Inflammation of the coverings of the brain and/or spinal cord, which consist of the PIA MATER; ARACHNOID; and DURA MATER. Infections (viral, bacterial, and fungal) are the most common causes of this condition, but subarachnoid hemorrhage (HEMORRHAGES, SUBARACHNOID), chemical irritation (chemical MENINGITIS), granulomatous conditions, neoplastic conditions (CARCINOMATOUS MENINGITIS), and other inflammatory conditions may produce this syndrome. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1994, Ch24, p6)
Bacterial infections of the leptomeninges and subarachnoid space, frequently involving the cerebral cortex, cranial nerves, cerebral blood vessels, spinal cord, and nerve roots.
An acute purulent infection of the meninges and subarachnoid space caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, most prevalent in children and adults over the age of 60. This illness may be associated with OTITIS MEDIA; MASTOIDITIS; SINUSITIS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; sickle cell disease (ANEMIA, SICKLE CELL); skull fractures; and other disorders. Clinical manifestations include FEVER; HEADACHE; neck stiffness; and somnolence followed by SEIZURES; focal neurologic deficits (notably DEAFNESS); and COMA. (From Miller et al., Merritt's Textbook of Neurology, 9th ed, p111)
A syndrome characterized by headache, neck stiffness, low grade fever, and CSF lymphocytic pleocytosis in the absence of an acute bacterial pathogen. Viral meningitis is the most frequent cause although MYCOPLASMA INFECTIONS; RICKETTSIA INFECTIONS; diagnostic or therapeutic procedures; NEOPLASTIC PROCESSES; septic perimeningeal foci; and other conditions may result in this syndrome. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p745)
Viral infections of the leptomeninges and subarachnoid space. TOGAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; FLAVIVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; RUBELLA; BUNYAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ORBIVIRUS infections; PICORNAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; RHABDOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ARENAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; HERPESVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ADENOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; JC VIRUS infections; and RETROVIRIDAE INFECTIONS may cause this form of meningitis. Clinical manifestations include fever, headache, neck pain, vomiting, PHOTOPHOBIA, and signs of meningeal irritation. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1996, Ch26, pp1-3)
Meningitis caused by fungal agents which may occur as OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS or arise in immunocompetent hosts.
Infections of the nervous system caused by bacteria of the genus HAEMOPHILUS, and marked by prominent inflammation of the MENINGES. HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE TYPE B is the most common causative organism. The condition primarily affects children under 6 years of age but may occur in adults.
A fulminant infection of the meninges and subarachnoid fluid by the bacterium NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS, producing diffuse inflammation and peri-meningeal venous thromboses. Clinical manifestations include FEVER, nuchal rigidity, SEIZURES, severe HEADACHE, petechial rash, stupor, focal neurologic deficits, HYDROCEPHALUS, and COMA. The organism is usually transmitted via nasopharyngeal secretions and is a leading cause of meningitis in children and young adults. Organisms from Neisseria meningitidis serogroups A, B, C, Y, and W-135 have been reported to cause meningitis. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp689-701; Curr Opin Pediatr 1998 Feb;10(1):13-8)
Meningeal inflammation produced by CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS, an encapsulated yeast that tends to infect individuals with ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME and other immunocompromised states. The organism enters the body through the respiratory tract, but symptomatic infections are usually limited to the lungs and nervous system. The organism may also produce parenchymal brain lesions (torulomas). Clinically, the course is subacute and may feature HEADACHE; NAUSEA; PHOTOPHOBIA; focal neurologic deficits; SEIZURES; cranial neuropathies; and HYDROCEPHALUS. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp721-2)
A form of bacterial meningitis caused by MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS or rarely MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS. The organism seeds the meninges and forms microtuberculomas which subsequently rupture. The clinical course tends to be subacute, with progressions occurring over a period of several days or longer. Headache and meningeal irritation may be followed by SEIZURES, cranial neuropathies, focal neurologic deficits, somnolence, and eventually COMA. The illness may occur in immunocompetent individuals or as an OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION in the ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME and other immunodeficiency syndromes. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp717-9)
A watery fluid that is continuously produced in the CHOROID PLEXUS and circulates around the surface of the BRAIN; SPINAL CORD; and in the CEREBRAL VENTRICLES.
Inflammation of the meninges caused by LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES infection, usually occurring in individuals under the age of 3 years or over the age of 50 years. It may occur at any age in individuals with IMMUNOLOGIC DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES. Clinical manifestations include FEVER, altered mentation, HEADACHE, meningeal signs, focal neurologic signs, and SEIZURES. (From Medicine 1998 Sep;77(5):313-36)
A form of gram-negative meningitis that tends to occur in neonates, in association with anatomical abnormalities (which feature communication between the meninges and cutaneous structures) or as OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS in association with IMMUNOLOGIC DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES. In premature neonates the clinical presentation may be limited to ANOREXIA; VOMITING; lethargy; or respiratory distress. Full-term infants may have as additional features FEVER; SEIZURES; and bulging of the anterior fontanelle. (From Menkes, Textbook of Child Neurology, 5th ed, pp398-400)
Tapping fluid from the subarachnoid space in the lumbar region, usually between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae.
Infectious disease processes, including meningitis, diarrhea, and respiratory disorders, caused by echoviruses.
A gram-positive organism found in the upper respiratory tract, inflammatory exudates, and various body fluids of normal and/or diseased humans and, rarely, domestic animals.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic BACTERIA. It is a commensal and pathogen only of humans, and can be carried asymptomatically in the NASOPHARYNX. When found in cerebrospinal fluid it is the causative agent of cerebrospinal meningitis (MENINGITIS, MENINGOCOCCAL). It is also found in venereal discharges and blood. There are at least 13 serogroups based on antigenic differences in the capsular polysaccharides; the ones causing most meningitis infections being A, B, C, Y, and W-135. Each serogroup can be further classified by serotype, serosubtype, and immunotype.
A species of parasitic nematodes distributed throughout the Pacific islands that infests the lungs of domestic rats. Human infection, caused by consumption of raw slugs and land snails, results in eosinophilic meningitis.
A broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic with a very long half-life and high penetrability to meninges, eyes and inner ears.
Proteins in the cerebrospinal fluid, normally albumin and globulin present in the ratio of 8 to 1. Increases in protein levels are of diagnostic value in neurological diseases. (Brain and Bannister's Clinical Neurology, 7th ed, p221)
A republic in western Africa, north of NIGERIA and west of CHAD. Its capital is Niamey.
Infections with bacteria of the genus STREPTOCOCCUS.
The three membranes that cover the BRAIN and the SPINAL CORD. They are the dura mater, the arachnoid, and the pia mater.
Strains of Neisseria meningitidis responsible for most outbreaks of meningococcal disease in Western Europe and the United States in the first half of the 20th century. They continue to be a major cause of disease in Asia and Africa, and especially localized epidemics in Sub-Sahara Africa.
A species of HAEMOPHILUS found on the mucous membranes of humans and a variety of animals. The species is further divided into biotypes I through VIII.
An inflammatory process involving the brain (ENCEPHALITIS) and meninges (MENINGITIS), most often produced by pathogenic organisms which invade the central nervous system, and occasionally by toxins, autoimmune disorders, and other conditions.
A bacterium which causes mastitis in cattle and occasionally in man.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
An infant during the first month after birth.
Enterovirus Infections are acute viral illnesses caused by various Enterovirus serotypes, primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, manifesting as a wide range of clinical symptoms, from asymptomatic or mild self-limiting fever to severe and potentially life-threatening conditions, such as meningitis, encephalitis, myocarditis, and neonatal sepsis-like illness, depending on the age, immune status, and serotype of the infected individual.
A species of the fungus CRYPTOCOCCUS. Its teleomorph is Filobasidiella neoformans.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
A type of H. influenzae isolated most frequently from biotype I. Prior to vaccine availability, it was a leading cause of childhood meningitis.
A species of ENTEROVIRUS infecting humans and containing 36 serotypes. It is comprised of all the echoviruses and a few coxsackieviruses, including all of those previously named coxsackievirus B.
A species of ENTEROVIRUS associated with outbreaks of aseptic meningitis (MENINGITIS, ASEPTIC).
Primary or secondary neoplasm in the ARACHNOID or SUBARACHNOID SPACE. It appears as a diffuse fibrotic thickening of the MENINGES associated with variable degrees of inflammation.
A species of STREPTOCOCCUS isolated from pigs. It is a pathogen of swine but rarely occurs in humans.
Semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin that functions as an orally active broad-spectrum antibiotic.
A transient increase in the number of leukocytes in a body fluid.
Infection with a fungus of the species CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS.
Infections with nematodes of the order STRONGYLIDA.
The space between the arachnoid membrane and PIA MATER, filled with CEREBROSPINAL FLUID. It contains large blood vessels that supply the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD.
Excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid within the cranium which may be associated with dilation of cerebral ventricles, INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; HEADACHE; lethargy; URINARY INCONTINENCE; and ATAXIA.
Infection with a fungus of the genus COCCIDIOIDES, endemic to the SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES. It is sometimes called valley fever but should not be confused with RIFT VALLEY FEVER. Infection is caused by inhalation of airborne, fungal particles known as arthroconidia, a form of FUNGAL SPORES. A primary form is an acute, benign, self-limited respiratory infection. A secondary form is a virulent, severe, chronic, progressive granulomatous disease with systemic involvement. It can be detected by use of COCCIDIOIDIN.
Semisynthetic broad-spectrum cephalosporin.
Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes EPIDEMICS and PANDEMICS.
Substances that destroy fungi by suppressing their ability to grow or reproduce. They differ from FUNGICIDES, INDUSTRIAL because they defend against fungi present in human or animal tissues.
Benign and malignant neoplastic processes that arise from or secondarily involve the meningeal coverings of the brain and spinal cord.
Infections with bacteria of the species STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
A genus of the family PICORNAVIRIDAE whose members preferentially inhabit the intestinal tract of a variety of hosts. The genus contains many species. Newly described members of human enteroviruses are assigned continuous numbers with the species designated "human enterovirus".
Opportunistic infections found in patients who test positive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The most common include PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA, Kaposi's sarcoma, cryptosporidiosis, herpes simplex, toxoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and infections with Mycobacterium avium complex, Microsporidium, and Cytomegalovirus.
A republic in western Africa, lying between GHANA on its west and BENIN on its east. Its capital is Lome.
A republic in western Africa, south and east of MALI and west of NIGER. Its capital is Ouagadougou. It was formerly called Upper Volta until 1984.
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by HYPOTENSION despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called SEPTIC SHOCK.
Strains of Neisseria meningitidis found mostly in Africa.
A mitosporic Tremellales fungal genus whose species usually have a capsule and do not form pseudomycellium. Teleomorphs include Filobasidiella and Fidobasidium.
Infections with bacteria of the species NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS.
A fluorinated cytosine analog that is used as an antifungal agent.
Discharge of cerebrospinal fluid through the nose. Common etiologies include trauma, neoplasms, and prior surgery, although the condition may occur spontaneously. (Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1997 Apr;116(4):442-9)
Triazole antifungal agent that is used to treat oropharyngeal CANDIDIASIS and cryptococcal MENINGITIS in AIDS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS.
Pressure within the cranial cavity. It is influenced by brain mass, the circulatory system, CSF dynamics, and skull rigidity.
Specialized non-fenestrated tightly-joined ENDOTHELIAL CELLS with TIGHT JUNCTIONS that form a transport barrier for certain substances between the cerebral capillaries and the BRAIN tissue.
Acute or chronic inflammation of the arachnoid membrane of the meninges most often involving the spinal cord or base of the brain. This term generally refers to a persistent inflammatory process characterized by thickening of the ARACHNOID membrane and dural adhesions. Associated conditions include prior surgery, infections, trauma, SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE, and chemical irritation. Clinical features vary with the site of inflammation, but include cranial neuropathies, radiculopathies, and myelopathies. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1997, Ch48, p25)
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion.
Infections with bacteria of the genus HAEMOPHILUS.
A species of gram-negative bacteria in the genus CHRONOBACTER, found in the environment and in foods.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Macrolide antifungal antibiotic produced by Streptomyces nodosus obtained from soil of the Orinoco river region of Venezuela.
Nervous system infections caused by tick-borne spirochetes of the BORRELIA BURGDORFERI GROUP. The disease may affect elements of the central or peripheral nervous system in isolation or in combination. Common clinical manifestations include a lymphocytic meningitis, cranial neuropathy (most often a facial neuropathy), POLYRADICULOPATHY, and a mild loss of memory and other cognitive functions. Less often more extensive inflammation involving the central nervous system (encephalomyelitis) may occur. In the peripheral nervous system, B. burgdorferi infection is associated with mononeuritis multiplex and polyradiculoneuritis. (From J Neurol Sci 1998 Jan 8;153(2):182-91)
A congenital or acquired protrusion of the meninges, unaccompanied by neural tissue, through a bony defect in the skull or vertebral column.
Nonsusceptibility of an organism to the action of penicillins.
A circumscribed collection of purulent exudate in the brain, due to bacterial and other infections. The majority are caused by spread of infected material from a focus of suppuration elsewhere in the body, notably the PARANASAL SINUSES, middle ear (see EAR, MIDDLE); HEART (see also ENDOCARDITIS, BACTERIAL), and LUNG. Penetrating CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA and NEUROSURGICAL PROCEDURES may also be associated with this condition. Clinical manifestations include HEADACHE; SEIZURES; focal neurologic deficits; and alterations of consciousness. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp712-6)
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing antigenic polysaccharides from Haemophilus influenzae and designed to prevent infection. The vaccine can contain the polysaccharides alone or more frequently polysaccharides conjugated to carrier molecules. It is also seen as a combined vaccine with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
An acute form of TUBERCULOSIS in which minute tubercles are formed in a number of organs of the body due to dissemination of the bacilli through the blood stream.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infections with STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
Inflammation of the BRAIN due to infection, autoimmune processes, toxins, and other conditions. Viral infections (see ENCEPHALITIS, VIRAL) are a relatively frequent cause of this condition.
Disorders of one or more of the twelve cranial nerves. With the exception of the optic and olfactory nerves, this includes disorders of the brain stem nuclei from which the cranial nerves originate or terminate.
Inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA in the SPHENOID SINUS. Isolated sphenoid sinusitis is uncommon. It usually occurs in conjunction with other paranasal sinusitis.
A group of antibiotics that contain 6-aminopenicillanic acid with a side chain attached to the 6-amino group. The penicillin nucleus is the chief structural requirement for biological activity. The side-chain structure determines many of the antibacterial and pharmacological characteristics. (Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p1065)
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Immunoelectrophoresis in which immunoprecipitation occurs when antigen at the cathode is caused to migrate in an electric field through a suitable medium of diffusion against a stream of antibody migrating from the anode as a result of endosmotic flow.
The symptom of PAIN in the cranial region. It may be an isolated benign occurrence or manifestation of a wide variety of HEADACHE DISORDERS.
An acute infectious disease caused by RUBULAVIRUS, spread by direct contact, airborne droplet nuclei, fomites contaminated by infectious saliva, and perhaps urine, and usually seen in children under the age of 15, although adults may also be affected. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
A group of broad-spectrum antibiotics first isolated from the Mediterranean fungus ACREMONIUM. They contain the beta-lactam moiety thia-azabicyclo-octenecarboxylic acid also called 7-aminocephalosporanic acid.
Presence of air or gas within the intracranial cavity (e.g., epidural space, subdural space, intracerebral, etc.) which may result from traumatic injuries, fistulous tract formation, erosions of the skull from NEOPLASMS or infection, NEUROSURGICAL PROCEDURES, and other conditions.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Vietnam" is not a medical term that can be defined in a medical context; it is a country located in Southeast Asia. If you have any questions related to medical conditions or terminology, I would be happy to help clarify those topics for you.
An envelope of loose gel surrounding a bacterial cell which is associated with the virulence of pathogenic bacteria. Some capsules have a well-defined border, whereas others form a slime layer that trails off into the medium. Most capsules consist of relatively simple polysaccharides but there are some bacteria whose capsules are made of polypeptides.
Abnormal increase of EOSINOPHILS in the blood, tissues or organs.
An anti-inflammatory 9-fluoro-glucocorticoid.
Diseases of newborn infants present at birth (congenital) or developing within the first month of birth. It does not include hereditary diseases not manifesting at birth or within the first 30 days of life nor does it include inborn errors of metabolism. Both HEREDITARY DISEASES and METABOLISM, INBORN ERRORS are available as general concepts.
Introduction of therapeutic agents into the spinal region using a needle and syringe.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Infections with bacteria of the species ESCHERICHIA COLI.
Diseases of the central and peripheral nervous system. This includes disorders of the brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves, peripheral nerves, nerve roots, autonomic nervous system, neuromuscular junction, and muscle.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Semisynthetic vaccines consisting of polysaccharide antigens from microorganisms attached to protein carrier molecules. The carrier protein is recognized by macrophages and T-cells thus enhancing immunity. Conjugate vaccines induce antibody formation in people not responsive to polysaccharide alone, induce higher levels of antibody, and show a booster response on repeated injection.
Discharge of cerebrospinal fluid through the external auditory meatus or through the eustachian tube into the nasopharynx. This is usually associated with CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA (e.g., SKULL FRACTURE involving the TEMPORAL BONE;), NEUROSURGICAL PROCEDURES; or other conditions, but may rarely occur spontaneously. (From Am J Otol 1995 Nov;16(6):765-71)
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
A tumor-like mass resulting from the enlargement of a tuberculous lesion.
Ongoing scrutiny of a population (general population, study population, target population, etc.), generally using methods distinguished by their practicability, uniformity, and frequently their rapidity, rather than by complete accuracy.
A condition characterized by neck stiffness, headache, and other symptoms suggestive of meningeal irritation, but without actual inflammation of the meninges (MENINGITIS). Spinal fluid pressure may be elevated but spinal fluid is normal. (DeJong, The Neurologic Examination, 4th ed, p673)
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Influenza-like febrile viral disease caused by several members of the BUNYAVIRIDAE family and transmitted mostly by the bloodsucking sandfly Phlebotomus papatasii.
Passive agglutination tests in which antigen is adsorbed onto latex particles which then clump in the presence of antibody specific for the adsorbed antigen. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
A well-circumscribed mass composed of tuberculous granulation tissue that may occur in the cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brain stem, or perimeningeal spaces. Multiple lesions are quite common. Management of intracranial manifestations vary with lesion site. Intracranial tuberculomas may be associated with SEIZURES, focal neurologic deficits, and INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION. Spinal cord tuberculomas may be associated with localized or radicular pain, weakness, sensory loss, and incontinence. Tuberculomas may arise as OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS, but also occur in immunocompetent individuals.
A republic in southern Africa east of ZAMBIA and MOZAMBIQUE. Its capital is Lilongwe. It was formerly called Nyasaland.
A species of gram-positive, coccoid bacteria commonly found in the alimentary tract of cows, sheep, and other ruminants. It occasionally is encountered in cases of human endocarditis. This species is nonhemolytic.
Pathogenic infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. DNA VIRUS INFECTIONS; RNA VIRUS INFECTIONS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; MYCOPLASMA INFECTIONS; SPIROCHAETALES INFECTIONS; fungal infections; PROTOZOAN INFECTIONS; HELMINTHIASIS; and PRION DISEASES may involve the central nervous system as a primary or secondary process.
Leakage and accumulation of CEREBROSPINAL FLUID in the subdural space which may be associated with an infectious process; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; BRAIN NEOPLASMS; INTRACRANIAL HYPOTENSION; and other conditions.
Non-susceptibility of an organism to the action of the cephalosporins.
Brain tissue herniation through a congenital or acquired defect in the skull. The majority of congenital encephaloceles occur in the occipital or frontal regions. Clinical features include a protuberant mass that may be pulsatile. The quantity and location of protruding neural tissue determines the type and degree of neurologic deficit. Visual defects, psychomotor developmental delay, and persistent motor deficits frequently occur.
Substances that prevent infectious agents or organisms from spreading or kill infectious agents in order to prevent the spread of infection.
A general term for the complete or partial loss of the ability to hear from one or both ears.
An antibiotic first isolated from cultures of Streptomyces venequelae in 1947 but now produced synthetically. It has a relatively simple structure and was the first broad-spectrum antibiotic to be discovered. It acts by interfering with bacterial protein synthesis and is mainly bacteriostatic. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 29th ed, p106)
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Inflammation of brain parenchymal tissue as a result of viral infection. Encephalitis may occur as primary or secondary manifestation of TOGAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; HERPESVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ADENOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; FLAVIVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; BUNYAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; PICORNAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; PARAMYXOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; RETROVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; and ARENAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS.
Inflammation of the spinal cord. Relatively common etiologies include infections; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; SPINAL CORD; and ischemia (see also SPINAL CORD VASCULAR DISEASES). Clinical features generally include weakness, sensory loss, localized pain, incontinence, and other signs of autonomic dysfunction.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Antibacterial obtained from Streptomyces orientalis. It is a glycopeptide related to RISTOCETIN that inhibits bacterial cell wall assembly and is toxic to kidneys and the inner ear.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
Divisions of the year according to some regularly recurrent phenomena usually astronomical or climatic. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Beta-lactam antibiotics that differ from PENICILLINS in having the thiazolidine sulfur atom replaced by carbon, the sulfur then becoming the first atom in the side chain. They are unstable chemically, but have a very broad antibacterial spectrum. Thienamycin and its more stable derivatives are proposed for use in combinations with enzyme inhibitors.
Infections by bacteria, general or unspecified.
The body fluid that circulates in the vascular system (BLOOD VESSELS). Whole blood includes PLASMA and BLOOD CELLS.
The number of WHITE BLOOD CELLS per unit volume in venous BLOOD. A differential leukocyte count measures the relative numbers of the different types of white cells.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
Exotoxins produced by certain strains of streptococci, particularly those of group A (STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES), that cause HEMOLYSIS.
A species in the genus PHLEBOVIRUS causing PHLEBOTOMUS FEVER, an influenza-like illness. Related serotypes include Toscana virus and Tehran virus.
A febrile disease caused by STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
The type species of RUBULAVIRUS that causes an acute infectious disease in humans, affecting mainly children. Transmission occurs by droplet infection.
Broad- spectrum beta-lactam antibiotic similar in structure to the CEPHALOSPORINS except for the substitution of an oxaazabicyclo moiety for the thiaazabicyclo moiety of certain CEPHALOSPORINS. It has been proposed especially for the meningitides because it passes the blood-brain barrier and for anaerobic infections.
The presence of parasites in food and food products. For the presence of bacteria, viruses, and fungi in food, FOOD MICROBIOLOGY is available.
I'm afraid there seems to be a misunderstanding - "Africa" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, consisting of 54 countries with diverse cultures, peoples, languages, and landscapes. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help answer those for you!
A species of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria that produces TUBERCULOSIS in humans, other primates, CATTLE; DOGS; and some other animals which have contact with humans. Growth tends to be in serpentine, cordlike masses in which the bacilli show a parallel orientation.
Clinical or subclinical disturbances of cortical function due to a sudden, abnormal, excessive, and disorganized discharge of brain cells. Clinical manifestations include abnormal motor, sensory and psychic phenomena. Recurrent seizures are usually referred to as EPILEPSY or "seizure disorder."
Inflammation of blood vessels within the central nervous system. Primary vasculitis is usually caused by autoimmune or idiopathic factors, while secondary vasculitis is caused by existing disease process. Clinical manifestations are highly variable but include HEADACHE; SEIZURES; behavioral alterations; INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGES; TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK; and BRAIN INFARCTION. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp856-61)
Diseases of any component of the brain (including the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum) or the spinal cord.
Infections with bacteria of the family ENTEROBACTERIACEAE.
A mitosporic fungal genus which causes COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS.
Child hospitalized for short term care.
A profound state of unconsciousness associated with depressed cerebral activity from which the individual cannot be aroused. Coma generally occurs when there is dysfunction or injury involving both cerebral hemispheres or the brain stem RETICULAR FORMATION.
Any infection acquired in the community, that is, contrasted with those acquired in a health care facility (CROSS INFECTION). An infection would be classified as community-acquired if the patient had not recently been in a health care facility or been in contact with someone who had been recently in a health care facility.

