's response and reducing the release of substances that cause inflammation.

It is available in oral tablet form and is typically prescribed to be taken at specific times during the day, depending on the condition being treated. Common side effects of prednisone include increased appetite, weight gain, mood changes, insomnia, and easy bruising. Long-term use or high doses can lead to more serious side effects such as osteoporosis, diabetes, cataracts, and increased susceptibility to infections.

Healthcare providers closely monitor patients taking prednisone for extended periods to minimize the risk of adverse effects. It is essential to follow the prescribed dosage regimen and not discontinue the medication abruptly without medical supervision, as this can lead to withdrawal symptoms or a rebound of the underlying condition.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infections, also known as infectious mononucleosis or "mono," is a viral infection that most commonly affects adolescents and young adults. The virus is transmitted through saliva and other bodily fluids, and can cause a variety of symptoms including fever, sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, and skin rash.

EBV is a member of the herpesvirus family and establishes lifelong latency in infected individuals. After the initial infection, the virus remains dormant in the body and can reactivate later in life, causing symptoms such as fatigue and swollen lymph nodes. In some cases, EBV infection has been associated with the development of certain types of cancer, such as Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

The diagnosis of EBV infections is typically made based on a combination of clinical symptoms and laboratory tests, such as blood tests that detect the presence of EBV antibodies or viral DNA. Treatment is generally supportive and aimed at alleviating symptoms, as there is no specific antiviral therapy for EBV infections.

Hodgkin disease, also known as Hodgkin lymphoma, is a type of cancer that originates in the white blood cells called lymphocytes. It typically affects the lymphatic system, which is a network of vessels and glands spread throughout the body. The disease is characterized by the presence of a specific type of abnormal cell, known as a Reed-Sternberg cell, within the affected lymph nodes.

The symptoms of Hodgkin disease may include painless swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck, armpits, or groin; fever; night sweats; weight loss; and fatigue. The exact cause of Hodgkin disease is unknown, but it is thought to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and infectious factors.

Hodgkin disease is typically treated with a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and/or immunotherapy, depending on the stage and extent of the disease. With appropriate treatment, the prognosis for Hodgkin disease is generally very good, with a high cure rate. However, long-term side effects of treatment may include an increased risk of secondary cancers and other health problems.

Translocation, genetic, refers to a type of chromosomal abnormality in which a segment of a chromosome is transferred from one chromosome to another, resulting in an altered genome. This can occur between two non-homologous chromosomes (non-reciprocal translocation) or between two homologous chromosomes (reciprocal translocation). Genetic translocations can lead to various clinical consequences, depending on the genes involved and the location of the translocation. Some translocations may result in no apparent effects, while others can cause developmental abnormalities, cancer, or other genetic disorders. In some cases, translocations can also increase the risk of having offspring with genetic conditions.

CD20 is not a medical definition of an antigen, but rather it is a cell surface marker that helps identify a specific type of white blood cell called B-lymphocytes or B-cells. These cells are part of the adaptive immune system and play a crucial role in producing antibodies to fight off infections.

CD20 is a protein found on the surface of mature B-cells, and it is used as a target for monoclonal antibody therapies in the treatment of certain types of cancer and autoimmune diseases. Rituximab is an example of a monoclonal antibody that targets CD20 and is used to treat conditions such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and rheumatoid arthritis.

While CD20 itself is not an antigen, it can be recognized by the immune system as a foreign substance when a monoclonal antibody such as rituximab binds to it. This binding can trigger an immune response, leading to the destruction of the B-cells that express CD20 on their surface.

Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating agent, which is a type of chemotherapy medication. It works by interfering with the DNA of cancer cells, preventing them from dividing and growing. This helps to stop the spread of cancer in the body. Cyclophosphamide is used to treat various types of cancer, including lymphoma, leukemia, multiple myeloma, and breast cancer. It can be given orally as a tablet or intravenously as an injection.

Cyclophosphamide can also have immunosuppressive effects, which means it can suppress the activity of the immune system. This makes it useful in treating certain autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. However, this immunosuppression can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects.

Like all chemotherapy medications, cyclophosphamide can cause a range of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, fatigue, and increased susceptibility to infections. It is important for patients receiving cyclophosphamide to be closely monitored by their healthcare team to manage these side effects and ensure the medication is working effectively.

Doxorubicin is a type of chemotherapy medication known as an anthracycline. It works by interfering with the DNA in cancer cells, which prevents them from growing and multiplying. Doxorubicin is used to treat a wide variety of cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, breast cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, and many others. It may be given alone or in combination with other chemotherapy drugs.

Doxorubicin is usually administered through a vein (intravenously) and can cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, mouth sores, and increased risk of infection. It can also cause damage to the heart muscle, which can lead to heart failure in some cases. For this reason, doctors may monitor patients' heart function closely while they are receiving doxorubicin treatment.

It is important for patients to discuss the potential risks and benefits of doxorubicin therapy with their healthcare provider before starting treatment.

Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), which is a cancer of the lymphatic system. Specifically, MCL arises from abnormal B-lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) that typically reside in the "mantle zone" of the lymph node. The malignant cells in MCL tend to have a characteristic genetic abnormality where the cyclin D1 gene is translocated to the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene locus, resulting in overexpression of cyclin D1 protein. This leads to uncontrolled cell division and proliferation.

Mantle cell lymphoma often presents with advanced-stage disease, involving multiple lymph nodes, bone marrow, and sometimes extranodal sites such as the gastrointestinal tract. Symptoms may include swollen lymph nodes, fatigue, weight loss, night sweats, and abdominal pain or discomfort.

Treatment for MCL typically involves a combination of chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and sometimes targeted therapy or stem cell transplantation. However, the prognosis for MCL is generally less favorable compared to other types of NHL, with a median overall survival of around 5-7 years.

Lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs) are a group of diseases characterized by the excessive proliferation of lymphoid cells, which are crucial components of the immune system. These disorders can arise from both B-cells and T-cells, leading to various clinical manifestations ranging from benign to malignant conditions.

LPDs can be broadly classified into reactive and neoplastic categories:

1. Reactive Lymphoproliferative Disorders: These are typically triggered by infections, autoimmune diseases, or immunodeficiency states. They involve an exaggerated response of the immune system leading to the excessive proliferation of lymphoid cells. Examples include:
* Infectious mononucleosis (IM) caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
* Lymph node enlargement due to various infections or autoimmune disorders
* Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD), which occurs in the context of immunosuppression following organ transplantation
2. Neoplastic Lymphoproliferative Disorders: These are malignant conditions characterized by uncontrolled growth and accumulation of abnormal lymphoid cells, leading to the formation of tumors. They can be further classified into Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Examples include:
* Hodgkin lymphoma (HL): Classical HL and nodular lymphocyte-predominant HL
* Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL): Various subtypes, such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, and Burkitt lymphoma

It is important to note that the distinction between reactive and neoplastic LPDs can sometimes be challenging, requiring careful clinical, histopathological, immunophenotypic, and molecular evaluations. Proper diagnosis and classification of LPDs are crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies and predicting patient outcomes.

Immunophenotyping is a medical laboratory technique used to identify and classify cells, usually in the context of hematologic (blood) disorders and malignancies (cancers), based on their surface or intracellular expression of various proteins and antigens. This technique utilizes specific antibodies tagged with fluorochromes, which bind to the target antigens on the cell surface or within the cells. The labeled cells are then analyzed using flow cytometry, allowing for the detection and quantification of multiple antigenic markers simultaneously.

Immunophenotyping helps in understanding the distribution of different cell types, their subsets, and activation status, which can be crucial in diagnosing various hematological disorders, immunodeficiencies, and distinguishing between different types of leukemias, lymphomas, and other malignancies. Additionally, it can also be used to monitor the progression of diseases, evaluate the effectiveness of treatments, and detect minimal residual disease (MRD) during follow-up care.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) is a type of cancer that affects T-cells, a specific group of white blood cells called lymphocytes. These cells play a crucial role in the body's immune system and help protect against infection and disease. In CTCL, the T-cells become malignant and accumulate in the skin, leading to various skin symptoms and lesions.

CTCL is a subtype of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), which refers to a group of cancers that originate from lymphocytes. Within NHL, CTCL is categorized as a type of extranodal lymphoma since it primarily involves organs or tissues outside the lymphatic system, in this case, the skin.

The two most common subtypes of CTCL are mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome:

1. Mycosis fungoides (MF): This is the more prevalent form of CTCL, characterized by patches, plaques, or tumors on the skin. The lesions may be scaly, itchy, or change in size, shape, and color over time. MF usually progresses slowly, with early-stage disease often confined to the skin for several years before spreading to lymph nodes or other organs.
2. Sézary syndrome (SS): This is a more aggressive form of CTCL that involves not only the skin but also the blood and lymph nodes. SS is characterized by the presence of malignant T-cells, known as Sézary cells, in the peripheral blood. Patients with SS typically have generalized erythroderma (reddening and scaling of the entire body), pruritus (severe itching), lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes), and alopecia (hair loss).

The diagnosis of CTCL usually involves a combination of clinical examination, skin biopsy, and immunophenotyping to identify the malignant T-cells. Treatment options depend on the stage and subtype of the disease and may include topical therapies, phototherapy, systemic medications, or targeted therapies.

CARD (caspase recruitment domain) signaling adaptor proteins are a group of intracellular signaling molecules that play a crucial role in the regulation of various cellular processes, including inflammation, immunity, and programmed cell death or apoptosis. These proteins contain a CARD domain, which is a protein-protein interaction module that enables them to bind to other CARD-containing proteins and form large signaling complexes.

CARD signaling adaptor proteins function as molecular scaffolds that help bring together various signaling components in response to different stimuli, such as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). By doing so, they facilitate the activation of downstream signaling cascades and the initiation of appropriate cellular responses.

Some examples of CARD signaling adaptor proteins include:

1. Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88): This protein is involved in the signaling pathways of most Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) family members, which are critical for the detection of microbial components and the initiation of innate immune responses.
2. CARD9: This protein is involved in the signaling pathways of several C-type lectin receptors (CLRs), which recognize fungal and other pathogens, and plays a key role in antifungal immunity.
3. ASC (apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD): This protein is involved in the formation of inflammasomes, which are large cytosolic complexes that activate caspase-1 and promote the maturation and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines.
4. RIPK2 (receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 2): This protein is involved in the signaling pathways of NOD1 and NOD2, which are intracellular sensors of bacterial peptidoglycan, and plays a role in the regulation of inflammation and apoptosis.

Overall, CARD-containing proteins play crucial roles in various immune signaling pathways by mediating protein-protein interactions and downstream signal transduction events, ultimately leading to the activation of innate immunity and inflammatory responses.

Immunoglobulin heavy chains are proteins that make up the framework of antibodies, which are Y-shaped immune proteins. These heavy chains, along with light chains, form the antigen-binding sites of an antibody, which recognize and bind to specific foreign substances (antigens) in order to neutralize or remove them from the body.

The heavy chain is composed of a variable region, which contains the antigen-binding site, and constant regions that determine the class and function of the antibody. There are five classes of immunoglobulins (IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM) that differ in their heavy chain constant regions and therefore have different functions in the immune response.

Immunoglobulin heavy chains are synthesized by B cells, a type of white blood cell involved in the adaptive immune response. The genetic rearrangement of immunoglobulin heavy chain genes during B cell development results in the production of a vast array of different antibodies with unique antigen-binding sites, allowing for the recognition and elimination of a wide variety of pathogens.

Chemotherapy-induced febrile neutropenia is a medical condition that can occur as a complication of chemotherapy treatment for cancer. The term "febrile" refers to fever, which is a body temperature greater than 100.4°F (38°C). "Neutropenia" is a low level of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell that helps fight infections.

Chemotherapy drugs work by targeting and killing rapidly dividing cells, including cancer cells. However, these drugs can also damage other rapidly dividing cells in the body, such as those found in the bone marrow where blood cells are produced. This can lead to a decrease in the number of white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets in the blood.

Febrile neutropenia occurs when the number of neutrophils in the blood is very low (less than 500 cells per microliter), and a fever is present. This combination of factors puts the patient at increased risk for developing severe and potentially life-threatening infections.

Symptoms of febrile neutropenia may include fever, chills, fatigue, muscle aches, headache, and signs of infection such as redness, swelling, or pus at the site of a wound or catheter. Treatment typically involves administering antibiotics to treat any potential infections, as well as supportive care such as fluids and blood transfusions to manage symptoms and prevent complications. In some cases, the chemotherapy treatment may need to be modified or delayed until the neutropenia resolves.

AIDS-related lymphoma (ARL) is a type of cancer that affects the lymphatic system and is associated with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). It is caused by the infection of the lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which weakens the immune system and makes individuals more susceptible to developing lymphoma.

There are two main types of AIDS-related lymphomas: diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and Burkitt lymphoma (BL). DLBCL is the most common type and tends to grow rapidly, while BL is a more aggressive form that can also spread quickly.

Symptoms of AIDS-related lymphoma may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, fatigue, weight loss, and decreased appetite. Diagnosis typically involves a biopsy of the affected lymph node or other tissue, followed by various imaging tests to determine the extent of the disease.

Treatment for AIDS-related lymphoma usually involves a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and/or immunotherapy, along with antiretroviral therapy (ART) to manage HIV infection. The prognosis for ARL varies depending on several factors, including the type and stage of the disease, the patient's overall health, and their response to treatment.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the humoral immune response. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy pathogens such as viruses and bacteria.

B-lymphocyte subsets refer to distinct populations of B-cells that can be identified based on their surface receptors and functional characteristics. Some common B-lymphocyte subsets include:

1. Naive B-cells: These are mature B-cells that have not yet been exposed to an antigen. They express surface receptors called immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin D (IgD).
2. Memory B-cells: These are B-cells that have previously encountered an antigen and mounted an immune response. They express high levels of surface immunoglobulins and can quickly differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells upon re-exposure to the same antigen.
3. Plasma cells: These are fully differentiated B-cells that secrete large amounts of antibodies in response to an antigen. They lack surface immunoglobulins and do not undergo further division.
4. Regulatory B-cells: These are a subset of B-cells that modulate the immune response by producing anti-inflammatory cytokines and suppressing the activation of other immune cells.
5. B-1 cells: These are a population of B-cells that are primarily found in the peripheral blood and mucosal tissues. They produce natural antibodies that provide early protection against pathogens and help to maintain tissue homeostasis.

Understanding the different B-lymphocyte subsets and their functions is important for diagnosing and treating immune-related disorders, including autoimmune diseases, infections, and cancer.

Antineoplastic combined chemotherapy protocols refer to a treatment plan for cancer that involves the use of more than one antineoplastic (chemotherapy) drug given in a specific sequence and schedule. The combination of drugs is used because they may work better together to destroy cancer cells compared to using a single agent alone. This approach can also help to reduce the likelihood of cancer cells becoming resistant to the treatment.

The choice of drugs, dose, duration, and frequency are determined by various factors such as the type and stage of cancer, patient's overall health, and potential side effects. Combination chemotherapy protocols can be used in various settings, including as a primary treatment, adjuvant therapy (given after surgery or radiation to kill any remaining cancer cells), neoadjuvant therapy (given before surgery or radiation to shrink the tumor), or palliative care (to alleviate symptoms and prolong survival).

It is important to note that while combined chemotherapy protocols can be effective in treating certain types of cancer, they can also cause significant side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, fatigue, and an increased risk of infection. Therefore, patients undergoing such treatment should be closely monitored and managed by a healthcare team experienced in administering chemotherapy.

Medical Definition of "Herpesvirus 4, Human" (Epstein-Barr Virus)

"Herpesvirus 4, Human," also known as Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), is a member of the Herpesviridae family and is one of the most common human viruses. It is primarily transmitted through saliva and is often referred to as the "kissing disease."

EBV is the causative agent of infectious mononucleosis (IM), also known as glandular fever, which is characterized by symptoms such as fatigue, sore throat, fever, and swollen lymph nodes. The virus can also cause other diseases, including certain types of cancer, such as Burkitt's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Once a person becomes infected with EBV, the virus remains in the body for the rest of their life, residing in certain white blood cells called B lymphocytes. In most people, the virus remains dormant and does not cause any further symptoms. However, in some individuals, the virus may reactivate, leading to recurrent or persistent symptoms.

EBV infection is diagnosed through various tests, including blood tests that detect antibodies against the virus or direct detection of the virus itself through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. There is no cure for EBV infection, and treatment is generally supportive, focusing on relieving symptoms and managing complications. Prevention measures include practicing good hygiene, avoiding close contact with infected individuals, and not sharing personal items such as toothbrushes or drinking glasses.

Large cell anaplastic lymphoma is a type of cancer that starts in white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are part of the body's immune system. It is classified as a type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).

Anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALCL) is a subtype of NHL characterized by the presence of large cancer cells that look abnormal under a microscope. These cells are called "anaplastic" because they lack many of the usual features of mature lymphocytes.

ALCL can occur in many different parts of the body, including the lymph nodes, skin, lungs, and soft tissues. It is typically an aggressive form of NHL that grows and spreads quickly.

ALCL is further divided into two main subtypes based on the presence or absence of a genetic abnormality involving a protein called ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase). ALK-positive ALCL tends to occur in younger patients and has a better prognosis than ALK-negative ALCL.

Treatment for large cell anaplastic lymphoma typically involves chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and/or immunotherapy, depending on the stage and location of the cancer. In some cases, stem cell transplantation may also be recommended.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

A cell line that is derived from tumor cells and has been adapted to grow in culture. These cell lines are often used in research to study the characteristics of cancer cells, including their growth patterns, genetic changes, and responses to various treatments. They can be established from many different types of tumors, such as carcinomas, sarcomas, and leukemias. Once established, these cell lines can be grown and maintained indefinitely in the laboratory, allowing researchers to conduct experiments and studies that would not be feasible using primary tumor cells. It is important to note that tumor cell lines may not always accurately represent the behavior of the original tumor, as they can undergo genetic changes during their time in culture.

Proto-oncogene proteins c-bcl-2 are a group of proteins that play a role in regulating cell death (apoptosis). The c-bcl-2 gene produces one of these proteins, which helps to prevent cells from undergoing apoptosis. This protein is located on the membrane of mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum and it can inhibit the release of cytochrome c, a key player in the activation of caspases, which are enzymes that trigger apoptosis.

In normal cells, the regulation of c-bcl-2 protein helps to maintain a balance between cell proliferation and cell death, ensuring proper tissue homeostasis. However, when the c-bcl-2 gene is mutated or its expression is dysregulated, it can contribute to cancer development by allowing cancer cells to survive and proliferate. High levels of c-bcl-2 protein have been found in many types of cancer, including leukemia, lymphoma, and carcinomas, and are often associated with a poor prognosis.

Neoplastic gene expression regulation refers to the processes that control the production of proteins and other molecules from genes in neoplastic cells, or cells that are part of a tumor or cancer. In a normal cell, gene expression is tightly regulated to ensure that the right genes are turned on or off at the right time. However, in cancer cells, this regulation can be disrupted, leading to the overexpression or underexpression of certain genes.

Neoplastic gene expression regulation can be affected by a variety of factors, including genetic mutations, epigenetic changes, and signals from the tumor microenvironment. These changes can lead to the activation of oncogenes (genes that promote cancer growth and development) or the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes (genes that prevent cancer).

Understanding neoplastic gene expression regulation is important for developing new therapies for cancer, as targeting specific genes or pathways involved in this process can help to inhibit cancer growth and progression.

Tumor markers are substances that can be found in the body and their presence can indicate the presence of certain types of cancer or other conditions. Biological tumor markers refer to those substances that are produced by cancer cells or by other cells in response to cancer or certain benign (non-cancerous) conditions. These markers can be found in various bodily fluids such as blood, urine, or tissue samples.

Examples of biological tumor markers include:

1. Proteins: Some tumor markers are proteins that are produced by cancer cells or by other cells in response to the presence of cancer. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a protein produced by normal prostate cells and in higher amounts by prostate cancer cells.
2. Genetic material: Tumor markers can also include genetic material such as DNA, RNA, or microRNA that are shed by cancer cells into bodily fluids. For example, circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) is genetic material from cancer cells that can be found in the bloodstream.
3. Metabolites: Tumor markers can also include metabolic products produced by cancer cells or by other cells in response to cancer. For example, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme that is released into the bloodstream when cancer cells break down glucose for energy.

It's important to note that tumor markers are not specific to cancer and can be elevated in non-cancerous conditions as well. Therefore, they should not be used alone to diagnose cancer but rather as a tool in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical evaluations.

Remission induction is a treatment approach in medicine, particularly in the field of oncology and hematology. It refers to the initial phase of therapy aimed at reducing or eliminating the signs and symptoms of active disease, such as cancer or autoimmune disorders. The primary goal of remission induction is to achieve a complete response (disappearance of all detectable signs of the disease) or a partial response (a decrease in the measurable extent of the disease). This phase of treatment is often intensive and may involve the use of multiple drugs or therapies, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy. After remission induction, patients may receive additional treatments to maintain the remission and prevent relapse, known as consolidation or maintenance therapy.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Gene expression profiling is a laboratory technique used to measure the activity (expression) of thousands of genes at once. This technique allows researchers and clinicians to identify which genes are turned on or off in a particular cell, tissue, or organism under specific conditions, such as during health, disease, development, or in response to various treatments.

The process typically involves isolating RNA from the cells or tissues of interest, converting it into complementary DNA (cDNA), and then using microarray or high-throughput sequencing technologies to determine which genes are expressed and at what levels. The resulting data can be used to identify patterns of gene expression that are associated with specific biological states or processes, providing valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of diseases and potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

In recent years, gene expression profiling has become an essential tool in various fields, including cancer research, drug discovery, and personalized medicine, where it is used to identify biomarkers of disease, predict patient outcomes, and guide treatment decisions.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

DNA-binding proteins are a type of protein that have the ability to bind to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic material of organisms. These proteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as regulation of gene expression, DNA replication, repair and recombination.

The binding of DNA-binding proteins to specific DNA sequences is mediated by non-covalent interactions, including electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. The specificity of binding is determined by the recognition of particular nucleotide sequences or structural features of the DNA molecule.

DNA-binding proteins can be classified into several categories based on their structure and function, such as transcription factors, histones, and restriction enzymes. Transcription factors are a major class of DNA-binding proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoter region of genes and recruiting other proteins to modulate transcription. Histones are DNA-binding proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes, the basic unit of chromatin structure. Restriction enzymes are DNA-binding proteins that recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences, and are widely used in molecular biology research and biotechnology applications.

Lymphocyte activation is the process by which B-cells and T-cells (types of lymphocytes) become activated to perform effector functions in an immune response. This process involves the recognition of specific antigens presented on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages.

The activation of B-cells leads to their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies, while the activation of T-cells results in the production of cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+ T-cells) that can directly kill infected cells or helper T-cells (CD4+ T-cells) that assist other immune cells.

Lymphocyte activation involves a series of intracellular signaling events, including the binding of co-stimulatory molecules and the release of cytokines, which ultimately result in the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and effector functions. The activation process is tightly regulated to prevent excessive or inappropriate immune responses that can lead to autoimmunity or chronic inflammation.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid. It is the first antibody to be produced in response to an initial exposure to an antigen, making it an important part of the body's primary immune response. IgM antibodies are large molecules that are composed of five basic units, giving them a pentameric structure. They are primarily found on the surface of B cells as membrane-bound immunoglobulins (mlgM), where they function as receptors for antigens. Once an mlgM receptor binds to an antigen, it triggers the activation and differentiation of the B cell into a plasma cell that produces and secretes large amounts of soluble IgM antibodies.

IgM antibodies are particularly effective at agglutination (clumping) and complement activation, which makes them important in the early stages of an immune response to help clear pathogens from the bloodstream. However, they are not as stable or long-lived as other types of antibodies, such as IgG, and their levels tend to decline after the initial immune response has occurred.

In summary, Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the primary immune response to antigens by agglutination and complement activation. It is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid, and it is produced by B cells after they are activated by an antigen.

The spleen is an organ in the upper left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays multiple supporting roles in the body:

1. It fights infection by acting as a filter for the blood. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there.
2. The spleen also helps to control the amount of blood in the body by removing excess red blood cells and storing platelets.
3. It has an important role in immune function, producing antibodies and removing microorganisms and damaged red blood cells from the bloodstream.

The spleen can be removed without causing any significant problems, as other organs take over its functions. This is known as a splenectomy and may be necessary if the spleen is damaged or diseased.

Immunoglobulin D (IgD) is a type of antibody that is present in the blood and other bodily fluids. It is one of the five classes of immunoglobulins (IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM) found in humans and plays a role in the immune response.

IgD is produced by B cells, a type of white blood cell that is responsible for producing antibodies. It is primarily found on the surface of mature B cells, where it functions as a receptor for antigens (foreign substances that trigger an immune response). When an antigen binds to IgD on the surface of a B cell, it activates the B cell and stimulates it to produce and secrete antibodies specific to that antigen.

IgD is found in relatively low concentrations in the blood compared to other immunoglobulins, and its precise functions are not fully understood. However, it is thought to play a role in the regulation of B cell activation and the immune response. Additionally, some research suggests that IgD may have a direct role in protecting against certain types of infections.

It's worth noting that genetic deficiencies in IgD are not typically associated with any significant immunological abnormalities or increased susceptibility to infection.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are proteins produced by the immune system to recognize and neutralize foreign substances such as pathogens or toxins. They are composed of four polypeptide chains: two heavy chains and two light chains, which are held together by disulfide bonds. The variable regions of the heavy and light chains contain loops that form the antigen-binding site, allowing each Ig molecule to recognize a specific epitope (antigenic determinant) on an antigen.

Genes encoding immunoglobulins are located on chromosome 14 (light chain genes) and chromosomes 22 and 2 (heavy chain genes). The diversity of the immune system is generated through a process called V(D)J recombination, where variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) gene segments are randomly selected and assembled to form the variable regions of the heavy and light chains. This results in an enormous number of possible combinations, allowing the immune system to recognize and respond to a vast array of potential threats.

There are five classes of immunoglobulins: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, each with distinct functions and structures. For example, IgG is the most abundant class in serum and provides long-term protection against pathogens, while IgA is found on mucosal surfaces and helps prevent the entry of pathogens into the body.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

B-lymphocyte gene rearrangement is a fundamental biological process that occurs during the development of B-lymphocytes (also known as B cells), which are a type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies to help fight infections. This process involves the rearrangement of genetic material within the B-lymphocyte's immunoglobulin genes, specifically the heavy chain (IgH) and light chain (IgL) genes, to create a diverse repertoire of antibodies with unique specificities.

During B-lymphocyte gene rearrangement, large segments of DNA are cut, deleted, or inverted, and then rejoined to form a functional IgH or IgL gene that encodes an antigen-binding site on the antibody molecule. The process occurs in two main steps:

1. Variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) gene segments are rearranged to form the heavy chain gene, which is located on chromosome 14. This results in a vast array of possible combinations, allowing for the generation of a diverse set of antibody molecules.
2. A separate variable (V) and joining (J) gene segment rearrangement occurs to form the light chain gene, which can be either kappa or lambda type, located on chromosomes 2 and 22, respectively.

Once the heavy and light chain genes are successfully rearranged, they are transcribed into mRNA and translated into immunoglobulin proteins, forming a functional antibody molecule. If the initial gene rearrangement fails to produce a functional antibody, additional attempts at rearrangement can occur, involving different combinations of V, D, and J segments or the use of alternative reading frames.

Errors in B-lymphocyte gene rearrangement can lead to various genetic disorders, such as lymphomas and leukemias, due to the production of aberrant antibodies or uncontrolled cell growth.

CD5 is a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells in the human body, including some immune cells like T cells and B cells. It is also known as a cell marker or identifier. Antigens are substances (usually proteins) on the surface of cells that can be recognized by the immune system, triggering an immune response.

In the context of CD5, antigens refer to foreign substances that can bind to the CD5 protein and stimulate an immune response. However, it's important to note that CD5 itself is not typically considered an antigen in the medical community. Instead, it is a marker used to identify certain types of cells and monitor their behavior in health and disease states.