A comparison of itraconazole versus fluconazole as maintenance therapy for AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. (1/99)

This study was designed to compare the effectiveness of fluconazole vs. itraconazole as maintenance therapy for AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis. HIV-infected patients who had been successfully treated (achieved negative culture of CSF) for a first episode of cryptococcal meningitis were randomized to receive fluconazole or itraconazole, both at 200 mg/d, for 12 months. The study was stopped prematurely on the recommendation of an independent Data Safety and Monitoring Board. At the time, 13 (23%) of 57 itraconazole recipients had experienced culture-positive relapse, compared with 2 relapses (4%) noted among 51 fluconazole recipients (P = .006). The factor best associated with relapse was the patient having not received flucytosine during the initial 2 weeks of primary treatment for cryptococcal disease (relative risk = 5.88; 95% confidence interval, 1.27-27.14; P = .04). Fluconazole remains the treatment of choice for maintenance therapy for AIDS-associated cryptococcal disease. Flucytosine may contribute to the prevention of relapse if used during the first 2 weeks of primary therapy.  (+info)

Aspergillus meningitis: diagnosis by non-culture-based microbiological methods and management. (2/99)

The performance of antibody detection, antigen detection, and Aspergillus genus-specific PCR for diagnosing Aspergillus meningitis was investigated with 26 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples obtained from a single patient with proven infection caused by Aspergillus fumigatus. Immunoglobulin G antibodies directed against Aspergillus were not detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in CSF or serum. The antigen galactomannan was detected in the CSF 45 days before a culture became positive, and Aspergillus DNA was detected 4 days prior to culture. Decline of the galactomannan antigen titer in the CSF during treatment with intravenous and intraventricular amphotericin B and intravenous voriconazole corresponded with the clinical response to treatment.  (+info)

MR imaging of acute coccidioidal meningitis. (3/99)

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Our purpose was to describe the MR imaging findings in patients with acute coccidioidal meningitis. METHODS: Fourteen patients (11 men, three women; 22-78 years old; mean age, 47 years) with coccidioidal meningitis underwent neuroimaging within 2 months of diagnosis. Thirteen patients had MR imaging and one had an initial CT study with a follow-up MR examination 5 months later. Initial and follow-up MR images were evaluated for the presence of ventricular dilatation, signal abnormalities, enhancement characteristics, sites of involvement, and evidence of white matter or cortical infarction. The patterns of enhancement were characterized as focal or diffuse. Pathologic specimens were reviewed in two patients. RESULTS: Ten of the 14 images obtained at the time of initial diagnosis showed evidence of meningitis. All of the initially abnormal studies showed enhancement in the basal cisterns, sylvian fissures, or pericallosal region. Subsequent studies, which were available for three of the four patients with normal findings initially, all eventually became abnormal, with focal enhancement seen on the initial abnormal examination. Other abnormalities seen at presentation included ventricular dilatation (six patients) and deep infarcts (four patients). Pathologic specimens in two patients showed focal collections of the organism corresponding to the areas of intense enhancement on MR images. CONCLUSION: Early in its disease course, coccidioidal meningitis may show areas of focal enhancement in the basal cisterns, which may progress to diffuse disease. Pathologically, the areas of enhancement represent focal collections of the organism. Deep infarcts and communicating hydrocephalus are associated findings.  (+info)

Heteroresistance to fluconazole and voriconazole in Cryptococcus neoformans. (4/99)

Cryptococcus neoformans isolates that exhibited unusual patterns of resistance to fluconazole and voriconazole were isolated from seven isolates from two different geographical regions: one isolate from an Israeli non-AIDS patient and six serial isolates from an Italian AIDS patient who had suffered six recurrent episodes of cryptococcal meningitis. Each isolate produced cultures with heterogeneous compositions in which most of the cells were susceptible, but cells highly resistant to fluconazole (MICs, >/=64 microg/ml) were recovered at a variable frequency (7 x 10(-3) to 4.6 x 10(-2)). Evidence showed that this type of resistance is innate and is unrelated to drug exposure since the Israeli patient had never been treated with azoles or any other antimycotic agents. Analysis of clonal subpopulations of these two strains showed that they exhibited heterogeneous patterns of resistance. The number of subpopulations which grew on fluconazole or voriconazole agar declined progressively with increasing azole concentration without a sharp cutoff point. For the Italian serial isolates, the number of clonal populations resistant to fluconazole (64 microg/ml) and voriconazole (1 microg/ml) increased steadily, yielding the highest number for the isolate from the last episode. Attempts to purify a sensitive subpopulation failed, but clones highly resistant to fluconazole (100 microg/ml) and moderately resistant to voriconazole (1 microg/ml) always produced a homogeneous population of resistant cells. Upon maintenance on drug-free medium, however, the majority of the homogeneously resistant cells of these subclones lost their resistance and returned to the stable initial heteroresistant phenotype. The pattern of heteroresistance was not affected by the pH or osmolarity of the medium but was influenced by temperature. The resistance appeared to be suppressed at 35 degrees C and was completely abolished at 40 degrees C. Although heterogeneity in azole resistance among subpopulations of single isolates has been reported for Candida species, the transient changes in expression of resistance under different growth conditions reported here have not been observed in fungal pathogens.  (+info)

Clinical significance of Candida species isolated from cerebrospinal fluid following neurosurgery. (5/99)

Twenty-one patients for whom adequate clinical data were available were identified in a retrospective review of cases of Candida species isolated from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) following neurosurgery; 86% had indwelling cerebrospinal devices (shunts). Candida species were isolated from multiple CSF samples from 10 patients; CSF samples from seven of 10 were initially drawn through indwelling devices and those from nine of 10 were obtained by subsequent lumbar punctures. All of these patients were treated with antifungals, although therapy was delayed in 50% of cases until the second positive culture was reported. In 11 cases, Candida was the only isolate recovered from CSF samples drawn through indwelling devices; cultures of subsequent CSF samples obtained by lumbar puncture were negative in 10 of 11 cases. Only two patients for whom a single culture was positive for Candida species were treated with antifungals (both of whom were symptomatic), and none of the untreated patients died of infection. The clinical significance of a single positive CSF sample drawn through an indwelling device is difficult to assess, and a definitive diagnosis may require repeated cultures of CSF samples obtained by lumbar puncture.  (+info)

Serum itraconazole and hydroxyitraconazole concentrations and interaction with digoxin in a case of chronic hypertrophic pachymenigitis caused by Aspergillus flavus. (6/99)

A patient treated with itraconazole (ITCZ) under the diagnosis of Aspergillus flavus-induced chronic hypertrophic pachymeningitis is presented. The reason for the successful cure of this patient was investigated by the pharmacokinetic analysis of serum levels of ITCZ. Concurrently administered digoxin was also investigated for its drug-drug interaction. The patient (a 75-year-old male) developed ophthalmopathy, and was diagnosed as having A. flavus hypertrophic pachymeningitis by pachymeninx biopsy. After admission, he was treated with FLCZ, AMPH, 5-FC and MCZ. The infection tended to subside with the AMPH administration. Since renal insufficiency was induced by AMPH and the other antifungal drugs were ineffective, daily administration of 200 mg of ITCZ was initiated, and the inflammatory signs and symptoms gradually subsided. The symptoms did not recur during the 36 months of itraconazole treatment after discharge, and it was concluded that ITCZ was effective for A. flavus hypertrophic pachymeningitis. Pharmacokinetic parameters of ITCZ and OH-ITCZ as follows: ITCZ: Cmax 93.2 ng/ml, T1/2 beta 11 hours, AUC0-24 999 ng.h/ml, OH-ITCZ: Cmax 159.4 ng/ml, T1/2 beta 16. 2 hours, AUC0-24 of 1391 ng.h/ml. Both ITCZ and OH-ITCZ reached steady states seven days after administration began. The ITCZ and OH-ITCZ levels in serum collected 36 months after the initiation of administration were 452.9 ng/ml and 1233.6 ng/ml, respectively. Cmax and AUC0-24 of ITCZ and OH-ITCZ on the second day were markedly lower than those in healthy adults reported by Oguchi et al., and hypoalbuminemia observed at administration on that day was considered the most probable cause. It was assumed that the most plausible reason for a successful cure even at a low dose of ITCZ was the increase of distribution to tissue by the increase of the unbound form. Digoxin was concurrently given to this patient at 0. 125 mg/day, but the blood digoxin level was not elevated. Consideration of the blood level of albumin is believed to be important for evaluating the blood concentration of ITCZ.  (+info)

Practice guidelines for the management of patients with sporotrichosis. For the Mycoses Study Group. Infectious Diseases Society of America. (7/99)

The recommendations for the treatment of sporotrichosis were derived primarily from multicenter, nonrandomized treatment trials, small retrospective series, and case reports; no randomized, comparative treatment trials have been reported. Most cases of sporotrichosis are non life-threatening localized infections of the skin and subcutaneous tissues that can be treated with oral antifungal agents. The treatment of choice for fixed cutaneous or lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis is itraconazole for 36 months. The preferred treatment for osteoarticular sporotrichosis also is itraconazole, but therapy must be continued for at least 12 months. Pulmonary sporotrichosis responds poorly to treatment. Severe infection requires treatment with amphotericin B; mild to moderate infection can be treated with itraconazole. Meningeal and disseminated forms of sporotrichosis are rare and usually require treatment with amphotericin B. AIDS patients most often have disseminated infection and require life-long suppressive therapy with itraconazole after initial use of amphotericin B. OVERVIEW: Sporotrichosis is caused by the dimorphic fungus Sporothrix schenckii, which is found throughout the world in decaying vegetation, sphagnum moss, and soil. The usual mode of infection is by cutaneous inoculation of the organism. Pulmonary and disseminated forms of infection, although uncommon, can occur when S. schenckii conidia are inhaled. Infections are most often sporadic and usually associated with trauma during the course of outdoor work. Infection can also be related to zoonotic spread from infected cats or scratches from digging animals, such as armadillos. Outbreaks have been well-described and often are traced back to activities that involved contaminated sphagnum moss, hay, or wood. Most cases of sporotrichosis are localized to the skin and subcutaneous tissues. Dissemination to osteoarticular structures and viscera is uncommon and appears to occur more often in patients who have a history of alcohol abuse or immunosuppression, especially AIDS. Spontaneous resolution of sporotrichosis is rare, and treatment is required for most patients. Although sporotrichosis localized to skin and subcutaneous tissues is readily treated, management of osteoarticular, other localized visceral, and disseminated forms of sporotrichosis is difficult. OBJECTIVE: The objective of these guidelines is to provide recommendations for the treatment of various forms of sporotrichosis. OUTCOMES: The desired outcomes of treatment include eradication of S. schenckii from tissues, resolution of symptoms and signs of active infection, and return of function of involved organs. In persons with AIDS, eradication of the organism may not be possible, but clinical resolution should be attained and subsequently maintained with suppressive antifungal therapy. EVIDENCE: The English-language literature on the treatment of sporotrichosis was reviewed. Although randomized, blinded, controlled treatment trials were sought, none were found to have been performed for the treatment of sporotrichosis. Therefore, most weight was placed on those reports that were derived from multicenter trials of specific treatment modalities for sporotrichosis. Small series from a single institution and individual case reports were accorded less importance. VALUES: The highest value was placed on clinical efficacy and the ability of the antifungal regimen to eradicate the organism, but safety, tolerability, and cost of therapy were also valued. BENEFITS AND COSTS: The benefits of successfully treating sporotrichosis accrue primarily for the patient. Because this infection is not spread from person-to-person, public health aspects of treatment are of minor importance. Most forms of sporotrichosis are not life-threatening; thus, therapy is aimed at decreasing morbidity, improving quality of life, and allowing the patient to return to occupational and familial pursuits. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)  (+info)

Practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease. Infectious Diseases Society of America. (8/99)

An 8-person subcommittee of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Mycoses Study Group evaluated available data on the treatment of cryptococcal disease. Opinion regarding optimal treatment was based on personal experience and information in the literature. The relative strength of each recommendation was graded according to the type and degree of evidence available to support the recommendation, in keeping with previously published guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). The panel conferred in person (on 2 occasions), by conference call, and through written reviews of each draft of the manuscript. The choice of treatment for disease caused by Cryptococcus neoformans depends on both the anatomic sites of involvement and the host's immune status. For immunocompetent hosts with isolated pulmonary disease, careful observation may be warranted; in the case of symptomatic infection, indicated treatment is fluconazole, 200-400 mg/day for 36 months. For those individuals with non-CNS-isolated cryptococcemia, a positive serum cryptococcal antigen titer >1:8, or urinary tract or cutaneous disease, recommended treatment is oral azole therapy (fluconazole) for 36 months. In each case, careful assessment of the CNS is required to rule out occult meningitis. For those individuals who are unable to tolerate fluconazole, itraconazole (200-400 mg/day for 6-12 months) is an acceptable alternative. For patients with more severe disease, treatment with amphotericin B (0.5-1 mg/kg/d) may be necessary for 6-10 weeks. For otherwise healthy hosts with CNS disease, standard therapy consists of amphotericin B, 0.7-1 mg/kg/d, plus flucytosine, 100 mg/kg/d, for 6-10 weeks. An alternative to this regimen is amphotericin B (0.7-1 mg/kg/d) plus 5-flucytosine (100 mg/kg/d) for 2 weeks, followed by fluconazole (400 mg/day) for a minimum of 10 weeks. Fluconazole "consolidation" therapy may be continued for as along as 6-12 months, depending on the clinical status of the patient. HIV-negative, immunocompromised hosts should be treated in the same fashion as those with CNS disease, regardless of the site of involvement. Cryptococcal disease that develops in patients with HIV infection always warrants therapy. For those patients with HIV who present with isolated pulmonary or urinary tract disease, fluconazole at 200-400 mg/d is indicated. Although the ultimate impact from highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) is currently unclear, it is recommended that all HIV-infected individuals continue maintenance therapy for life. Among those individuals who are unable to tolerate fluconazole, itraconazole (200-400 mg/d) is an acceptable alternative. For patients with more severe disease, a combination of fluconazole (400 mg/d) plus flucytosine (100-150 mg/d) may be used for 10 weeks, followed by fluconazole maintenance therapy. Among patients with HIV infection and cryptococcal meningitis, induction therapy with amphotericin B (0.7-1 mg/kg/d) plus flucytosine (100 mg/kg/d for 2 weeks) followed by fluconazole (400 mg/d) for a minimum of 10 weeks is the treatment of choice. After 10 weeks of therapy, the fluconazole dosage may be reduced to 200 mg/d, depending on the patient's clinical status. Fluconazole should be continued for life. An alternative regimen for AIDS-associated cryptococcal meningitis is amphotericin B (0.7-1 mg/kg/d) plus 5-flucytosine (100 mg/kg/d) for 6-10 weeks, followed by fluconazole maintenance therapy. Induction therapy beginning with an azole alone is generally discouraged. Lipid formulations of amphotericin B can be substituted for amphotericin B for patients whose renal function is impaired. Fluconazole (400-800 mg/d) plus flucytosine (100-150 mg/kg/d) for 6 weeks is an alternative to the use of amphotericin B, although toxicity with this regimen is high. In all cases of cryptococcal meningitis, careful attention to the management of intracranial pressure is imperative to assure optimal c  (+info)

Meningitis is a medical condition characterized by the inflammation of the meninges, which are the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. This inflammation can be caused by various infectious agents, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, or by non-infectious causes like autoimmune diseases, cancer, or certain medications.

The symptoms of meningitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light. In severe cases, it can lead to seizures, coma, or even death if not treated promptly and effectively. Bacterial meningitis is usually more severe and requires immediate medical attention, while viral meningitis is often less severe and may resolve on its own without specific treatment.

It's important to note that meningitis can be a serious and life-threatening condition, so if you suspect that you or someone else has symptoms of meningitis, you should seek medical attention immediately.

Bacterial meningitis is a serious infection that causes the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord to become inflamed. It's caused by various types of bacteria, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae type b.

The infection can develop quickly, over a few hours or days, and is considered a medical emergency. Symptoms may include sudden high fever, severe headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light. In some cases, a rash may also be present.

Bacterial meningitis can lead to serious complications such as brain damage, hearing loss, learning disabilities, and even death if not treated promptly with appropriate antibiotics and supportive care. It is important to seek immediate medical attention if you suspect bacterial meningitis. Vaccines are available to prevent certain types of bacterial meningitis.

Pneumococcal meningitis is a specific type of bacterial meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges). It is caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. This bacterium is commonly found in the upper respiratory tract and middle ear fluid of healthy individuals. However, under certain circumstances, it can invade the bloodstream and reach the meninges, leading to meningitis.

Pneumococcal meningitis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention. Symptoms may include sudden onset of fever, severe headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light (photophobia). In some cases, it can also lead to complications such as hearing loss, brain damage, or even death if not treated promptly and effectively.

Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics that are effective against pneumococcus, such as ceftriaxone or vancomycin. In some cases, corticosteroids may also be used to reduce inflammation and prevent complications. Prevention measures include vaccination with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) or the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23), which can help protect against pneumococcal infections, including meningitis.

Aseptic meningitis is a type of meningitis (inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord) that is not caused by bacterial infection. Instead, it can be due to viral infections, fungal infections, or non-infectious causes such as certain medications, chemical irritants, or underlying medical conditions. In aseptic meningitis, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis may show increased white blood cells, typically lymphocytes, but no bacterial growth on culture. Common viral causes include enteroviruses, herpes simplex virus, and varicella-zoster virus. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include supportive care, antiviral medications, or immunosuppressive therapy in some cases.

Viral meningitis is a form of meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It is caused by viral infections, such as enteroviruses, herpesviruses, and HIV. The infection enters the body through the respiratory system or the gastrointestinal tract and then spreads to the central nervous system.

Symptoms of viral meningitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, photophobia (intolerance to light), and altered mental status. In some cases, patients may also experience vomiting, seizures, or skin rash. However, viral meningitis is generally less severe than bacterial meningitis and has a lower mortality rate.

Most cases of viral meningitis resolve on their own within 7-10 days, and treatment typically involves supportive care such as hydration, pain relief, and fever reduction. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses, so they are not used to treat viral meningitis. In some cases, antiviral medications may be prescribed for certain types of viral meningitis, such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) meningitis.

Preventive measures include practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. There is also a vaccine available to protect against enterovirus D68, which can cause viral meningitis in some cases.

Fungal meningitis is a form of meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It is specifically caused by the invasion of the meninges by fungi. The most common causative agents are Cryptococcus neoformans and Histoplasma capsulatum.

Fungal meningitis typically occurs in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplant recipients. It begins gradually, often with symptoms including headache, fever, stiff neck, and sensitivity to light. Other possible symptoms can include confusion, nausea, vomiting, and altered mental status.

Diagnosis of fungal meningitis typically involves a combination of clinical examination, imaging studies (such as CT or MRI scans), and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis). Treatment usually requires long-term antifungal therapy, often administered intravenously in a hospital setting. The prognosis for fungal meningitis depends on several factors, including the underlying immune status of the patient, the specific causative agent, and the timeliness and adequacy of treatment.

Haemophilus meningitis is a specific type of bacterial meningitis caused by the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) bacteria. Meningitis is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known as the meninges. Before the introduction of the Hib vaccine, Haemophilus influenzae type b was the leading cause of bacterial meningitis in children under 5 years old. However, since the widespread use of the Hib vaccine, the incidence of Haemophilus meningitis has significantly decreased.

Haemophilus influenzae type b bacteria can also cause other serious infections such as pneumonia, epiglottitis (inflammation of the tissue located at the base of the tongue that can obstruct the windpipe), and bacteremia (bloodstream infection). The Hib vaccine has been very effective in preventing these infections as well.

Symptoms of Haemophilus meningitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light. In severe cases, it can lead to seizures, coma, or even death. If you suspect someone has meningitis, seek immediate medical attention. Haemophilus meningitis is treated with antibiotics, and early treatment is crucial for a better prognosis.

Meningococcal meningitis is a specific type of bacterial meningitis caused by the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis, also known as meningococcus. Meningitis refers to the inflammation of the meninges, which are the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. When this inflammation is caused by the meningococcal bacteria, it is called meningococcal meningitis.

There are several serogroups of Neisseria meningitidis that can cause invasive disease, with the most common ones being A, B, C, W, and Y. The infection can spread through respiratory droplets or direct contact with an infected person's saliva or secretions, especially when they cough or sneeze.

Meningococcal meningitis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention. Symptoms may include sudden onset of fever, severe headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light. In some cases, a rash may also develop, characterized by small purple or red spots that do not blanch when pressed with a glass.

Prevention measures include vaccination against the different serogroups of Neisseria meningitidis, maintaining good personal hygiene, avoiding sharing utensils, cigarettes, or other items that may come into contact with an infected person's saliva, and promptly seeking medical care if symptoms develop.

Cryptococcal meningitis is a specific type of meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known as the meninges. This condition is caused by the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii.

In cryptococcal meningitis, the fungal cells enter the bloodstream and cross the blood-brain barrier, causing infection in the central nervous system. The immune system's response to the infection leads to inflammation of the meninges, resulting in symptoms such as headache, fever, neck stiffness, altered mental status, and sometimes seizures or focal neurological deficits.

Cryptococcal meningitis is a serious infection that can be life-threatening if left untreated. It primarily affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, organ transplant recipients, and individuals receiving immunosuppressive therapy for cancer or autoimmune diseases. Early diagnosis and appropriate antifungal treatment are crucial to improve outcomes in patients with cryptococcal meningitis.

Meningeal tuberculosis, also known as Tuberculous meningitis, is a severe form of tuberculosis (TB) that affects the meninges, which are the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. It is caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium, which can spread through the bloodstream from a primary infection site in the lungs or elsewhere in the body.

In meningeal tuberculosis, the bacteria cause inflammation and thickening of the meninges, leading to increased intracranial pressure, cerebral edema, and vasculitis. These conditions can result in various neurological symptoms such as headache, fever, stiff neck, altered mental status, seizures, and focal neurologic deficits. If left untreated, meningeal tuberculosis can lead to severe complications, including brain damage, hydrocephalus, and even death.

Diagnosis of meningeal tuberculosis typically involves a combination of clinical symptoms, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, imaging studies, and sometimes molecular or culture-based tests to detect the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the CSF. Treatment usually involves a prolonged course of antibiotics specifically designed to target TB, such as isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide, often administered for six to nine months or longer. In some cases, corticosteroids may also be used to reduce inflammation and prevent complications.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a shock absorber for the central nervous system and provides nutrients to the brain while removing waste products. CSF is produced by specialized cells called ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of the ventricles (fluid-filled spaces) inside the brain. From there, it circulates through the ventricular system and around the outside of the brain and spinal cord before being absorbed back into the bloodstream. CSF analysis is an important diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, including infections, inflammation, and cancer.

"Listeria meningitis" is a type of bacterial meningitis caused by the pathogen *Listeria monocytogenes*. This gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacillus can cause severe invasive infections, particularly in pregnant women, newborns, older adults, and individuals with weakened immune systems. When the bacteria reach the central nervous system, they can cause meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Symptoms may include fever, severe headache, neck stiffness, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light. Early diagnosis and appropriate antibiotic treatment are crucial for managing Listeria meningitis and preventing potential complications.

"Escherichia coli (E. coli) meningitis" is a specific type of bacterial meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges). E. coli is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms. While most strains of E. coli are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause severe food poisoning and other illnesses.

E. coli meningitis is relatively rare but can occur in newborns and young infants, particularly those who are premature or have underlying health conditions that weaken their immune systems. The bacteria can enter the bloodstream and travel to the brain, causing meningitis. Symptoms of E. coli meningitis may include fever, vomiting, irritability, lethargy, seizures, and a stiff neck.