In some cases, abnormal expression or regulation of CD5 has been associated with various diseases, including certain types of cancer. For example, some B-cell lymphomas may overexpress CD5, which can help doctors diagnose and monitor the progression of the disease. However, in these contexts, CD5 is not considered an antigen in the traditional sense.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a type of cancer that starts from cells that become certain white blood cells (called lymphocytes) in the bone marrow. The cancer (leukemia) cells start in the bone marrow but then go into the blood.

In CLL, the leukemia cells often build up slowly. Many people don't have any symptoms for at least a few years. But over time, the cells can spread to other parts of the body, including the lymph nodes, liver, and spleen.

The "B-cell" part of the name refers to the fact that the cancer starts in a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell. The "chronic" part means that this leukemia usually progresses more slowly than other types of leukemia.

It's important to note that chronic lymphocytic leukemia is different from chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). Although both are cancers of the white blood cells, they start in different types of white blood cells and progress differently.

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that are part of the immune system. They are found throughout the body, especially in the neck, armpits, groin, and abdomen. Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid, which carries waste and unwanted substances such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. They contain white blood cells called lymphocytes that help fight infections and diseases by attacking and destroying the harmful substances found in the lymph fluid. When an infection or disease is present, lymph nodes may swell due to the increased number of immune cells and fluid accumulation as they work to fight off the invaders.

'Gene rearrangement in B-lymphocytes, heavy chain' refers to the biological process that occurs during the development of B-lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) in the bone marrow. This process involves the rearrangement of genetic material on chromosome 14, specifically within the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene locus.

During B-cell maturation, the variable region of the heavy chain gene is assembled from several gene segments, including the variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) segments. Through a series of genetic recombination events, these segments are randomly selected and joined together to form a unique V(D)J exon that encodes the variable region of the immunoglobulin heavy chain protein.

This gene rearrangement process allows for the generation of a diverse repertoire of antibodies with different specificities, enabling B-lymphocytes to recognize and respond to a wide range of foreign antigens. However, if errors occur during this process, it can lead to the production of autoantibodies that target the body's own cells and tissues, contributing to the development of certain immune disorders such as autoimmune diseases.

CD19 is a type of protein found on the surface of B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the body's immune response. CD19 is a marker that helps identify and distinguish B cells from other types of cells in the body. It is also a target for immunotherapy in certain diseases, such as B-cell malignancies.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. In the context of CD19, antigens refer to substances that can bind to CD19 and trigger a response from the immune system. This can include proteins, carbohydrates, or other molecules found on the surface of bacteria, viruses, or cancer cells.

Therefore, 'antigens, CD19' refers to any substances that can bind to the CD19 protein on B cells and trigger an immune response. These antigens may be used in the development of immunotherapies for the treatment of B-cell malignancies or other diseases.

Extranodal NK-T-cell lymphoma is a rare and aggressive type of lymphoma that typically involves the nasal area and other extranodal sites. It is characterized by the proliferation of natural killer (NK) cells or T-cells, specifically those that express the CD56 surface antigen and are positive for cytoplasmic CD3 epsilon.

The tumor cells in this type of lymphoma often produce large amounts of cytokines, leading to extensive tissue destruction and necrosis at the site of involvement. The disease can also involve the skin, gastrointestinal tract, lungs, and other organs.

Extranodal NK-T-cell lymphoma is more prevalent in Asians and Latin Americans than in other populations. It tends to affect middle-aged adults and has a poor prognosis, with a high rate of relapse and a low survival rate. Treatment typically involves a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and sometimes stem cell transplantation.

The Immunoglobulin (Ig) variable region is the antigen-binding part of an antibody, which is highly variable in its amino acid sequence and therefore specific to a particular epitope (the site on an antigen that is recognized by the antigen-binding site of an antibody). This variability is generated during the process of V(D)J recombination in the maturation of B cells, allowing for a diverse repertoire of antibodies to be produced and recognizing a wide range of potential pathogens.

The variable region is composed of several sub-regions including:

1. The heavy chain variable region (VH)
2. The light chain variable region (VL)
3. The heavy chain joining region (JH)
4. The light chain joining region (JL)

These regions are further divided into framework regions and complementarity-determining regions (CDRs). The CDRs, particularly CDR3, contain the most variability and are primarily responsible for antigen recognition.

Siglec-2, also known as CD22, is a type of cell surface protein that belongs to the sialic acid-binding immunoglobulin-like lectins (Siglecs) family. It is primarily expressed on mature B cells and plays a crucial role in regulating B cell activation and function. Siglec-2 recognizes and binds to sialic acid residues on glycoproteins and gangliosides, which are sugars that are attached to proteins and lipids on the surface of cells. This binding can lead to inhibitory signals that dampen B cell activation and help prevent autoimmunity. Siglec-2 has also been implicated in the regulation of B cell migration and adhesion.

CD (cluster of differentiation) antigens are cell-surface proteins that are expressed on leukocytes (white blood cells) and can be used to identify and distinguish different subsets of these cells. They are important markers in the field of immunology and hematology, and are commonly used to diagnose and monitor various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

CD antigens are designated by numbers, such as CD4, CD8, CD19, etc., which refer to specific proteins found on the surface of different types of leukocytes. For example, CD4 is a protein found on the surface of helper T cells, while CD8 is found on cytotoxic T cells.

CD antigens can be used as targets for immunotherapy, such as monoclonal antibody therapy, in which antibodies are designed to bind to specific CD antigens and trigger an immune response against cancer cells or infected cells. They can also be used as markers to monitor the effectiveness of treatments and to detect minimal residual disease (MRD) after treatment.

It's important to note that not all CD antigens are exclusive to leukocytes, some can be found on other cell types as well, and their expression can vary depending on the activation state or differentiation stage of the cells.

Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by the immune system's B cells in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. These Y-shaped proteins play a crucial role in identifying and neutralizing pathogens and other antigens, thereby protecting the body against infection and disease.

Immunoglobulins are composed of four polypeptide chains: two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains, held together by disulfide bonds. The variable regions of these chains form the antigen-binding sites, which recognize and bind to specific epitopes on antigens. Based on their heavy chain type, immunoglobulins are classified into five main isotypes or classes: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has distinct functions in the immune response, such as providing protection in different body fluids and tissues, mediating hypersensitivity reactions, and aiding in the development of immunological memory.

In medical settings, immunoglobulins can be administered therapeutically to provide passive immunity against certain diseases or to treat immune deficiencies, autoimmune disorders, and other conditions that may benefit from immunomodulation.

B-cell activating factor (BAFF) is a type of protein belonging to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family. Its primary function is to stimulate and activate B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system by producing antibodies. BAFF helps to promote the survival, differentiation, and activation of B cells, thereby contributing to the adaptive immune response.

BAFF binds to its receptor, known as BAFF receptor (BAFF-R), which is expressed on the surface of B cells. This interaction leads to the activation of various signaling pathways that promote B cell survival and proliferation. Overexpression or excessive production of BAFF has been implicated in several autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and Sjogren's syndrome, due to the abnormal activation and expansion of B cells.

In summary, B-cell activating factor is a protein that plays an essential role in the activation and survival of B cells, which are crucial for the immune response. However, its overexpression or dysregulation can contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases.

Human chromosome pair 14 consists of two rod-shaped structures present in the nucleus of human cells, which contain genetic material in the form of DNA and proteins. Each member of the pair contains a single very long DNA molecule that carries an identical set of genes and other genetic elements, totaling approximately 105 million base pairs. These chromosomes play a crucial role in the development, functioning, and reproduction of human beings.

Chromosome 14 is one of the autosomal chromosomes, meaning it is not involved in determining the sex of an individual. It contains around 800-1,000 genes that provide instructions for producing various proteins responsible for numerous cellular functions and processes. Some notable genes located on chromosome 14 include those associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, cancer susceptibility, and immune system regulation.

Human cells typically have 23 pairs of chromosomes, including 22 autosomal pairs (numbered 1-22) and one pair of sex chromosomes (XX for females or XY for males). Chromosome pair 14 is the eighth largest autosomal pair in terms of its total length.

It's important to note that genetic information on chromosome 14, like all human chromosomes, can vary between individuals due to genetic variations and mutations. These differences contribute to the unique characteristics and traits found among humans.

CD40 is a type of protein known as a tumor necrosis factor receptor that is found on the surface of various cells in the body, including B cells, dendritic cells, and activated T cells. It plays an important role in the immune system by interacting with another protein called CD154 (also known as CD40 ligand) to activate immune responses.

CD40 antigens are molecules that can stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body because they are recognized as foreign substances by the immune system. They may be used in vaccines or other immunotherapies to induce an immune response against specific targets, such as cancer cells or infectious agents.

CD40 antigens can also be found on some types of tumor cells, and activating CD40 with CD154 has been shown to enhance the anti-tumor immune response in preclinical models. Therefore, CD40 agonists are being investigated as potential cancer therapies.

In summary, CD40 antigens are proteins that can stimulate an immune response and are involved in activating immune cells. They have potential applications in vaccines, immunotherapies, and cancer treatments.

Cell differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell, or stem cell, becomes a more specialized cell type with specific functions and structures. This process involves changes in gene expression, which are regulated by various intracellular signaling pathways and transcription factors. Differentiation results in the development of distinct cell types that make up tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. It is a crucial aspect of embryonic development, tissue repair, and maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

"Gene rearrangement" is a process that involves the alteration of the order, orientation, or copy number of genes or gene segments within an organism's genome. This natural mechanism plays a crucial role in generating diversity and specificity in the immune system, particularly in vertebrates.

In the context of the immune system, gene rearrangement occurs during the development of B-cells and T-cells, which are responsible for adaptive immunity. The process involves breaking and rejoining DNA segments that encode antigen recognition sites, resulting in a unique combination of gene segments and creating a vast array of possible antigen receptors.

There are two main types of gene rearrangement:

1. V(D)J recombination: This process occurs in both B-cells and T-cells. It involves the recombination of variable (V), diversity (D), and joining (J) gene segments to form a functional antigen receptor gene. In humans, there are multiple copies of V, D, and J segments for each antigen receptor gene, allowing for a vast number of possible combinations.
2. Class switch recombination: This process occurs only in mature B-cells after antigen exposure. It involves the replacement of the constant (C) region of the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene with another C region, resulting in the production of different isotypes of antibodies (IgG, IgA, or IgE) that have distinct effector functions while maintaining the same antigen specificity.

These processes contribute to the generation of a diverse repertoire of antigen receptors, allowing the immune system to recognize and respond effectively to a wide range of pathogens.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

Lymphocyte cooperation is a term used in immunology to describe the interaction and communication between different types of lymphocytes, specifically T cells and B cells, to mount an effective immune response against pathogens.

T cells, also known as T lymphocytes, are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They can directly kill infected cells or produce cytokines that regulate the immune response. B cells, on the other hand, are responsible for humoral immunity, producing antibodies that neutralize pathogens or mark them for destruction by other immune cells.

Lymphocyte cooperation occurs when a T cell recognizes an antigen presented to it by an antigen-presenting cell (APC) in the context of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Once activated, the T cell can then interact with B cells that have also been activated by recognizing the same antigen. The T cell provides help to the B cell by producing cytokines that stimulate its proliferation and differentiation into antibody-secreting plasma cells.

This cooperation between T and B cells is crucial for an effective immune response, as it allows for the generation of a targeted and specific response against pathogens. Defects in lymphocyte cooperation can lead to immunodeficiency or autoimmune disorders.

CD30 is a type of protein found on the surface of some cells in the human body, including certain immune cells like T-cells and B-cells. It is also known as Ki-1 antigen. CD30 plays a role in the regulation of the immune response and can be activated during an immune reaction.

CD30 is often used as a marker to identify certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin lymphoma and anaplastic large cell lymphoma. These cancers are characterized by the presence of cells that express CD30 on their surface.

CD30 antigens can be targeted with immunotherapy, such as monoclonal antibodies, to treat these types of cancer. For example, brentuximab vedotin is a monoclonal antibody that targets CD30 and has been approved for the treatment of Hodgkin lymphoma and anaplastic large cell lymphoma.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

B-lymphoid precursor cells, also known as progenitor B cells, are hematopoietic stem cells that have committed to the B-cell lineage and are in the process of differentiating into mature B cells. These cells originate in the bone marrow and undergo a series of developmental stages, including commitment to the B-cell lineage, rearrangement of immunoglobulin genes, expression of surface immunoglobulins, and selection for a functional B cell receptor.

B-lymphoid precursor cells can be further divided into several subsets based on their stage of differentiation and the expression of specific cell surface markers. These subsets include early pro-B cells, late pro-B cells, pre-B cells, and immature B cells. Each subset represents a distinct stage in B-cell development and is characterized by unique genetic and epigenetic features that regulate its differentiation and function.

Abnormalities in the development and differentiation of B-lymphoid precursor cells can lead to various hematological disorders, including leukemias and lymphomas. Therefore, understanding the biology of these cells is crucial for developing new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of these diseases.

Antigens are substances that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies by B-lymphocytes. Differentiation refers to the process by which cells mature and become more specialized in their functions. In the context of B-lymphocytes, differentiation involves the maturation of naive B-cells into plasma cells that are capable of producing large amounts of antibodies in response to an antigenic stimulus.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a critical role in the adaptive immune system. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens, marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

When a B-lymphocyte encounters an antigen, it becomes activated and begins to differentiate into a plasma cell. During this process, the B-cell undergoes several changes, including an increase in size, the expression of new surface receptors, and the production of large amounts of antibodies specific to the antigen. These antibodies are then released into the bloodstream, where they can bind to the antigen and help to neutralize or eliminate it.

Overall, the differentiation of B-lymphocytes in response to antigens is a critical component of the adaptive immune system, allowing the body to mount targeted responses to specific pathogens and other foreign substances.

Human chromosome pair 18 consists of two rod-shaped structures present in the nucleus of each cell of the human body. Chromosomes are made up of DNA, protein, and RNA, and they carry genetic information that determines an individual's physical characteristics, biochemical processes, and susceptibility to disease.

Chromosome pair 18 is one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes that make up the human genome. Each member of chromosome pair 18 has a length of about 75 million base pairs and contains around 600 genes. Chromosome pair 18 is also known as the "smart chromosome" because it contains many genes involved in brain development, function, and cognition.

Abnormalities in chromosome pair 18 can lead to genetic disorders such as Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18), in which there is an extra copy of chromosome 18, or deletion of a portion of the chromosome, leading to various developmental and cognitive impairments.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Leukemia, B-cell is a type of cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow, characterized by an overproduction of abnormal B-lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell. These abnormal cells accumulate in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells, leading to anemia, infection, and bleeding.

B-cells are a type of lymphocyte that plays a crucial role in the immune system by producing antibodies to help fight off infections. In B-cell leukemia, the cancerous B-cells do not mature properly and accumulate in the bone marrow, leading to a decrease in the number of healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.

There are several types of B-cell leukemia, including acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). ALL is more common in children and young adults, while CLL is more common in older adults. Treatment options for B-cell leukemia depend on the type and stage of the disease and may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, stem cell transplantation, or targeted therapies.

Survival analysis is a branch of statistics that deals with the analysis of time to event data. It is used to estimate the time it takes for a certain event of interest to occur, such as death, disease recurrence, or treatment failure. The event of interest is called the "failure" event, and survival analysis estimates the probability of not experiencing the failure event until a certain point in time, also known as the "survival" probability.

Survival analysis can provide important information about the effectiveness of treatments, the prognosis of patients, and the identification of risk factors associated with the event of interest. It can handle censored data, which is common in medical research where some participants may drop out or be lost to follow-up before the event of interest occurs.

Survival analysis typically involves estimating the survival function, which describes the probability of surviving beyond a certain time point, as well as hazard functions, which describe the instantaneous rate of failure at a given time point. Other important concepts in survival analysis include median survival times, restricted mean survival times, and various statistical tests to compare survival curves between groups.

A clone is a group of cells that are genetically identical to each other because they are derived from a common ancestor cell through processes such as mitosis or asexual reproduction. Therefore, the term "clone cells" refers to a population of cells that are genetic copies of a single parent cell.

In the context of laboratory research, cells can be cloned by isolating a single cell and allowing it to divide in culture, creating a population of genetically identical cells. This is useful for studying the behavior and characteristics of individual cell types, as well as for generating large quantities of cells for use in experiments.

It's important to note that while clone cells are genetically identical, they may still exhibit differences in their phenotype (physical traits) due to epigenetic factors or environmental influences.

The B-cell activation factor receptor, also known as BAFF-R or CD268, is a protein found on the surface of B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system. The BAFF-R receptor binds to a protein called BAFF (B-cell activating factor), which is a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family.

When BAFF binds to BAFF-R, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that promote the survival, activation, and differentiation of B cells. This interaction is critical for the normal development and function of the immune system, as it helps to maintain the balance between the proliferation and deletion of B cells.

However, abnormal activation of the BAFF-R pathway has been implicated in several autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and Sjogren's syndrome. In these conditions, excessive levels of BAFF can lead to the overactivation of B cells, resulting in the production of autoantibodies that attack the body's own tissues.

Therefore, therapies that target the BAFF-R pathway are being investigated as potential treatments for autoimmune diseases. These include monoclonal antibodies that bind to BAFF or BAFF-R and block their interaction, as well as small molecule inhibitors that interfere with downstream signaling events.

Lymphoid tissue is a specialized type of connective tissue that is involved in the immune function of the body. It is composed of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell), which are responsible for producing antibodies and destroying infected or cancerous cells. Lymphoid tissue can be found throughout the body, but it is particularly concentrated in certain areas such as the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and Peyer's patches in the small intestine.

Lymphoid tissue provides a site for the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of lymphocytes, which are critical components of the adaptive immune response. It also serves as a filter for foreign particles, such as bacteria and viruses, that may enter the body through various routes. The lymphatic system, which includes lymphoid tissue, helps to maintain the health and integrity of the body by protecting it from infection and disease.

Immunologic memory, also known as adaptive immunity, refers to the ability of the immune system to recognize and mount a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposure to a pathogen or antigen that it has encountered before. This is a key feature of the vertebrate immune system and allows for long-term protection against infectious diseases.

Immunologic memory is mediated by specialized cells called memory T cells and B cells, which are produced during the initial response to an infection or immunization. These cells persist in the body after the pathogen has been cleared and can quickly respond to future encounters with the same or similar antigens. This rapid response leads to a more effective and efficient elimination of the pathogen, resulting in fewer symptoms and reduced severity of disease.

Immunologic memory is the basis for vaccines, which work by exposing the immune system to a harmless form of a pathogen or its components, inducing an initial response and generating memory cells that provide long-term protection against future infections.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Reed-Sternberg cells are a type of large, abnormal cell that are present in Hodgkin lymphoma, a cancer of the lymphatic system. These cells are typically characterized by the presence of two or more nuclei, one of which is often larger and irregularly shaped, giving them a "owl's eye" appearance. Reed-Sternberg cells are important in the diagnosis of Hodgkin lymphoma as they are present in all cases of this type of cancer. However, it is worth noting that Reed-Sternberg-like cells can also be found in other conditions, such as some types of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and certain inflammatory disorders, so their presence alone is not enough to make a definitive diagnosis of Hodgkin lymphoma.

'Tumor cells, cultured' refers to the process of removing cancerous cells from a tumor and growing them in controlled laboratory conditions. This is typically done by isolating the tumor cells from a patient's tissue sample, then placing them in a nutrient-rich environment that promotes their growth and multiplication.

The resulting cultured tumor cells can be used for various research purposes, including the study of cancer biology, drug development, and toxicity testing. They provide a valuable tool for researchers to better understand the behavior and characteristics of cancer cells outside of the human body, which can lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments.

It is important to note that cultured tumor cells may not always behave exactly the same way as they do in the human body, so findings from cell culture studies must be validated through further research, such as animal models or clinical trials.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Antibody formation, also known as humoral immune response, is the process by which the immune system produces proteins called antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign substance (antigen) in the body. This process involves several steps:

1. Recognition: The antigen is recognized and bound by a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell, which then becomes activated.
2. Differentiation: The activated B cell undergoes differentiation to become a plasma cell, which is a type of cell that produces and secretes large amounts of antibodies.
3. Antibody production: The plasma cells produce and release antibodies, which are proteins made up of four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains and two light chains) arranged in a Y-shape. Each antibody has two binding sites that can recognize and bind to specific regions on the antigen called epitopes.
4. Neutralization or elimination: The antibodies bind to the antigens, neutralizing them or marking them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to prevent the spread of infection and protect the body from harmful substances.

Antibody formation is an important part of the adaptive immune response, which allows the body to specifically recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens and foreign substances.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Thymus neoplasms are abnormal growths in the thymus gland that result from uncontrolled cell division. The term "neoplasm" refers to any new and abnormal growth of tissue, also known as a tumor. Thymus neoplasms can be benign or malignant (cancerous).

Malignant thymus neoplasms are called thymomas or thymic carcinomas. Thymomas are the most common type and tend to grow slowly, invading nearby tissues and organs. They can also spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body. Thymic carcinomas are rarer and more aggressive, growing and spreading more quickly than thymomas.

Symptoms of thymus neoplasms may include coughing, chest pain, difficulty breathing, or swelling in the neck or upper chest. Treatment options for thymus neoplasms depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Complement receptor 3d (CR3d or CD11b/CD18) is not a medical definition in itself, but rather a specific type of integrin receptor that plays a crucial role in the immune system. Here's a breakdown of the components:

1. Complement Receptors: These are proteins found on the surface of various cells, including white blood cells (leukocytes), that recognize and bind to complement components, which are proteins involved in the immune response. The binding of complement components to their receptors helps facilitate communication between cells, enhances phagocytosis (the process by which certain cells engulf and destroy foreign particles or microorganisms), and contributes to the inflammatory response.
2. CR3 (Complement Receptor 3): Complement Receptor 3 is a heterodimeric receptor composed of two subunits, CD11b (also known as integrin alpha M) and CD18 (also known as integrin beta 2). Together, they form the integrin Mac-1 or αMβ2.
3. CR3d (CD11b/CD18): CR3d specifically refers to the CD11b subunit of the Complement Receptor 3 heterodimer. The CD11b subunit is responsible for recognizing and binding to complement component C3b, iC3b, and C4b fragments, as well as other ligands such as fibrinogen, ICAM-1 (Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1), and factor X.

In summary, Complement Receptor 3d (CR3d or CD11b/CD18) is a type of integrin receptor found on the surface of various immune cells that recognizes and binds to complement components C3b, iC3b, and C4b fragments, as well as other ligands. This binding facilitates communication between cells, enhances phagocytosis, and contributes to the inflammatory response.

Immunoglobulin mu-chains (IgM) are a type of heavy chain found in immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies. IgM is the first antibody to be produced in response to an initial exposure to an antigen and plays a crucial role in the early stages of the immune response.

IgM antibodies are composed of four monomeric units, each consisting of two heavy chains and two light chains. The heavy chains in IgM are called mu-chains, which have a molecular weight of approximately 72 kDa. Each mu-chain contains five domains: one variable (V) domain at the N-terminus, four constant (C) domains (Cμ1-4), and a membrane-spanning region followed by a short cytoplasmic tail.

IgM antibodies are primarily found on the surface of B cells as part of the B cell receptor (BCR). When a B cell encounters an antigen, the BCR binds to it, triggering a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to B cell activation and differentiation into plasma cells. In response to activation, the B cell begins to secrete IgM antibodies into the bloodstream.

IgM antibodies have several unique features that make them effective in the early stages of an immune response. They are highly efficient at agglutination, or clumping together, of pathogens and antigens, which helps to neutralize them. IgM antibodies also activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to destroy pathogens.

Overall, Immunoglobulin mu-chains are an essential component of the immune system, providing early protection against pathogens and initiating the adaptive immune response.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Somatic hypermutation is a process that occurs in the immune system, specifically within B cells, which are a type of white blood cell responsible for producing antibodies. This process involves the introduction of point mutations into the immunoglobulin (Ig) genes, which encode for the variable regions of antibodies.

Somatic hypermutation occurs in the germinal centers of lymphoid follicles in response to antigen stimulation. The activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) enzyme is responsible for initiating this process by deaminating cytosines to uracils in the Ig genes. This leads to the introduction of point mutations during DNA replication and repair, which can result in changes to the antibody's binding affinity for the antigen.

The somatic hypermutation process allows for the selection of B cells with higher affinity antibodies that can better recognize and neutralize pathogens. This is an important mechanism for the development of humoral immunity and the generation of long-lived memory B cells. However, excessive or aberrant somatic hypermutation can also contribute to the development of certain types of B cell malignancies, such as lymphomas and leukemias.

Immunoglobulin kappa-chains are one of the two types of light chains (the other being lambda-chains) that make up an immunoglobulin molecule, also known as an antibody. These light chains combine with heavy chains to form the antigen-binding site of an antibody, which is responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens or foreign substances in the body.

Kappa-chains contain a variable region that differs between different antibodies and contributes to the diversity of the immune system's response to various antigens. They also have a constant region, which is consistent across all kappa-chains. Approximately 60% of all human antibodies contain kappa-chains, while the remaining 40% contain lambda-chains. The relative proportions of kappa and lambda chains can be used in diagnostic tests to identify clonal expansions of B cells, which may indicate a malignancy such as multiple myeloma or lymphoma.

Apoptosis is a programmed and controlled cell death process that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a natural process that helps maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged, infected, or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and fragmentation into membrane-bound vesicles called apoptotic bodies. These bodies are then recognized and engulfed by neighboring cells or phagocytic cells, preventing an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is regulated by a complex network of intracellular signaling pathways that involve proteins such as caspases, Bcl-2 family members, and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).

Anti-idiotypic antibodies are a type of immune protein that recognizes and binds to the unique identifying region (idiotype) of another antibody. These antibodies are produced by the immune system as part of a regulatory feedback mechanism, where they can modulate or inhibit the activity of the original antibody. They have been studied for their potential use in immunotherapy and vaccine development.

Central nervous system (CNS) neoplasms refer to a group of abnormal growths or tumors that develop within the brain or spinal cord. These tumors can be benign or malignant, and their growth can compress or disrupt the normal functioning of surrounding brain or spinal cord tissue.

Benign CNS neoplasms are slow-growing and rarely spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause significant problems if they grow large enough to put pressure on vital structures within the brain or spinal cord. Malignant CNS neoplasms, on the other hand, are aggressive tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissue. They may also spread to other parts of the CNS or, rarely, to other organs in the body.

CNS neoplasms can arise from various types of cells within the brain or spinal cord, including nerve cells, glial cells (which provide support and insulation for nerve cells), and supportive tissues such as blood vessels. The specific type of CNS neoplasm is often used to help guide treatment decisions and determine prognosis.

Symptoms of CNS neoplasms can vary widely depending on the location and size of the tumor, but may include headaches, seizures, weakness or paralysis, vision or hearing changes, balance problems, memory loss, and changes in behavior or personality. Treatment options for CNS neoplasms may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

CD27 is a protein that is found on the surface of certain immune cells, including T cells and B cells. It is a type of molecule known as a cell-surface antigen, which can be recognized by other immune cells and used to target those cells for activation or destruction. CD27 plays a role in the regulation of the immune response, particularly in the activation and differentiation of T cells.

CD27 is also a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily, which means that it has a specific structure and function that allows it to interact with other molecules called ligands. The interaction between CD27 and its ligand, CD70, helps to activate T cells and promote their survival and proliferation.

In addition to its role in the immune response, CD27 has also been studied as a potential target for cancer immunotherapy. Because CD27 is expressed on certain types of tumor cells, it may be possible to use therapies that target CD27 to stimulate an immune response against the tumor and help to destroy it. However, more research is needed to determine the safety and effectiveness of these approaches.

B-cell-specific activator protein, also known as BASP1, is a protein that belongs to the family of intracellular signaling molecules called "activator proteins." It is specifically expressed in B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune system.

BASP1 has been shown to interact with several other proteins involved in signal transduction pathways and regulation of gene expression. It has been implicated in various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Dysregulation of BASP1 has been associated with certain diseases, such as cancer and autoimmune disorders.