E. coli meningitis is a serious medical emergency that requires prompt treatment with antibiotics to prevent complications such as brain damage or hearing loss. Infants who are diagnosed with E. coli meningitis may also require supportive care, such as fluid replacement and respiratory support, to help them recover.

A spinal puncture, also known as a lumbar puncture or a spinal tap, is a medical procedure in which a thin, hollow needle is inserted between two vertebrae in the lower back to extract cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the subarachnoid space. This procedure is typically performed to diagnose conditions affecting the central nervous system, such as meningitis, encephalitis, or subarachnoid hemorrhage, by analyzing the CSF for cells, chemicals, bacteria, or viruses. Additionally, spinal punctures can be used to administer medications or anesthetics directly into the CSF space, such as in the case of epidural anesthesia during childbirth.

The medical definition of a spinal puncture is: "A diagnostic and therapeutic procedure that involves introducing a thin needle into the subarachnoid space, typically at the lumbar level, to collect cerebrospinal fluid or administer medications."

Echovirus infections refer to diseases caused by infection with an echovirus, which is a type of enterovirus. Echoviruses are named for their ability to cause “echo” diseases, or symptoms that resemble those caused by other viruses. They are typically spread through close contact with an infected person, such as through respiratory droplets or fecal-oral transmission.

Echovirus infections can cause a wide range of symptoms, depending on the specific strain of the virus and the age and overall health of the person infected. Some common symptoms include fever, rash, mouth sores, muscle aches, and respiratory symptoms such as cough and runny nose. In severe cases, echovirus infections can cause more serious complications, such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle), or pericarditis (inflammation of the lining around the heart).

Echovirus infections are typically diagnosed based on symptoms, as well as laboratory tests that can detect the presence of the virus in samples such as stool, throat swabs, or cerebrospinal fluid. Treatment for echovirus infections is generally supportive and aimed at managing symptoms, as there is no specific antiviral treatment available. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with people who are sick.

Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as the pneumococcus, is a gram-positive, alpha-hemolytic bacterium frequently found in the upper respiratory tract of healthy individuals. It is a leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia and can also cause other infectious diseases such as otitis media (ear infection), sinusitis, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection). The bacteria are encapsulated, and there are over 90 serotypes based on variations in the capsular polysaccharide. Some serotypes are more virulent or invasive than others, and the polysaccharide composition is crucial for vaccine development. S. pneumoniae infection can be treated with antibiotics, but the emergence of drug-resistant strains has become a significant global health concern.

Neisseria meningitidis is a Gram-negative, aerobic, bean-shaped diplococcus bacterium. It is one of the leading causes of bacterial meningitis and sepsis (known as meningococcal disease) worldwide. The bacteria can be found in the back of the nose and throat of approximately 10-25% of the general population, particularly in children, teenagers, and young adults, without causing any symptoms or illness. However, when the bacterium invades the bloodstream and spreads to the brain or spinal cord, it can lead to life-threatening infections such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord) and septicemia (blood poisoning).

Neisseria meningitidis is classified into 12 serogroups based on the chemical structure of their capsular polysaccharides. The six major serogroups that cause most meningococcal disease worldwide are A, B, C, W, X, and Y. Vaccines are available to protect against some or all of these serogroups.

Meningococcal disease can progress rapidly, leading to severe symptoms such as high fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, nausea, vomiting, and a rash consisting of purple or red spots. Immediate medical attention is required if someone experiences these symptoms, as meningococcal disease can cause permanent disabilities or death within hours if left untreated.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasitic nematode, also known as the rat lungworm, which can cause eosinophilic meningitis in humans. The life cycle of this parasite involves rats as the definitive host and various mollusks, such as snails and slugs, as intermediate hosts. Humans can become accidentally infected by consuming raw or undercooked mollusks, contaminated vegetables, or through accidental ingestion of larvae present on produce. The parasite then migrates to the central nervous system, causing inflammation and potentially severe neurological symptoms.

Ceftriaxone is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Ceftriaxone has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Ceftriaxone is available in injectable form and is commonly used to treat serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and sepsis. It is also used to prevent infections after surgery or trauma. The drug is generally well-tolerated, but it can cause side effects such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and rash. In rare cases, it may cause serious side effects such as anaphylaxis, kidney damage, and seizures.

It's important to note that Ceftriaxone should be used only under the supervision of a healthcare professional, and that it is not recommended for use in individuals with a history of allergic reactions to cephalosporins or penicillins. Additionally, as with all antibiotics, it should be taken as directed and for the full duration of the prescribed course of treatment, even if symptoms improve before the treatment is finished.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) proteins refer to the proteins present in the cerebrospinal fluid, which is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. The protein concentration in the CSF is much lower than that in the blood, and it contains a specific set of proteins that are produced by the brain, spinal cord, and associated tissues.

The normal range for CSF protein levels is typically between 15-45 mg/dL, although this can vary slightly depending on the laboratory's reference range. An elevation in CSF protein levels may indicate the presence of neurological disorders such as meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, or Guillain-Barre syndrome. Additionally, certain conditions such as spinal cord injury, brain tumors, or neurodegenerative diseases can also cause an increase in CSF protein levels.

Therefore, measuring CSF protein levels is an important diagnostic tool for neurologists to evaluate various neurological disorders and monitor disease progression. However, it's essential to interpret the results of CSF protein tests in conjunction with other clinical findings and laboratory test results to make an accurate diagnosis.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Niger" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in West Africa, officially known as the Republic of Niger. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, please provide more details and I would be happy to help.

Streptococcal infections are a type of infection caused by group A Streptococcus bacteria (Streptococcus pyogenes). These bacteria can cause a variety of illnesses, ranging from mild skin infections to serious and potentially life-threatening conditions such as sepsis, pneumonia, and necrotizing fasciitis (flesh-eating disease).

Some common types of streptococcal infections include:

* Streptococcal pharyngitis (strep throat) - an infection of the throat and tonsils that can cause sore throat, fever, and swollen lymph nodes.
* Impetigo - a highly contagious skin infection that causes sores or blisters on the skin.
* Cellulitis - a bacterial infection of the deeper layers of the skin and underlying tissue that can cause redness, swelling, pain, and warmth in the affected area.
* Scarlet fever - a streptococcal infection that causes a bright red rash on the body, high fever, and sore throat.
* Necrotizing fasciitis - a rare but serious bacterial infection that can cause tissue death and destruction of the muscles and fascia (the tissue that covers the muscles).

Treatment for streptococcal infections typically involves antibiotics to kill the bacteria causing the infection. It is important to seek medical attention if you suspect a streptococcal infection, as prompt treatment can help prevent serious complications.

The meninges are the protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. They consist of three layers: the dura mater (the outermost, toughest layer), the arachnoid mater (middle layer), and the pia mater (the innermost, delicate layer). These membranes provide protection and support to the central nervous system, and contain blood vessels that supply nutrients and remove waste products. Inflammation or infection of the meninges is called meningitis, which can be a serious medical condition requiring prompt treatment.

Neisseria meningitidis, Serogroup A is a subtype of the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis, also known as meningococcus. This bacterium can cause serious infections such as meningitis (inflammation of the lining surrounding the brain and spinal cord) and septicemia (bloodstream infection).

The serogroup A designation refers to the antigenic structure of the polysaccharide capsule that surrounds the bacterium. There are several serogroups of Neisseria meningitidis, including A, B, C, Y, and W. Each serogroup has a distinct polysaccharide capsule, which can be identified using specific antibodies.

Serogroup A Neisseria meningitidis is a significant cause of epidemic meningitis, particularly in the "meningitis belt" of sub-Saharan Africa. Vaccines are available to protect against serogroup A meningococcal disease, and mass vaccination campaigns have been successful in reducing the incidence of epidemics in this region.

Haemophilus influenzae is a gram-negative, coccobacillary bacterium that can cause a variety of infectious diseases in humans. It is part of the normal respiratory flora but can become pathogenic under certain circumstances. The bacteria are named after their initial discovery in 1892 by Richard Pfeiffer during an influenza pandemic, although they are not the causative agent of influenza.

There are six main serotypes (a-f) based on the polysaccharide capsule surrounding the bacterium, with type b (Hib) being the most virulent and invasive. Hib can cause severe invasive diseases such as meningitis, pneumonia, epiglottitis, and sepsis, particularly in children under 5 years of age. The introduction of the Hib conjugate vaccine has significantly reduced the incidence of these invasive diseases.

Non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) strains lack a capsule and are responsible for non-invasive respiratory tract infections, such as otitis media, sinusitis, and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). NTHi can also cause invasive diseases but at lower frequency compared to Hib.

Proper diagnosis and antibiotic susceptibility testing are crucial for effective treatment, as Haemophilus influenzae strains may display resistance to certain antibiotics.

Meningoencephalitis is a medical term that refers to an inflammation of both the brain (encephalitis) and the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges), known as the meninges. It is often caused by an infection, such as bacterial or viral infections, that spreads to the meninges and brain. In some cases, it can also be caused by other factors like autoimmune disorders or certain medications.

The symptoms of meningoencephalitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, and changes in mental status. If left untreated, this condition can lead to serious complications, such as brain damage, hearing loss, learning disabilities, or even death. Treatment typically involves antibiotics for bacterial infections or antiviral medications for viral infections, along with supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Streptococcus agalactiae, also known as Group B Streptococcus (GBS), is a type of bacteria that commonly colonizes the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts of humans. It is Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, and forms chains when viewed under the microscope.

While S. agalactiae can be carried asymptomatically by many adults, it can cause serious infections in newborns, pregnant women, elderly individuals, and people with weakened immune systems. In newborns, GBS can lead to sepsis, pneumonia, and meningitis, which can result in long-term health complications or even be fatal if left untreated.

Pregnant women are often screened for GBS colonization during the third trimester of pregnancy, and those who test positive may receive intrapartum antibiotics to reduce the risk of transmission to their newborns during delivery.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

Enterovirus infections are viral illnesses caused by enteroviruses, which are a type of picornavirus. These viruses commonly infect the gastrointestinal tract and can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the specific type of enterovirus and the age and overall health of the infected individual.

There are over 100 different types of enteroviruses, including polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses such as EV-D68 and EV-A71. Some enterovirus infections may be asymptomatic or cause only mild symptoms, while others can lead to more severe illnesses.

Common symptoms of enterovirus infections include fever, sore throat, runny nose, cough, muscle aches, and skin rashes. In some cases, enteroviruses can cause more serious complications such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle), and paralysis.

Enterovirus infections are typically spread through close contact with an infected person, such as through respiratory droplets or fecal-oral transmission. They can also be spread through contaminated surfaces or objects. Preventive measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with sick individuals.

There are no specific antiviral treatments for enterovirus infections, and most cases resolve on their own within a few days to a week. However, severe cases may require hospitalization and supportive care, such as fluids and medication to manage symptoms. Prevention efforts include vaccination against poliovirus and surveillance for emerging enteroviruses.

'Cryptococcus neoformans' is a species of encapsulated, budding yeast that is an important cause of fungal infections in humans and animals. The capsule surrounding the cell wall is composed of polysaccharides and is a key virulence factor, allowing the organism to evade host immune responses. C. neoformans is found worldwide in soil, particularly in association with bird droppings, and can be inhaled, leading to pulmonary infection. In people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, hematological malignancies, or organ transplants, C. neoformans can disseminate from the lungs to other sites, most commonly the central nervous system (CNS), causing meningitis. The infection can also affect other organs, including the skin, bones, and eyes.

The diagnosis of cryptococcosis typically involves microscopic examination and culture of clinical specimens, such as sputum, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), followed by biochemical and molecular identification of the organism. Treatment usually consists of a combination of antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B and fluconazole, along with management of any underlying immunodeficiency. The prognosis of cryptococcosis depends on various factors, including the patient's immune status, the extent and severity of infection, and the timeliness and adequacy of treatment.

Serotyping is a laboratory technique used to classify microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the specific antigens or proteins present on their surface. It involves treating the microorganism with different types of antibodies and observing which ones bind to its surface. Each distinct set of antigens corresponds to a specific serotype, allowing for precise identification and characterization of the microorganism. This technique is particularly useful in epidemiology, vaccine development, and infection control.

Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) is a bacterial subtype that can cause serious infections, particularly in children under 5 years of age. Although its name may be confusing, Hib is not the cause of influenza (the flu). It is defined medically as a gram-negative, coccobacillary bacterium that is a member of the family Pasteurellaceae.

Hib is responsible for several severe and potentially life-threatening infections such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), epiglottitis (swelling of the tissue located at the base of the tongue that can block the windpipe), pneumonia, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection).

Before the introduction of the Hib vaccine in the 1980s and 1990s, Haemophilus influenzae type b was a leading cause of bacterial meningitis in children under 5 years old. Since then, the incidence of invasive Hib disease has decreased dramatically in vaccinated populations.

Enterovirus B, Human (HEVB) is a type of enterovirus that infects humans. Enteroviruses are small viruses that belong to the Picornaviridae family and are named after the Greek word "pico" meaning small. They are further classified into several species, including Human Enterovirus B (HEV-B).

HEVB includes several serotypes, such as Coxsackievirus A9, A16, and B types, and Echoviruses. These viruses are typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route or respiratory droplets and can cause a range of illnesses, from mild symptoms like fever, rash, and sore throat to more severe diseases such as meningitis, myocarditis, and paralysis.

HEVB infections are common worldwide, and people of all ages can be affected. However, young children and individuals with weakened immune systems are at higher risk for severe illness. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. There is no specific treatment for HEVB infections, and most cases resolve on their own within a few days to a week. However, hospitalization may be necessary for severe cases.

Echovirus 9 is a type of enterovirus, which is a single-stranded RNA virus that can infect humans. The name "echovirus" stands for "enteric cytopathic human orphan virus," as these viruses were initially discovered in the intestines and were not known to cause any specific diseases. However, it is now known that some echoviruses, including echovirus 9, can cause a range of illnesses, particularly in children.

Echovirus 9 is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, usually through contaminated food or water. Once inside the body, the virus can infect various organs and tissues, including the respiratory system, central nervous system, and skin.

The symptoms of echovirus 9 infection can vary widely depending on the age and overall health of the infected person, as well as the severity of the infection. In some cases, people may not experience any symptoms at all. However, in others, the virus can cause a range of illnesses, including:

* Common cold-like symptoms, such as runny nose, sore throat, and cough
* Fever and fatigue
* Skin rashes or mouth ulcers
* Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain
* Neurological symptoms, such as meningitis, encephalitis, or paralysis

In severe cases, echovirus 9 infection can lead to serious complications, particularly in people with weakened immune systems. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as fluids and medication to manage fever and pain. There is no specific antiviral treatment for echovirus 9 infection. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding contact with sick individuals.

Meningeal carcinomatosis, also known as leptomeningeal metastasis or neoplastic meningitis, is a medical condition characterized by the spread of cancer cells to the meninges, which are the thin layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord.

In this condition, cancer cells from a primary tumor or metastatic cancer elsewhere in the body invade the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and spread throughout the meningeal spaces, causing inflammation and damage to the surrounding tissues. This can result in various neurological symptoms such as headache, nausea, vomiting, seizures, confusion, weakness, or paralysis, depending on the location of the cancer cells in the meninges.

Meningeal carcinomatosis is a serious and often life-threatening complication of advanced cancer, with a poor prognosis and limited treatment options. It can occur in various types of cancer, including lung, breast, melanoma, and hematological malignancies such as leukemia and lymphoma. Early diagnosis and prompt treatment are crucial to improve the quality of life and prolong survival in affected patients.

Streptococcus suis is a Gram-positive, beta-hemolytic streptococcus that is a significant pathogen in pig populations worldwide. It can cause a variety of clinical manifestations in pigs, including meningitis, arthritis, endocarditis, and septicemia. Transmission to humans can occur through contact with infected pigs or contaminated pork products, resulting in diseases such as meningitis, sepsis, endocarditis, and arthritis. There are 35 serotypes of S. suis, but only a few (including serotypes 1, 2, 4, 5, 9, 14, 16, 21, 24, and 31) are commonly associated with disease in pigs and humans.

Ampicillin is a penicillin-type antibiotic used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which are essential for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die.

The medical definition of Ampicillin is:

"A semi-synthetic penicillin antibiotic, derived from the Penicillium mold. It is used to treat a variety of infections caused by susceptible gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin is effective against both aerobic and anaerobic organisms. It is commonly used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, and endocarditis."

It's important to note that Ampicillin is not effective against infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or other bacteria that have developed resistance to penicillins. Additionally, overuse of antibiotics like Ampicillin can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, which is a significant public health concern.

Leukocytosis is a condition characterized by an increased number of leukocytes (white blood cells) in the peripheral blood. A normal white blood cell count ranges from 4,500 to 11,000 cells per microliter of blood in adults. Leukocytosis is typically considered present when the white blood cell count exceeds 11,000 cells/µL. However, the definition might vary slightly depending on the laboratory and clinical context.

Leukocytosis can be a response to various underlying conditions, including bacterial or viral infections, inflammation, tissue damage, leukemia, and other hematological disorders. It is essential to investigate the cause of leukocytosis through further diagnostic tests, such as blood smears, differential counts, and additional laboratory and imaging studies, to guide appropriate treatment.

Cryptococcosis is a fungal infection caused by the yeast-like fungus Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii. It can affect people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, organ transplants, or long-term steroid use. The infection typically starts in the lungs and can spread to other parts of the body, including the brain (meningitis), causing various symptoms like cough, fever, chest pain, headache, confusion, and vision problems. Treatment usually involves antifungal medications, and the prognosis depends on the patient's immune status and the severity of the infection.

Strongylida infections are a group of parasitic diseases caused by roundworms that belong to the order Strongylida. These nematodes infect various hosts, including humans, causing different clinical manifestations depending on the specific species involved. Here are some examples:

1. Strongyloidiasis: This is an infection caused by the nematode Strongyloides stercoralis. The parasite can penetrate the skin and migrate to the lungs and small intestine, causing respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms such as cough, wheezing, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. In immunocompromised individuals, the infection can become severe and disseminated, leading to systemic illness and even death.
2. Hookworm infections: The hookworms Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus infect humans through skin contact with contaminated soil. The larvae migrate to the lungs and then to the small intestine, where they attach to the intestinal wall and feed on blood. Heavy infections can cause anemia, protein loss, and developmental delays in children.
3. Trichostrongyliasis: This is a group of infections caused by various species of nematodes that infect the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals. The parasites can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, diarrhea, and anemia.
4. Toxocariasis: This is an infection caused by the roundworms Toxocara canis or Toxocara cati, which infect dogs and cats, respectively. Humans can become infected through accidental ingestion of contaminated soil or food. The larvae migrate to various organs such as the liver, lungs, and eyes, causing symptoms such as fever, cough, abdominal pain, and vision loss.

Preventive measures for Strongylida infections include personal hygiene, proper sanitation, and avoidance of contact with contaminated soil or water. Treatment usually involves antiparasitic drugs such as albendazole or ivermectin, depending on the specific infection and severity of symptoms.

The subarachnoid space is the area between the arachnoid mater and pia mater, which are two of the three membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (the third one being the dura mater). This space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which provides protection and cushioning to the central nervous system. The subarachnoid space also contains blood vessels that supply the brain and spinal cord with oxygen and nutrients. It's important to note that subarachnoid hemorrhage, a type of stroke, can occur when there is bleeding into this space.

Hydrocephalus is a medical condition characterized by an abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the brain, leading to an increase in intracranial pressure and potentially causing damage to the brain tissues. This excessive buildup of CSF can result from either overproduction or impaired absorption of the fluid, which typically causes the ventricles (fluid-filled spaces) inside the brain to expand and put pressure on surrounding brain structures.

The condition can be congenital, present at birth due to genetic factors or abnormalities during fetal development, or acquired later in life as a result of injuries, infections, tumors, or other disorders affecting the brain's ability to regulate CSF flow and absorption. Symptoms may vary depending on age, severity, and duration but often include headaches, vomiting, balance problems, vision issues, cognitive impairment, and changes in behavior or personality.

Treatment for hydrocephalus typically involves surgically implanting a shunt system that diverts the excess CSF from the brain to another part of the body where it can be absorbed, such as the abdominal cavity. In some cases, endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) might be an alternative treatment option, creating a new pathway for CSF flow within the brain. Regular follow-ups with neurosurgeons and other healthcare professionals are essential to monitor the condition and make any necessary adjustments to the treatment plan.

Coccidioidomycosis is a fungal infection caused by the inhalation of spores of the Coccidioides species, mainly C. immitis and C. posadasii. These fungi are commonly found in the soil of dry regions such as the southwestern United States, Mexico, and Central and South America.

The infection often begins when a person inhales the microscopic spores, which can lead to respiratory symptoms resembling a common cold or pneumonia. Some people may develop more severe symptoms, especially those with weakened immune systems. The infection can disseminate to other parts of the body, causing skin lesions, bone and joint inflammation, meningitis, or other complications in rare cases.

Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and laboratory tests such as fungal cultures, histopathological examination, or serological tests to detect antibodies against Coccidioides antigens. Treatment depends on the severity of the infection and the patient's immune status. Antifungal medications like fluconazole, itraconazole, or amphotericin B are commonly used for treating coccidioidomycosis. Preventive measures include avoiding inhaling dust in endemic areas, especially during excavation or construction activities.

Cefotaxime is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Cefotaxime has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Cefotaxime is often used to treat serious infections such as pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. It may also be used to prevent infections during surgery or in people with weakened immune systems. The drug is administered intravenously or intramuscularly, and its dosage depends on the type and severity of the infection being treated.

Like all antibiotics, cefotaxime can cause side effects, including diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and rash. In rare cases, it may cause serious allergic reactions or damage to the kidneys or liver. It is important to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking this medication.

A disease outbreak is defined as the occurrence of cases of a disease in excess of what would normally be expected in a given time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or a large number of people spread over a wide area, even internationally. An outbreak may be caused by a new agent, a change in the agent's virulence or host susceptibility, or an increase in the size or density of the host population.

Outbreaks can have significant public health and economic impacts, and require prompt investigation and control measures to prevent further spread of the disease. The investigation typically involves identifying the source of the outbreak, determining the mode of transmission, and implementing measures to interrupt the chain of infection. This may include vaccination, isolation or quarantine, and education of the public about the risks and prevention strategies.

Examples of disease outbreaks include foodborne illnesses linked to contaminated food or water, respiratory infections spread through coughing and sneezing, and mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika virus and West Nile virus. Outbreaks can also occur in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes, where vulnerable populations may be at increased risk of infection.

Antifungal agents are a type of medication used to treat and prevent fungal infections. These agents work by targeting and disrupting the growth of fungi, which include yeasts, molds, and other types of fungi that can cause illness in humans.

There are several different classes of antifungal agents, including:

1. Azoles: These agents work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes. Examples of azole antifungals include fluconazole, itraconazole, and voriconazole.
2. Echinocandins: These agents target the fungal cell wall, disrupting its synthesis and leading to fungal cell death. Examples of echinocandins include caspofungin, micafungin, and anidulafungin.
3. Polyenes: These agents bind to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, creating pores that lead to fungal cell death. Examples of polyene antifungals include amphotericin B and nystatin.
4. Allylamines: These agents inhibit squalene epoxidase, a key enzyme in ergosterol synthesis. Examples of allylamine antifungals include terbinafine and naftifine.
5. Griseofulvin: This agent disrupts fungal cell division by binding to tubulin, a protein involved in fungal cell mitosis.

Antifungal agents can be administered topically, orally, or intravenously, depending on the severity and location of the infection. It is important to use antifungal agents only as directed by a healthcare professional, as misuse or overuse can lead to resistance and make treatment more difficult.

Meningeal neoplasms, also known as malignant meningitis or leptomeningeal carcinomatosis, refer to cancerous tumors that originate in the meninges, which are the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. These tumors can arise primarily from the meningeal cells themselves, although they more commonly result from the spread (metastasis) of cancer cells from other parts of the body, such as breast, lung, or melanoma.

Meningeal neoplasms can cause a variety of symptoms, including headaches, nausea and vomiting, mental status changes, seizures, and focal neurological deficits. Diagnosis typically involves imaging studies (such as MRI) and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid obtained through a spinal tap. Treatment options may include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or surgery, depending on the type and extent of the tumor. The prognosis for patients with meningeal neoplasms is generally poor, with a median survival time of several months to a year.

Pneumococcal infections are illnesses caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. This bacterium can infect different parts of the body, including the lungs (pneumonia), blood (bacteremia or sepsis), and the covering of the brain and spinal cord (meningitis). Pneumococcal infections can also cause ear infections and sinus infections. The bacteria spread through close contact with an infected person, who may spread the bacteria by coughing or sneezing. People with weakened immune systems, children under 2 years of age, adults over 65, and those with certain medical conditions are at increased risk for developing pneumococcal infections.

An enterovirus is a type of virus that primarily infects the gastrointestinal tract. There are over 100 different types of enteroviruses, including polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses such as EV-D68 and EV-A71. These viruses are typically spread through close contact with an infected person, or by consuming food or water contaminated with the virus.

While many people infected with enteroviruses may not experience any symptoms, some may develop mild to severe illnesses such as hand, foot and mouth disease, herpangina, meningitis, encephalitis, myocarditis, and paralysis (in case of poliovirus). Infection can occur in people of all ages, but young children are more susceptible to infection and severe illness.

Prevention measures include practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently with soap and water, avoiding close contact with sick individuals, and not sharing food or drinks with someone who is ill. There are also vaccines available to prevent poliovirus infection.

AIDS-related opportunistic infections (AROIs) are infections that occur more frequently or are more severe in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with advanced HIV infection or AIDS. These infections take advantage of a weakened immune system and can affect various organs and systems in the body.

Common examples of AROIs include:

1. Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), caused by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii
2. Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection, caused by a type of bacteria called mycobacteria
3. Candidiasis, a fungal infection that can affect various parts of the body, including the mouth, esophagus, and genitals
4. Toxoplasmosis, caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii
5. Cryptococcosis, a fungal infection that affects the lungs and central nervous system
6. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, caused by a type of herpes virus
7. Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
8. Cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic infection that affects the intestines
9. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a viral infection that affects the brain

Preventing and treating AROIs is an important part of managing HIV/AIDS, as they can cause significant illness and even death in people with weakened immune systems. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is used to treat HIV infection and prevent the progression of HIV to AIDS, which can help reduce the risk of opportunistic infections. In addition, medications to prevent specific opportunistic infections may be prescribed for people with advanced HIV or AIDS.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Togo" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country in West Africa, known officially as the Togolese Republic. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, please don't hesitate to ask!

I apologize for any confusion, but "Burkina Faso" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country located in West Africa. The name "Burkina Faso" translates to "Land of Incorruptible People" in Mossi and Dioula, two languages spoken in the region. The country was known as Upper Volta when it gained independence from France in 1960. It was renamed Burkina Faso in 1984 by then-President Thomas Sankara, who aimed to promote a sense of national identity and unity among the diverse population.

Burkina Faso is a landlocked country with a population of around 21 million people (as of 2021). It shares borders with six countries: Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Côte d'Ivoire to the southwest. The capital city is Ouagadougou.

The primary languages spoken in Burkina Faso are French (the official language), Mooré, Dioula, Fula, and Gourmanchéma. The country has a diverse cultural heritage with numerous ethnic groups, including the Mossi, Fulani, Bobo, Gurunsi, Senufo, and Lobi.

Burkina Faso faces various challenges, such as poverty, food insecurity, limited access to education, and health issues like malaria, HIV/AIDS, and neglected tropical diseases. The country also struggles with political instability and security threats from extremist groups operating in the Sahel region.

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to an infection injures its own tissues and organs. It is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (systemic inflammation) that can lead to blood clotting issues, tissue damage, and multiple organ failure.

Sepsis happens when an infection you already have triggers a chain reaction throughout your body. Infections that lead to sepsis most often start in the lungs, urinary tract, skin, or gastrointestinal tract.

Sepsis is a medical emergency. If you suspect sepsis, seek immediate medical attention. Early recognition and treatment of sepsis are crucial to improve outcomes. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and may require oxygen, medication to raise blood pressure, and corticosteroids. In severe cases, surgery may be required to clear the infection.

Neisseria meningitidis, Serogroup W-135 is a subtype of the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis, also known as meningococcus. This gram-negative diplococcus is a leading cause of bacterial meningitis and sepsis worldwide. The serogroups of N. meningitidis are defined based on the chemical structure of their capsular polysaccharides, which are essential virulence factors.

Serogroup W-135 is one of the six primary serogroups (A, B, C, W, X, and Y) that account for nearly all meningococcal disease cases globally. The W-135 serogroup has been associated with several outbreaks and sporadic cases of meningitis and sepsis, particularly in the African "meningitis belt," which stretches across the continent from Senegal to Ethiopia. However, it can also cause disease in other parts of the world, including Europe, America, and Asia.

The W-135 serogroup has been a concern due to its association with travel and pilgrimages, such as the Hajj in Saudi Arabia. The Hajj-associated meningococcal disease outbreaks led to the introduction of vaccination requirements for international travelers attending the pilgrimage.

Vaccines are available to protect against N. meningitidis Serogroup W-135, and they are often combined with other serogroups (e.g., MenACWY or MenQuad) to provide broader protection against multiple serogroups. These vaccines have been instrumental in controlling outbreaks and reducing the overall burden of meningococcal disease worldwide.

'Cryptococcus' is a genus of encapsulated, budding yeast that are found in the environment, particularly in soil and bird droppings. The most common species that causes infection in humans is Cryptococcus neoformans, followed by Cryptococcus gattii.

Infection with Cryptococcus can occur when a person inhales the microscopic yeast cells, which can then lead to lung infections (pneumonia) or disseminated disease, particularly in people with weakened immune systems. The most common form of disseminated cryptococcal infection is meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Cryptococcal infections can be serious and even life-threatening, especially in individuals with HIV/AIDS or other conditions that weaken the immune system. Treatment typically involves antifungal medications, such as amphotericin B and fluconazole.

Meningococcal infections are caused by the bacterium Neisseria meningitidis, also known as meningococcus. These infections can take several forms, but the most common are meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord) and septicemia (bloodstream infection). Meningococcal infections are contagious and can spread through respiratory droplets or close contact with an infected person. They can be serious and potentially life-threatening, requiring prompt medical attention and treatment with antibiotics. Symptoms of meningococcal meningitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, and sensitivity to light, while symptoms of septicemia may include fever, chills, rash, and severe muscle pain. Vaccination is available to prevent certain strains of meningococcal disease.

Flucytosine is an antifungal medication used to treat serious and life-threatening fungal infections, such as cryptococcal meningitis and candidiasis. It works by interfering with the production of DNA and RNA in the fungal cells, which inhibits their growth and reproduction.

The medical definition of Flucytosine is:

A synthetic fluorinated pyrimidine nucleoside analogue that is converted to fluorouracil after uptake into susceptible fungal cells. It is used as an antifungal agent in the treatment of serious systemic fungal infections, particularly those caused by Candida and Cryptococcus neoformans. Flucytosine has both fungistatic and fungicidal activity, depending on the concentration achieved at the site of infection and the susceptibility of the organism.

Flucytosine is available in oral form and is often used in combination with other antifungal agents to increase its effectiveness and prevent the development of resistance. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and bone marrow suppression. Regular monitoring of blood counts and liver function tests is necessary during treatment to detect any potential toxicity.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) rhinorrhea is a condition where the cerebrospinal fluid, which surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord, leaks through the nasal cavity. This occurs due to a defect or opening in the skull base or the thin bone that separates the brain from the nasal cavity, known as the cribriform plate.