In B cells, BASP1 is involved in regulating the activation and differentiation of these cells in response to antigen stimulation. It has been shown to interact with the B-cell receptor (BCR) complex and modulate its signaling pathways. Additionally, BASP1 may play a role in the development and progression of certain B-cell malignancies, such as lymphomas and leukemias.

Overall, while further research is needed to fully understand the functions and mechanisms of BASP1 in B cells, it is clear that this protein plays an important role in regulating immune responses and maintaining homeostasis in the body.

Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside certain bones in the body, such as the hips, thighs, and vertebrae. It is responsible for producing blood-forming cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. There are two types of bone marrow: red marrow, which is involved in blood cell production, and yellow marrow, which contains fatty tissue.

Red bone marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells, which can differentiate into various types of blood cells. These stem cells continuously divide and mature to produce new blood cells that are released into the circulation. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body, white blood cells help fight infections, and platelets play a crucial role in blood clotting.

Bone marrow also serves as a site for immune cell development and maturation. It contains various types of immune cells, such as lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, which help protect the body against infections and diseases.

Abnormalities in bone marrow function can lead to several medical conditions, including anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and various types of cancer, such as leukemia and multiple myeloma. Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy are common diagnostic procedures used to evaluate bone marrow health and function.

Immunoglobulin light chains are the smaller protein subunits of an immunoglobulin, also known as an antibody. They are composed of two polypeptide chains, called kappa (κ) and lambda (λ), which are produced by B cells during the immune response. Each immunoglobulin molecule contains either two kappa or two lambda light chains, in association with two heavy chains.

Light chains play a crucial role in the antigen-binding site of an antibody, where they contribute to the specificity and affinity of the interaction between the antibody and its target antigen. In addition to their role in immune function, abnormal production or accumulation of light chains can lead to various diseases, such as multiple myeloma and amyloidosis.

Pseudolymphoma is a term used to describe a benign reactive lymphoid hyperplasia that mimics the clinical and histopathological features of malignant lymphomas. It is also known as pseudolymphomatous cutis or reactive lymphoid hyperplasia.

Pseudolymphoma can occur in various organs, but it is most commonly found in the skin. It is usually caused by a localized immune response to an antigenic stimulus such as insect bites, tattoos, radiation therapy, or certain medications. The condition presents as a solitary or multiple nodular lesions that may resemble lymphoma both clinically and histologically.

Histologically, pseudolymphoma is characterized by a dense infiltrate of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and other immune cells, which can mimic the appearance of malignant lymphoma. However, unlike malignant lymphomas, pseudolymphomas lack cytological atypia, mitotic activity, and clonal proliferation of lymphoid cells.

Pseudolymphoma is usually a self-limiting condition that resolves spontaneously or with the removal of the antigenic stimulus. However, in some cases, it may persist or recur, requiring further evaluation and treatment to exclude malignant lymphoma.

'Gene rearrangement in B-lymphocytes, light chain' refers to the biological process that occurs during the development of B-lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) in the bone marrow. Specifically, it relates to the rearrangement of genes that code for the light chains of immunoglobulins, which are antibodies that help the immune system recognize and fight off foreign substances.

During gene rearrangement, the variable region genes of the light chain locus (which consist of multiple gene segments, including V, D, and J segments) undergo a series of DNA recombination events to form a functional variable region exon. This process allows for the generation of a vast diversity of antibody molecules with different specificities, enabling the immune system to recognize and respond to a wide range of potential threats.

Abnormalities in this gene rearrangement process can lead to various immunodeficiency disorders or malignancies such as B-cell lymphomas.

CD40 ligand (CD40L or CD154) is a type II transmembrane protein and a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily. It is primarily expressed on activated CD4+ T cells, but can also be found on other immune cells such as activated B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells.

CD40 ligand binds to its receptor, CD40, which is mainly expressed on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages. The interaction between CD40L and CD40 plays a crucial role in the activation and regulation of the immune response.

CD40L-CD40 signaling is essential for T cell-dependent B cell activation, antibody production, and class switching. It also contributes to the activation and maturation of dendritic cells, promoting their ability to stimulate T cell responses. Dysregulation of CD40L-CD40 signaling has been implicated in various autoimmune diseases, transplant rejection, and cancer.

Eye neoplasms, also known as ocular tumors or eye cancer, refer to abnormal growths of tissue in the eye. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Eye neoplasms can develop in various parts of the eye, including the eyelid, conjunctiva, cornea, iris, ciliary body, choroid, retina, and optic nerve.

Benign eye neoplasms are typically slow-growing and do not spread to other parts of the body. They may cause symptoms such as vision changes, eye pain, or a noticeable mass in the eye. Treatment options for benign eye neoplasms include monitoring, surgical removal, or radiation therapy.

Malignant eye neoplasms, on the other hand, can grow and spread rapidly to other parts of the body. They may cause symptoms such as vision changes, eye pain, floaters, or flashes of light. Treatment options for malignant eye neoplasms depend on the type and stage of cancer but may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these treatments.

It is important to note that early detection and treatment of eye neoplasms can improve outcomes and prevent complications. Regular eye exams with an ophthalmologist are recommended for early detection and prevention of eye diseases, including eye neoplasms.

CXCR5 is a type of chemokine receptor that is primarily expressed on the surface of certain immune cells, including B cells and some T cells. It belongs to the family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and plays a crucial role in the trafficking and homing of these immune cells to specific tissues in the body.

CXCR5 specifically binds to a chemokine ligand called CXCL13, which is produced by various cell types, including stromal cells in lymphoid organs. The binding of CXCL13 to CXCR5 triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of several downstream signaling pathways, ultimately resulting in the migration and accumulation of immune cells in the vicinity of the CXCL13 source.

In the context of the immune system, CXCR5 is essential for the formation of germinal centers, which are specialized structures within lymphoid organs where B cells undergo activation, proliferation, and differentiation into antibody-secreting plasma cells. The interaction between CXCL13 and CXCR5 helps to recruit B cells and follicular T helper (Tfh) cells to the germinal center, where they can engage in productive interactions that drive humoral immune responses.

Abnormalities in CXCR5 signaling have been implicated in various pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases, cancer, and infectious diseases. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying CXCR5 function is of great interest for the development of novel therapeutic strategies to target these disorders.

Immunoglobulin lambda-chains (Igλ) are one type of light chain found in the immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system's response to foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses.

Immunoglobulins are composed of two heavy chains and two light chains, which are interconnected by disulfide bonds. There are two types of light chains: kappa (κ) and lambda (λ). Igλ chains are one type of light chain that can be found in association with heavy chains to form functional antibodies.

Igλ chains contain a variable region, which is responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens, and a constant region, which determines the class of the immunoglobulin (e.g., IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, or IgM).

In humans, approximately 60% of all antibodies contain Igλ chains, while the remaining 40% contain Igκ chains. The ratio of Igλ to Igκ chains can vary depending on the type of immunoglobulin and its function in the immune response.

Leukemia, lymphoid is a type of cancer that affects the lymphoid cells, which are a vital part of the body's immune system. It is characterized by the uncontrolled production of abnormal white blood cells (leukocytes or WBCs) in the bone marrow, specifically the lymphocytes. These abnormal lymphocytes accumulate and interfere with the production of normal blood cells, leading to a decrease in red blood cells (anemia), platelets (thrombocytopenia), and healthy white blood cells (leukopenia).

There are two main types of lymphoid leukemia: acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Acute lymphoblastic leukemia progresses rapidly, while chronic lymphocytic leukemia has a slower onset and progression.

Symptoms of lymphoid leukemia may include fatigue, frequent infections, easy bruising or bleeding, weight loss, swollen lymph nodes, and bone pain. Treatment options depend on the type, stage, and individual patient factors but often involve chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, or stem cell transplantation.

Antineoplastic agents are a class of drugs used to treat malignant neoplasms or cancer. These agents work by inhibiting the growth and proliferation of cancer cells, either by killing them or preventing their division and replication. Antineoplastic agents can be classified based on their mechanism of action, such as alkylating agents, antimetabolites, topoisomerase inhibitors, mitotic inhibitors, and targeted therapy agents.

Alkylating agents work by adding alkyl groups to DNA, which can cause cross-linking of DNA strands and ultimately lead to cell death. Antimetabolites interfere with the metabolic processes necessary for DNA synthesis and replication, while topoisomerase inhibitors prevent the relaxation of supercoiled DNA during replication. Mitotic inhibitors disrupt the normal functioning of the mitotic spindle, which is essential for cell division. Targeted therapy agents are designed to target specific molecular abnormalities in cancer cells, such as mutated oncogenes or dysregulated signaling pathways.

It's important to note that antineoplastic agents can also affect normal cells and tissues, leading to various side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and myelosuppression (suppression of bone marrow function). Therefore, the use of these drugs requires careful monitoring and management of their potential adverse effects.

An epitope is a specific region on an antigen (a substance that triggers an immune response) that is recognized and bound by an antibody or a B-lymphocyte (a type of white blood cell that produces antibodies). Epitopes are also sometimes referred to as antigenic determinants.

B-lymphocytes, or B cells, are a type of immune cell that plays a key role in the humoral immune response. They produce and secrete antibodies, which are proteins that recognize and bind to specific epitopes on antigens. When a B cell encounters an antigen, it binds to the antigen at its surface receptor, which recognizes a specific epitope on the antigen. This binding activates the B cell, causing it to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibody that is specific for the epitope on the antigen.

The ability of an antibody or a B cell to recognize and bind to a specific epitope is determined by the structure of the variable region of the antibody or B cell receptor. The variable region is made up of several loops of amino acids, called complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), that form a binding site for the antigen. The CDRs are highly variable in sequence and length, allowing them to recognize and bind to a wide variety of different epitopes.

In summary, an epitope is a specific region on an antigen that is recognized and bound by an antibody or a B-lymphocyte. The ability of an antibody or a B cell to recognize and bind to a specific epitope is determined by the structure of the variable region of the antibody or B cell receptor.

Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 13 (CXCL13), also known as B cell-attracting chemokine 1 (BCA-1) or B lymphocyte chemoattractant (BLC), is a small signaling protein belonging to the CXC chemokine family. Chemokines are a group of chemotactic cytokines that play crucial roles in immunological and inflammatory processes, mainly by recruiting and activating various leukocytes.

CXCL13 is primarily produced by stromal cells, including follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) within secondary lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, spleen, and Peyer's patches. This chemokine specifically binds to the C-X-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CXCR5), which is expressed on various immune cells, most notably B cells, follicular helper T cells (Tfh), and some dendritic cell subsets.

The primary function of CXCL13 is to orchestrate the migration and positioning of immune cells, particularly B cells, within secondary lymphoid organs during an immune response. By attracting CXCR5-expressing B cells and Tfh cells, CXCL13 plays a critical role in the formation and maintenance of germinal centers (GCs), which are specialized microanatomical structures where affinity maturation and class switch recombination of B cells occur.

Abnormal levels or functions of CXCL13 have been implicated in several pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), certain types of cancer, and neurological disorders like multiple sclerosis (MS) and Alzheimer's disease.

Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) are a specialized type of dendritic cell that reside in the germinal centers of secondary lymphoid organs, such as the spleen, lymph nodes, and Peyer's patches. They play a critical role in the adaptive immune response by presenting antigens to B cells and helping to regulate their activation, differentiation, and survival.

FDCs are characterized by their extensive network of dendrites, which can trap and retain antigens on their surface for extended periods. They also express a variety of surface receptors that allow them to interact with other immune cells, including complement receptors, Fc receptors, and cytokine receptors.

FDCs are derived from mesenchymal stem cells and are distinct from classical dendritic cells, which are derived from hematopoietic stem cells. They are long-lived cells that can survive for months or even years in the body, making them important players in the maintenance of immune memory.

Overall, follicular dendritic cells play a critical role in the adaptive immune response by helping to regulate B cell activation and differentiation, and by contributing to the development of immune memory.

Leukemia is a type of cancer that originates from the bone marrow - the soft, inner part of certain bones where new blood cells are made. It is characterized by an abnormal production of white blood cells, known as leukocytes or blasts. These abnormal cells accumulate in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells, leading to a decrease in red blood cells (anemia), platelets (thrombocytopenia), and healthy white blood cells (leukopenia).

There are several types of leukemia, classified based on the specific type of white blood cell affected and the speed at which the disease progresses:

1. Acute Leukemias - These types of leukemia progress rapidly, with symptoms developing over a few weeks or months. They involve the rapid growth and accumulation of immature, nonfunctional white blood cells (blasts) in the bone marrow and peripheral blood. The two main categories are:
- Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia (ALL) - Originates from lymphoid progenitor cells, primarily affecting children but can also occur in adults.
- Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) - Develops from myeloid progenitor cells and is more common in older adults.

2. Chronic Leukemias - These types of leukemia progress slowly, with symptoms developing over a period of months to years. They involve the production of relatively mature, but still abnormal, white blood cells that can accumulate in large numbers in the bone marrow and peripheral blood. The two main categories are:
- Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) - Affects B-lymphocytes and is more common in older adults.
- Chronic Myeloid Leukemia (CML) - Originates from myeloid progenitor cells, characterized by the presence of a specific genetic abnormality called the Philadelphia chromosome. It can occur at any age but is more common in middle-aged and older adults.

Treatment options for leukemia depend on the type, stage, and individual patient factors. Treatments may include chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, stem cell transplantation, or a combination of these approaches.

Mycosis fungoides is the most common type of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL), a rare cancer that affects the skin's immune system. It is characterized by the infiltration of malignant CD4+ T-lymphocytes into the skin, leading to the formation of patches, plaques, and tumors. The disease typically progresses slowly over many years, often starting with scaly, itchy rashes that can be mistaken for eczema or psoriasis. As the disease advances, tumors may form, and the lymphoma may spread to other organs, such as the lymph nodes, lungs, or spleen. Mycosis fungoides is not contagious and cannot be spread from person to person. The exact cause of mycosis fungoides is unknown, but it is thought to result from a combination of genetic, environmental, and immune system factors.

Nose neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the nasal cavity or paranasal sinuses. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow-growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms can invade surrounding tissues and have the potential to metastasize.

Nose neoplasms can cause various symptoms such as nasal congestion, nosebleeds, difficulty breathing through the nose, loss of smell, facial pain or numbness, and visual changes if they affect the eye. The diagnosis of nose neoplasms usually involves a combination of physical examination, imaging studies (such as CT or MRI scans), and biopsy to determine the type and extent of the growth. Treatment options depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the neoplasm and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

T-independent antigens are types of antigens that can stimulate an immune response without the help of T cells. They are typically small molecules with repetitive structures, such as polysaccharides found on bacterial cell walls, that can directly activate B cells through their surface receptors. This results in the production of antibodies specific to the antigen, but it does not lead to the development of immunological memory. Therefore, immunity to T-independent antigens is usually short-lived and provides limited protection against future infections.

Combined modality therapy (CMT) is a medical treatment approach that utilizes more than one method or type of therapy simultaneously or in close succession, with the goal of enhancing the overall effectiveness of the treatment. In the context of cancer care, CMT often refers to the combination of two or more primary treatment modalities, such as surgery, radiation therapy, and systemic therapies (chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, etc.).

The rationale behind using combined modality therapy is that each treatment method can target cancer cells in different ways, potentially increasing the likelihood of eliminating all cancer cells and reducing the risk of recurrence. The specific combination and sequence of treatments will depend on various factors, including the type and stage of cancer, patient's overall health, and individual preferences.

For example, a common CMT approach for locally advanced rectal cancer may involve preoperative (neoadjuvant) chemoradiation therapy, followed by surgery to remove the tumor, and then postoperative (adjuvant) chemotherapy. This combined approach allows for the reduction of the tumor size before surgery, increases the likelihood of complete tumor removal, and targets any remaining microscopic cancer cells with systemic chemotherapy.

It is essential to consult with a multidisciplinary team of healthcare professionals to determine the most appropriate CMT plan for each individual patient, considering both the potential benefits and risks associated with each treatment method.

Skin neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the skin that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). They result from uncontrolled multiplication of skin cells, which can form various types of lesions. These growths may appear as lumps, bumps, sores, patches, or discolored areas on the skin.

Benign skin neoplasms include conditions such as moles, warts, and seborrheic keratoses, while malignant skin neoplasms are primarily classified into melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and basal cell carcinoma. These three types of cancerous skin growths are collectively known as non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSCs). Melanoma is the most aggressive and dangerous form of skin cancer, while NMSCs tend to be less invasive but more common.

It's essential to monitor any changes in existing skin lesions or the appearance of new growths and consult a healthcare professional for proper evaluation and treatment if needed.

Autoimmunity is a medical condition in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy tissues within the body. In normal function, the immune system recognizes and fights off foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. However, when autoimmunity occurs, the immune system identifies self-molecules or tissues as foreign and produces an immune response against them.

This misguided response can lead to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and impaired organ function. Autoimmune diseases can affect various parts of the body, including the joints, skin, glands, muscles, and blood vessels. Some common examples of autoimmune diseases are rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and Graves' disease.

The exact cause of autoimmunity is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that trigger an abnormal immune response in susceptible individuals. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves managing symptoms, reducing inflammation, and suppressing the immune system's overactive response using medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and biologics.

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that is an essential part of the immune system. They are responsible for recognizing and responding to potentially harmful substances such as viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).

B-lymphocytes produce antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy foreign substances. When a B-cell encounters a foreign substance, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies. These antibodies bind to the foreign substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes, on the other hand, are involved in cell-mediated immunity. They directly attack and destroy infected cells or cancerous cells. T-cells can also help to regulate the immune response by producing chemical signals that activate or inhibit other immune cells.

Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in either the bone marrow (B-cells) or the thymus gland (T-cells). They circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymphatic system, where they can be found in high concentrations in lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphoid organs.

Abnormalities in the number or function of lymphocytes can lead to a variety of immune-related disorders, including immunodeficiency diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

Autoantibodies are defined as antibodies that are produced by the immune system and target the body's own cells, tissues, or organs. These antibodies mistakenly identify certain proteins or molecules in the body as foreign invaders and attack them, leading to an autoimmune response. Autoantibodies can be found in various autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and thyroiditis. The presence of autoantibodies can also be used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions.

Autologous transplantation is a medical procedure where cells, tissues, or organs are removed from a person, stored and then returned back to the same individual at a later time. This is different from allogeneic transplantation where the tissue or organ is obtained from another donor. The term "autologous" is derived from the Greek words "auto" meaning self and "logos" meaning study.

In autologous transplantation, the patient's own cells or tissues are used to replace or repair damaged or diseased ones. This reduces the risk of rejection and eliminates the need for immunosuppressive drugs, which are required in allogeneic transplants to prevent the body from attacking the foreign tissue.

Examples of autologous transplantation include:

* Autologous bone marrow or stem cell transplantation, where stem cells are removed from the patient's blood or bone marrow, stored and then reinfused back into the same individual after high-dose chemotherapy or radiation therapy to treat cancer.
* Autologous skin grafting, where a piece of skin is taken from one part of the body and transplanted to another area on the same person.
* Autologous chondrocyte implantation, where cartilage cells are harvested from the patient's own knee, cultured in a laboratory and then implanted back into the knee to repair damaged cartilage.

The term "DNA, neoplasm" is not a standard medical term or concept. DNA refers to deoxyribonucleic acid, which is the genetic material present in the cells of living organisms. A neoplasm, on the other hand, is a tumor or growth of abnormal tissue that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

In some contexts, "DNA, neoplasm" may refer to genetic alterations found in cancer cells. These genetic changes can include mutations, amplifications, deletions, or rearrangements of DNA sequences that contribute to the development and progression of cancer. Identifying these genetic abnormalities can help doctors diagnose and treat certain types of cancer more effectively.

However, it's important to note that "DNA, neoplasm" is not a term that would typically be used in medical reports or research papers without further clarification. If you have any specific questions about DNA changes in cancer cells or neoplasms, I would recommend consulting with a healthcare professional or conducting further research on the topic.

Cell proliferation is the process by which cells increase in number, typically through the process of cell division. In the context of biology and medicine, it refers to the reproduction of cells that makes up living tissue, allowing growth, maintenance, and repair. It involves several stages including the transition from a phase of quiescence (G0 phase) to an active phase (G1 phase), DNA replication in the S phase, and mitosis or M phase, where the cell divides into two daughter cells.

Abnormal or uncontrolled cell proliferation is a characteristic feature of many diseases, including cancer, where deregulated cell cycle control leads to excessive and unregulated growth of cells, forming tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and metastasize to distant sites in the body.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Genes, myc" is not a recognized medical term or abbreviation. It seems like there might be a misunderstanding or a missing word in the request. "Myc" could refer to the Myc family of transcription factors that are involved in cell growth and division, and are often deregulated in cancer. However, without more context, it's difficult to provide an accurate definition. If you could provide more information or clarify your question, I would be happy to help further!

Bcl-2 is a family of proteins that play a crucial role in regulating cell death (apoptosis), which is a normal process that eliminates damaged or unnecessary cells from the body. Specifically, Bcl-2 proteins are involved in controlling the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis.

The bcl-2 gene provides instructions for making one member of this protein family, called B-cell lymphoma 2 protein. This protein is located primarily on the outer membrane of mitochondria and helps to prevent apoptosis by inhibiting the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm.

In healthy cells, the balance between pro-apoptotic (promoting cell death) and anti-apoptotic (inhibiting cell death) proteins is critical for maintaining normal tissue homeostasis. However, in some cancers, including certain types of leukemia and lymphoma, the bcl-2 gene is abnormally overexpressed, leading to an excess of Bcl-2 protein that disrupts this balance and allows cancer cells to survive and proliferate.

Therefore, understanding the role of bcl-2 in apoptosis has important implications for developing new therapies for cancer and other diseases associated with abnormal cell death regulation.

SCID mice is an acronym for Severe Combined Immunodeficiency mice. These are genetically modified mice that lack a functional immune system due to the mutation or knockout of several key genes required for immunity. This makes them ideal for studying the human immune system, infectious diseases, and cancer, as well as testing new therapies and treatments in a controlled environment without the risk of interference from the mouse's own immune system. SCID mice are often used in xenotransplantation studies, where human cells or tissues are transplanted into the mouse to study their behavior and interactions with the human immune system.

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a type of cytokine, which is a cell signaling molecule that mediates communication between cells in the immune system. Specifically, IL-4 is produced by activated T cells and mast cells, among other cells, and plays an important role in the differentiation and activation of immune cells called Th2 cells.

Th2 cells are involved in the immune response to parasites, as well as in allergic reactions. IL-4 also promotes the growth and survival of B cells, which produce antibodies, and helps to regulate the production of certain types of antibodies. In addition, IL-4 has anti-inflammatory effects and can help to downregulate the immune response in some contexts.

Defects in IL-4 signaling have been implicated in a number of diseases, including asthma, allergies, and certain types of cancer.

Immunoglobulin heavy chains (IgH) are proteins that make up the framework of antibodies, which are crucial components of the adaptive immune system. These heavy chains are produced by B cells and plasma cells, and they contain variable regions that can bind to specific antigens, as well as constant regions that determine the effector functions of the antibody.

The genes that encode for immunoglobulin heavy chains are located on chromosome 14 in humans, within a region known as the IgH locus. These genes undergo a complex process of rearrangement during B cell development, whereby different gene segments (V, D, and J) are joined together to create a unique variable region that can recognize a specific antigen. This process of gene rearrangement is critical for the diversity and specificity of the antibody response.

Therefore, the medical definition of 'Genes, Immunoglobulin Heavy Chain' refers to the set of genetic elements that encode for the immunoglobulin heavy chain proteins, and their complex process of rearrangement during B cell development.

Membrane glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide backbone. They are integral components of biological membranes, spanning the lipid bilayer and playing crucial roles in various cellular processes.

The glycosylation of these proteins occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus during protein folding and trafficking. The attached glycans can vary in structure, length, and composition, which contributes to the diversity of membrane glycoproteins.

Membrane glycoproteins can be classified into two main types based on their orientation within the lipid bilayer:

1. Type I (N-linked): These glycoproteins have a single transmembrane domain and an extracellular N-terminus, where the oligosaccharides are predominantly attached via asparagine residues (Asn-X-Ser/Thr sequon).
2. Type II (C-linked): These glycoproteins possess two transmembrane domains and an intracellular C-terminus, with the oligosaccharides linked to tryptophan residues via a mannose moiety.

Membrane glycoproteins are involved in various cellular functions, such as:

* Cell adhesion and recognition
* Receptor-mediated signal transduction
* Enzymatic catalysis
* Transport of molecules across membranes
* Cell-cell communication
* Immunological responses

Some examples of membrane glycoproteins include cell surface receptors (e.g., growth factor receptors, cytokine receptors), adhesion molecules (e.g., integrins, cadherins), and transporters (e.g., ion channels, ABC transporters).

A lymphocyte count is a laboratory test that measures the number of white blood cells called lymphocytes in a sample of blood. Lymphocytes are a vital part of the immune system and help fight off infections and diseases. A normal lymphocyte count ranges from 1,000 to 4,800 cells per microliter (µL) of blood for adults.

An abnormal lymphocyte count can indicate an infection, immune disorder, or blood cancer. A low lymphocyte count is called lymphopenia, while a high lymphocyte count is called lymphocytosis. The cause of an abnormal lymphocyte count should be investigated through further testing and clinical evaluation.

Proto-oncogene proteins are normal cellular proteins that play crucial roles in various cellular processes, such as signal transduction, cell cycle regulation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). They are involved in the regulation of cell growth, differentiation, and survival under physiological conditions.

When proto-oncogene proteins undergo mutations or aberrations in their expression levels, they can transform into oncogenic forms, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and division. These altered proteins are then referred to as oncogene products or oncoproteins. Oncogenic mutations can occur due to various factors, including genetic predisposition, environmental exposures, and aging.

Examples of proto-oncogene proteins include:

1. Ras proteins: Involved in signal transduction pathways that regulate cell growth and differentiation. Activating mutations in Ras genes are found in various human cancers.
2. Myc proteins: Regulate gene expression related to cell cycle progression, apoptosis, and metabolism. Overexpression of Myc proteins is associated with several types of cancer.
3. EGFR (Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor): A transmembrane receptor tyrosine kinase that regulates cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. Mutations or overexpression of EGFR are linked to various malignancies, such as lung cancer and glioblastoma.
4. Src family kinases: Intracellular tyrosine kinases that regulate signal transduction pathways involved in cell proliferation, survival, and migration. Dysregulation of Src family kinases is implicated in several types of cancer.
5. Abl kinases: Cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases that regulate various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, and stress responses. Aberrant activation of Abl kinases, as seen in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), leads to uncontrolled cell proliferation.

Understanding the roles of proto-oncogene proteins and their dysregulation in cancer development is essential for developing targeted cancer therapies that aim to inhibit or modulate these aberrant signaling pathways.

Cell separation is a process used to separate and isolate specific cell types from a heterogeneous mixture of cells. This can be accomplished through various physical or biological methods, depending on the characteristics of the cells of interest. Some common techniques for cell separation include:

1. Density gradient centrifugation: In this method, a sample containing a mixture of cells is layered onto a density gradient medium and then centrifuged. The cells are separated based on their size, density, and sedimentation rate, with denser cells settling closer to the bottom of the tube and less dense cells remaining near the top.

2. Magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS): This technique uses magnetic beads coated with antibodies that bind to specific cell surface markers. The labeled cells are then passed through a column placed in a magnetic field, which retains the magnetically labeled cells while allowing unlabeled cells to flow through.

3. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS): In this method, cells are stained with fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies that recognize specific cell surface or intracellular markers. The stained cells are then passed through a laser beam, which excites the fluorophores and allows for the detection and sorting of individual cells based on their fluorescence profile.

4. Filtration: This simple method relies on the physical size differences between cells to separate them. Cells can be passed through filters with pore sizes that allow smaller cells to pass through while retaining larger cells.

5. Enzymatic digestion: In some cases, cells can be separated by enzymatically dissociating tissues into single-cell suspensions and then using various separation techniques to isolate specific cell types.

These methods are widely used in research and clinical settings for applications such as isolating immune cells, stem cells, or tumor cells from biological samples.