CSF rhinorrhea can result from trauma, surgery, or spontaneously due to increased pressure in the brain. It is important to diagnose and treat this condition promptly because it increases the risk of meningitis, an infection of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. Treatment options include bed rest, hydration, stool softeners, and sometimes surgical repair of the defect.

Fluconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat and prevent various fungal infections, such as candidiasis (yeast infections), cryptococcal meningitis, and other fungal infections that affect the mouth, throat, blood, lungs, genital area, and other parts of the body. It works by inhibiting the growth of fungi that cause these infections. Fluconazole is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and intravenous (IV) solutions, and is typically prescribed to be taken once daily.

The medical definition of Fluconazole can be found in pharmacological or medical dictionaries, which describe it as a triazole antifungal agent that inhibits fungal cytochrome P450-dependent synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of the fungal cell membrane. This results in increased permeability and leakage of cellular contents, ultimately leading to fungal death. Fluconazole has a broad spectrum of activity against various fungi, including Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus, and others.

It is important to note that while Fluconazole is an effective antifungal medication, it may have side effects and interactions with other medications. Therefore, it should only be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Meningococcal vaccines are vaccines that protect against Neisseria meningitidis, a type of bacteria that can cause serious infections such as meningitis (inflammation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord) and septicemia (bloodstream infection). There are several types of meningococcal vaccines available, including conjugate vaccines and polysaccharide vaccines. These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against the different serogroups of N. meningitidis, including A, B, C, Y, and W-135. The specific type of vaccine used and the number of doses required may depend on a person's age, health status, and other factors. Meningococcal vaccines are recommended for certain high-risk populations, such as infants, young children, adolescents, and people with certain medical conditions, as well as for travelers to areas where meningococcal disease is common.

Intracranial pressure (ICP) is the pressure inside the skull and is typically measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). It's the measurement of the pressure exerted by the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), blood, and brain tissue within the confined space of the skull.

Normal ICP ranges from 5 to 15 mmHg in adults when lying down. Intracranial pressure may increase due to various reasons such as bleeding in the brain, swelling of the brain, increased production or decreased absorption of CSF, and brain tumors. Elevated ICP is a serious medical emergency that can lead to brain damage or even death if not promptly treated. Symptoms of high ICP may include severe headache, vomiting, altered consciousness, and visual changes.

The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) is a highly specialized, selective interface between the central nervous system (CNS) and the circulating blood. It is formed by unique endothelial cells that line the brain's capillaries, along with tight junctions, astrocytic foot processes, and pericytes, which together restrict the passage of substances from the bloodstream into the CNS. This barrier serves to protect the brain from harmful agents and maintain a stable environment for proper neural function. However, it also poses a challenge in delivering therapeutics to the CNS, as most large and hydrophilic molecules cannot cross the BBB.

Arachnoiditis is a medical condition that affects the arachnoid, one of the membranes that surround and protect the nerves of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord). The arachnoid becomes inflamed, often as a result of infection, direct injury, or complications from spinal surgery or chronic exposure to irritants such as steroids or contrast dyes.

The inflammation can cause the formation of scar tissue, which can lead to a variety of symptoms including:

1. Chronic pain in the back, legs, or arms
2. Numbness, tingling, or weakness in the limbs
3. Muscle cramps and spasms
4. Bladder and bowel dysfunction
5. Sexual dysfunction

In severe cases, arachnoiditis can cause permanent nerve damage and disability. Treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms and improving quality of life, as there is no cure for the condition.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is a medical condition that occurs when bacteria from another source, such as an infection in another part of the body, enter the bloodstream. Bacteremia can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and rapid heart rate, and it can lead to serious complications such as sepsis if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

Bacteremia is often a result of an infection elsewhere in the body that allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream. This can happen through various routes, such as during medical procedures, intravenous (IV) drug use, or from infected wounds or devices that come into contact with the bloodstream. In some cases, bacteremia may also occur without any obvious source of infection.

It is important to note that not all bacteria in the bloodstream cause harm, and some people may have bacteria in their blood without showing any symptoms. However, if bacteria in the bloodstream multiply and cause an immune response, it can lead to bacteremia and potentially serious complications.

Haemophilus infections are caused by bacteria named Haemophilus influenzae. Despite its name, this bacterium does not cause the flu, which is caused by a virus. There are several different strains of Haemophilus influenzae, and some are more likely to cause severe illness than others.

Haemophilus infections can affect people of any age, but they are most common in children under 5 years old. The bacteria can cause a range of infections, from mild ear infections to serious conditions such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord) and pneumonia (infection of the lungs).

The bacterium is spread through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. It can also be spread by touching contaminated surfaces and then touching the mouth, nose, or eyes.

Prevention measures include good hygiene practices such as handwashing, covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. Vaccination is also available to protect against Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) infections, which are the most severe and common form of Haemophilus infection.

'Cronobacter sakazakii' is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is part of the Enterobacteriaceae family. It is an opportunistic pathogen capable of causing severe invasive infections such as meningitis and sepsis, particularly in newborns, infants, and immunocompromised individuals. The bacterium has been found in various environmental sources, including dried foods like powdered infant formula, herbs, and spices. Proper hygiene practices and the safe handling, preparation, and storage of food and feeding utensils can help prevent Cronobacter sakazakii infections.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Amphotericin B is an antifungal medication used to treat serious and often life-threatening fungal infections. It works by binding to the ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, creating pores that lead to the loss of essential cell components and ultimately cell death.

The medical definition of Amphotericin B is:

A polyene antifungal agent derived from Streptomyces nodosus, with a broad spectrum of activity against various fungi, including Candida, Aspergillus, Cryptococcus, and Histoplasma capsulatum. Amphotericin B is used to treat systemic fungal infections, such as histoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, candidiasis, and aspergillosis, among others. It may be administered intravenously or topically, depending on the formulation and the site of infection.

Adverse effects associated with Amphotericin B include infusion-related reactions (such as fever, chills, and hypotension), nephrotoxicity, electrolyte imbalances, and anemia. These side effects are often dose-dependent and may be managed through careful monitoring and adjustment of the dosing regimen.

Lyme neuroborreliosis (LNB) is a specific neurological manifestation of Lyme borreliosis, which is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi. It is characterized by inflammation of the nervous system, particularly the peripheral and central nervous systems.

Involvement of the peripheral nervous system can present as radiculoneuropathy or cranial neuritis, leading to symptoms such as radiating pain, paresthesia, muscle weakness, and/or sensory loss in the affected areas. Involvement of the central nervous system may result in meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), or myelitis (inflammation of the spinal cord). These manifestations can cause symptoms such as headache, stiff neck, cognitive impairment, memory loss, mood changes, sleep disturbances, and, in rare cases, seizures.

LNB is typically diagnosed based on a combination of clinical presentation, laboratory tests (such as serological analysis or CSF examination), and sometimes supported by imaging studies. Treatment usually involves antibiotic therapy, which can be administered either orally or intravenously, depending on the severity and extent of the infection. Early diagnosis and treatment significantly improve the prognosis for LNB patients.

A meningocele is a type of neural tube defect that results in the herniation of the meninges (the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord) through a defect in the vertebral column. The meninges protrude as a sac-like structure, which may be covered by skin or a thin layer of tissue. Meningoceles usually do not contain neural tissue, but cerebrospinal fluid is present within the sac. They are typically asymptomatic unless there is compression of surrounding structures or infection. Treatment generally involves surgical repair to prevent potential complications such as meningitis or neurological damage.

Penicillin resistance is the ability of certain bacteria to withstand the antibacterial effects of penicillin, a type of antibiotic. This occurs when these bacteria have developed mechanisms that prevent penicillin from binding to and inhibiting the function of their cell wall biosynthesis proteins, particularly the enzyme transpeptidase.

One common mechanism of penicillin resistance is the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can hydrolyze and inactivate the beta-lactam ring structure present in penicillin and other related antibiotics. Another mechanism involves alterations in the bacterial cell wall that prevent penicillin from binding to its target proteins.

Penicillin resistance is a significant concern in clinical settings, as it can limit treatment options for bacterial infections and may necessitate the use of more potent or toxic antibiotics. It is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including those resistant to penicillin.

A brain abscess is a localized collection of pus in the brain that is caused by an infection. It can develop as a result of a bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infection that spreads to the brain from another part of the body or from an infection that starts in the brain itself (such as from a head injury or surgery).

The symptoms of a brain abscess may include headache, fever, confusion, seizures, weakness or numbness on one side of the body, and changes in vision, speech, or behavior. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to treat the infection, as well as surgical drainage of the abscess to relieve pressure on the brain.

It is a serious medical condition that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent potentially life-threatening complications such as brain herniation or permanent neurological damage.

Haemophilus vaccines are vaccines that are designed to protect against Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), a bacterium that can cause serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and epiglottitis. There are two main types of Hib vaccines:

1. Polysaccharide vaccine: This type of vaccine is made from the sugar coating (polysaccharide) of the bacterial cells. It is not effective in children under 2 years of age because their immune systems are not yet mature enough to respond effectively to this type of vaccine.
2. Conjugate vaccine: This type of vaccine combines the polysaccharide with a protein carrier, which helps to stimulate a stronger and more sustained immune response. It is effective in infants as young as 6 weeks old.

Hib vaccines are usually given as part of routine childhood immunizations starting at 2 months of age. They are administered through an injection into the muscle. The vaccine is safe and effective, with few side effects. Vaccination against Hib has led to a significant reduction in the incidence of Hib infections worldwide.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Miliary tuberculosis is a disseminated form of tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The term "miliary" refers to the tiny millet-like size (2-5 microns in diameter) of the TB foci observed in the lungs or other organs during autopsy or on imaging studies. In military tuberculosis, these small granules are widespread throughout the body, affecting multiple organs such as the lungs, liver, spleen, bones, and brain. It can occur in people with weakened immune systems, including those with HIV/AIDS, or in individuals who have recently been infected with TB bacteria. Symptoms may include fever, night sweats, weight loss, fatigue, and cough. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent severe complications and improve outcomes.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Pneumococcal vaccines are immunizing agents that protect against infections caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. These vaccines help to prevent several types of diseases, including pneumonia, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection).

There are two main types of pneumococcal vaccines available:

1. Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV): This vaccine is recommended for children under 2 years old, adults aged 65 and older, and people with certain medical conditions that increase their risk of pneumococcal infections. PCV protects against 13 or 20 serotypes (strains) of Streptococcus pneumoniae, depending on the formulation (PCV13 or PCV20).
2. Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine (PPSV): This vaccine is recommended for adults aged 65 and older, children and adults with specific medical conditions, and smokers. PPSV protects against 23 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that recognize and fight off the bacteria if an individual comes into contact with it in the future. Both types of pneumococcal vaccines have been proven to be safe and effective in preventing severe pneumococcal diseases.

Encephalitis is defined as inflammation of the brain parenchyma, which is often caused by viral infections but can also be due to bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections, autoimmune disorders, or exposure to toxins. The infection or inflammation can cause various symptoms such as headache, fever, confusion, seizures, and altered consciousness, ranging from mild symptoms to severe cases that can lead to brain damage, long-term disabilities, or even death.

The diagnosis of encephalitis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT scans), and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis). Treatment may include antiviral medications, corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Cranial nerve diseases refer to conditions that affect the cranial nerves, which are a set of 12 pairs of nerves that originate from the brainstem and control various functions in the head and neck. These functions include vision, hearing, taste, smell, movement of the eyes and face, and sensation in the face.

Diseases of the cranial nerves can result from a variety of causes, including injury, infection, inflammation, tumors, or degenerative conditions. The specific symptoms that a person experiences will depend on which cranial nerve is affected and how severely it is damaged.

For example, damage to the optic nerve (cranial nerve II) can cause vision loss or visual disturbances, while damage to the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) can result in weakness or paralysis of the face. Other common symptoms of cranial nerve diseases include pain, numbness, tingling, and hearing loss.

Treatment for cranial nerve diseases varies depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. In some cases, medication or surgery may be necessary to treat the underlying cause and relieve symptoms. Physical therapy or rehabilitation may also be recommended to help individuals regain function and improve their quality of life.

Sphenoid sinusitis is a medical condition characterized by the inflammation or infection of the sphenoid sinuses, which are air-filled cavities located in the sphenoid bone at the center of the skull base, behind the eyes. These sinuses are relatively small and difficult to access, making infections less common than in other sinuses. However, when sphenoid sinusitis does occur, it can cause various symptoms such as headaches, facial pain, nasal congestion, fever, and vision problems. Sphenoid sinusitis may result from bacterial or fungal infections, allergies, or autoimmune disorders. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies like CT scans, and sometimes endoscopic examination. Treatment options include antibiotics for bacterial infections, antifungal medications for fungal infections, nasal sprays, decongestants, pain relievers, and, in severe or recurrent cases, surgical intervention.

Penicillins are a group of antibiotics derived from the Penicillium fungus. They are widely used to treat various bacterial infections due to their bactericidal activity, which means they kill bacteria by interfering with the synthesis of their cell walls. The first penicillin, benzylpenicillin (also known as penicillin G), was discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming. Since then, numerous semi-synthetic penicillins have been developed to expand the spectrum of activity and stability against bacterial enzymes that can inactivate these drugs.

Penicillins are classified into several groups based on their chemical structure and spectrum of activity:

1. Natural Penicillins (e.g., benzylpenicillin, phenoxymethylpenicillin): These have a narrow spectrum of activity, mainly targeting Gram-positive bacteria such as streptococci and staphylococci. However, they are susceptible to degradation by beta-lactamase enzymes produced by some bacteria.
2. Penicillinase-resistant Penicillins (e.g., methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin): These penicillins resist degradation by certain bacterial beta-lactamases and are primarily used to treat infections caused by staphylococci, including methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA).
3. Aminopenicillins (e.g., ampicillin, amoxicillin): These penicillins have an extended spectrum of activity compared to natural penicillins, including some Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. However, they are still susceptible to degradation by many beta-lactamases.
4. Antipseudomonal Penicillins (e.g., carbenicillin, ticarcillin): These penicillins have activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other Gram-negative bacteria with increased resistance to other antibiotics. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate or tazobactam to protect them from degradation.
5. Extended-spectrum Penicillins (e.g., piperacillin): These penicillins have a broad spectrum of activity, including many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to protect them from degradation.

Penicillins are generally well-tolerated antibiotics; however, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, ranging from mild skin rashes to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Cross-reactivity between different penicillin classes and other beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., cephalosporins) is possible but varies depending on the specific drugs involved.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIEP) is a laboratory technique used in the field of immunology and serology for the identification and detection of antigens or antibodies in a sample. It is a type of electrophoretic technique that involves the migration of antigens and antibodies in an electric field towards each other, resulting in the formation of a precipitin line at the point where they meet and react.

In CIEP, the antigen is placed in the gel matrix in a trough or well, while the antibody is placed in a separate trough located perpendicularly to the antigen trough. An electric current is then applied, causing both the antigens and antibodies to migrate towards each other through the gel matrix. When they meet, they form a precipitin line, which can be visualized as a white band or line in the gel.

CIEP is a rapid and sensitive technique that can be used to detect and identify specific antigens or antibodies in a sample. It is often used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and other medical conditions where the presence of specific antigens or antibodies needs to be detected.

It's important to note that CIEP has been largely replaced by more modern techniques such as ELISA and Western blotting, which offer greater sensitivity and specificity. However, it is still used in some research and diagnostic settings due to its simplicity and cost-effectiveness.

A headache is defined as pain or discomfort in the head, scalp, or neck. It can be a symptom of various underlying conditions such as stress, sinus congestion, migraine, or more serious issues like meningitis or concussion. Headaches can vary in intensity, ranging from mild to severe, and may be accompanied by other symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, or sensitivity to light and sound. There are over 150 different types of headaches, including tension headaches, cluster headaches, and sinus headaches, each with their own specific characteristics and causes.

Mumps is a viral infection that primarily affects the parotid salivary glands, causing them to swell and become painful. The medical definition of mumps is: "An acute infectious disease, caused by the mumps virus, characterized by painful enlargement of one or more of the salivary glands, especially the parotids."