Cell division is the process by which a single eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) divides into two identical daughter cells. This complex process involves several stages, including replication of DNA, separation of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms. The stages of mitosis include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is a type of cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) during the production of gametes (sex cells). Meiosis results in four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. The stages of meiosis include meiosis I and meiosis II, which are further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

In summary, cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two daughter cells, either through mitosis or meiosis. This process is critical for growth, development, tissue repair, and sexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.

Antibody-producing cells, also known as plasma cells, are a type of white blood cell that is responsible for producing and secreting antibodies in response to a foreign substance or antigen. These cells are derived from B lymphocytes, which become activated upon encountering an antigen and differentiate into plasma cells.

Once activated, plasma cells can produce large amounts of specific antibodies that bind to the antigen, marking it for destruction by other immune cells. Antibody-producing cells play a crucial role in the body's humoral immune response, which helps protect against infection and disease.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

In situ hybridization, fluorescence (FISH) is a type of molecular cytogenetic technique used to detect and localize the presence or absence of specific DNA sequences on chromosomes through the use of fluorescent probes. This technique allows for the direct visualization of genetic material at a cellular level, making it possible to identify chromosomal abnormalities such as deletions, duplications, translocations, and other rearrangements.

The process involves denaturing the DNA in the sample to separate the double-stranded molecules into single strands, then adding fluorescently labeled probes that are complementary to the target DNA sequence. The probe hybridizes to the complementary sequence in the sample, and the location of the probe is detected by fluorescence microscopy.

FISH has a wide range of applications in both clinical and research settings, including prenatal diagnosis, cancer diagnosis and monitoring, and the study of gene expression and regulation. It is a powerful tool for identifying genetic abnormalities and understanding their role in human disease.

Cell survival refers to the ability of a cell to continue living and functioning normally, despite being exposed to potentially harmful conditions or treatments. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or other stressors that can damage cells or interfere with their normal processes.

In scientific research, measures of cell survival are often used to evaluate the effectiveness of various therapies or treatments. For example, researchers may expose cells to a particular drug or treatment and then measure the percentage of cells that survive to assess its potential therapeutic value. Similarly, in toxicology studies, measures of cell survival can help to determine the safety of various chemicals or substances.

It's important to note that cell survival is not the same as cell proliferation, which refers to the ability of cells to divide and multiply. While some treatments may promote cell survival, they may also inhibit cell proliferation, making them useful for treating diseases such as cancer. Conversely, other treatments may be designed to specifically target and kill cancer cells, even if it means sacrificing some healthy cells in the process.

Protein-Tyrosine Kinases (PTKs) are a type of enzyme that plays a crucial role in various cellular functions, including signal transduction, cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism. They catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to the tyrosine residues of proteins, thereby modifying their activity, localization, or interaction with other molecules.

PTKs can be divided into two main categories: receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and non-receptor tyrosine kinases (NRTKs). RTKs are transmembrane proteins that become activated upon binding to specific ligands, such as growth factors or hormones. NRTKs, on the other hand, are intracellular enzymes that can be activated by various signals, including receptor-mediated signaling and intracellular messengers.

Dysregulation of PTK activity has been implicated in several diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and inflammatory disorders. Therefore, PTKs are important targets for drug development and therapy.

Medical survival rate is a statistical measure used to determine the percentage of patients who are still alive for a specific period of time after their diagnosis or treatment for a certain condition or disease. It is often expressed as a five-year survival rate, which refers to the proportion of people who are alive five years after their diagnosis. Survival rates can be affected by many factors, including the stage of the disease at diagnosis, the patient's age and overall health, the effectiveness of treatment, and other health conditions that the patient may have. It is important to note that survival rates are statistical estimates and do not necessarily predict an individual patient's prognosis.

Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are proteins produced by the immune system to recognize and neutralize foreign substances like pathogens or antigens. The term "immunoglobulin isotypes" refers to the different classes of immunoglobulins that share a similar structure but have distinct functions and properties.

There are five main isotypes of immunoglobulins in humans, namely IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each isotype has a unique heavy chain constant region (CH) that determines its effector functions, such as binding to Fc receptors, complement activation, or protection against pathogens.

IgA is primarily found in external secretions like tears, saliva, and breast milk, providing localized immunity at mucosal surfaces. IgD is expressed on the surface of B cells and plays a role in their activation and differentiation. IgE is associated with allergic responses and binds to mast cells and basophils, triggering the release of histamine and other mediators of inflammation.

IgG is the most abundant isotype in serum and has several subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their effector functions. IgG can cross the placenta, providing passive immunity to the fetus. IgM is the first antibody produced during an immune response and is primarily found in the bloodstream, where it forms large pentameric complexes that are effective at agglutination and complement activation.

Overall, immunoglobulin isotypes play a crucial role in the adaptive immune response, providing specific and diverse mechanisms for recognizing and neutralizing foreign substances.

Bleomycin is a type of chemotherapeutic agent used to treat various types of cancer, including squamous cell carcinoma, testicular cancer, and lymphomas. It works by causing DNA damage in rapidly dividing cells, which can inhibit the growth and proliferation of cancer cells.

Bleomycin is an antibiotic derived from Streptomyces verticillus and is often administered intravenously or intramuscularly. While it can be effective in treating certain types of cancer, it can also have serious side effects, including lung toxicity, which can lead to pulmonary fibrosis and respiratory failure. Therefore, bleomycin should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare professional who is experienced in administering chemotherapy drugs.

Surface antigens are molecules found on the surface of cells that can be recognized by the immune system as being foreign or different from the host's own cells. Antigens are typically proteins or polysaccharides that are capable of stimulating an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies and activation of immune cells such as T-cells.

Surface antigens are important in the context of infectious diseases because they allow the immune system to identify and target infected cells for destruction. For example, viruses and bacteria often display surface antigens that are distinct from those found on host cells, allowing the immune system to recognize and attack them. In some cases, these surface antigens can also be used as targets for vaccines or other immunotherapies.

In addition to their role in infectious diseases, surface antigens are also important in the context of cancer. Tumor cells often display abnormal surface antigens that differ from those found on normal cells, allowing the immune system to potentially recognize and attack them. However, tumors can also develop mechanisms to evade the immune system, making it difficult to mount an effective response.

Overall, understanding the properties and behavior of surface antigens is crucial for developing effective immunotherapies and vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer.

Neprilysin (NEP), also known as membrane metallo-endopeptidase or CD10, is a type II transmembrane glycoprotein that functions as a zinc-dependent metalloprotease. It is widely expressed in various tissues, including the kidney, brain, heart, and vasculature. Neprilysin plays a crucial role in the breakdown and regulation of several endogenous bioactive peptides, such as natriuretic peptides, bradykinin, substance P, and angiotensin II. By degrading these peptides, neprilysin helps maintain cardiovascular homeostasis, modulate inflammation, and regulate neurotransmission. In the context of heart failure, neprilysin inhibitors have been developed to increase natriuretic peptide levels, promoting diuresis and vasodilation, ultimately improving cardiac function.

Neoplasm staging is a systematic process used in medicine to describe the extent of spread of a cancer, including the size and location of the original (primary) tumor and whether it has metastasized (spread) to other parts of the body. The most widely accepted system for this purpose is the TNM classification system developed by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) and the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC).

In this system, T stands for tumor, and it describes the size and extent of the primary tumor. N stands for nodes, and it indicates whether the cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes. M stands for metastasis, and it shows whether the cancer has spread to distant parts of the body.

Each letter is followed by a number that provides more details about the extent of the disease. For example, a T1N0M0 cancer means that the primary tumor is small and has not spread to nearby lymph nodes or distant sites. The higher the numbers, the more advanced the cancer.

Staging helps doctors determine the most appropriate treatment for each patient and estimate the patient's prognosis. It is an essential tool for communication among members of the healthcare team and for comparing outcomes of treatments in clinical trials.

A neoplasm is a tumor or growth that is formed by an abnormal and excessive proliferation of cells, which can be benign or malignant. Neoplasm proteins are therefore any proteins that are expressed or produced in these neoplastic cells. These proteins can play various roles in the development, progression, and maintenance of neoplasms.

Some neoplasm proteins may contribute to the uncontrolled cell growth and division seen in cancer, such as oncogenic proteins that promote cell cycle progression or inhibit apoptosis (programmed cell death). Others may help the neoplastic cells evade the immune system, allowing them to proliferate undetected. Still others may be involved in angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels that supply the tumor with nutrients and oxygen.

Neoplasm proteins can also serve as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment response. For example, the presence or level of certain neoplasm proteins in biological samples such as blood or tissue may indicate the presence of a specific type of cancer, help predict the likelihood of cancer recurrence, or suggest whether a particular therapy will be effective.

Overall, understanding the roles and behaviors of neoplasm proteins can provide valuable insights into the biology of cancer and inform the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Etoposide is a chemotherapy medication used to treat various types of cancer, including lung cancer, testicular cancer, and certain types of leukemia. It works by inhibiting the activity of an enzyme called topoisomerase II, which is involved in DNA replication and transcription. By doing so, etoposide can interfere with the growth and multiplication of cancer cells.

Etoposide is often administered intravenously in a hospital or clinic setting, although it may also be given orally in some cases. The medication can cause a range of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, and an increased risk of infection. It can also have more serious side effects, such as bone marrow suppression, which can lead to anemia, bleeding, and a weakened immune system.

Like all chemotherapy drugs, etoposide is not without risks and should only be used under the close supervision of a qualified healthcare provider. It is important for patients to discuss the potential benefits and risks of this medication with their doctor before starting treatment.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

Lymphopoiesis is the process of formation and development of lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system. Lymphocytes include B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells, which are responsible for defending the body against infectious diseases and cancer.

Lymphopoiesis occurs in the bone marrow and lymphoid organs such as the spleen, lymph nodes, and tonsils. In the bone marrow, hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs), which then give rise to B cells, T cells, and NK cells through a series of intermediate stages.

B cells mature in the bone marrow, while T cells mature in the thymus gland. Once matured, these lymphocytes migrate to the peripheral lymphoid organs where they can encounter foreign antigens and mount an immune response. The process of lymphopoiesis is tightly regulated by various growth factors, cytokines, and transcription factors that control the differentiation, proliferation, and survival of lymphocytes.

Disease-free survival (DFS) is a term used in medical research and clinical practice, particularly in the field of oncology. It refers to the length of time after primary treatment for a cancer during which no evidence of the disease can be found. This means that the patient shows no signs or symptoms of the cancer, and any imaging studies or other tests do not reveal any tumors or other indications of the disease.

DFS is often used as an important endpoint in clinical trials to evaluate the effectiveness of different treatments for cancer. By measuring the length of time until the cancer recurs or a new cancer develops, researchers can get a better sense of how well a particular treatment is working and whether it is improving patient outcomes.

It's important to note that DFS is not the same as overall survival (OS), which refers to the length of time from primary treatment until death from any cause. While DFS can provide valuable information about the effectiveness of cancer treatments, it does not necessarily reflect the impact of those treatments on patients' overall survival.

Proto-oncogene proteins, such as c-Myc, are crucial regulators of normal cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). When proto-oncogenes undergo mutations or alterations in their regulation, they can become overactive or overexpressed, leading to the formation of oncogenes. Oncogenic forms of c-Myc contribute to uncontrolled cell growth and division, which can ultimately result in cancer development.

The c-Myc protein is a transcription factor that binds to specific DNA sequences, influencing the expression of target genes involved in various cellular processes, such as:

1. Cell cycle progression: c-Myc promotes the expression of genes required for the G1 to S phase transition, driving cells into the DNA synthesis and division phase.
2. Metabolism: c-Myc regulates genes associated with glucose metabolism, glycolysis, and mitochondrial function, enhancing energy production in rapidly dividing cells.
3. Apoptosis: c-Myc can either promote or inhibit apoptosis, depending on the cellular context and the presence of other regulatory factors.
4. Differentiation: c-Myc generally inhibits differentiation by repressing genes that are necessary for specialized cell functions.
5. Angiogenesis: c-Myc can induce the expression of pro-angiogenic factors, promoting the formation of new blood vessels to support tumor growth.

Dysregulation of c-Myc is frequently observed in various types of cancer, making it an important therapeutic target for cancer treatment.

An antigen is a substance (usually a protein) that is recognized as foreign by the immune system and stimulates an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies or activation of T-cells. Antigens can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and tumor cells. They can also come from non-living substances such as pollen, dust mites, or chemicals.

Antigens contain epitopes, which are specific regions on the antigen molecule that are recognized by the immune system. The immune system's response to an antigen depends on several factors, including the type of antigen, its size, and its location in the body.

In general, antigens can be classified into two main categories:

1. T-dependent antigens: These require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are typically larger, more complex molecules that contain multiple epitopes capable of binding to both MHC class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells and T-cell receptors on CD4+ T-cells.
2. T-independent antigens: These do not require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are usually smaller, simpler molecules that contain repetitive epitopes capable of cross-linking B-cell receptors and activating them directly.

Understanding antigens and their properties is crucial for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.

Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigens (EBV NA) are proteins found inside the nucleus of cells that have been infected with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). EBV is a type of herpesvirus that is best known as the cause of infectious mononucleosis (also known as "mono" or "the kissing disease").

There are two main types of EBV NA: EBNA-1 and EBNA-2. These proteins play a role in the replication and survival of the virus within infected cells. They can be detected using laboratory tests, such as immunofluorescence assays or Western blotting, to help diagnose EBV infection or detect the presence of EBV-associated diseases, such as certain types of lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

EBNA-1 is essential for the maintenance and replication of the EBV genome within infected cells, while EBNA-2 activates viral gene expression and modulates the host cell's immune response to promote virus survival. Both proteins are considered potential targets for the development of antiviral therapies and vaccines against EBV infection.

CD4-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD4+ T cells or helper T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune response. They express the CD4 receptor on their surface and help coordinate the immune system's response to infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria.

CD4+ T cells recognize and bind to specific antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages. Once activated, they can differentiate into various subsets of effector cells, including Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells, each with distinct functions in the immune response.

CD4+ T cells are particularly important in the immune response to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which targets and destroys these cells, leading to a weakened immune system and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections. The number of CD4+ T cells is often used as a marker of disease progression in HIV infection, with lower counts indicating more advanced disease.

Bone marrow cells are the types of cells found within the bone marrow, which is the spongy tissue inside certain bones in the body. The main function of bone marrow is to produce blood cells. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red bone marrow is where most blood cell production takes place, while yellow bone marrow serves as a fat storage site.

The three main types of bone marrow cells are:

1. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs): These are immature cells that can differentiate into any type of blood cell, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. They have the ability to self-renew, meaning they can divide and create more hematopoietic stem cells.
2. Red blood cell progenitors: These are immature cells that will develop into mature red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
3. Myeloid and lymphoid white blood cell progenitors: These are immature cells that will develop into various types of white blood cells, which play a crucial role in the body's immune system by fighting infections and diseases. Myeloid progenitors give rise to granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), monocytes, and megakaryocytes (which eventually become platelets). Lymphoid progenitors differentiate into B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.

Bone marrow cells are essential for maintaining a healthy blood cell count and immune system function. Abnormalities in bone marrow cells can lead to various medical conditions, such as anemia, leukopenia, leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, or thrombocytosis, depending on the specific type of blood cell affected. Additionally, bone marrow cells are often used in transplantation procedures to treat patients with certain types of cancer, such as leukemia and lymphoma, or other hematologic disorders.

Lymphopenia is a term used in medicine to describe an abnormally low count of lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the body's immune system. Lymphocytes help fight off infections and diseases by producing antibodies and attacking infected cells.

A normal lymphocyte count ranges from 1,000 to 4,800 cells per microliter (cells/μL) of blood in adults. A lymphocyte count lower than 1,000 cells/μL is generally considered lymphopenia.

Several factors can cause lymphopenia, including viral infections, certain medications, autoimmune disorders, and cancer. It's important to note that a low lymphocyte count alone may not indicate a specific medical condition, and further testing may be necessary to determine the underlying cause. If left untreated, lymphopenia can increase the risk of infections and other complications.

Neoplasm antigens, also known as tumor antigens, are substances that are produced by cancer cells (neoplasms) and can stimulate an immune response. These antigens can be proteins, carbohydrates, or other molecules that are either unique to the cancer cells or are overexpressed or mutated versions of normal cellular proteins.

Neoplasm antigens can be classified into two main categories: tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) and tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). TSAs are unique to cancer cells and are not expressed by normal cells, while TAAs are present at low levels in normal cells but are overexpressed or altered in cancer cells.

TSAs can be further divided into viral antigens and mutated antigens. Viral antigens are produced when cancer is caused by a virus, such as human papillomavirus (HPV) in cervical cancer. Mutated antigens are the result of genetic mutations that occur during cancer development and are unique to each patient's tumor.

Neoplasm antigens play an important role in the immune response against cancer. They can be recognized by the immune system, leading to the activation of immune cells such as T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which can then attack and destroy cancer cells. However, cancer cells often develop mechanisms to evade the immune response, allowing them to continue growing and spreading.

Understanding neoplasm antigens is important for the development of cancer immunotherapies, which aim to enhance the body's natural immune response against cancer. These therapies include checkpoint inhibitors, which block proteins that inhibit T cell activation, and therapeutic vaccines, which stimulate an immune response against specific tumor antigens.

Immune tolerance, also known as immunological tolerance or specific immune tolerance, is a state of unresponsiveness or non-reactivity of the immune system towards a particular substance (antigen) that has the potential to elicit an immune response. This occurs when the immune system learns to distinguish "self" from "non-self" and does not attack the body's own cells, tissues, and organs.

In the context of transplantation, immune tolerance refers to the absence of a destructive immune response towards the transplanted organ or tissue, allowing for long-term graft survival without the need for immunosuppressive therapy. Immune tolerance can be achieved through various strategies, including hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, costimulation blockade, and regulatory T cell induction.

In summary, immune tolerance is a critical mechanism that prevents the immune system from attacking the body's own structures while maintaining the ability to respond appropriately to foreign pathogens and antigens.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease that can affect almost any organ or system in the body. In SLE, the immune system produces an exaggerated response, leading to the production of autoantibodies that attack the body's own cells and tissues, causing inflammation and damage. The symptoms and severity of SLE can vary widely from person to person, but common features include fatigue, joint pain, skin rashes (particularly a "butterfly" rash across the nose and cheeks), fever, hair loss, and sensitivity to sunlight.

Systemic lupus erythematosus can also affect the kidneys, heart, lungs, brain, blood vessels, and other organs, leading to a wide range of symptoms such as kidney dysfunction, chest pain, shortness of breath, seizures, and anemia. The exact cause of SLE is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Treatment typically involves medications to suppress the immune system and manage symptoms, and may require long-term management by a team of healthcare professionals.

Cytidine deaminase is an enzyme that catalyzes the removal of an amino group from cytidine, converting it to uridine. This reaction is part of the process of RNA degradation and also plays a role in the immune response to viral infections.

Cytidine deaminase can be found in various organisms, including bacteria, humans, and other mammals. In humans, cytidine deaminase is encoded by the APOBEC3 gene family, which consists of several different enzymes that have distinct functions and expression patterns. Some members of this gene family are involved in the restriction of retroviruses, such as HIV-1, while others play a role in the regulation of endogenous retroelements and the modification of cellular RNA.

Mutations in cytidine deaminase genes have been associated with various diseases, including cancer and autoimmune disorders. For example, mutations in the APOBEC3B gene have been linked to an increased risk of breast cancer, while mutations in other members of the APOBEC3 family have been implicated in the development of lymphoma and other malignancies. Additionally, aberrant expression of cytidine deaminase enzymes has been observed in some autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus, suggesting a potential role for these enzymes in the pathogenesis of these conditions.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Lymphatic diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the lymphatic system, which is an important part of the immune and circulatory systems. The lymphatic system consists of a network of vessels, organs, and tissues that help to transport lymph fluid throughout the body, fight infection, and remove waste products.

Lymphatic diseases can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. Some common types of lymphatic diseases include:

1. Lymphedema: A condition that causes swelling in the arms or legs due to a blockage or damage in the lymphatic vessels.
2. Lymphoma: A type of cancer that affects the lymphatic system, including Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
3. Infections: Certain bacterial and viral infections can affect the lymphatic system, such as tuberculosis, cat-scratch disease, and HIV/AIDS.
4. Autoimmune disorders: Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and scleroderma can cause inflammation and damage to the lymphatic system.
5. Congenital abnormalities: Some people are born with abnormalities in their lymphatic system, such as malformations or missing lymph nodes.

Symptoms of lymphatic diseases may vary depending on the specific condition and its severity. Treatment options may include medication, physical therapy, surgery, or radiation therapy. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience symptoms of a lymphatic disease, as early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes.

Radioimmunotherapy (RIT) is a medical treatment that combines the specificity of antibodies and the therapeutic effects of radiation to target and destroy cancer cells. It involves the use of radioactive isotopes, which are attached to monoclonal antibodies, that recognize and bind to antigens expressed on the surface of cancer cells. Once bound, the radioactivity emitted from the isotope irradiates the cancer cells, causing damage to their DNA and leading to cell death. This targeted approach helps minimize radiation exposure to healthy tissues and reduces side effects compared to conventional radiotherapy techniques. RIT has been used in the treatment of various hematological malignancies, such as non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and is being investigated for solid tumors as well.

Immunologic deficiency syndromes refer to a group of disorders characterized by defective functioning of the immune system, leading to increased susceptibility to infections and malignancies. These deficiencies can be primary (genetic or congenital) or secondary (acquired due to environmental factors, medications, or diseases).

Primary immunodeficiency syndromes (PIDS) are caused by inherited genetic mutations that affect the development and function of immune cells, such as T cells, B cells, and phagocytes. Examples include severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, and X-linked agammaglobulinemia.

Secondary immunodeficiency syndromes can result from various factors, including:

1. HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection leads to the depletion of CD4+ T cells, causing profound immune dysfunction and increased vulnerability to opportunistic infections and malignancies.
2. Medications: Certain medications, such as chemotherapy, immunosuppressive drugs, and long-term corticosteroid use, can impair immune function and increase infection risk.
3. Malnutrition: Deficiencies in essential nutrients like protein, vitamins, and minerals can weaken the immune system and make individuals more susceptible to infections.
4. Aging: The immune system naturally declines with age, leading to an increased incidence of infections and poorer vaccine responses in older adults.
5. Other medical conditions: Chronic diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and chronic kidney or liver disease can also compromise the immune system and contribute to immunodeficiency syndromes.

Immunologic deficiency syndromes require appropriate diagnosis and management strategies, which may include antimicrobial therapy, immunoglobulin replacement, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, or targeted treatments for the underlying cause.

Inbred strains of mice are defined as lines of mice that have been brother-sister mated for at least 20 consecutive generations. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the mice of an inbred strain are genetically identical to one another, with the exception of spontaneous mutations.

Inbred strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research due to their genetic uniformity and stability, which makes them useful for studying the genetic basis of various traits, diseases, and biological processes. They also provide a consistent and reproducible experimental system, as compared to outbred or genetically heterogeneous populations.

Some commonly used inbred strains of mice include C57BL/6J, BALB/cByJ, DBA/2J, and 129SvEv. Each strain has its own unique genetic background and phenotypic characteristics, which can influence the results of experiments. Therefore, it is important to choose the appropriate inbred strain for a given research question.

Regulatory B-lymphocytes (Bregs) are a subset of B cells that play a role in modulating the immune response and maintaining immune tolerance. They function to suppress the activation and proliferation of other immune cells, such as T cells, and help to prevent autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

Bregs produce regulatory cytokines, such as IL-10 and TGF-β, which can inhibit the activation and effector functions of immune cells. They also express surface molecules, such as PD-L1 and FasL, that can induce apoptosis or inhibit the function of other immune cells.

Regulatory B cells are an important component of the immune system and have been shown to play a role in the regulation of various physiological and pathological processes, including allergy, infection, and cancer. Dysregulation of Bregs has been implicated in the development of various autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Immunoenzyme techniques are a group of laboratory methods used in immunology and clinical chemistry that combine the specificity of antibody-antigen reactions with the sensitivity and amplification capabilities of enzyme reactions. These techniques are primarily used for the detection, quantitation, or identification of various analytes (such as proteins, hormones, drugs, viruses, or bacteria) in biological samples.

In immunoenzyme techniques, an enzyme is linked to an antibody or antigen, creating a conjugate. This conjugate then interacts with the target analyte in the sample, forming an immune complex. The presence and amount of this immune complex can be visualized or measured by detecting the enzymatic activity associated with it.

There are several types of immunoenzyme techniques, including:

1. Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): A widely used method for detecting and quantifying various analytes in a sample. In ELISA, an enzyme is attached to either the capture antibody or the detection antibody. After the immune complex formation, a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme, producing a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.
2. Immunoblotting (Western blot): A method used for detecting specific proteins in a complex mixture, such as a protein extract from cells or tissues. In this technique, proteins are separated by gel electrophoresis and transferred to a membrane, where they are probed with an enzyme-conjugated antibody directed against the target protein.
3. Immunohistochemistry (IHC): A method used for detecting specific antigens in tissue sections or cells. In IHC, an enzyme-conjugated primary or secondary antibody is applied to the sample, and the presence of the antigen is visualized using a chromogenic substrate that produces a colored product at the site of the antigen-antibody interaction.
4. Immunofluorescence (IF): A method used for detecting specific antigens in cells or tissues by employing fluorophore-conjugated antibodies. The presence of the antigen is visualized using a fluorescence microscope.
5. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A method used for detecting and quantifying specific antigens or antibodies in liquid samples, such as serum or culture supernatants. In ELISA, an enzyme-conjugated detection antibody is added after the immune complex formation, and a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme to produce a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.

These techniques are widely used in research and diagnostic laboratories for various applications, including protein characterization, disease diagnosis, and monitoring treatment responses.

Recurrence, in a medical context, refers to the return of symptoms or signs of a disease after a period of improvement or remission. It indicates that the condition has not been fully eradicated and may require further treatment. Recurrence is often used to describe situations where a disease such as cancer comes back after initial treatment, but it can also apply to other medical conditions. The likelihood of recurrence varies depending on the type of disease and individual patient factors.

Medical Definition of "Herpesvirus 8, Human" (HHV-8):

Human Herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), also known as Kaposi's Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus (KSHV), is a DNA virus from the family of Herpesviridae. It is the causative agent of several malignancies, including Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD). HHV-8 is primarily transmitted through saliva, sexual contact, or organ transplantation. In immunocompromised individuals, such as those with HIV/AIDS, the risk of HHV-8-associated malignancies significantly increases. The virus establishes latency in infected cells and can periodically reactivate, causing inflammation and potentially leading to the development of cancer.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the adaptive immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are several different types of T-cells, including CD4+ helper T-cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, and regulatory T-cells (Tregs).

CD4+ helper T-cells assist in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages. They also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response. CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic substances. Regulatory T-cells help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes are important in the immune response to viral infections, cancer, and other diseases. Dysfunction or depletion of T-cells can lead to immunodeficiency and increased susceptibility to infections. On the other hand, an overactive T-cell response can contribute to autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

Adult T-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma (ATLL) is a rare and aggressive type of cancer that affects the circulating white blood cells called T-lymphocytes or T-cells. It is caused by the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), which infects CD4+ T-cells and leads to their malignant transformation. The disease can present as either acute or chronic leukemia, or as lymphoma, depending on the clinical features and laboratory findings.

The acute form of ATLL is characterized by the rapid proliferation of abnormal T-cells in the blood, bone marrow, and other organs. Patients with acute ATLL typically have a poor prognosis, with a median survival of only a few months. Symptoms may include skin rashes, lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes), hepatosplenomegaly (enlarged liver and spleen), and hypercalcemia (high levels of calcium in the blood).

The chronic form of ATLL is less aggressive than the acute form, but it can still lead to serious complications. Chronic ATLL is characterized by the accumulation of abnormal T-cells in the blood and lymph nodes, as well as skin lesions and hypercalcemia. The median survival for patients with chronic ATLL is around two years.

ATLL can also present as a lymphoma, which is characterized by the proliferation of abnormal T-cells in the lymph nodes, spleen, and other organs. Lymphoma may occur in isolation or in combination with leukemic features.

The diagnosis of ATLL is based on clinical findings, laboratory tests, and the detection of HTLV-1 antibodies or proviral DNA in the blood or tissue samples. Treatment options for ATLL include chemotherapy, antiretroviral therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell transplantation. The choice of treatment depends on several factors, including the patient's age, overall health, and the stage and type of ATLL.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Leukemia L5178" is not a recognized medical term or classification for leukemia. The World Health Organization (WHO) and other organizations have established specific classifications for different types of leukemias based on factors such as cell type, genetic mutations, and other characteristics. However, "L5178" does not appear in these classifications.

It's possible that "L5178" might refer to a specific research cell line used in scientific studies, but without more context, it's difficult to provide a precise definition. If you have more information about where you encountered this term, I may be able to provide a more accurate response.

Neoplastic cell transformation is a process in which a normal cell undergoes genetic alterations that cause it to become cancerous or malignant. This process involves changes in the cell's DNA that result in uncontrolled cell growth and division, loss of contact inhibition, and the ability to invade surrounding tissues and metastasize (spread) to other parts of the body.

Neoplastic transformation can occur as a result of various factors, including genetic mutations, exposure to carcinogens, viral infections, chronic inflammation, and aging. These changes can lead to the activation of oncogenes or the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes, which regulate cell growth and division.

The transformation of normal cells into cancerous cells is a complex and multi-step process that involves multiple genetic and epigenetic alterations. It is characterized by several hallmarks, including sustained proliferative signaling, evasion of growth suppressors, resistance to cell death, enabling replicative immortality, induction of angiogenesis, activation of invasion and metastasis, reprogramming of energy metabolism, and evading immune destruction.

Neoplastic cell transformation is a fundamental concept in cancer biology and is critical for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying cancer development and progression. It also has important implications for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, as identifying the specific genetic alterations that underlie neoplastic transformation can help guide targeted therapies and personalized medicine approaches.

Enteropathy-associated T-cell lymphoma (EATL) is a rare type of lymphoma that is associated with celiac disease, an autoimmune disorder of the small intestine triggered by gluten ingestion. EATL is a form of intestinal T-cell lymphoma and typically affects older adults, with a median age at diagnosis in the sixth to seventh decade of life.

EATL is characterized by the malignant transformation of T-cells, a type of white blood cell, that are present in the intestinal wall. The exact cause of EATL is not fully understood, but it is strongly associated with celiac disease and its complications, such as chronic inflammation and malabsorption.

Symptoms of EATL may include abdominal pain, diarrhea, weight loss, nausea, vomiting, and intestinal obstruction or perforation. The diagnosis of EATL is typically made through a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, endoscopy with biopsy, and laboratory tests.

Treatment for EATL usually involves a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and surgery to remove the affected portion of the intestine. The prognosis for patients with EATL is generally poor, with a five-year survival rate of less than 20%. However, early diagnosis and aggressive treatment may improve outcomes in some cases.

Viral matrix proteins are structural proteins that play a crucial role in the morphogenesis and life cycle of many viruses. They are often located between the viral envelope and the viral genome, serving as a scaffold for virus assembly and budding. These proteins also interact with other viral components, such as the viral genome, capsid proteins, and envelope proteins, to form an infectious virion. Additionally, matrix proteins can have regulatory functions, influencing viral transcription, replication, and host cell responses. The specific functions of viral matrix proteins vary among different virus families.

Autoantigens are substances that are typically found in an individual's own body, but can stimulate an immune response because they are recognized as foreign by the body's own immune system. In autoimmune diseases, the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy tissues and organs because it recognizes some of their components as autoantigens. These autoantigens can be proteins, DNA, or other molecules that are normally present in the body but have become altered or exposed due to various factors such as infection, genetics, or environmental triggers. The immune system then produces antibodies and activates immune cells to attack these autoantigens, leading to tissue damage and inflammation.

A hybridoma is a type of hybrid cell that is created in a laboratory by fusing a cancer cell (usually a B cell) with a normal immune cell. The resulting hybrid cell combines the ability of the cancer cell to grow and divide indefinitely with the ability of the immune cell to produce antibodies, which are proteins that help the body fight infection.

Hybridomas are commonly used to produce monoclonal antibodies, which are identical copies of a single antibody produced by a single clone of cells. These antibodies can be used for a variety of purposes, including diagnostic tests and treatments for diseases such as cancer and autoimmune disorders.

To create hybridomas, B cells are first isolated from the spleen or blood of an animal that has been immunized with a specific antigen (a substance that triggers an immune response). The B cells are then fused with cancer cells using a chemical agent such as polyethylene glycol. The resulting hybrid cells are called hybridomas and are grown in culture medium, where they can be selected for their ability to produce antibodies specific to the antigen of interest. These antibody-producing hybridomas can then be cloned to produce large quantities of monoclonal antibodies.

"CBA" is an abbreviation for a specific strain of inbred mice that were developed at the Cancer Research Institute in London. The "Inbred CBA" mice are genetically identical individuals within the same strain, due to many generations of brother-sister matings. This results in a homozygous population, making them valuable tools for research because they reduce variability and increase reproducibility in experimental outcomes.

The CBA strain is known for its susceptibility to certain diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer, which makes it a popular choice for researchers studying those conditions. Additionally, the CBA strain has been widely used in studies related to transplantation immunology, infectious diseases, and genetic research.

It's important to note that while "Inbred CBA" mice are a well-established and useful tool in biomedical research, they represent only one of many inbred strains available for scientific investigation. Each strain has its own unique characteristics and advantages, depending on the specific research question being asked.

Methotrexate is a medication used in the treatment of certain types of cancer and autoimmune diseases. It is an antimetabolite that inhibits the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which is necessary for the synthesis of purines and pyrimidines, essential components of DNA and RNA. By blocking this enzyme, methotrexate interferes with cell division and growth, making it effective in treating rapidly dividing cells such as cancer cells.

In addition to its use in cancer treatment, methotrexate is also used to manage autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. In these conditions, methotrexate modulates the immune system and reduces inflammation.

It's important to note that methotrexate can have significant side effects and should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider. Regular monitoring of blood counts, liver function, and kidney function is necessary during treatment with methotrexate.

'Inbred AKR mice' is a strain of laboratory mice used in biomedical research. The 'AKR' designation stands for "Akita Radioactive," referring to the location where this strain was first developed in Akita, Japan. These mice are inbred, meaning that they have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a genetically homogeneous population with minimal genetic variation.

Inbred AKR mice are known for their susceptibility to certain types of leukemia and lymphoma, making them valuable models for studying these diseases and testing potential therapies. They also develop age-related cataracts and have a higher incidence of diabetes than some other strains.

It is important to note that while inbred AKR mice are widely used in research, their genetic uniformity may limit the applicability of findings to more genetically diverse human populations.

Intestinal neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the tissues of the intestines, which can be benign or malignant. These growths are called neoplasms and they result from uncontrolled cell division. In the case of intestinal neoplasms, these growths occur in the small intestine, large intestine (colon), rectum, or appendix.

Benign intestinal neoplasms are not cancerous and often do not invade surrounding tissues or spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause problems if they grow large enough to obstruct the intestines or cause bleeding. Common types of benign intestinal neoplasms include polyps, leiomyomas, and lipomas.

Malignant intestinal neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous and can invade surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body. The most common type of malignant intestinal neoplasm is adenocarcinoma, which arises from the glandular cells lining the inside of the intestines. Other types of malignant intestinal neoplasms include lymphomas, sarcomas, and carcinoid tumors.

Symptoms of intestinal neoplasms can vary depending on their size, location, and type. Common symptoms include abdominal pain, bloating, changes in bowel habits, rectal bleeding, weight loss, and fatigue. If you experience any of these symptoms, it is important to seek medical attention promptly.

Immunoglobulin J-chains are small protein structures that play a role in the assembly and structure of certain types of antibodies, specifically IgM and IgA. The J-chain is a polypeptide chain that contains multiple cysteine residues, which allow it to form disulfide bonds with the heavy chains of IgM and IgA molecules.

In IgM antibodies, the J-chain helps to link the five identical heavy chain units together to form a pentameric structure. In IgA antibodies, the J-chain links two dimeric structures together to form a tetrameric structure. This polymerization of IgM and IgA molecules is important for their function in the immune system, as it allows them to form large complexes that can effectively agglutinate and neutralize pathogens.

The J-chain is synthesized by a specialized group of B cells called plasma cells, which are responsible for producing and secreting antibodies. Once synthesized, the J-chain is covalently linked to the heavy chains of IgM or IgA molecules during their assembly in the endoplasmic reticulum of the plasma cell.

Overall, the Immunoglobulin J-chain plays a crucial role in the structure and function of certain classes of antibodies, contributing to their ability to effectively combat pathogens and protect the body from infection.

The thymus gland is an essential organ of the immune system, located in the upper chest, behind the sternum and surrounding the heart. It's primarily active until puberty and begins to shrink in size and activity thereafter. The main function of the thymus gland is the production and maturation of T-lymphocytes (T-cells), which are crucial for cell-mediated immunity, helping to protect the body from infection and cancer.

The thymus gland provides a protected environment where immune cells called pre-T cells develop into mature T cells. During this process, they learn to recognize and respond appropriately to foreign substances while remaining tolerant to self-tissues, which is crucial for preventing autoimmune diseases.

Additionally, the thymus gland produces hormones like thymosin that regulate immune cell activities and contribute to the overall immune response.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

Composite lymphoma is a very rare condition in which two or more different types of lymphoma occur simultaneously in the same patient. It is also known as "mixed-cellularity lymphoma" or "biphenotypic lymphoma." The most common combination is B-cell and T-cell lymphomas, but other combinations can also occur.

Composite lymphoma can present a challenge in diagnosis and treatment, as the different types of lymphoma may require different approaches to therapy. A correct diagnosis is important for determining the best course of treatment and for predicting the patient's prognosis. Treatment typically involves a combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and/or immunotherapy, depending on the specific types of lymphoma present and the stage of the disease.

It is worth noting that composite lymphoma should not be confused with "composite tissue allograft," which refers to a surgical procedure in which multiple types of tissues (such as skin, muscle, bone, and nerve) are transplanted from one individual to another.

Human chromosome pair 11 consists of two rod-shaped structures present in the nucleus of each cell in the human body. Each member of the pair is a single chromosome, and together they contain the genetic material that is inherited from both parents. They are located on the eleventh position in the standard karyotype, which is a visual representation of the 23 pairs of human chromosomes.

Chromosome 11 is one of the largest human chromosomes and contains an estimated 135 million base pairs. It contains approximately 1,400 genes that provide instructions for making proteins, as well as many non-coding RNA molecules that play a role in regulating gene expression.

Chromosome 11 is known to contain several important genes and genetic regions associated with various human diseases and conditions. For example, it contains the Wilms' tumor 1 (WT1) gene, which is associated with kidney cancer in children, and the neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) gene, which is associated with a genetic disorder that causes benign tumors to grow on nerves throughout the body. Additionally, chromosome 11 contains the region where the ABO blood group genes are located, which determine a person's blood type.

It's worth noting that human chromosomes come in pairs because they contain two copies of each gene, one inherited from the mother and one from the father. This redundancy allows for genetic diversity and provides a backup copy of essential genes, ensuring their proper function and maintaining the stability of the genome.

Cytarabine is a chemotherapeutic agent used in the treatment of various types of cancer, including leukemias and lymphomas. Its chemical name is cytosine arabinoside, and it works by interfering with the DNA synthesis of cancer cells, which ultimately leads to their death.

Cytarabine is often used in combination with other chemotherapy drugs and may be administered through various routes, such as intravenous (IV) or subcutaneous injection, or orally. The specific dosage and duration of treatment will depend on the type and stage of cancer being treated, as well as the patient's overall health status.

Like all chemotherapy drugs, cytarabine can cause a range of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hair loss, and an increased risk of infection. It may also cause more serious side effects, such as damage to the liver, kidneys, or nervous system, and it is important for patients to be closely monitored during treatment to minimize these risks.

It's important to note that medical treatments should only be administered under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional, and this information should not be used as a substitute for medical advice.

Immunoglobulin delta-chains (IgD) are a type of heavy chain found in immunoglobulins, which are also known as antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system's response to foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses.

The heavy chains of an antibody consist of four polypeptide regions: the variable region, which varies between different antibodies and is responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens; and three constant regions, known as Cμ, Cγ, Cα, or Cδ, which determine the class of the antibody and its effector functions.

IgD heavy chains contain a single Cδ region and are found only in a small subset of antibodies, primarily located on the surface of mature B cells. IgD is co-expressed with IgM on the surface of naive B cells and plays a role in activating the immune response by binding to antigens and initiating signal transduction pathways that lead to B cell activation and differentiation into antibody-secreting plasma cells.

While the function of IgD is not fully understood, it is thought to play a role in regulating the immune response, including modulating allergic reactions and protecting against autoimmunity. Additionally, IgD has been found to have a role in the development and survival of B cells, as well as in the regulation of calcium signaling in B cells.

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the immune function of the human body. It is primarily found in external secretions, such as saliva, tears, breast milk, and sweat, as well as in mucous membranes lining the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. IgA exists in two forms: a monomeric form found in serum and a polymeric form found in secretions.

The primary function of IgA is to provide immune protection at mucosal surfaces, which are exposed to various environmental antigens, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and allergens. By doing so, it helps prevent the entry and colonization of pathogens into the body, reducing the risk of infections and inflammation.

IgA functions by binding to antigens present on the surface of pathogens or allergens, forming immune complexes that can neutralize their activity. These complexes are then transported across the epithelial cells lining mucosal surfaces and released into the lumen, where they prevent the adherence and invasion of pathogens.

In summary, Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is a vital antibody that provides immune defense at mucosal surfaces by neutralizing and preventing the entry of harmful antigens into the body.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

Sjögren's syndrome is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own moisture-producing glands, particularly the tear and salivary glands. This can lead to symptoms such as dry eyes, dry mouth, and dryness in other areas of the body. In some cases, it may also affect other organs, leading to a variety of complications.

There are two types of Sjögren's syndrome: primary and secondary. Primary Sjögren's syndrome occurs when the condition develops on its own, while secondary Sjögren's syndrome occurs when it develops in conjunction with another autoimmune disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus.

The exact cause of Sjögren's syndrome is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Treatment typically focuses on relieving symptoms and may include artificial tears, saliva substitutes, medications to stimulate saliva production, and immunosuppressive drugs in more severe cases.

IgE receptors, also known as Fc epsilon RI receptors, are membrane-bound proteins found on the surface of mast cells and basophils. They play a crucial role in the immune response to parasitic infections and allergies. IgE receptors bind to the Fc region of immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies, which are produced by B cells in response to certain antigens. When an allergen cross-links two adjacent IgE molecules bound to the same IgE receptor, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the release of mediators such as histamine, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins. These mediators cause the symptoms associated with allergic reactions, including inflammation, itching, and vasodilation. IgE receptors are also involved in the activation of the adaptive immune response by promoting the presentation of antigens to T cells.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Ligand Superfamily Member 13 (TNFSF13), also known as APRIL (A Proliferation-Inducing Ligand), is a type II transmembrane protein and a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand superfamily. It plays a crucial role in the immune system, particularly in the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of B cells, which are key players in the humoral immune response.

TNFSF13 is expressed by various cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils. It binds to two receptors: TACI (Transmembrane Activator and Calcium Modulator and Cyclophilin Ligand Interactor) and BCMA (B-cell Maturation Antigen), which are primarily found on the surface of B cells. The interaction between TNFSF13 and its receptors promotes the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of B cells into plasma cells, ultimately leading to increased antibody production.

Dysregulation of TNFSF13 has been implicated in several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Therefore, targeting this molecule or its signaling pathways has been a focus of research for the development of novel therapeutic strategies in these conditions.

Antinuclear antibodies (ANA) are a type of autoantibody that target structures found in the nucleus of a cell. These antibodies are produced by the immune system and attack the body's own cells and tissues, leading to inflammation and damage. The presence of ANA is often used as a marker for certain autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjogren's syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, and polymyositis.

ANA can be detected through a blood test called the antinuclear antibody test. A positive result indicates the presence of ANA in the blood, but it does not necessarily mean that a person has an autoimmune disease. Further testing is usually needed to confirm a diagnosis and determine the specific type of autoantibodies present.

It's important to note that ANA can also be found in healthy individuals, particularly as they age. Therefore, the test results should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and symptoms.

Histocompatibility antigens Class II are a group of cell surface proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system's response to foreign substances. They are expressed on the surface of various cells, including immune cells such as B lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and activated T lymphocytes.

Class II histocompatibility antigens are encoded by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II genes, which are located on chromosome 6 in humans. These antigens are composed of two non-covalently associated polypeptide chains, an alpha (α) and a beta (β) chain, which form a heterodimer. There are three main types of Class II histocompatibility antigens, known as HLA-DP, HLA-DQ, and HLA-DR.

Class II histocompatibility antigens present peptide antigens to CD4+ T helper cells, which then activate other immune cells, such as B cells and macrophages, to mount an immune response against the presented antigen. Because of their role in initiating an immune response, Class II histocompatibility antigens are important in transplantation medicine, where mismatches between donor and recipient can lead to rejection of the transplanted organ or tissue.

Antigen presentation is the process by which certain cells in the immune system, known as antigen presenting cells (APCs), display foreign or abnormal proteins (antigens) on their surface to other immune cells, such as T-cells. This process allows the immune system to recognize and mount a response against harmful pathogens, infected or damaged cells.

There are two main types of antigen presentation: major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and MHC class II presentation.

1. MHC class I presentation: APCs, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B-cells, process and load antigens onto MHC class I molecules, which are expressed on the surface of almost all nucleated cells in the body. The MHC class I-antigen complex is then recognized by CD8+ T-cells (cytotoxic T-cells), leading to the destruction of infected or damaged cells.
2. MHC class II presentation: APCs, particularly dendritic cells and B-cells, process and load antigens onto MHC class II molecules, which are mainly expressed on the surface of professional APCs. The MHC class II-antigen complex is then recognized by CD4+ T-cells (helper T-cells), leading to the activation of other immune cells, such as B-cells and macrophages, to eliminate the pathogen or damaged cells.

In summary, antigen presentation is a crucial step in the adaptive immune response, allowing for the recognition and elimination of foreign or abnormal substances that could potentially harm the body.

Chromosome aberrations refer to structural and numerical changes in the chromosomes that can occur spontaneously or as a result of exposure to mutagenic agents. These changes can affect the genetic material encoded in the chromosomes, leading to various consequences such as developmental abnormalities, cancer, or infertility.

Structural aberrations include deletions, duplications, inversions, translocations, and rings, which result from breaks and rearrangements of chromosome segments. Numerical aberrations involve changes in the number of chromosomes, such as aneuploidy (extra or missing chromosomes) or polyploidy (multiples of a complete set of chromosomes).

Chromosome aberrations can be detected and analyzed using various cytogenetic techniques, including karyotyping, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). These methods allow for the identification and characterization of chromosomal changes at the molecular level, providing valuable information for genetic counseling, diagnosis, and research.

Autoimmune diseases are a group of disorders in which the immune system, which normally protects the body from foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses, mistakenly attacks the body's own cells and tissues. This results in inflammation and damage to various organs and tissues in the body.

In autoimmune diseases, the body produces autoantibodies that target its own proteins or cell receptors, leading to their destruction or malfunction. The exact cause of autoimmune diseases is not fully understood, but it is believed that a combination of genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development.

There are over 80 different types of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms can vary widely depending on the specific autoimmune disease and the organs or tissues affected. Treatment typically involves managing symptoms and suppressing the immune system to prevent further damage.

A "cell line, transformed" is a type of cell culture that has undergone a stable genetic alteration, which confers the ability to grow indefinitely in vitro, outside of the organism from which it was derived. These cells have typically been immortalized through exposure to chemical or viral carcinogens, or by introducing specific oncogenes that disrupt normal cell growth regulation pathways.

Transformed cell lines are widely used in scientific research because they offer a consistent and renewable source of biological material for experimentation. They can be used to study various aspects of cell biology, including signal transduction, gene expression, drug discovery, and toxicity testing. However, it is important to note that transformed cells may not always behave identically to their normal counterparts, and results obtained using these cells should be validated in more physiologically relevant systems when possible.

Salvage therapy, in the context of medical oncology, refers to the use of treatments that are typically considered less desirable or more aggressive, often due to greater side effects or lower efficacy, when standard treatment options have failed. These therapies are used to attempt to salvage a response or delay disease progression in patients with refractory or relapsed cancers.

In other words, salvage therapy is a last-resort treatment approach for patients who have not responded to first-line or subsequent lines of therapy. It may involve the use of different drug combinations, higher doses of chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, or radiation therapy. The goal of salvage therapy is to extend survival, improve quality of life, or achieve disease stabilization in patients with limited treatment options.

Antibody specificity refers to the ability of an antibody to bind to a specific epitope or antigenic determinant on an antigen. Each antibody has a unique structure that allows it to recognize and bind to a specific region of an antigen, typically a small portion of the antigen's surface made up of amino acids or sugar residues. This highly specific binding is mediated by the variable regions of the antibody's heavy and light chains, which form a pocket that recognizes and binds to the epitope.

The specificity of an antibody is determined by its unique complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), which are loops of amino acids located in the variable domains of both the heavy and light chains. The CDRs form a binding site that recognizes and interacts with the epitope on the antigen. The precise fit between the antibody's binding site and the epitope is critical for specificity, as even small changes in the structure of either can prevent binding.

Antibody specificity is important in immune responses because it allows the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self antigens. This helps to prevent autoimmune reactions where the immune system attacks the body's own cells and tissues. Antibody specificity also plays a crucial role in diagnostic tests, such as ELISA assays, where antibodies are used to detect the presence of specific antigens in biological samples.

CD45 is a protein that is found on the surface of many types of white blood cells, including T-cells, B-cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. It is also known as leukocyte common antigen because it is present on almost all leukocytes. CD45 is a tyrosine phosphatase that plays a role in regulating the activity of various proteins involved in cell signaling pathways.

As an antigen, CD45 is used as a marker to identify and distinguish different types of white blood cells. It has several isoforms that are generated by alternative splicing of its mRNA, resulting in different molecular weights. The size of the CD45 isoform can be used to distinguish between different subsets of T-cells and B-cells.

CD45 is an important molecule in the immune system, and abnormalities in its expression or function have been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders and cancer.

A "mutant strain of mice" in a medical context refers to genetically engineered mice that have specific genetic mutations introduced into their DNA. These mutations can be designed to mimic certain human diseases or conditions, allowing researchers to study the underlying biological mechanisms and test potential therapies in a controlled laboratory setting.

Mutant strains of mice are created through various techniques, including embryonic stem cell manipulation, gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9, and radiation-induced mutagenesis. These methods allow scientists to introduce specific genetic changes into the mouse genome, resulting in mice that exhibit altered physiological or behavioral traits.

These strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research because their short lifespan, small size, and high reproductive rate make them an ideal model organism for studying human diseases. Additionally, the mouse genome has been well-characterized, and many genetic tools and resources are available to researchers working with these animals.

Examples of mutant strains of mice include those that carry mutations in genes associated with cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic diseases, and immunological conditions. These mice provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of human diseases and help advance our understanding of potential therapeutic interventions.

Herpesviridae infections refer to diseases caused by the Herpesviridae family of double-stranded DNA viruses, which include herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), human herpesvirus 7 (HHV-7), and human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8). These viruses can cause a variety of clinical manifestations, ranging from mild skin lesions to severe systemic diseases.

After the initial infection, these viruses typically become latent in various tissues and may reactivate later in life, causing recurrent symptoms. The clinical presentation of Herpesviridae infections depends on the specific virus and the immune status of the host. Common manifestations include oral or genital ulcers (HSV-1 and HSV-2), chickenpox and shingles (VZV), mononucleosis (CMV), roseola (HHV-6), and Kaposi's sarcoma (HHV-8).

Preventive measures include avoiding close contact with infected individuals during the active phase of the infection, practicing safe sex, and avoiding sharing personal items that may come into contact with infectious lesions. Antiviral medications are available to treat Herpesviridae infections and reduce the severity and duration of symptoms.

Hairy cell leukemia (HCL) is a rare, slow-growing type of cancer in which the bone marrow makes too many B cells (a type of white blood cell). These excess B cells are often referred to as "hairy cells" because they look abnormal under the microscope, with fine projections or "hair-like" cytoplasmic protrusions.

In HCL, these abnormal B cells can build up in the bone marrow and spleen, causing both of them to enlarge. The accumulation of hairy cells in the bone marrow can crowd out healthy blood cells, leading to a shortage of red blood cells (anemia), platelets (thrombocytopenia), and normal white blood cells (leukopenia). This can result in fatigue, increased risk of infection, and easy bruising or bleeding.

HCL is typically an indolent disease, meaning that it progresses slowly over time. However, some cases may require treatment to manage symptoms and prevent complications. Treatment options for HCL include chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and stem cell transplantation. Regular follow-up with a healthcare provider is essential to monitor the disease's progression and adjust treatment plans as needed.

Stomach neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the stomach that can be benign or malignant. They include a wide range of conditions such as:

1. Gastric adenomas: These are benign tumors that develop from glandular cells in the stomach lining.
2. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs): These are rare tumors that can be found in the stomach and other parts of the digestive tract. They originate from the stem cells in the wall of the digestive tract.
3. Leiomyomas: These are benign tumors that develop from smooth muscle cells in the stomach wall.
4. Lipomas: These are benign tumors that develop from fat cells in the stomach wall.
5. Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs): These are tumors that develop from the neuroendocrine cells in the stomach lining. They can be benign or malignant.
6. Gastric carcinomas: These are malignant tumors that develop from the glandular cells in the stomach lining. They are the most common type of stomach neoplasm and include adenocarcinomas, signet ring cell carcinomas, and others.
7. Lymphomas: These are malignant tumors that develop from the immune cells in the stomach wall.

Stomach neoplasms can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and difficulty swallowing. The diagnosis of stomach neoplasms usually involves a combination of imaging tests, endoscopy, and biopsy. Treatment options depend on the type and stage of the neoplasm and may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or targeted therapy.

Gastrointestinal (GI) neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the gastrointestinal tract, which can be benign or malignant. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.

Benign neoplasms are non-cancerous growths that do not invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body. They can sometimes be removed completely and may not cause any further health problems.

Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous growths that can invade nearby tissues and organs and spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. These types of neoplasms can be life-threatening if not diagnosed and treated promptly.

GI neoplasms can cause various symptoms, including abdominal pain, bloating, changes in bowel habits, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and anemia. The specific symptoms may depend on the location and size of the neoplasm.

There are many types of GI neoplasms, including adenocarcinomas, gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs), lymphomas, and neuroendocrine tumors. The diagnosis of GI neoplasms typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, imaging studies, and biopsy. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or immunotherapy.

Orbital neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the orbit, which is the bony cavity that contains the eyeball, muscles, nerves, fat, and blood vessels. These neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), and they can arise from various types of cells within the orbit.

Orbital neoplasms can cause a variety of symptoms depending on their size, location, and rate of growth. Common symptoms include protrusion or displacement of the eyeball, double vision, limited eye movement, pain, swelling, and numbness in the face. In some cases, orbital neoplasms may not cause any noticeable symptoms, especially if they are small and slow-growing.

There are many different types of orbital neoplasms, including:

1. Optic nerve glioma: a rare tumor that arises from the optic nerve's supportive tissue.
2. Orbital meningioma: a tumor that originates from the membranes covering the brain and extends into the orbit.
3. Lacrimal gland tumors: benign or malignant growths that develop in the lacrimal gland, which produces tears.
4. Orbital lymphangioma: a non-cancerous tumor that arises from the lymphatic vessels in the orbit.
5. Rhabdomyosarcoma: a malignant tumor that develops from the skeletal muscle cells in the orbit.
6. Metastatic tumors: cancerous growths that spread to the orbit from other parts of the body, such as the breast, lung, or prostate.