The infection spreads easily through respiratory droplets or direct contact with an infected person's saliva. Symptoms typically appear 16-18 days after exposure and include fever, headache, muscle aches, tiredness, and swollen, tender salivary glands. Complications of mumps are rare but can be serious and include meningitis, encephalitis, deafness, and inflammation of the reproductive organs in males.

Prevention is through vaccination with the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine, which is part of routine childhood immunization schedules in many countries.

Cephalosporins are a class of antibiotics that are derived from the fungus Acremonium, originally isolated from seawater and cow dung. They have a similar chemical structure to penicillin and share a common four-membered beta-lactam ring in their molecular structure.

Cephalosporins work by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, which ultimately leads to bacterial death. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics, meaning they are effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms.

There are several generations of cephalosporins, each with different spectra of activity and pharmacokinetic properties. The first generation cephalosporins have a narrow spectrum of activity and are primarily used to treat infections caused by susceptible Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Second-generation cephalosporins have an expanded spectrum of activity that includes some Gram-negative organisms, such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. Third-generation cephalosporins have even broader spectra of activity and are effective against many resistant Gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Fourth-generation cephalosporins have activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics. They are often reserved for the treatment of serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Cephalosporins are generally well tolerated, but like penicillin, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals. Cross-reactivity between cephalosporins and penicillin is estimated to occur in 5-10% of patients with a history of penicillin allergy. Other potential adverse effects include gastrointestinal symptoms (such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea), neurotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity.

Pneumocephalus is a medical condition characterized by the presence of air or gas within the intracranial cavity, specifically within the cranial vault (the space enclosed by the skull and containing the brain). This can occur due to various reasons such as trauma, neurosurgical procedures, tumors, or infection. The accumulation of air in the cranium can lead to symptoms like headache, altered mental status, nausea, vomiting, and neurological deficits. It is essential to diagnose and treat pneumocephalus promptly to prevent further complications, such as meningitis or brain abscess. Treatment options may include surgery, bed rest with head elevation, or administration of oxygen to facilitate the reabsorption of air.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Vietnam" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in Southeast Asia. If you have any questions about medical conditions or terminology, I would be happy to help clarify those for you.

Bacterial capsules are slimy, gel-like layers that surround many types of bacteria. They are made up of polysaccharides, proteins, or lipopolysaccharides and are synthesized by the bacterial cell. These capsules play a crucial role in the virulence and pathogenicity of bacteria as they help the bacteria to evade the host's immune system and promote their survival and colonization within the host. The presence of a capsule can also contribute to the bacteria's resistance to desiccation, phagocytosis, and antibiotics.

The chemical composition and structure of bacterial capsules vary among different species of bacteria, which is one factor that contributes to their serological specificity and allows for their identification and classification using methods such as the Quellung reaction or immunofluorescence microscopy.

Eosinophilia is a medical condition characterized by an abnormally high concentration of eosinophils in the circulating blood. Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell that play an important role in the immune system, particularly in fighting off parasitic infections and regulating allergic reactions. However, when their numbers become excessively high, they can contribute to tissue damage and inflammation.

Eosinophilia is typically defined as a count of more than 500 eosinophils per microliter of blood. Mild eosinophilia (up to 1,500 cells/μL) may not cause any symptoms and may be discovered during routine blood tests. However, higher levels of eosinophilia can lead to various symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, skin rashes, and organ damage, depending on the underlying cause.

The causes of eosinophilia are varied and can include allergic reactions, parasitic infections, autoimmune disorders, certain medications, and some types of cancer. Accurate diagnosis and treatment of eosinophilia require identification and management of the underlying cause.

Dexamethasone is a type of corticosteroid medication, which is a synthetic version of a natural hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It is often used to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system in a variety of medical conditions, including allergies, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and certain skin conditions.

Dexamethasone works by binding to specific receptors in cells, which triggers a range of anti-inflammatory effects. These include reducing the production of chemicals that cause inflammation, suppressing the activity of immune cells, and stabilizing cell membranes.

In addition to its anti-inflammatory effects, dexamethasone can also be used to treat other medical conditions, such as certain types of cancer, brain swelling, and adrenal insufficiency. It is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, liquids, creams, and injectable solutions.

Like all medications, dexamethasone can have side effects, particularly if used for long periods of time or at high doses. These may include mood changes, increased appetite, weight gain, acne, thinning skin, easy bruising, and an increased risk of infections. It is important to follow the instructions of a healthcare provider when taking dexamethasone to minimize the risk of side effects.

A "newborn infant" refers to a baby in the first 28 days of life outside of the womb. This period is crucial for growth and development, but also poses unique challenges as the infant's immune system is not fully developed, making them more susceptible to various diseases.

"Newborn diseases" are health conditions that specifically affect newborn infants. These can be categorized into three main types:

1. Congenital disorders: These are conditions that are present at birth and may be inherited or caused by factors such as infection, exposure to harmful substances during pregnancy, or chromosomal abnormalities. Examples include Down syndrome, congenital heart defects, and spina bifida.

2. Infectious diseases: Newborn infants are particularly vulnerable to infections due to their immature immune systems. Common infectious diseases in newborns include sepsis (bloodstream infection), pneumonia, and meningitis. These can be acquired from the mother during pregnancy or childbirth, or from the environment after birth.

3. Developmental disorders: These are conditions that affect the normal growth and development of the newborn infant. Examples include cerebral palsy, intellectual disabilities, and vision or hearing impairments.

It is important to note that many newborn diseases can be prevented or treated with appropriate medical care, including prenatal care, proper hygiene practices, and timely vaccinations. Regular check-ups and monitoring of the newborn's health by a healthcare provider are essential for early detection and management of any potential health issues.

Spinal injections, also known as epidural injections or intrathecal injections, are medical procedures involving the injection of medications directly into the spinal canal. The medication is usually delivered into the space surrounding the spinal cord (the epidural space) or into the cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds and protects the spinal cord (the subarachnoid space).

The medications used in spinal injections can include local anesthetics, steroids, opioids, or a combination of these. The purpose of spinal injections is to provide diagnostic information, therapeutic relief, or both. They are commonly used to treat various conditions affecting the spine, such as radicular pain (pain that radiates down the arms or legs), disc herniation, spinal stenosis, and degenerative disc disease.

Spinal injections can be administered using different techniques, including fluoroscopy-guided injections, computed tomography (CT) scan-guided injections, or with the help of a nerve stimulator. These techniques ensure accurate placement of the medication and minimize the risk of complications.

It is essential to consult a healthcare professional for specific information regarding spinal injections and their potential benefits and risks.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) infections refer to illnesses caused by the bacterium E. coli, which can cause a range of symptoms depending on the specific strain and site of infection. The majority of E. coli strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals. However, some strains, particularly those that produce Shiga toxins, can cause severe illness.

E. coli infections can occur through various routes, including contaminated food or water, person-to-person contact, or direct contact with animals or their environments. Common symptoms of E. coli infections include diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting. In severe cases, complications such as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) can occur, which may lead to kidney failure and other long-term health problems.

Preventing E. coli infections involves practicing good hygiene, cooking meats thoroughly, avoiding cross-contamination of food during preparation, washing fruits and vegetables before eating, and avoiding unpasteurized dairy products and juices. Prompt medical attention is necessary if symptoms of an E. coli infection are suspected to prevent potential complications.

Nervous system diseases, also known as neurological disorders, refer to a group of conditions that affect the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles. These diseases can affect various functions of the body, such as movement, sensation, cognition, and behavior. They can be caused by genetics, infections, injuries, degeneration, or tumors. Examples of nervous system diseases include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, migraine, stroke, and neuroinfections like meningitis and encephalitis. The symptoms and severity of these disorders can vary widely, ranging from mild to severe and debilitating.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Conjugate vaccines are a type of vaccine that combines a part of a bacterium with a protein or other substance to boost the body's immune response to the bacteria. The bacterial component is usually a polysaccharide, which is a long chain of sugars that makes up part of the bacterial cell wall.

By itself, a polysaccharide is not very immunogenic, meaning it does not stimulate a strong immune response. However, when it is conjugated or linked to a protein or other carrier molecule, it becomes much more immunogenic and can elicit a stronger and longer-lasting immune response.

Conjugate vaccines are particularly effective in protecting against bacterial infections that affect young children, such as Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) and pneumococcal disease. These vaccines have been instrumental in reducing the incidence of these diseases and their associated complications, such as meningitis and pneumonia.

Overall, conjugate vaccines work by mimicking a natural infection and stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against future infections with the same bacterium. By combining a weakly immunogenic polysaccharide with a protein carrier, these vaccines can elicit a stronger and more effective immune response, providing long-lasting protection against bacterial infections.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) otorrhea is a condition characterized by the leakage of cerebrospinal fluid from the inner ear into the external auditory canal of the ear. CSF is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It is normally contained within the subarachnoid space, which is a space between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater that surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

CSF otorrhea can occur as a result of a head injury, skull base fracture, or surgical procedure involving the ear or surrounding structures. It can also be caused by congenital defects or tumors in the area. CSF otorrhea is a serious condition that requires prompt medical attention, as it can lead to meningitis or other complications if left untreated.

Diagnosis of CSF otorrhea typically involves a physical examination and testing of any fluid draining from the ear for beta-2 transferrin, a protein that is present in CSF but not in other bodily fluids. Imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans may also be used to help identify the underlying cause of the CSF leak. Treatment may involve bed rest, hydration, and antibiotics to prevent infection. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair the site of the CSF leak.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

A tuberculoma is a granulomatous lesion in the brain caused by the infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It typically consists of caseating necrosis surrounded by a layer of epithelioid histiocytes, Langhans' giant cells, and lymphocytes. Tuberculomas can be single or multiple and may cause various neurological symptoms depending on their size and location. They are often associated with tuberculous meningitis but can also occur in immunocompromised individuals without obvious systemic infection.

Population surveillance in a public health and medical context refers to the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of health-related data for a defined population over time. It aims to monitor the health status, identify emerging health threats or trends, and evaluate the impact of interventions within that population. This information is used to inform public health policy, prioritize healthcare resources, and guide disease prevention and control efforts. Population surveillance can involve various data sources, such as vital records, disease registries, surveys, and electronic health records.

Meningismus is not a specific medical condition but rather a set of symptoms that suggest inflammation of the meninges, the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. The term "meningitis" refers to the infection or inflammation of the meninges, while "meningism" describes the non-specific signs of this inflammation.

Meningismus symptoms include:

1. Stiff neck (nuchal rigidity) - resistance to passive flexion of the neck due to spasm of the neck muscles.
2. Photophobia - sensitivity to light.
3. Headache.
4. Fever.
5. Altered mental status, such as confusion or irritability.

Meningismus can be caused by various conditions, including bacterial and viral infections, fungal infections, chemical irritants, or non-infectious causes like autoimmune disorders or certain medications. It is essential to consult a healthcare professional if you suspect meningismus symptoms, as they may indicate a severe underlying condition requiring prompt medical attention.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Phlebotomus Fever" is not a recognized medical term. It seems there might be a misunderstanding or miscommunication.

However, I can provide information on diseases that are transmitted by the Phlebotomus sand fly. One such disease is Sand Fly Fever, also known as Pappataci Fever. It is a viral disease characterized by sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, and muscle pain. The disease is usually self-limiting, with symptoms resolving within a week.

If you meant to ask about a different medical term, please provide more details.

Latex fixation tests are diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of certain antigens or antibodies in a patient's sample, such as blood or serum. These tests use latex particles that are coated with specific antigens or antibodies that can bind to complementary antigens or antibodies present in the sample. When the sample is added to the latex reagent, if the specific antigen or antibody is present, they will bind to the latex particles, forming an agglutination reaction that can be seen as a visible clumping or agglutination of the latex particles.

Latex fixation tests are commonly used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and genetic disorders. For example, a latex fixation test may be used to detect the presence of Streptococcus pneumoniae antigens in a patient's sputum sample or to identify the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF) antibodies in a patient's blood sample. These tests are known for their simplicity, speed, and sensitivity, making them a valuable tool in clinical laboratories.

A tuberculoma is a specific type of granulomatous lesion that occurs in the brain due to infection with the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium. This condition is relatively rare in developed countries but is still common in developing nations where tuberculosis (TB) is prevalent.

Intracranial tuberculomas are formed when M. tuberculosis bacteria spread through the bloodstream from a primary focus, usually in the lungs, and lodge in the brain tissue. The bacteria then multiply within the brain, leading to an inflammatory response characterized by the formation of granulomas. These granulomas consist of central caseous necrosis (cheese-like material) surrounded by a layer of epithelioid histiocytes, lymphocytes, and multinucleated giant cells.

Tuberculomas can vary in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter. They may be solitary or multiple and are often found near the surface of the brain, particularly in the cerebral cortex or meninges (the protective membranes surrounding the brain). The presence of intracranial tuberculomas can lead to various neurological symptoms, such as headaches, seizures, focal deficits, and cognitive impairment.

Diagnosis of intracranial tuberculomas typically involves a combination of imaging techniques (such as CT or MRI scans) and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis and PCR for M. tuberculosis). Treatment usually consists of a prolonged course of anti-tuberculous medications, which can help to reduce the size of the lesions and alleviate symptoms. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to remove or decompress large or symptomatic tuberculomas.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Malawi" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in southeastern Africa. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help with those!

Streptococcus bovis is a type of bacteria that is part of the Streptococcus genus. It is a gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic coccus (spherical) bacterium that is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tracts of animals, including cattle, and can also be found in the human gastrointestinal tract, particularly in the colon.

There are several subspecies of Streptococcus bovis, including S. bovis biotype I (also known as Streptococcus gallolyticus), S. bovis biotype II/2, and S. bovis biotype II/1. Some strains of these bacteria have been associated with human diseases, such as endocarditis, bacteremia, and abscesses in various organs. Additionally, there is evidence to suggest that S. bovis biotype I may be associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer.

It's important to note that Streptococcus bovis is not a common cause of infection in healthy individuals, but it can cause serious infections in people with underlying medical conditions, such as valvular heart disease or a weakened immune system.

Central nervous system (CNS) infections refer to infectious processes that affect the brain, spinal cord, and their surrounding membranes, known as meninges. These infections can be caused by various microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Examples of CNS infections are:

1. Meningitis: Inflammation of the meninges, usually caused by bacterial or viral infections. Bacterial meningitis is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.
2. Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain parenchyma, often caused by viral infections. Some viruses associated with encephalitis include herpes simplex virus, enteroviruses, and arboviruses.
3. Meningoencephalitis: A combined inflammation of both the brain and meninges, commonly seen in certain viral infections or when bacterial pathogens directly invade the brain.
4. Brain abscess: A localized collection of pus within the brain caused by a bacterial or fungal infection.
5. Spinal epidural abscess: An infection in the space surrounding the spinal cord, usually caused by bacteria.
6. Myelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord, which can result from viral, bacterial, or fungal infections.
7. Rarely, parasitic infections like toxoplasmosis and cysticercosis can also affect the CNS.

Symptoms of CNS infections may include fever, headache, stiff neck, altered mental status, seizures, focal neurological deficits, or meningeal signs (e.g., Brudzinski's and Kernig's signs). The specific symptoms depend on the location and extent of the infection, as well as the causative organism. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent long-term neurological complications or death.

A subdural effusion is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the potential space between the dura mater (the outermost layer of the meninges that covers the brain and spinal cord) and the arachnoid membrane (one of the three layers of the meninges that surround the brain and spinal cord) in the subdural space.

Subdural effusions can occur due to various reasons, including head trauma, infection, or complications from neurosurgical procedures. The fluid accumulation may result from bleeding (subdural hematoma), inflammation, or increased cerebrospinal fluid pressure. Depending on the underlying cause and the amount of fluid accumulated, subdural effusions can cause various symptoms, such as headaches, altered mental status, or neurological deficits.

Subdural effusions are often asymptomatic and may resolve independently; however, in some cases, medical intervention might be necessary to alleviate the pressure on the brain or address the underlying condition. Imaging techniques like computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans are typically used to diagnose and monitor subdural effusions.