The diagnosis and treatment of orbital neoplasms depend on several factors, including the type, size, location, and extent of the tumor. Imaging tests, such as CT scans and MRI, are often used to visualize the tumor and determine its extent. A biopsy may also be performed to confirm the diagnosis and determine the tumor's type and grade. Treatment options include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is a type of cytokine, which are signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation, and hematopoiesis. Specifically, IL-2 is a growth factor for T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune response. It is primarily produced by CD4+ T cells (also known as T helper cells) and stimulates the proliferation and differentiation of activated T cells, including effector T cells and regulatory T cells. IL-2 also has roles in the activation and function of other immune cells, such as B cells, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells. Dysregulation of IL-2 production or signaling can contribute to various pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases, chronic infections, and cancer.

Procarbazine is an antineoplastic agent, specifically an alkylating agent, used in the treatment of certain types of cancer such as Hodgkin's lymphoma and brain tumors. It works by interfering with the DNA of cancer cells, preventing them from dividing and growing. Procarbazine is often used in combination with other chemotherapy drugs to increase its effectiveness.

It is important to note that procarbazine can have significant side effects, including nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weakness. It can also suppress the immune system, increasing the risk of infection. Additionally, it can cause damage to cells outside of the cancerous tissue, which can result in side effects such as hair loss and mouth sores.

Procarbazine is a prescription medication that should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional. It is important for patients to follow their doctor's instructions carefully when taking this medication and to report any side effects or concerns promptly.

Prednisolone is a synthetic glucocorticoid drug, which is a class of steroid hormones. It is commonly used in the treatment of various inflammatory and autoimmune conditions due to its potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. Prednisolone works by binding to specific receptors in cells, leading to changes in gene expression that reduce the production of substances involved in inflammation, such as cytokines and prostaglandins.

Prednisolone is available in various forms, including tablets, syrups, and injectable solutions. It can be used to treat a wide range of medical conditions, including asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, allergies, skin conditions, and certain types of cancer.

Like other steroid medications, prednisolone can have significant side effects if used in high doses or for long periods of time. These may include weight gain, mood changes, increased risk of infections, osteoporosis, diabetes, and adrenal suppression. As a result, the use of prednisolone should be closely monitored by a healthcare professional to ensure that its benefits outweigh its risks.

Trinitrobenzenes are not typically referred to in the context of medical definitions, as they are chemical compounds that do not have direct relevance to medical fields. However, I can provide you with some general information about trinitrobenzenes.

Trinitrobenzenes are a group of chemical compounds consisting of a benzene ring (a cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) with three nitro groups (-NO2) attached to it. The most common and well-known compound in this group is 1,3,5-trinitrobenzene (TNB). These compounds are highly explosive and have been used in military and industrial applications for their energetic properties.

In a medical or clinical context, trinitrobenzenes may be encountered only if someone is exposed to these chemicals in an occupational or accidental setting. Exposure can lead to local skin irritation, eye damage, or respiratory issues. Chronic exposure or high-dose acute exposure might cause more severe health problems, including damage to the liver and kidneys. However, trinitrobenzenes are not used as therapeutic agents or diagnostic tools in medicine.

Southern blotting is a type of membrane-based blotting technique that is used in molecular biology to detect and locate specific DNA sequences within a DNA sample. This technique is named after its inventor, Edward M. Southern.

In Southern blotting, the DNA sample is first digested with one or more restriction enzymes, which cut the DNA at specific recognition sites. The resulting DNA fragments are then separated based on their size by gel electrophoresis. After separation, the DNA fragments are denatured to convert them into single-stranded DNA and transferred onto a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane.

Once the DNA has been transferred to the membrane, it is hybridized with a labeled probe that is complementary to the sequence of interest. The probe can be labeled with radioactive isotopes, fluorescent dyes, or chemiluminescent compounds. After hybridization, the membrane is washed to remove any unbound probe and then exposed to X-ray film (in the case of radioactive probes) or scanned (in the case of non-radioactive probes) to detect the location of the labeled probe on the membrane.

The position of the labeled probe on the membrane corresponds to the location of the specific DNA sequence within the original DNA sample. Southern blotting is a powerful tool for identifying and characterizing specific DNA sequences, such as those associated with genetic diseases or gene regulation.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Cell transformation, viral refers to the process by which a virus causes normal cells to become cancerous or tumorigenic. This occurs when the genetic material of the virus integrates into the DNA of the host cell and alters its regulation, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and division. Some viruses known to cause cell transformation include human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and certain types of herpesviruses.

Interleukins (ILs) are a group of naturally occurring proteins that are important in the immune system. They are produced by various cells, including immune cells like lymphocytes and macrophages, and they help regulate the immune response by facilitating communication between different types of cells. Interleukins can have both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, depending on the specific interleukin and the context in which it is produced. They play a role in various biological processes, including the development of immune responses, inflammation, and hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells).

There are many different interleukins that have been identified, and they are numbered according to the order in which they were discovered. For example, IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, etc. Each interleukin has a specific set of functions and targets certain types of cells. Dysregulation of interleukins has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, infections, and cancer.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Up-regulation is a term used in molecular biology and medicine to describe an increase in the expression or activity of a gene, protein, or receptor in response to a stimulus. This can occur through various mechanisms such as increased transcription, translation, or reduced degradation of the molecule. Up-regulation can have important functional consequences, for example, enhancing the sensitivity or response of a cell to a hormone, neurotransmitter, or drug. It is a normal physiological process that can also be induced by disease or pharmacological interventions.

Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as a bacterium or virus. They are capable of identifying and binding to specific antigens (foreign substances) on the surface of these invaders, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Antibodies are also known as immunoglobulins and come in several different types, including IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, each with a unique function in the immune response. They are composed of four polypeptide chains, two heavy chains and two light chains, that are held together by disulfide bonds. The variable regions of the heavy and light chains form the antigen-binding site, which is specific to a particular antigen.

NF-κB (Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) is a protein complex that plays a crucial role in regulating the immune response to infection and inflammation, as well as in cell survival, differentiation, and proliferation. It is composed of several subunits, including p50, p52, p65 (RelA), c-Rel, and RelB, which can form homodimers or heterodimers that bind to specific DNA sequences called κB sites in the promoter regions of target genes.

Under normal conditions, NF-κB is sequestered in the cytoplasm by inhibitory proteins known as IκBs (inhibitors of κB). However, upon stimulation by various signals such as cytokines, bacterial or viral products, and stress, IκBs are phosphorylated, ubiquitinated, and degraded, leading to the release and activation of NF-κB. Activated NF-κB then translocates to the nucleus, where it binds to κB sites and regulates the expression of target genes involved in inflammation, immunity, cell survival, and proliferation.

Dysregulation of NF-κB signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as cancer, chronic inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, targeting NF-κB signaling has emerged as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of these diseases.

1. Receptors: In the context of physiology and medicine, receptors are specialized proteins found on the surface of cells or inside cells that detect and respond to specific molecules, known as ligands. These interactions can trigger a variety of responses within the cell, such as starting a signaling cascade or changing the cell's metabolism. Receptors play crucial roles in various biological processes, including communication between cells, regulation of immune responses, and perception of senses.

2. Antigen: An antigen is any substance (usually a protein) that can be recognized by the adaptive immune system, specifically by B-cells and T-cells. Antigens can be derived from various sources, such as microorganisms (like bacteria, viruses, or fungi), pollen, dust mites, or even components of our own cells (for instance, in autoimmune diseases). An antigen's ability to stimulate an immune response is determined by its molecular structure and whether it can be recognized by the receptors on immune cells.

3. B-Cell: B-cells are a type of white blood cell that plays a critical role in the adaptive immune system, particularly in humoral immunity. They originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow and are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens. Each B-cell has receptors on its surface called B-cell receptors (BCRs) that can recognize a unique antigen. When a B-cell encounters its specific antigen, it becomes activated, undergoes proliferation, and differentiates into plasma cells that secrete large amounts of antibodies to neutralize or eliminate the antigen.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Immunoglobulin Light Chains, Surrogate" is not a recognized medical term or concept in the immunology field. Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are proteins produced by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign substances like bacteria and viruses. They consist of two heavy chains and two light chains, which can be either kappa or lambda. However, there is no such thing as "surrogate" light chains in this context.

If you have any other questions about medical terminology or concepts, I'd be happy to help!

Interferon Regulatory Factors (IRFs) are a family of transcription factors that play crucial roles in the regulation of immune responses, particularly in the expression of interferons (IFNs) and other genes involved in innate immunity and inflammation. In humans, there are nine known IRF proteins (IRF1-9), each with distinct functions and patterns of expression.

The primary function of IRFs is to regulate the transcription of type I IFNs (IFN-α and IFN-β) and other immune response genes in response to various stimuli, such as viral infections, bacterial components, and proinflammatory cytokines. IRFs can either activate or repress gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences called interferon-stimulated response elements (ISREs) and/or IFN consensus sequences (ICSs) in the promoter regions of target genes.

IRF1, IRF3, and IRF7 are primarily involved in type I IFN regulation, with IRF1 acting as a transcriptional activator for IFN-β and various ISRE-containing genes, while IRF3 and IRF7 function as master regulators of the type I IFN response to viral infections. Upon viral recognition by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), IRF3 and IRF7 are activated through phosphorylation and translocate to the nucleus, where they induce the expression of type I IFNs and other antiviral genes.

IRF2, IRF4, IRF5, and IRF8 have more diverse roles in immune regulation, including the control of T-cell differentiation, B-cell development, and myeloid cell function. For example, IRF4 is essential for the development and function of Th2 cells, while IRF5 and IRF8 are involved in the differentiation of dendritic cells and macrophages.

IRF6 and IRF9 have unique functions compared to other IRFs. IRF6 is primarily involved in epithelial cell development and differentiation, while IRF9 forms a complex with STAT1 and STAT2 to regulate the transcription of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) during the type I IFN response.

In summary, IRFs are a family of transcription factors that play crucial roles in various aspects of immune regulation, including antiviral responses, T-cell and B-cell development, and myeloid cell function. Dysregulation of IRF activity can lead to the development of autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer.

Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia is a type of rare cancer called a lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma. It is characterized by the uncontrolled growth of malignant white blood cells, specifically B lymphocytes or plasma cells, in the bone marrow and sometimes in other organs. These abnormal cells produce an excessive amount of a protein called macroglobulin, which can lead to the thickening of the blood and various symptoms associated with this condition.

The signs and symptoms of Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia may include fatigue, weakness, bruising or bleeding, frequent infections, numbness or tingling in the hands and feet, visual disturbances, and confusion or difficulty thinking. The diagnosis typically involves a combination of blood tests, bone marrow biopsy, imaging studies, and sometimes genetic testing to confirm the presence of the disease and determine its extent.

Treatment options for Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia depend on the severity of the symptoms and the stage of the disease. They may include chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, stem cell transplantation, or a combination of these approaches. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor the progression of the disease and adjust treatment plans as needed.

Adoptive transfer is a medical procedure in which immune cells are transferred from a donor to a recipient with the aim of providing immunity or treating a disease, such as cancer. This technique is often used in the field of immunotherapy and involves isolating specific immune cells (like T-cells) from the donor, expanding their numbers in the laboratory, and then infusing them into the patient. The transferred cells are expected to recognize and attack the target cells, such as malignant or infected cells, leading to a therapeutic effect. This process requires careful matching of donor and recipient to minimize the risk of rejection and graft-versus-host disease.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

Down-regulation is a process that occurs in response to various stimuli, where the number or sensitivity of cell surface receptors or the expression of specific genes is decreased. This process helps maintain homeostasis within cells and tissues by reducing the ability of cells to respond to certain signals or molecules.

In the context of cell surface receptors, down-regulation can occur through several mechanisms:

1. Receptor internalization: After binding to their ligands, receptors can be internalized into the cell through endocytosis. Once inside the cell, these receptors may be degraded or recycled back to the cell surface in smaller numbers.
2. Reduced receptor synthesis: Down-regulation can also occur at the transcriptional level, where the expression of genes encoding for specific receptors is decreased, leading to fewer receptors being produced.
3. Receptor desensitization: Prolonged exposure to a ligand can lead to a decrease in receptor sensitivity or affinity, making it more difficult for the cell to respond to the signal.

In the context of gene expression, down-regulation refers to the decreased transcription and/or stability of specific mRNAs, leading to reduced protein levels. This process can be induced by various factors, including microRNA (miRNA)-mediated regulation, histone modification, or DNA methylation.

Down-regulation is an essential mechanism in many physiological processes and can also contribute to the development of several diseases, such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders.

The Transmembrane Activator and CAML Interactor protein (also known as TACI or TNFRSF13B) is a type I transmembrane protein that belongs to the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily. It is involved in the regulation of immune responses, specifically in the activation and differentiation of B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the humoral immune response.

TACI has two main ligands, or binding partners: A Proliferation-Inducing Ligand (APRIL) and B cell Activating Factor (BAFF). These ligands bind to TACI and activate downstream signaling pathways that lead to the activation and differentiation of B cells.

Mutations in the TACI gene have been associated with various immune disorders, including common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), a primary immunodeficiency disorder characterized by low levels of antibodies and recurrent infections. Additionally, variations in the TACI gene have been linked to an increased risk of developing autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Immunological models are simplified representations or simulations of the immune system's structure, function, and interactions with pathogens or other entities. These models can be theoretical (conceptual), mathematical, or computational and are used to understand, explain, and predict immunological phenomena. They help researchers study complex immune processes and responses that cannot be easily observed or manipulated in vivo.

Theoretical immunological models provide conceptual frameworks for understanding immune system behavior, often using diagrams or flowcharts to illustrate interactions between immune components. Mathematical models use mathematical equations to describe immune system dynamics, allowing researchers to simulate and analyze the outcomes of various scenarios. Computational models, also known as in silico models, are created using computer software and can incorporate both theoretical and mathematical concepts to create detailed simulations of immunological processes.

Immunological models are essential tools for advancing our understanding of the immune system and developing new therapies and vaccines. They enable researchers to test hypotheses, explore the implications of different assumptions, and identify areas requiring further investigation.

Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases (RTKs) are a type of transmembrane receptors found on the cell surface that play a crucial role in signal transduction and regulation of various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, metabolism, and survival. They are called "tyrosine kinases" because they possess an intrinsic enzymatic activity that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to tyrosine residues on target proteins, thereby modulating their function.

RTKs are composed of three main domains: an extracellular domain that binds to specific ligands (growth factors, hormones, or cytokines), a transmembrane domain that spans the cell membrane, and an intracellular domain with tyrosine kinase activity. Upon ligand binding, RTKs undergo conformational changes that lead to their dimerization or oligomerization, which in turn activates their tyrosine kinase activity. Activated RTKs then phosphorylate specific tyrosine residues on downstream signaling proteins, initiating a cascade of intracellular signaling events that ultimately result in the appropriate cellular response.

Dysregulation of RTK signaling has been implicated in various human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and developmental disorders. As such, RTKs are important targets for therapeutic intervention in these conditions.

Lymphocyte subsets refer to distinct populations of white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are crucial components of the adaptive immune system. There are two main types of lymphocytes: T cells and B cells, and each type has several subsets based on their surface receptors, functions, and activation status.

1. T cell subsets: These include CD4+ T helper cells (Th cells), CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells), regulatory T cells (Tregs), and memory T cells. Th cells are further divided into Th1, Th2, Th17, and Tfh cells based on their cytokine production profiles and functions.
* CD4+ T helper cells (Th cells) play a central role in orchestrating the immune response by producing various cytokines that activate other immune cells.
* CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells) directly kill virus-infected or malignant cells upon recognition of specific antigens presented on their surface.
* Regulatory T cells (Tregs) suppress the activation and proliferation of other immune cells to maintain self-tolerance and prevent autoimmunity.
* Memory T cells are long-lived cells that remain in the body after an initial infection or immunization, providing rapid protection upon subsequent encounters with the same pathogen.
2. B cell subsets: These include naïve B cells, memory B cells, and plasma cells. Upon activation by antigens, B cells differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells that produce specific antibodies to neutralize or eliminate pathogens.
* Naïve B cells are resting cells that have not yet encountered their specific antigen.
* Memory B cells are long-lived cells generated after initial antigen exposure, which can quickly differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells upon re-exposure to the same antigen.
* Plasma cells are terminally differentiated B cells that secrete large amounts of specific antibodies.

Analyzing lymphocyte subsets is essential for understanding immune system function and dysfunction, as well as monitoring the effectiveness of immunotherapies and vaccinations.

'Cell lineage' is a term used in biology and medicine to describe the developmental history or relationship of a cell or group of cells to other cells, tracing back to the original progenitor or stem cell. It refers to the series of cell divisions and differentiation events that give rise to specific types of cells in an organism over time.

In simpler terms, cell lineage is like a family tree for cells, showing how they are related to each other through a chain of cell division and specialization events. This concept is important in understanding the development, growth, and maintenance of tissues and organs in living beings.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hemolytic Plaque Technique" is not a widely recognized or established medical term. It seems like it might be a combination of two different concepts in medical and scientific research: the Hemolytic Assay and the Plaque Assay technique.

A Hemolytic Assay is a method used to measure the amount of hemolysis, or the rupturing of red blood cells, caused by a substance such as a toxin or an antibody. This assay can help determine the concentration of the hemolysin in a sample.

On the other hand, the Plaque Assay Technique is a method used to measure the number of infectious virus particles in a sample. It involves adding a layer of cells (like bacteria) that the virus can infect and then covering it with a nutrient agar overlay. After a period of incubation, clear areas or "plaques" appear in the agar where the viruses have infected and lysed the cells. By counting these plaques, researchers can estimate the number of infectious virus particles present in the original sample.

Therefore, if you're looking for a definition of a Hemolytic Plaque Technique, it might refer to a research method that combines both concepts, possibly measuring the amount of a substance (like an antibody) that causes hemolysis in red blood cells and correlating it with the number of infectious virus particles present. However, I would recommend consulting the original source or author for clarification on their intended meaning.

Hemocyanin is a copper-containing protein found in the blood of some mollusks and arthropods, responsible for oxygen transport. Unlike hemoglobin in vertebrates, which uses iron to bind oxygen, hemocyanins have copper ions that reversibly bind to oxygen, turning the blood blue when oxygenated. When deoxygenated, the color of the blood is pale blue-gray. Hemocyanins are typically found in a multi-subunit form and are released into the hemolymph (the equivalent of blood in vertebrates) upon exposure to air or oxygen. They play a crucial role in supplying oxygen to various tissues and organs within these invertebrate organisms.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

CD95 (also known as Fas or APO-1) is a type of cell surface receptor that can bind to specific proteins and trigger programmed cell death, also known as apoptosis. It is an important regulator of the immune system and helps to control the activation and deletion of immune cells. CD95 ligand (CD95L), the protein that binds to CD95, is expressed on activated T-cells and can induce apoptosis in other cells that express CD95, including other T-cells and tumor cells.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies or activation of immune cells. In the context of CD95, antigens may refer to substances that can induce the expression of CD95 on the surface of cells, making them susceptible to CD95L-mediated apoptosis. These antigens could include viral proteins, tumor antigens, or other substances that trigger an immune response.

Therefore, the medical definition of 'antigens, CD95' may refer to substances that can induce the expression of CD95 on the surface of cells and make them targets for CD95L-mediated apoptosis.

The Immunoglobulin Joining Region (IgJ or J chain) is a polypeptide chain that is a component of certain immunoglobulins, specifically IgM and IgA. The J chain plays a crucial role in the polymerization of these immunoglobulins, allowing them to form higher-order structures such as pentamers (in the case of IgM) or dimers (in the case of IgA). This polymerization is important for the functioning of these immunoglobulins in the immune response. The J chain contains multiple cysteine residues that form disulfide bonds with each other and with the heavy chains of the immunoglobulin molecules, helping to stabilize the polymeric structure.

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

Immunoglobulin alpha-chains (IgA) are a type of immunoglobulin or antibody that plays a crucial role in the immune system. They are composed of two heavy chains, known as alpha-chains, and two light chains. IgA is primarily found in secretions such as tears, saliva, breast milk, and respiratory and intestinal mucus, where they provide protection against pathogens that enter the body through these surfaces.

IgA can exist in two forms: a monomeric form, which consists of a single IgA molecule, and a polymeric form, which consists of several IgA molecules joined together by a J chain. The polymeric form is more common in secretions, where it provides an effective barrier against pathogens.

IgA functions by binding to antigens on the surface of pathogens, preventing them from attaching to and infecting host cells. It can also neutralize toxins produced by some bacteria and viruses. Additionally, IgA can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to destroy pathogens, and initiate an immune response by recruiting other immune cells to the site of infection.

Deficiencies in IgA are relatively common and usually do not cause any significant health problems. However, in some cases, people with IgA deficiency may develop recurrent infections or allergies.

A tumor virus infection is a condition in which a person's cells become cancerous or transformed due to the integration and disruption of normal cellular functions by a viral pathogen. These viruses are also known as oncoviruses, and they can cause tumors or cancer by altering the host cell's genetic material, promoting uncontrolled cell growth and division, evading immune surveillance, and inhibiting apoptosis (programmed cell death).

Examples of tumor viruses include:

1. DNA tumor viruses: These are double-stranded DNA viruses that can cause cancer in humans. Examples include human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCV).
2. RNA tumor viruses: Also known as retroviruses, these single-stranded RNA viruses can cause cancer in humans. Examples include human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Tumor virus infections are responsible for approximately 15-20% of all cancer cases worldwide, making them a significant public health concern. Prevention strategies, such as vaccination against HPV and HBV, have been shown to reduce the incidence of associated cancers.

Karyotyping is a medical laboratory test used to study the chromosomes in a cell. It involves obtaining a sample of cells from a patient, usually from blood or bone marrow, and then staining the chromosomes so they can be easily seen under a microscope. The chromosomes are then arranged in pairs based on their size, shape, and other features to create a karyotype. This visual representation allows for the identification and analysis of any chromosomal abnormalities, such as extra or missing chromosomes, or structural changes like translocations or inversions. These abnormalities can provide important information about genetic disorders, diseases, and developmental problems.

A hapten is a small molecule that can elicit an immune response only when it is attached to a larger carrier protein. On its own, a hapten is too small to be recognized by the immune system as a foreign substance. However, when it binds to a carrier protein, it creates a new antigenic site that can be detected by the immune system. This process is known as haptenization.

Haptens are important in the study of immunology and allergies because they can cause an allergic response when they bind to proteins in the body. For example, certain chemicals found in cosmetics, drugs, or industrial products can act as haptens and trigger an allergic reaction when they come into contact with the skin or mucous membranes. The resulting immune response can cause symptoms such as rash, itching, or inflammation.

Haptens can also be used in the development of vaccines and diagnostic tests, where they are attached to carrier proteins to stimulate an immune response and produce specific antibodies that can be measured or used for therapy.

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are a group of specialized cells in the immune system that play a critical role in initiating and regulating immune responses. They have the ability to engulf, process, and present antigens (molecules derived from pathogens or other foreign substances) on their surface in conjunction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. This presentation of antigens allows APCs to activate T cells, which are crucial for adaptive immunity.

There are several types of APCs, including:

1. Dendritic cells (DCs): These are the most potent and professional APCs, found in various tissues throughout the body. DCs can capture antigens from their environment, process them, and migrate to lymphoid organs where they present antigens to T cells.
2. Macrophages: These large phagocytic cells are found in many tissues and play a role in both innate and adaptive immunity. They can engulf and digest pathogens, then present processed antigens on their MHC class II molecules to activate CD4+ T helper cells.
3. B cells: These are primarily responsible for humoral immune responses by producing antibodies against antigens. When activated, B cells can also function as APCs and present antigens on their MHC class II molecules to CD4+ T cells.

The interaction between APCs and T cells is critical for the development of an effective immune response against pathogens or other foreign substances. This process helps ensure that the immune system can recognize and eliminate threats while minimizing damage to healthy tissues.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is a type of protein belonging to the family of Toll-like receptors, which play a crucial role in the innate immune system. TLR9 is primarily expressed on the endosomal membranes of various immune cells, including dendritic cells, B cells, and macrophages. It recognizes specific molecular patterns, particularly unmethylated CpG DNA motifs, which are commonly found in bacterial and viral genomes but are underrepresented in vertebrate DNA.

Upon recognition and binding to its ligands, TLR9 initiates a signaling cascade that activates various transcription factors, such as NF-κB and IRF7, leading to the production of proinflammatory cytokines, type I interferons, and the activation of adaptive immune responses. This process is essential for the clearance of pathogens and the development of immunity against them. Dysregulation of TLR9 signaling has been implicated in several autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are immature, self-renewing cells that give rise to all the mature blood and immune cells in the body. They are capable of both producing more hematopoietic stem cells (self-renewal) and differentiating into early progenitor cells that eventually develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. HSCs are found in the bone marrow, umbilical cord blood, and peripheral blood. They have the ability to repair damaged tissues and offer significant therapeutic potential for treating various diseases, including hematological disorders, genetic diseases, and cancer.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) gamma chains are the heavy, constant region proteins found in IgG immunoglobulins, which are a type of antibody. These gamma chains are composed of four subunits - two heavy chains and two light chains - and play a crucial role in the immune response by recognizing and binding to specific antigens, such as pathogens or foreign substances.

IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human serum and provides long-term immunity against bacterial and viral infections. The gamma chains contain a region that binds to Fc receptors found on various immune cells, which facilitates the destruction of pathogens or foreign substances. Additionally, IgG can cross the placenta, providing passive immunity to the fetus.

Abnormalities in the production or function of IgG gamma chains can lead to various immunodeficiency disorders, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia, which is characterized by a lack of functional B cells and low levels of IgG antibodies.

Pre-B cell receptors (pre-BCRs) are multi-protein complexes found on the surface of developing B cells, or lymphocytes, in the bone marrow. They play a critical role in the early stages of B cell development and maturation.

Pre-BCRs consist of a membrane-bound immunoglobulin M (IgM) molecule, called the surrogate light chain, which is non-covalently associated with a heterodimer of two signaling chains, λ5 and Igα/Igβ. The pre-BCR is assembled after the successful rearrangement of the heavy chain gene segments during B cell development.

The primary function of pre-BCRs is to initiate a signaling cascade that triggers further genetic rearrangements, known as light chain gene rearrangements, and ensures the proper assembly of complete IgM molecules on the surface of mature B cells. Pre-BCR signaling also contributes to the selection and survival of developing B cells, helping to maintain a diverse and functional repertoire of B cell receptors (BCRs) in the immune system.

Dysregulation or abnormalities in pre-BCR function can lead to various B cell developmental disorders and malignancies, such as leukemias and lymphomas.

Nitrophenols are organic compounds that contain a hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to a phenyl ring (aromatic hydrocarbon) and one or more nitro groups (-NO2). They have the general structure R-C6H4-NO2, where R represents the hydroxyl group.

Nitrophenols are known for their distinctive yellow to brown color and can be found in various natural sources such as plants and microorganisms. Some common nitrophenols include:

* p-Nitrophenol (4-nitrophenol)
* o-Nitrophenol (2-nitrophenol)
* m-Nitrophenol (3-nitrophenol)

These compounds are used in various industrial applications, including dyes, pharmaceuticals, and agrochemicals. However, they can also be harmful to human health and the environment, as some nitrophenols have been identified as potential environmental pollutants and may pose risks to human health upon exposure.

Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is a medical procedure in which damaged or destroyed bone marrow is replaced with healthy bone marrow from a donor. Bone marrow is the spongy tissue inside bones that produces blood cells. The main types of BMT are autologous, allogeneic, and umbilical cord blood transplantation.

In autologous BMT, the patient's own bone marrow is used for the transplant. This type of BMT is often used in patients with lymphoma or multiple myeloma who have undergone high-dose chemotherapy or radiation therapy to destroy their cancerous bone marrow.

In allogeneic BMT, bone marrow from a genetically matched donor is used for the transplant. This type of BMT is often used in patients with leukemia, lymphoma, or other blood disorders who have failed other treatments.

Umbilical cord blood transplantation involves using stem cells from umbilical cord blood as a source of healthy bone marrow. This type of BMT is often used in children and adults who do not have a matched donor for allogeneic BMT.

The process of BMT typically involves several steps, including harvesting the bone marrow or stem cells from the donor, conditioning the patient's body to receive the new bone marrow or stem cells, transplanting the new bone marrow or stem cells into the patient's body, and monitoring the patient for signs of engraftment and complications.

BMT is a complex and potentially risky procedure that requires careful planning, preparation, and follow-up care. However, it can be a life-saving treatment for many patients with blood disorders or cancer.

HHV8-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, NOS (HHV8+ DLBCL, NOS; also termed HHV8-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma [ ... Germinal center B-cell like diffuse large B-cell lymphoma "A clinical evaluation of the International Lymphoma Study Group ... Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma (PMBL), also termed primary mediastinal (thymic) large B-cell lymphoma, is a DLBCL in ... Epstein-Barr virus-positive diffuse large B cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified (EBV+ DLBCL, NOS) is a B-cell lymphoma in ...
... (PT-DLBCL), also termed testicular diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and diffuse ... large B-cell lymphoma of the testes, is a variant of the diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCL). DLBCL are a large and diverse ... extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma, extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type, peripheral T-cell lymphoma, activin ... rather than germinal center B-cell, i.e. GBC, variants of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified (see variants ...
... (FA-DLBCL) is an extremely rare form of the diffuse large B-cell lymphomas ( ... "Fibrin-associated EBV-positive Large B-Cell Lymphoma: An Indolent Neoplasm With Features Distinct From Diffuse Large B-Cell ... DLBCL have various forms as exemplified by one of its subtypes, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma associated with chronic ... Boroumand N, Ly TL, Sonstein J, Medeiros LJ (July 2012). "Microscopic diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) occurring in ...
"Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Arising within Ileal Neobladder: An Expanding Spectrum of Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma ... Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma associated with chronic inflammation (DLBCL-CI) is a subtype of the Diffuse large B-cell ... EBV+ Burkitt lymphoma, EBV+ Hodgkin lymphoma, and the EBV+ diffuse large B-cell lymphomas which include as a subtype, DLBCL-CI ... "Fibrin-associated EBV-positive Large B-Cell Lymphoma: An Indolent Neoplasm With Features Distinct From Diffuse Large B-Cell ...
LT termed primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, other (PCDLBC-O). PCDLBCL, LT is a subtype of the diffuse large B- ... Intravascular large B-cell lymphoma differs from PCDLBCL, LT in that involved tissues contain large, neoplastic B-cells that ... intravascular large B-cell lymphoma (IVLBCL). These three B-cell lymphomas differ from PCDLBCL, LT in numerous ways but most ... "Advances in Diagnosis and Management of Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma". Clinical Lymphoma, Myeloma & Leukemia. 17 (12): 783-796 ...
Flowers, C. R.; Sinha, R.; Vose, J. M. (2010). "Improving Outcomes for Patients with Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma". CA: A ... Gene expression profiling has revealed that diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is composed of at least 3 different sub- ... 2008). "Molecular subtypes of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma arise by distinct genetic pathways". Proceedings of the National ... March 2009). "Interaction between BCL2 and interleukin-10 gene polymorphisms alter outcomes of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma ...
... (also termed: EBV positive diffuse large B ... Adam P, Bonzheim I, Fend F, Quintanilla-Martínez L (2011). "Epstein-Barr virus-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphomas of the ... Ok CY, Papathomas TG, Medeiros LJ, Young KH (2013). "EBV-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the elderly". Blood. 122 (3 ... one with monotonous large cells, the other with numerous cell sizes as well as reactive cells, but different clinical behavior ...
... diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) and peripheral T-cell lymphoma. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma ... The most common types of high grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma are: Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a type of high-grade NHL ... Two promising immunotherapy approaches against diffuse large B-cell lymphoma are chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy ... have impacted significantly and favorably on the prognosis of aggressive B cell lymphomas such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma ...
Li S, Young KH, Medeiros LJ (January 2018). "Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma". Pathology. 50 (1): 74-87. doi:10.1016/j.pathol. ... They are derived from B cells. Immunoblasts are distinguished from centroblasts by being B cell-derived lymphoid cells that ... Morphologically, centroblasts are large lymphoid cells containing a moderate amount of cytoplasm, round to oval vesicular (i.e ... B cells begin expressing CD27 at the beginning of the centroblast stage and lose the cell marker after differentiating into ...
Burkitt lymphoma; large B cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified; diffuse large B cell lymphoma associated with chronic ... large B-cell lymphoma ALK+ large B-cell lymphoma Plasmablastic lymphoma Primary effusion lymphoma Large B-cell lymphoma arising ... Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma associated with chronic inflammation Epstein-Barr virus positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, ... fibrin-associated diffuse large B cell lymphoma; primary effusion lymphoma; plasmablastic lymphoma; extranodal NK/T cell ...
"Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in Dilma". O Globo (in Portuguese). 25 April 2009. Retrieved 1 November 2010. "Lula diz que vinha ... It was diagnosed as a diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, an intermediate-grade type, but her chances of being cured were up to 90 ... Even with large amounts of money, the organization failed to maintain its unity. At a conference held in Teresópolis between ... There were many people from Minas Gerais in the Rio de Janeiro cell of Colina (including now-former Belo Horizonte mayor ...
... (PEL) is classified as a diffuse large B cell lymphoma. It is a rare malignancy of plasmablastic ... Sukswai N, Lyapichev K, Khoury JD, Medeiros LJ (January 2020). "Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma variants: an update". Pathology. ... other malignant cells that have the morphology of anaplastic cells (i.e., large pleomorphic cells) or the Reed-Sternberg cells ... 2016 as a KSHV/HHV8-positive and KSHV/HHV8-driven large B-cell lymphoma. This lymphoma also belongs to a group of lymphoid ...
... (PCNSL), also termed primary diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the central nervous ... Most PCNSLs are diffuse large B cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Surgical resection is usually ineffective because of the depth of ... Sukswai N, Lyapichev K, Khoury JD, Medeiros LJ (January 2020). "Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma variants: an update". Pathology. ... It is a subtype and one of the most aggressive of the diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. PCNSLs represent around 20% of all cases ...
Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma and Related Diseases". Williams hematology (online) (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978- ... large B cell lymphomas. These are a rare subtype of Non-Hodgkins lymphoma, although by the activity of genes and occasionally ... CD8 positive T cell; a T cell receptor that binds mostly to MHC class II tends to produce a CD4 positive T cell. T cells that ... Dabrowska-Iwanicka A, Walewski JA (September 2014). "Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma". Current Hematologic Malignancy ...
Epstein-Barr virus-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphomas, not otherwise specified, diffuse large B-cell lymphomas associated ... fibrin-associated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and intravascular NK/T cell lymphomas. It also appears to cause some cases of ... "Fibrin-associated EBV-positive Large B-Cell Lymphoma: An Indolent Neoplasm With Features Distinct From Diffuse Large B-Cell ... Sukswai N, Lyapichev K, Khoury JD, Medeiros LJ (January 2020). "Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma variants: an update". Pathology. ...
Polivy (polatuzumab vedotin), for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Protropin (somatrem), for growth hormone deficiency, later ... MabThera (rituximab), for B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (and other haematological malignancies), non-Hodgkin lymphomas ... In 1976, an accident at a chemical factory in Seveso, Italy, owned by a subsidiary of Roche, caused a large dioxin ... By the early 1990s, Roche Biomedical became one of the largest clinical laboratory networks in the United States, with 20 major ...
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma Primary mediastinal (thymic) large B cell lymphoma Johnson PW, Davies AJ (2008). "Primary ... PMBL is generally considered a sub-type of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, although it is also closely related to nodular ... It is a subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma; however, it generally has a significantly better prognosis. Diagnosis ... Primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, abbreviated PMBL, is a rare type of lymphoma that forms in the mediastinum (the space in ...
"FDA approves polatuzumab vedotin-piiq for previously untreated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified, and high ... "FDA approves first chemoimmunotherapy regimen for patients with relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma" (Press ... January 2022). "Polatuzumab Vedotin in Previously Untreated Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma". The New England Journal of Medicine ... for untreated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). In April 2023, the FDA approved polatuzumab vedotin in combination with ...
Liggins AP, Brown PJ, Asker K, Pulford K, Banham AH (Jun 2004). "A novel diffuse large B-cell lymphoma-associated cancer testis ... Liggins AP, Guinn BA, Hatton CS, Pulford K, Banham AH (May 2004). "Serologic detection of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma- ... 2001). "Systematic subcellular localization of novel proteins identified by large-scale cDNA sequencing". EMBO Rep. 1 (3): 287- ... 2006). "Diversification of transcriptional modulation: large-scale identification and characterization of putative alternative ...
March 2008). "Oncogenic CARD11 mutations in human diffuse large B cell lymphoma". Science. 319 (5870): 1676-9. Bibcode:2008Sci ... Gain-of-function mutations in CARD11 can result in B-cell lymphoma or BENTA. Gain-of-function mutations in CARD14 results in ... "CC Protein Domain , Coiled Coil , Cell Signaling Technology". www.cellsignal.com. Retrieved 2020-02-01. Scudiero I, Vito P, ... January 2015). "Germline CARD11 Mutation in a Patient with Severe Congenital B Cell Lymphocytosis". Journal of Clinical ...
Jung I, Aguiar RC (Jan 2009). "MicroRNA-155 expression and outcome in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma". British Journal of ... primary mediastinal and diffuse large B cell lymphomas". The Journal of Pathology. 207 (2): 243-249. doi:10.1002/path.1825. ... "Coordinated expression of microRNA-155 and predicted target genes in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma". Cancer Genetics and ... leukemic cells to healthy B cells and promote their transformation to tumorigenic-like cells Selection of competent B cells ...
"Orbital signet-ring cell lymphoma of diffuse, large, B-cell type". Can J Ophthalmol. 48 (6): e156-8. doi:10.1016/j.jcjo.2013.08 ... "Ocular adnexal diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: a multicenter international study". JAMA Ophthalmol. 133 (2): 165-73. doi:10.1001 ... Rao R, Honavar SG, Mulay K, Reddy VAP (2018). "Eye salvage in diffuse anterior retinoblastoma using systemic chemotherapy with ... Mulay K, Narula R, Honavar SG (2015). "Primary vitreoretinal lymphoma". Indian J Ophthalmol. 63 (3): 180-6. doi:10.4103/0301- ...
January 2010). "Chronic active B-cell-receptor signalling in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma". Nature. 463 (7277): 88-92. Bibcode ... The B-cell receptor (BCR) is a transmembrane protein on the surface of a B cell. A B-cell receptor is composed of a membrane- ... Pre-B cells that do not generate any Ig molecule normally carry both Ig-α and Ig-β to the cell surface. Heterodimers may exist ... After the recombination of the D and J regions, the cell is now referred to as a "late pro-B" cell and the short DJ region can ...
"Follicular dendritic cell sarcoma mimicking diffuse large cell lymphoma: A case report". American Journal of Hematology. 55 (3 ... Cyclophosphamide slows or stops cell growth. It targets cells that are rapidly dividing, which include cancer cells that are ... follicular lymphoma, nodular lymphocyte predominate Hodgkin's disease and angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma. Despite finally ... FDC cells are large, contain two nuclei, and form clusters with lymphocytes making them difficult to distinguish in staining. ...
"Chronic active B-cell-receptor signalling in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma". Nature. 463 (7277): 88-92. Bibcode:2010Natur.463 ... CD79 serves to be a pan-B cell marker for the detection of B-cell neoplasms. However, tumor cells in some cases of T- ... expressed by B-cell and plasma cell precursors is a candidate that induces apoptosis as well as inhibition of B-cell receptor ( ... poor B-cell repertoire or reduced strength of BCR signaling. Activation of the BCR with T-cell-dependent (TD) or TI antigens ...
... diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, splenic marginal zone ... 2011). "Analysis of the coding genome of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma". Nat Genet. 43 (9): 830-837. doi:10.1038/ng.892. PMC ... Cell 2015 May; doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.04.034 Chan, J. M.; Carlsson, G.; Rabadan, R. (2013). "Topology of viral evolution". ... 2011). "Inactivating mutations of acetyltransferase genes in B-cell lymphoma". Nature. 471 (7337): 189-195. Bibcode:2011Natur. ...
... anaplastic lymphoma kinase-positive large B-cell lymphoma; and human herpesvirus 8-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not ... The plasmablastic cells in B-cell lymphomas, including diffuse B-cell lymphomas, chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic ... which they termed plasmablastic lymphoma, that had some features of a diffuse large B-cell lymphoma but unlike this lymphoma ... In 2008, the World Health Organization recognized this lymphoma as a variant of the diffuse large cell lymphomas. Subsequent to ...
"Distinct types of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma identified by gene expression profiling". Nature. 403 (6769): 503-511. Bibcode: ... and discovery of tumor subtypes in diffuse large B cell lymphoma (with Ash Alizadeh and Louis Staudt). His more recent research ... "Comprehensive Identification of Cell Cycle-regulated Genes of the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae by Microarray Hybridization". ... Molecular Biology of the Cell. 9 (12): 3273-97. doi:10.1091/mbc.9.12.3273. PMC 25624. PMID 9843569. Harmon, Amy; Henry Fountain ...
Bendamustine/rituximab in relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma - ASCO 2010; Abstract 8041 ; A phase 2, open- ... suppresses translation of cyclin D1 in mantle cell lymphoma cells, Blood, 1 October 2007, Vol. 110, No. 7, pp. 2667-2673 ; ... A Phase 2 Trial of Immunotherapy With Mitumprotimut-T (Id-KLH) and GM-CSF Following Rituximab in Follicular B-cell Lymphoma - ... open-label study of pralatrexate in patients with aggressive relapsed or refractory b-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL): Study ...
... has been implicated as an oncogene in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). Specifically, genomic locus containing this ... October 2018). "Genome-wide discovery of somatic regulatory variants in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma". Nature Communications. ... "Entrez Gene: NFKBIZ nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B-cells inhibitor, zeta". Nogai H, Wenzel SS, ... IκBζ is required for expression of the SASP CCL2 (MCP1) cytokine, which recruits macrophages to remove cancer cells. The ...
"FDA grants accelerated approval to tafasitamab-cxix for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma". FDA.gov. 2020-08-03. Retrieved 2021-04- ... in Combination with Lenalidomide for the Treatment of Adult Patients with Relapsed or Refractory Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma ... the FDA for tafasitamab in combination with lenalidomide for the treatment of relapsed/refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma ... with lenalidomide for the medical treatment of adult patients with relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL ...
HHV8-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, NOS (HHV8+ DLBCL, NOS; also termed HHV8-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma [ ... Germinal center B-cell like diffuse large B-cell lymphoma "A clinical evaluation of the International Lymphoma Study Group ... Primary mediastinal large B-cell lymphoma (PMBL), also termed primary mediastinal (thymic) large B-cell lymphoma, is a DLBCL in ... Epstein-Barr virus-positive diffuse large B cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified (EBV+ DLBCL, NOS) is a B-cell lymphoma in ...
... is the most common lymphoma, representing 31% of the non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHLs), and it is rapidly fatal if untreated. The ... Diffuse large cell lymphoma (see the image below) ... Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL)) and Diffuse Large B-Cell ... DLBCL is designated under the REAL classification as classic diffuse large cell lymphoma of B-cell origin. Lymphomas of T-cell ... are expressed consistently in diffuse large cell lymphoma. Activation antigens are variably expressed by diffuse large B-cell ...
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), a cancer that affects certain white blood cells called B cells, is the most common type ... Lance Leopold: DLBCL is a fast-growing cancer that affects white blood cells known as B cells. B cells normally help the immune ... However, in DLBCL, abnormal B cells become cancerous. This means that they multiply uncontrollably and live longer than normal ... Blood cancers fall into one of several categories, including leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma, and myeloproliferative disorders. ...
... and a large proportion of patients are either unresponsive or develop resistance towards R-CHOP-the standard treatment regimen. ... Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is an aggressive cancer of lymphocytes, ... Of them, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common Non-Hodgkins lymphoma and is highly aggressive and fast- ... Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is an aggressive cancer of lymphocytes, and a large proportion of patients are either ...
... that are mutated in Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL). Our studies leverage the expertise in the molecular modeling of the ... UPS in the pathogenesis of DLBCL utilizing mouse models, patient derived xenotransplant (PDX) and cell lines. Our goal is the ... B-Cells are cells in the immune system that help protect the body from infections and other diseases. B-Cell lymphoma is a type ... that are mutated in Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL). Our studies leverage the expertise in the molecular modeling of the ...
Nick, Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Survivor. I will begin my story when I was 28-years-old - its the age when I found out my ... I was diagnosed with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and I was told that I needed to start treatment immediately. Before ... Nick, Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Survivor. Home » Nick, Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Survivor ... The Lymphoma Research Foundations mission is to eradicate lymphoma and serve those impacted by this blood cancer. ...
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system, part of the bodys immune system. Learn about DLBCLs ... all cancers we treat > non-hodgkin lymphoma > types > diffuse large b-cell lymphoma>Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma ... Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic ... Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). This page was reviewed under our medical and editorial policy by ...
T-cells present) in June of this year. ... with Non-hodgkins Stage 2 diffuse large B-cell lymphoma ( ... My brother-in-law was diagnosed with Non-hodgkins Stage 2 diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (T-cells present) in June of this year ... I was dx in 8/2004 with large B cell lymphoma and I went through the R-chop treatment with rd-the tumor I had was squeezing my ... I thought I was doing fine, but the other doctor that I went wanted to set me up to get a stem cell transplant to give me a new ...
... and Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) Accepted for FDA Priority Review - read this article along with other careers ... Odronextamab BLA for Treatment of Relapsed/Refractory Follicular Lymphoma (FL) ... Odronextamab BLA for Treatment of Relapsed/Refractory Follicular Lymphoma (FL) and Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL) ... follicular lymphoma (FL) or R/R diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), who have progressed after at least two prior systemic ...
Researchers interested in Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, Diffuse ... Lymphoma, Large-Cell, Immunoblastic. *Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, ... Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, Diffuse. *. Markus Müschen, MD, PhD. Arthur H. and Isabel Bunker Professor of Medicine (Hematology) and ... Leukemia, Large Granular Lymphocytic. *Precursor Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia-Lymphoma. *Precursor T-Cell Lymphoblastic Leukemia ...
I have Diffuse. Hi Sarah,. I have Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma. I was diagnosed last July when they removed the tumor the size ... My dad was diagnosed with diffused large B cell lymphoma in oct of this year. He is set for 6 chemo treatments with radiation ... As it happens, I was diagnosed in July with diffuse, large, B-Cell lymphoma, aggressive, stage 4 (DLBCL-4-7/10). That means ... As it happens, I was diagnosed in July with diffuse, large, B-Cell lymphoma, aggressive, stage 4 (DLBCL-4-7/10). That means ...
This free online CME program takes a deep look into Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and provides insights that will lead ... Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL): Therapeutic Updates and Best Practices. Cost: Free ... and diagnosis of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). *Describe the most approaches to DLBCL management and apply them to ...
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration Approves Polatuzumab Vedotin-piiq (Polivy) for Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. ... for adult patients who have previously untreated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), not otherwise specified (NOS), or high- ... Home » News » The U.S. Food and Drug Administration Approves Polatuzumab Vedotin-piiq (Polivy) for Diffuse Large B-Cell ... Home » News » The U.S. Food and Drug Administration Approves Polatuzumab Vedotin-piiq (Polivy) for Diffuse Large B-Cell ...
Treatment recommendations for patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) begin with evaluating the extent of the ... Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma) Treatment Protocols * Sections Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin ... Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma) Treatment Protocols) and Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin ... Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma) Treatment Protocols Updated: Jul 20, 2023 ...
Favezelimabis under clinical development by Merck and currently in Phase II for Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. ... diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma, primary mediastinal b-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, ... Premium Insights Likelihood of Approval and Phase Transition Success Rate Model - Favezelimab in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma ... Favezelimab is under clinical development by Merck and currently in Phase II for Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. According to ...
Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Discovered following Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Case Report and Literature Review Case Rep Orthop ... Herein, we describe the case of a 76-year-old man who developed diffuse large B cell lymphoma in the tibia 3 years after total ... Primary Gastrointestinal Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma Presenting with Cold Agglutinin Disease Case Rep Gastroenterol (May,2011 ... Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma Complicating Total Knee Arthroplasty: Case Report and Literature Review of the Association of ...
Major Highlights of Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma/ Large B-cell lymphoma (LBCL) in ASH 2021 Dec 23, 2021 , Reading Time: 3 ... Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma/ Large B-cell lymphoma (LBCL) Highlights: ASH 2021. Key pharma companies involved in presenting ... Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma Market Insight, Epidemiology and Market Forecast -2030 ... Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma Market Insight, Epidemiology and Market Forecast -2030 ...
R-GCVP Regimen for Patients With Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma and Cardiac Comorbidity. By Charlotte Bath. March 1, 2014. ... For patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) who are unable to receive anthracycline-containing chemoimmunotherapy ...
Return to Article Details Primary diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of the mandible Download Download PDF ...
Detection and outcome of occult leptomeningeal disease in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and Burkitt lymphoma. Haematologica. ... A multicentre study of primary breast diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in the rituximab era. Br J Haematol. 2014; 165(3):358-363. ... Ghose A, Kundu R, Latif T. Prophylactic CNS directed therapy in systemic diffuse large B cell lymphoma. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. ... Siegal T, Goldschmidt N. CNS prophylaxis in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: If, when, how and for whom?. Blood Rev. 2012; 26(3): ...
... immunoglobulin somatic mutation in germinal center B cell-like but not in activated B cell-like diffuse large cell lymphomas. ... Bcl-6 and Bcl-2 protein expression in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and follicular lymphoma: correlation with 3q27 and 18q21 ... Immunophenotypic and genotypic markers of follicular center cell neoplasia in diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. Mod. Pathol. ... Purpose: In search for subgroups of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) with different histogenetic origin and prognosis, as ...
The Food and Drug Administration has granted accelerated approval to epcoritamab-bysp for relapsed or refractory diffuse large ... approval to epcoritamab-bysp for relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and high-grade B-cell lymphoma. 22 May ... Among the 157 patients with relapsed or refractory large B-cell lymphoma who received epcoritamab-bysp at the recommended dose ... Administration has granted accelerated approval to epcoritamab-bysp for relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma ( ...
... immunohistochemical staining was performed for differential diagnosis of lymphoma. Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cells showing ... Case report: a case of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma presented by instantaneous enlargement in a known thyroid nodule and ... Case report: a case of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma presented by instantaneous enlargement in a known thyroid nodule and ... We introduce the case in order to emphasize that infiltration of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma should be recalled with ...
The rGel/BLyS fusion toxin inhibits diffuse large B-cell lymphoma growth in vitro and in vivo. Lyu MA, Rai D, Ahn KS, Sung B, ... The rGel/BLyS fusion toxin inhibits diffuse large B-cell lymphoma growth in vitro and in vivo ... The rGel/BLyS fusion toxin inhibits diffuse large B-cell lymphoma growth in vitro and in vivo. Neoplasia 12(5):366-375. doi: ...
Spontaneous regression of primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, leg type after biopsy ... Primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, leg type is an intermediate-to-aggressive subtype of B-cell lymphoma that ... Jimura N, Fujii K, Baba A, Higashi Y, Kanekura T. Spontaneous regression of a primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, ... Spontaneous regression of primary cutaneous diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, leg type with significant T-cell immune response. ...
Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a rather aggressive disease and the natural course of this lymphoma is very dismal. ... Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common type of non-Hodgkins lymphoma (NHL), accounting for approximately 30 ... Improved outcome for very elderly patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in the immunochemotherapy era. Leuk Lymphoma 53: ... Maintenance therapy in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Current Opinion in Oncology 24: 461-465, 2012. ...
Primary bone marrow diffuse large B-cell lymphoma affecting distal parts of the legs as a cause of persisting B symptoms. ...
... on 33 cases of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) to characterize tumor and immune cell architecture and correlate it to ... This is the first study to integrate tumor mutational profiling, cell of origin classification, and multiplexed immuno- ... we compared our results to IMC data from Hodgkin lymphoma, a cancer highly responsive to ICI, and observed differences in the ... phenotyping of the TME into a spatial analysis of DLBCL at the single-cell level. We demonstrate that, far from being ...
Large B-Cell, Diffuse" by people in this website by year, and whether "Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, Diffuse" was a major or minor ... Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, Diffuse*Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, Diffuse. *Diffuse, Large B-Cell, Lymphoma ... "Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, Diffuse" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH ( ... Below are the most recent publications written about "Lymphoma, Large B-Cell, Diffuse" by people in Profiles. ...
Cell-of-origin of diffuse large B-cell lymphomas determined by the Lymph2Cx assay: better prognostic indicator than Hans ... Diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCLs) are clinically heterogeneous and need a biomarker that can predict the outcome of ... To assess the prognostic significance of the cell-of-origin type for DLBCLs, we applied the Lymph2Cx assay using a NanoString ... The Lymph2Cx assay successfully classified 82 cases into three categories: activated B-cell (ABC), GCB, and unclassified types ...
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a cancer of B cells, a type of lymphocyte that is responsible for producing antibodies. (wikipedia.org)
  • Usually DLBCL arises from normal B cells, but it can also represent a malignant transformation of other types of lymphoma (particularly marginal zone lymphomas) or, in rare cases termed Richter's transformation, chronic lymphocytic leukemia. (wikipedia.org)
  • However, the usual treatment for most subtypes of DLBCL is chemotherapy combined with a monoclonal antibody drug that targets the disease's cancerous B-cells, usually rituximab. (wikipedia.org)
  • The World Health Organization, 2008, classification system defined more than a dozen subtypes, each of which was identified based on the location of the tumor, the presence of other cell types such as T cells in the tumor, and whether the patient had certain other illnesses related to DLBCL. (wikipedia.org)
  • Based on further research, the World Health Organization, 2016, reclassified DLBCL into its most common subtype, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified (DLBCL, NOS). (wikipedia.org)
  • DLBCL cases that do not fit the distinctive clinical presentation, tissue morphology, neoplastic cell phenotype, and/or pathogen-associated criteria of other DLBCL subtypes are termed Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified: DLBCL, NOS, while representing 80-85% of all DLBCL cases, is a diagnosis of exclusion. (wikipedia.org)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), a cancer that affects certain white blood cells called B cells, is the most common type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in adults worldwide. (incyte.com)
  • DLBCL is a fast-growing cancer that affects white blood cells known as B cells. (incyte.com)
  • However, in DLBCL, abnormal B cells become cancerous. (incyte.com)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is an aggressive cancer of lymphocytes, and a large proportion of patients are either unresponsive or develop resistance towards R-CHOP-the standard treatment regimen. (news-medical.net)
  • Of them, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common Non-Hodgkins lymphoma and is highly aggressive and fast-growing. (news-medical.net)
  • The goal of this proposal is to investigate the significance of genes of the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) that are mutated in Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL). (lls.org)
  • Our studies leverage the expertise in the molecular modeling of the UPS in the pathogenesis of DLBCL utilizing mouse models, patient derived xenotransplant (PDX) and cell lines. (lls.org)
  • I was diagnosed with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and I was told that I needed to start treatment immediately. (lymphoma.org)
  • The majority of non-Hodgkin lymphomas affect B cells, and this is true of DLBCL. (cancercenter.com)
  • DLBCL gets its name because the malignant B cells are larger than healthy B cells, and they are diffuse, meaning they don't clump together when seen under a microscope. (cancercenter.com)
  • While still rare, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma is the most common subtype of DLBCL. (cancercenter.com)
  • Like DLBCL, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma is a fast-growing tumor, but it tends to respond well to treatment. (cancercenter.com)
  • Doctors don't know exactly what causes DLBCL or other non-Hodgkin lymphomas. (cancercenter.com)
  • TARRYTOWN, N.Y., Sept. 29, 2023 (GLOBE NEWSWIRE) -- Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc. , (NASDAQ: REGN) today announced that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has accepted for Priority Review the Biologics License Application (BLA) for odronextamab to treat adult patients with relapsed/refractory (R/R) follicular lymphoma (FL) or R/R diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), who have progressed after at least two prior systemic therapies. (biospace.com)
  • FL and DLBCL are the two most common subtypes of B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (B-NHL). (biospace.com)
  • This free online CME program takes a deep look into Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and provides insights that will lead to better treatment for patients who suffer from the condition. (cmelist.com)
  • On April 19, 2023 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced it has approved polatuzumab vedotin-piiq (Polivy, Genentech, Inc.) with a rituximab product, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, and prednisone (R-CHP) for adult patients who have previously untreated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), not otherwise specified (NOS), or high-grade B-cell lymphoma (HGBL) and who have an International Prognostic Index (IPI) score of 2 or greater. (lymphoma.org)
  • Treatment recommendations for patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) begin with evaluating the extent of the disease, performance status of the patient, and histologic subtypes. (medscape.com)
  • Presented the data from Phase I clinical trial with YTB323 (autologous CD19-directed CAR-T cell therapy) in patients with R/R DLBCL. (delveinsight.com)
  • Several factors hinder the identification of risk factors for central nervous system (CNS) involvement in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), including the retrospective nature of most studies, the relatively low frequency of CNS relapse in DLBCL, and the heterogeneity of CNS prophylaxis methods used in these studies. (haematologica.org)
  • In search for subgroups of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) with different histogenetic origin and prognosis, as has been described by gene expression profiling, we examined tumor specimens from 125 patients with DLBCL, uniformly treated by either cyclophosphamideAdriamycin-vincristine-prednisone or methotrexate, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, and bleomycin in a multicenter trial set by the Nordic Lymphoma Group 1989-1994. (aacrjournals.org)
  • The Food and Drug Administration has granted accelerated approval to epcoritamab-bysp for relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) not otherwise specified, including DLBCL arising from indolent lymphoma, and high-grade B-cell lymphoma after two or more lines of systemic therapy. (ecancer.org)
  • The efficacy population consisted of 148 patients with relapsed or refractory DLBCL, not otherwise specified, including DLBCL arising from indolent lymphoma, and high-grade B-cell lymphoma after two or more lines of systemic therapy, including at least one anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody-containing therapy. (ecancer.org)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a rather aggressive disease and the natural course of this lymphoma is very dismal. (iiarjournals.org)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), accounting for approximately 30% of all new diagnoses ( 1 ). (iiarjournals.org)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most common type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma, with about 30% of new cases presenting with extranodal disease. (touro.edu)
  • To assess the prognostic significance of the cell-of-origin type for DLBCLs, we applied the Lymph2Cx assay using a NanoString gene expression platform on formalin-fixed paraffin wax-embedded pretreatment tissues obtained from 82 patients with de novo DLBCL, not otherwise specified. (qxmd.com)
  • EPKINLY is the first-and-only subcutaneous bispecific antibody for adult patients with relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), not otherwise specified (NOS), including DLBCL arising from indolent lymphoma, and high-grade B-cell lymphoma (HGBL) after 2 or more lines of systemic therapy. (epkinlyhcp.com)
  • The efficacy population includes 148 patients with DLBCL, NOS, including DLBCL arising from indolent lymphoma, and HGBL. (epkinlyhcp.com)
  • Diffuse large B cell Non Hodgkin lymphoma (DLBCL) is the most frequent subtype, accounts for 30%-40% of cases. (ipmj.org)
  • Assess the safety and toxicity of atezolizumab in combination with immunogenic chemotherapy (gemcitabine plus oxaliplatin) with rituximab (R-GEMOX-ATEZO) in patients with relapsed or refractory (rel/ref) transformed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), including determination of the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and the recommended phase II dose (RP2D) of R-GEMOX-ATEZO. (ucsd.edu)
  • METHODS: Using a large claims database of the German statutory health insurance with 6.7 million enrollees, we identified patients between 2010 and 2019 who were newly diagnosed with DLBCL (index date) and had no other cancer co-morbidity. (univie.ac.at)
  • As a widely recognized standard regimen, R-CHOP (rituximab plus cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone) is able to cure two-thirds patients with diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL), and t. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Epcoritamab-bysp (Epkinly - Genmab), a bispecific CD20-directed CD3 T-cell engager, has received accelerated approval from the FDA for subcutaneous treatment of relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), not otherwise. (medicalletter.org)
  • Rituximab treatment significantly improved the outcomes of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). (bvsalud.org)
  • Introduction: Epigenetic methylation has been implicated in the pathogenesis of diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL). (iium.edu.my)
  • Participants must have histologically or cytologically confirmed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), Ann Arbor Stage IIX (bulky), III or IV. (uci.edu)
  • Participants with DLBCL transformed from follicular lymphoma (FL) or marginal zone lymphoma (MZL, including mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue [MALT] lymphomas), lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (LPL), or nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin Lymphoma (NLPHL) are eligible. (uci.edu)
  • Systems for staging diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) are provided below, including the World Health Organization (WHO)/Revised European American Classification of Lymphoid Neoplasms (REAL) system[1, 2] and the Cotswolds modification of the Ann Arbor system. (medscape.com)
  • However, they are distinct subtypes of DLBCL on the basis of the cell of origin and represent distinct variants of DLBCL, with different biologies and clinical prognoses. (medscape.com)
  • Favezelimab (MK-4280) is under development for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer, colorectal cancer, gastric cancer and hematologic malignancies includes classical Hodgkin lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, indolent non-Hodgkin lymphoma, primary mediastinal b-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, marginal zone b-cell lymphoma, waldenstrom macroglobulinemia (lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma), chronic lymphocytic leukemia and advanced solid tumors. (pharmaceutical-technology.com)
  • We found that predominantly germinal center (GC)-derived B-cells showed multiple associations with ADs: diffuse large B cell lymphoma associated with 15 ADs, follicular lymphoma with 7 ADs and Hodgkin lymphoma with 11 ADs. (lu.se)
  • Ganapathi M, Lake DN, Griffiths AP: Periprosthetic high-grade B-cell lymphoma complicating an infected revision total hip arthroplasty. (karger.com)
  • On the other hand, Primary thyroid lymphoma (PTL) is a rare entity accounting for only about 1% to 5% of all thyroid malignancies and only 2% of extranodal lymphomas. (aku.edu)
  • It is the most common form of non-Hodgkin lymphoma among adults, with an annual incidence of 7-8 cases per 100,000 people per year in the US and UK. (wikipedia.org)
  • The LLS mission: Cure leukemia, lymphoma, Hodgkin disease and myeloma, and improve the quality of life of patients and their families. (lls.org)
  • CD19 and CD20 are commonly found on non-Hodgkin?s B-cell lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • A phase 1b/2, open-label, multinational, interventional trial to evaluate the safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics (PK), pharmacodynamics/biomarkers, immunogenicity, and preliminary efficacy of epcoritamab (EPKINLYâ„¢) in combination with other standard of care (SOC) agents in participants with B-cell Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (B-NHL). (researcherprofiles.org)
  • New Approaches for Diffuse Large B cell Non Hodgkin Lymphoma Management Strategy', Iraqi Postgraduate Medical Journal , 21(2), pp. 131-133. (ipmj.org)
  • T cell lymphomas (TCL) comprise a heterogeneous group of non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL) that often present at an advanced stage at the time of diagnosis and that most commonly have an aggressive clinical course. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) represents a heterogeneous group of malignancies of different biology and prognosis. (medscape.com)
  • In this report, we describe the first 2 reported cases of HNL following non-Hodgkin{\textquoteright}s lymphomas. (elsevierpure.com)
  • 0 non-Hodgkin lymphoma--form a cers can be treated with similar distinct cluster, probably because therapies. (lu.se)
  • Tumors include Ewing sarcoma (EWS), neu- while Ewing sarcomas are aggres- roblastoma (NB), rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) and Burkitt lym- rently used in tumor diagnosis do sive enough to warrant treatment phomas (BL, subset of non-Hodgkin lymphoma). (lu.se)
  • Radhi JM, Ibrahiem K, al-Tweigeri TJ: Soft tissue malignant lymphoma at sites of previous surgery. (karger.com)
  • Ito H, Shimizu A: Malignant lymphoma at the site of a total hip replacement. (karger.com)
  • Malignant lymphoma composed of large B lymphoid cells whose nuclear size can exceed normal macrophage nuclei, or more than twice the size of a normal lymphocyte. (sdsu.edu)
  • Histiocytic necrotizing lymphadenitis (HNL) is often mistaken for malignant lymphoma clinically and is also sometimes difficult to differentiate from lymphoma even histopathologically. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Axicabtagene Ciloleucel CAR T-Cell Therapy in Refractory Large B-Cell Lymphoma. (ipmj.org)
  • Several studies 10 7 5 4 and a recent meta-analysis 1 have described a decrease in rates of CNS relapse in the post-rituximab era (probably due to improved control of systemic lymphoma), in addition to a change in the pattern of CNS relapse, with predominance of parenchymal over leptomeningeal relapse, isolated over combined (systemic plus CNS) relapses, and delayed CNS relapses. (haematologica.org)
  • This phase I trial studies the side effect and best dose of ibrutinib in combination with rituximab, etoposide, prednisone, vincristine sulfate, cyclophosphamide, and doxorubicin hydrochloride in treating patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive stage II-IV diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Monoclonal antibodies, such as rituximab, may interfere with the ability of cancer cells to grow and spread. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Salvage Regimens With Autologous Transplantation for Relapsed Large B-Cell Lymphoma in the Rituximab Era. (ipmj.org)
  • Concurrent Expression of MYC and BCL2 in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Treated With Rituximab Plus Cyclophosphamide, Doxorubicin, Vincristine, and Prednisone. (ipmj.org)
  • This pilot phase I trial studies the side effects of atezolizumab, gemcitabine, oxaliplatin, and rituximab and to see how well they work in treating patients with transformed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma that has come back (relapsed) or does not respond to treatment (refractory). (ucsd.edu)
  • Giving atezolizumab, gemcitabine, oxaliplatin, and rituximab may work better in treating patients with transformed diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. (ucsd.edu)
  • Rituximab plus CHOP for treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma during second trimester of pregnancy. (ox.ac.uk)
  • This phase II/III trial compares the side effects and activity of oral azacitidine in combination with the standard drug therapy (reduced dose rituximab-cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone [R-miniCHOP]) versus R-miniCHOP alone in treating patients 75 years or older with newly diagnosed diffuse large B cell lymphoma . (uci.edu)
  • R-miniCHOP includes a monoclonal antibody (a type of protein), called rituximab, which attaches to the lymphoma cells and may help the immune system kill these cells. (uci.edu)
  • Evidence-based recommendations on polatuzumab vedotin (Polivy) with rituximab, cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin and prednisolone for untreated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in adults. (bvsalud.org)
  • By contrast, primarily non-GC neoplasms, acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia and myeloma associated with 2 ADs only and mantle cell lymphoma with 1 AD. (lu.se)
  • HIV), and the Helicobacter pylori bacterium are also associated with the development of certain subtypes of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. (wikipedia.org)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma encompasses a biologically and clinically diverse set of disease subtypes, many of which are difficult to separate from one another based on well-defined and widely accepted criteria. (wikipedia.org)
  • The authors used artificial neural croarrays is to study changes in gene ex- .nature organ the tumor arose from, how big it networks (ANNs) to identify gene-ex- pression that accompany changes in is, and what it looks like after it has pression signatures associated with spe- cell physiology, such as during develop- been imbedded in wax and colored cific subtypes of tumors. (lu.se)
  • They are classified as Hodgkins and Non-Hodgkins lymphomas on the basis of the cell of origin and clinical characteristics. (news-medical.net)
  • I endured two years of treatments ranging from chemotherapy, immunotherapy, autologous stem-cell transplant, more chemotherapy, and various failed clinical trials. (lymphoma.org)
  • Regeneron is also initiating a broad Phase 3 development program to investigate odronextamab in earlier lines of therapy and other B-NHLs, representing one of the largest clinical programs in lymphoma. (biospace.com)
  • Favezelimab is under clinical development by Merck and currently in Phase II for Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. (pharmaceutical-technology.com)
  • The Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Classification Project NHLCP .A Clinical Evaluation of the International Lymphoma Study Group Classification of Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma. (ipmj.org)
  • Prognostic Significance of MYC Rearrangement and Translocation Partner in Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma: A Study by the Lunenburg Lymphoma Biomarker Consortium.Journal of Clinical Oncology 2019 37:35, 3359-3368. (ipmj.org)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: optimizing outcome in the context of clinical andbiologic heterogeneity. (medicalletter.org)
  • The National Cancer Institute's Working Formulation, originally proposed in 1982, classified and grouped lymphomas by morphology and clinical behavior (ie, low, intermediate, or high grade) with 10 subgroups labeled A to J. (medscape.com)
  • The 2008 WHO classification of lymphomas: implications for clinical practice and translational research. (medscape.com)
  • The 2015 Workshop on Immunodeficiency and Dysregulation, organized by the Society for Hematopathology (SH) and the European Association for Haematopathology (EAHP), brought together a large number of well-annotated cases from diverse clinical backgrounds and included 415 cases from 21 countries. (medscape.com)
  • 2. Clinical epidemiology - using data from the Swedish Lymphoma Registry to provide clinically useful real world data on treatment and prognosis, in many cases in collaboration with Nordic colleagues. (lu.se)
  • According to Revised European American Classification of Lymphoid Neoplasms, the diagnosis was diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • Within the B-cell and T-cell categories, two subdivisions are recognized: precursor neoplasms, which correspond to the earliest stages of differentiation, and more mature differentiated neoplasms. (medscape.com)
  • Autoimmune diseases (ADs) are associated with a number of B-cell neoplasms but the associations are selective in regard to the type of neoplasm and the conferred risks are variable. (lu.se)
  • We speculate that developmental origin of B-cells might propose a mechanistic rationale for their carcinogenic response to autoimmune stimuli and tested the hypothesis on our previous studies on the risks of B-cell neoplasms after any of 33 ADs. (lu.se)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCLs) are clinically heterogeneous and need a biomarker that can predict the outcome of treatments accurately. (qxmd.com)
  • As cytomorphological appearance was consistent with anaplastic carcinoma in ultrasonography-guided aspiration biopsies of thyroid nodule and lymphadenopathy, immunohistochemical staining was performed for differential diagnosis of lymphoma. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • These 2 types of lymphoma are not yet recognized by the WHO 2008 classification. (medscape.com)
  • Second-line chemotherapy regimens vary, depending on whether hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is being considered. (medscape.com)
  • New review article in Chinese Medical Journal details the potential mechanisms of resistance to the R-CHOP chemotherapy regimen in patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. (news-medical.net)
  • High-dose chemotherapy and stem cell transplant provide long-term benefits to only a small proportion of patients with R/R LBCL. (delveinsight.com)
  • This phase I trial studies the side effects and best dose of CD19/CD20 chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cells when given together with chemotherapy, and to see how effective they are in treating patients with non-Hodgkin's B-cell lymphoma or chronic lymphocytic leukemia that has come back (recurrent) or has not responded to treatment (refractory). (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Chemotherapy drugs such as fludarabine phosphate and cyclophosphamide can control cancer cells by killing them, by preventing their growth, or by stopping them from spreading. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Combining CD19/CD20 CAR-T cells and chemotherapy may help treat patients with recurrent or refractory B-cell lymphoma or chronic lymphocytic leukemia. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Drugs used in chemotherapy, such as etoposide, prednisone, vincristine sulfate, cyclophosphamide, and doxorubicin hydrochloride, work in different ways to stop the growth of cancer cells, either by killing the cells, by stopping them from dividing, or by stopping them from spreading. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Autologous Bone Marrow Transplantation as Compared with Salvage Chemotherapy in Relapses of Chemotherapy-Sensitive Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma. (ipmj.org)
  • Evaluate on-treatment changes in density of and proximity between immune cell subsets in the tumor microenvironment after immunogenic chemotherapy alone and R-GEMOX-ATEZO by multispectral immunofluorescence, including density of CD8+ cells and cytotoxic lymphocyte (CTL):regulatory T cell (Treg) ratio. (ucsd.edu)
  • A predictive model for aggressive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. (medscape.com)
  • The International Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Prognostic Factors Project. (medscape.com)
  • The diagnosis of diffuse large cell lymphoma is usually confirmed after positive findings are obtained from a lymph node biopsy specimen. (medscape.com)
  • 3 - 5 This report by the Spanish Lymphoma Group (GELTAMO) aims to provide useful guidelines and recommendations for the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of central nervous system diffuse large B-cell lymphoma patients with, or at risk of, leptomeningeal and/or brain parenchyma lymphoma relapse. (haematologica.org)
  • We introduce the case in order to emphasize that infiltration of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma should be recalled with instantaneous enlargement of nodules known to be benign previously, and when cytological specimen is uncertain, immunohistochemical staining should be performed for differential diagnosis. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • Diagnosis: Lymphoma Subjects with lymphoma must have progressed, had SD, or recurred after initial treatment regimens that include an anthracycline and an anti CD20 monoclonal antibody. (who.int)
  • Flow cytometry is an important methodology for the diagnosis of chronic B-cell lymphoproliferative diseases (B-CLPD), however, sometimes the cytometrist does not find sufficient elements for the exact definition of the pathological entity involved. (bvsalud.org)
  • Multiple Myeloma Multiple myeloma is a cancer of plasma cells that produce monoclonal immunoglobulin and invade and destroy adjacent bone tissue. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Osteosarcoma is the most common malignant primary bone tumor (if one considers myeloma a marrow cell tumor and not a primary bone tumor) and is highly malignant. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The pattern is predominantly diffuse. (sdsu.edu)
  • Lymphoma, a type of blood cancer, results from the uncontrolled proliferation of lymphocytes. (news-medical.net)
  • Lymphoma Australia is the only incorporated charity in Australia dedicated to solely providing education, support, awareness and advocacy initiatives for Australians touched by lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). (lymphoma.org.au)
  • The results emphasize that even though flow cytometry is important for the characterization of B-CLPD, sometimes the cytometrist needs to include the category "other chronic B-cell lymphoproliferative diseases not classified by flow cytometry" in the report to induce the prescriber to request additional complementary exams. (bvsalud.org)
  • The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society® (LLS) is a global leader in the fight against blood cancer. (lls.org)
  • The Leukemia & Lymphoma Society is a 501(c)(3) organization, and all monetary donations are tax deductible to the fullest extent allowed by tax laws. (lls.org)
  • Fourth-gen CAR T Cells Targeting CD19/CD22 for Highly Resistant B-cell Lymphoma/Leukemia (PMBCL/CNS-BCL). (who.int)
  • After my autologous stem-cell transplant had failed and I relapsed in less than 100 days, my doctors began prepping me to undergo an allogeneic stem-cell transplant. (lymphoma.org)
  • This may be secondary to a germinal center origin or attributable to increased apoptosis via induction of bax and/or enhanced T-cell interaction, resulting in improved autologous tumor response. (aacrjournals.org)
  • White blood cells or lymphocytes are the soldiers of our immune system that patrol the body via the lymphatic system. (news-medical.net)
  • The cancer starts in cells called lymphocytes, which are white blood cells that help the body fight off infections. (cancercenter.com)
  • Most of these lymphomas represent the malignant counterpart of B-lymphocytes at midstage in the process of differentiation. (sdsu.edu)
  • The affected lymph nodes showed the typical histology of HNL: irregular-shaped 'necrotic' foci with histiocytes engulfing apoptotic bodies intermingled with large-sized blastic lymphocytes. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The CARD11 gene provides instructions for making a protein involved in the function of immune system cells called lymphocytes, particularly certain types called T cells and B cells. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Burkitt lymphomas--a subset of EWS/RMS vs NB/BL lymphoma1. (lu.se)
  • Epcoritamab-bysp, a bispecific CD20-directed CD3 T-cell engager, was evaluated in EPCORE NHL-1 (NCT03625037), an open-label, multi-cohort, multicenter, single-arm trial in patients with relapsed or refractory B-cell lymphoma. (ecancer.org)
  • Loncastuximab tesirine in relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (LOTIS-2): a multicentre, open-label, single-arm, phase 2 trial. (nih.gov)
  • Tafasitamab plus lenalidomide in relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (L-MIND): a multicentre, prospective, single-arm, phase 2 study. (nih.gov)
  • Polatuzumab Vedotin in Relapsed or Refractory Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. (nih.gov)
  • Tisagenlecleucel in Adult Relapsed or Refractory Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma. (nih.gov)
  • The lumps, which aren't always painful, are caused by lymphoma cells filling the lymph nodes and making them swell. (cancercenter.com)
  • A panel of lymphoma experts working on behalf of GELTAMO reviewed all data published on these topics available in PubMed up to May 2016. (haematologica.org)
  • However, about 40% of the patients either develop resistance to therapy and respond poorly, while a large portion of those who initially respond well to the treatment eventually relapse. (news-medical.net)
  • However, KLHL6 has been identified as one of the most frequently mutated genes in patients with B-cell lymphoma suggesting that mutations in KLHL6 may be an important driver of B-cell lymphomas. (lls.org)
  • All together, this proposal will not only provide important biological insights into the understanding of how B-cell lymphomas develop, but will also assess the rational for "personalized therapy" of patients harboring mutations in KLHL6. (lls.org)
  • Polatuzumab vedotin-piiq is an innovative treatment that offers a new option for patients, and another reason for this community to maintain hope for the future," said Meghan Gutierrez, Chief Executive Officer of the Lymphoma Research Foundation. (lymphoma.org)
  • In addition to that, the company states that the introduction of CAR-T cell therapy has led to unprecedented efficacy results for patients facing limited treatment options. (delveinsight.com)
  • The most common grade 3 or 4 laboratory abnormalities reported in at least 10% of patients were decreased lymphocyte count, decreased neutrophil count, decreased white blood cell count, decreased hemoglobin, and decreased platelets. (ons.org)
  • Role of Radiation Therapy in Patients With Relapsed/Refractory Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma: Guidelines from the International Lymphoma Radiation Oncology Group. (nih.gov)
  • This phase Ib/II trial studies the side effects and efficacy of maintenance acalabrutinib following cellular therapy in treating patients with large B-cell lymphoma at very high risk of the cancer coming back. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • This phase II trial studies how well anakinra works in preventing severe chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-related encephalopathy syndrome after chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy in patients with large B-cell lymphoma that has come back or has not responded to treatment. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Polatuzumab vedotin in combination with immunochemotherapy in patients with previously untreated diffuse large B-cell lymphoma: an open-label, non-randomised, phase 1b-2 study. (ipmj.org)
  • 5.0% of the of the 2495 patients received a stem cell transplantation. (univie.ac.at)
  • The patients were 27- and 30-year-old women who developed cervical and axillary lymph node swellings, respectively, in the course of remission of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The area of research for our group is malignant lymphomas - all possible aspects, aiming for the improvement of the quality of life and survival of these patients. (lu.se)
  • Aggressive B-cell lymphomas in the update of the 4th edition of the World Health Organization classification of haematopoietic and lymphatic tissues: refinements of the classification, new entities and genetic findings. (ipmj.org)
  • This classification divides NHL into two groups: those of B-cell origin and those of T-cell/natural killer (NK)-cell origin. (medscape.com)
  • The WHO modification of the REAL classification of NHL is based on morphology and cell lineage. (medscape.com)
  • The architecture of the node is lost, with a diffuse pattern of involvement. (medscape.com)
  • Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy are performed as part of the staging process to help rule out involvement with lymphoma. (medscape.com)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma cells showing CD20 involvement were seen in cytological specimens. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • These findings mimicked the partial involvement of large-cell lymphoma. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Immunodeficiency-related lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs) form a heterogeneous group that ranges from self-limiting hyperplasias to aggressive lymphomas. (medscape.com)
  • B-Cell lymphoma is a type of blood cancer that occurs when B-cells start to divide faster than they should or live longer than they are supposed to leading to a dramatic increase in the number of B-cells in the body. (lls.org)
  • It binds to a protein called CD20, which is found on B cells (a type of white blood cell) and some types of cancer cells. (ucsd.edu)
  • Natural killer (NK) cell is a specialized immune effector cell type that plays a critical role in immune activation against abnormal cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • 0 blue-cell tumors (SRBCTs), which type, 41 (including 7 expressed often masquerade as each other. (lu.se)
  • What type of lymphoma you have? (lymphoma.org.au)
  • While normal thyrocytes were detected in thyroid gland, atypical lymphoid cells showing diffuse infiltration in thyroid tissue were observed in the nodule, which were stained diffuse, strongly positive for CD20 and BcL and negative for CD45 RO. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • In the lymph node, diffusely infiltrating atypical lymphoid cells with similar immunohistochemical staining properties were observed. (endocrine-abstracts.org)
  • It stimulates production of white blood cells & bone marrow so he can recieve the next chemo. (cancer.org)
  • Primary lymphoma of bone is extremely rare. (karger.com)
  • There are increasing reports of lymphoma arising in bone adjacent to metallic prostheses. (karger.com)
  • To our knowledge this is the first reported case of a primary lymphoma arising in bone adjacent to a knee prosthesis. (karger.com)
  • Lima FP, Bousquet M, Gomez-Brouchet A, de Paiva GR, Amstalden EM, Soares FA, Dastugue N, Vassallo J, Brousset P: Primary diffuse large B-cell lymphoma of bone displays preferential rearrangements of the c-MYC or BCL2 gene. (karger.com)
  • Hsieh TC, Kao CH, Yen KY, Sun SS: Osteomyelitis-mimicking primary bone lymphoma at hip prosthetic site. (karger.com)
  • Malignant giant cell tumor Primary malignant bone tumors are much less common than metastatic bone tumors, particularly in adults. (msdmanuals.com)
  • B cells normally help the immune system defend against infections caused by bacteria or viruses. (incyte.com)
  • B-Cells are cells in the immune system that help protect the body from infections and other diseases. (lls.org)
  • Lymphoma is a cancer of the lymphatic system , which is part of the body's immune system. (cancercenter.com)
  • Autoimmune diseases develop when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own healthy cells. (cancercenter.com)
  • Immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies, such as atezolizumab, may help the body's immune system attack the cancer, and may interfere with the ability of tumor cells to grow and spread. (ucsd.edu)
  • This may help the immune system kill cancer cells. (ucsd.edu)
  • This condition is characterized by an excess of immune system cells called B cells (B-cell lymphocytosis), an increased risk of B-cell lymphoma, and susceptibility to infection. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Drug-resistant and unresponsive lymphomas are known to harbor genetic variations that enable the tumor to evade the drug molecules, thereby making them tolerant towards R-CHOP treatment. (news-medical.net)
  • Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma that is resistant to treatment. (nih.gov)
  • Risk assessment and prophylactic treatment strategies for central nervous system relapse of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma]. (bvsalud.org)
  • Pathologists, who are experts at diagnosing diseases, will examine the tissue under a microscope to look for cancerous cells. (cancercenter.com)
  • Such cells harbor genetic variations that confer growth advantages and can thus cause recurrent cancer. (news-medical.net)
  • The number of these cells is normal, but their response to foreign invaders is diminished, leading to recurrent infections. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The lack of CARD11 function diminishes T cells' ability to fight foreign invaders, despite normal numbers of the cells, leading to recurrent infections. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The tumor cells are large, and some have deeply lobated nuclei. (basicmedicalkey.com)
  • Cell death escape is one of the most prominent features of tumor cells and closely linked to the dysregulation of members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Odronextamab is an investigational CD20xCD3 bispecific antibody designed to bridge CD20 on cancer cells with CD3-expressing T cells to facilitate local T-cell activation and cancer-cell killing. (biospace.com)
  • In CAR-T cell therapy, a patient's white blood cells (T cells) are changed in the laboratory to produce an engineered receptor that allows the T cell to recognize and respond to CD19 and CD20 proteins. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Management of adults and children undergoing chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy: best practice recommendations of the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) and the Joint Accreditation Committee of ISCT and EBMT (JACIE). (nih.gov)
  • Immunosuppressive therapy, such as anakinra, is used to decrease the body?s immune response, which may prevent severe chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-related encephalopathy syndrome. (researcherprofiles.org)
  • Skeletal surveys typically show sharply circumscribed lytic lesions (punched-out lesions) or diffuse demineralization. (msdmanuals.com)
  • 2021 Update on Diffuse large B cell lymphoma: A review of current dataand potential applications on risk stratification and management. (ipmj.org)