Cephalosporin resistance refers to the ability of bacteria to resist the antibacterial effects of cephalosporins, a group of widely used antibiotics. These drugs work by interfering with the bacterial cell wall synthesis, thereby inhibiting bacterial growth and reproduction. However, some bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive in the presence of cephalosporins.

There are several ways in which bacteria can become resistant to cephalosporins. One common mechanism is through the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can break down the beta-lactam ring structure of cephalosporins and other related antibiotics. This makes the drugs ineffective against the bacteria.

Another mechanism of resistance involves changes in the bacterial cell membrane or the penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) that prevent the binding of cephalosporins to their target sites. These changes can occur due to genetic mutations or the acquisition of new genes through horizontal gene transfer.

Cephalosporin resistance is a significant public health concern, as it can limit the treatment options for bacterial infections and increase the risk of morbidity and mortality. The overuse and misuse of antibiotics are major drivers of antibiotic resistance, including cephalosporin resistance. Therefore, it is essential to use these drugs judiciously and follow proper infection prevention and control measures to prevent the spread of resistant bacteria.

An Encephalocele is a type of neural tube defect that occurs when the bones of the skull do not close completely during fetal development. This results in a sac-like protrusion of the brain and the membranes that cover it through an opening in the skull. The sac may be visible on the scalp, forehead, or back of the head, and can vary in size. Encephaloceles can cause a range of symptoms, including developmental delays, intellectual disabilities, vision problems, and seizures, depending on the severity and location of the defect. Treatment typically involves surgical repair of the encephalocele soon after birth to prevent further damage to the brain and improve outcomes.

Anti-infective agents are a class of medications that are used to treat infections caused by various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These agents work by either killing the microorganism or inhibiting its growth, thereby helping to control the infection and alleviate symptoms.

There are several types of anti-infective agents, including:

1. Antibiotics: These are medications that are used to treat bacterial infections. They work by either killing bacteria (bactericidal) or inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic).
2. Antivirals: These are medications that are used to treat viral infections. They work by interfering with the replication of the virus, preventing it from spreading and causing further damage.
3. Antifungals: These are medications that are used to treat fungal infections. They work by disrupting the cell membrane of the fungus, killing it or inhibiting its growth.
4. Antiparasitics: These are medications that are used to treat parasitic infections. They work by either killing the parasite or inhibiting its growth and reproduction.

It is important to note that anti-infective agents are not effective against all types of infections, and it is essential to use them appropriately to avoid the development of drug-resistant strains of microorganisms.

Hearing loss is a partial or total inability to hear sounds in one or both ears. It can occur due to damage to the structures of the ear, including the outer ear, middle ear, inner ear, or nerve pathways that transmit sound to the brain. The degree of hearing loss can vary from mild (difficulty hearing soft sounds) to severe (inability to hear even loud sounds). Hearing loss can be temporary or permanent and may be caused by factors such as exposure to loud noises, genetics, aging, infections, trauma, or certain medical conditions. It is important to note that hearing loss can have significant impacts on a person's communication abilities, social interactions, and overall quality of life.

Chloramphenicol is an antibiotic medication that is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the ability of bacteria to synthesize proteins, which essential for their growth and survival. This helps to stop the spread of the infection and allows the body's immune system to clear the bacteria from the body.

Chloramphenicol is a broad-spectrum antibiotic, which means that it is effective against many different types of bacteria. It is often used to treat serious infections that have not responded to other antibiotics. However, because of its potential for serious side effects, including bone marrow suppression and gray baby syndrome, chloramphenicol is usually reserved for use in cases where other antibiotics are not effective or are contraindicated.

Chloramphenicol can be given by mouth, injection, or applied directly to the skin in the form of an ointment or cream. It is important to take or use chloramphenicol exactly as directed by a healthcare provider, and to complete the full course of treatment even if symptoms improve before all of the medication has been taken. This helps to ensure that the infection is fully treated and reduces the risk of antibiotic resistance.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Viral encephalitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the brain caused by a viral infection. The infection can be caused by various types of viruses, such as herpes simplex virus, enteroviruses, arboviruses (transmitted through insect bites), or HIV.

The symptoms of viral encephalitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, and altered level of consciousness. In severe cases, it can lead to brain damage, coma, or even death. The diagnosis is usually made based on clinical presentation, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as MRI or CT scan. Treatment typically involves antiviral medications, supportive care, and management of complications.

Myelitis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the spinal cord. This inflammation can cause damage to the myelin sheath, which is the protective covering of nerve fibers in the spinal cord. As a result, the transmission of nerve impulses along the spinal cord may be disrupted, leading to various neurological symptoms.

Myelitis can affect any part of the spinal cord and can have many different causes, including infections (such as viral or bacterial infections), autoimmune disorders (such as multiple sclerosis), and other conditions (such as spinal cord injuries or tumors). The specific symptoms of myelitis depend on the location and severity of the inflammation. They may include muscle weakness, numbness or tingling sensations, pain, bladder or bowel dysfunction, and difficulty with coordination and balance.

Myelitis can be a serious condition that requires prompt medical attention and treatment. Treatment typically focuses on addressing the underlying cause of the inflammation, as well as managing symptoms and supporting recovery.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

Vancomycin is an antibiotic that belongs to the glycopeptide class. It is primarily used to treat severe infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE). Vancomycin works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. It is usually administered intravenously in a hospital setting due to its potential nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity. The medical definition of 'Vancomycin' can be summarized as:

"A glycopeptide antibiotic used to treat severe infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria, particularly those that are resistant to other antibiotics. It inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis and is administered intravenously due to its potential nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity."

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "seasons" is not a term that has a medical definition. Seasons refer to the four divisions of the year (spring, summer, autumn or fall, and winter) based on the position of the earth in its orbit around the sun. If you have any questions related to health or medicine, I'd be happy to try to help answer those!

Thienamycins are a group of antibiotics that are characterized by their beta-lactam structure. They belong to the class of carbapenems and are known for their broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including many that are resistant to other antibiotics. Thienamycins inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which leads to bacterial cell death.

Thienamycin itself is not used clinically due to its instability, but several semi-synthetic derivatives of thienamycin have been developed and are used in the treatment of serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria. Examples of thienamycin derivatives include imipenem, meropenem, and ertapenem. These antibiotics are often reserved for the treatment of severe infections that are unresponsive to other antibiotics due to their potential to select for resistant bacteria and their high cost.

Bacterial infections are caused by the invasion and multiplication of bacteria in or on tissues of the body. These infections can range from mild, like a common cold, to severe, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or sepsis. The symptoms of a bacterial infection depend on the type of bacteria invading the body and the area of the body that is affected.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can live in many different environments, including in the human body. While some bacteria are beneficial to humans and help with digestion or protect against harmful pathogens, others can cause illness and disease. When bacteria invade the body, they can release toxins and other harmful substances that damage tissues and trigger an immune response.

Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, which work by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria. However, it is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, making treatment more difficult. It is also essential to complete the full course of antibiotics as prescribed, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that all bacteria are eliminated and reduce the risk of recurrence or development of antibiotic resistance.

Blood is the fluid that circulates in the body of living organisms, carrying oxygen and nutrients to the cells and removing carbon dioxide and other waste products. It is composed of red and white blood cells suspended in a liquid called plasma. The main function of blood is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. It also transports nutrients, hormones, and other substances to the cells and removes waste products from them. Additionally, blood plays a crucial role in the body's immune system by helping to fight infection and disease.

A leukocyte count, also known as a white blood cell (WBC) count, is a laboratory test that measures the number of leukocytes in a sample of blood. Leukocytes are a vital part of the body's immune system and help fight infection and inflammation. A high or low leukocyte count may indicate an underlying medical condition, such as an infection, inflammation, or a bone marrow disorder. The normal range for a leukocyte count in adults is typically between 4,500 and 11,000 cells per microliter (mcL) of blood. However, the normal range can vary slightly depending on the laboratory and the individual's age and sex.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

Streptolysins are exotoxins produced by certain strains of Streptococcus bacteria, primarily Group A Streptococcus (GAS). These toxins are classified into two types: streptolysin O (SLO) and streptolysin S (SLS).

1. Streptolysin O (SLO): It is a protein exotoxin that exhibits oxygen-labile hemolytic activity, meaning it can lyse or destroy red blood cells in the presence of oxygen. SLO is capable of entering host cells and causing various cellular damages, including inhibition of phagocytosis, modulation of immune responses, and induction of apoptosis (programmed cell death).

2. Streptolysin S (SLS): It is a non-protein, oxygen-stable hemolysin that can also lyse red blood cells but does so independently of oxygen presence. SLS is more heat-resistant than SLO and has a stronger ability to penetrate host cell membranes.

Both streptolysins contribute to the virulence of Streptococcus pyogenes, which can cause various clinical infections such as pharyngitis (strep throat), impetigo, scarlet fever, and invasive diseases like necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock syndrome.

The detection of streptolysin O antibodies (ASO titer) is often used as a diagnostic marker for past or recent GAS infections, particularly in cases of rheumatic fever, where elevated ASO titers indicate ongoing or previous streptococcal infection.

Sandfly Fever Naples Virus (SFNV) is an single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Bunyaviridae and genus Phlebovirus. It is the causative agent of sandfly fever, also known as "pappataci fever," a disease transmitted to humans through the bite of infected female sandflies (Phlebotomus spp.). The virus was first isolated in Naples, Italy, hence its name.

The incubation period for sandfly fever Naples virus infection is typically 3-5 days, after which patients may experience sudden onset of symptoms including high fever, chills, severe headache, muscle and joint pain, and a transient skin rash. The disease is usually self-limiting, with symptoms resolving within 7-10 days, although some cases may be more severe and require hospitalization. There is no specific treatment for sandfly fever Naples virus infection, and management is primarily supportive. Prevention measures include the use of insect repellent and protective clothing to reduce exposure to sandfly bites.

Pneumonia, pneumococcal is a type of pneumonia caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (also known as pneumococcus). This bacteria can colonize the upper respiratory tract and occasionally invade the lower respiratory tract, causing infection.

Pneumococcal pneumonia can affect people of any age but is most common in young children, older adults, and those with weakened immune systems. The symptoms of pneumococcal pneumonia include fever, chills, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, and rapid breathing. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as bacteremia (bacterial infection in the blood), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), and respiratory failure.

Pneumococcal pneumonia can be prevented through vaccination with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) or the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV). These vaccines protect against the most common strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae that cause invasive disease. It is also important to practice good hygiene, such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and washing hands frequently, to prevent the spread of pneumococcal bacteria.

The Mumps virus is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the Paramyxoviridae family and Rubulavirus genus. It is the causative agent of mumps, an acute infectious disease characterized by painful swelling of the salivary glands, particularly the parotid glands.

The Mumps virus has a spherical or pleomorphic shape with a diameter of approximately 150-250 nanometers. It is surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane derived from the host cell, which contains viral glycoproteins that facilitate attachment and entry into host cells.

The M protein, located beneath the envelope, plays a crucial role in virus assembly and budding. The genome of the Mumps virus consists of eight genes encoding nine proteins, including two major structural proteins (nucleocapsid protein and matrix protein) and several non-structural proteins involved in viral replication and pathogenesis.

Transmission of the Mumps virus occurs through respiratory droplets or direct contact with infected saliva. After infection, the incubation period ranges from 12 to 25 days, followed by a prodromal phase characterized by fever, headache, malaise, and muscle pain. The characteristic swelling of the parotid glands usually appears 1-3 days after the onset of symptoms.

Complications of mumps can include meningitis, encephalitis, orchitis, oophoritis, pancreatitis, and deafness. Prevention relies on vaccination with the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine, which is highly effective in preventing mumps and its complications.

Moxalactam is not a medical condition but actually an antibiotic medication. It is a type of beta-lactam antibiotic, specifically a fourth-generation cephalosporin, which is used to treat various bacterial infections. Moxalactam has a broad spectrum of activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including many that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Moxalactam works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, leading to bacterial death. It is commonly used to treat intra-abdominal infections, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis, among other conditions. As with any medication, moxalactam can have side effects, including gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as allergic reactions and changes in liver function tests. It is important to use antibiotics only when necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare professional to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Food parasitology is not a commonly used term in medical or scientific communities. However, it generally refers to the study of parasites that are transmitted through food, including parasitic protozoa, helminths (worms), and arthropods (e.g., tapeworms, roundworms, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, etc.). Food parasitology involves understanding the life cycles, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of these foodborne parasites. It is an important field within medical and veterinary parasitology, as well as food safety and public health.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Africa" actually refers to a continent, not a medical condition or concept. Africa is the second-largest continent in the world, consisting of 54 countries and a wide range of diverse ethnic groups, cultures, languages, and landscapes. It is home to a vast array of wildlife, including many species that are not found anywhere else in the world. If you have any questions about Africa's geography, history, or culture, I would be happy to try to help answer them!

'Mycobacterium tuberculosis' is a species of slow-growing, aerobic, gram-positive bacteria that demonstrates acid-fastness. It is the primary causative agent of tuberculosis (TB) in humans. This bacterium has a complex cell wall rich in lipids, including mycolic acids, which provides a hydrophobic barrier and makes it resistant to many conventional antibiotics. The ability of M. tuberculosis to survive within host macrophages and resist the immune response contributes to its pathogenicity and the difficulty in treating TB infections.

M. tuberculosis is typically transmitted through inhalation of infectious droplets containing the bacteria, which primarily targets the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body (extrapulmonary TB). The infection may result in a spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from latent TB infection (LTBI) to active disease. LTBI represents a dormant state where individuals are infected with M. tuberculosis but do not show symptoms and cannot transmit the bacteria. However, they remain at risk of developing active TB throughout their lifetime, especially if their immune system becomes compromised.

Effective prevention and control strategies for TB rely on early detection, treatment, and public health interventions to limit transmission. The current first-line treatments for drug-susceptible TB include a combination of isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for at least six months. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of M. tuberculosis present significant challenges in TB control and require more complex treatment regimens.

A seizure is an uncontrolled, abnormal firing of neurons (brain cells) that can cause various symptoms such as convulsions, loss of consciousness, altered awareness, or changes in behavior. Seizures can be caused by a variety of factors including epilepsy, brain injury, infection, toxic substances, or genetic disorders. They can also occur without any identifiable cause, known as idiopathic seizures. Seizures are a medical emergency and require immediate attention.

Vasculitis, Central Nervous System (CNS), refers to a group of disorders characterized by inflammation of blood vessels within the brain and/or spinal cord. This inflammation can cause damage to the blood vessel walls, leading to narrowing, blocking or weakening of the vessels, and in some cases, formation of aneurysms or rupture of the vessels.

The causes of CNS vasculitis are varied and can include infections, autoimmune diseases, medications, and unknown factors. The symptoms of CNS vasculitis depend on the severity and location of the inflammation, and may include headache, seizures, stroke-like symptoms (such as weakness or numbness in the face, arms, or legs), cognitive changes, and in severe cases, coma.

Diagnosis of CNS vasculitis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or angiography), and laboratory tests (including blood tests and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid). Treatment may involve corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, and/or other therapies aimed at reducing inflammation and preventing further damage to the blood vessels.

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases refer to medical conditions that primarily affect the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is responsible for controlling various functions in the body, including movement, sensation, cognition, and behavior. Therefore, diseases of the CNS can have significant impacts on a person's quality of life and overall health.

There are many different types of CNS diseases, including:

1. Infectious diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites that infect the brain or spinal cord. Examples include meningitis, encephalitis, and polio.
2. Neurodegenerative diseases: These are characterized by progressive loss of nerve cells in the brain or spinal cord. Examples include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.
3. Structural diseases: These involve damage to the physical structure of the brain or spinal cord, such as from trauma, tumors, or stroke.
4. Functional diseases: These affect the function of the nervous system without obvious structural damage, such as multiple sclerosis and epilepsy.
5. Genetic disorders: Some CNS diseases are caused by genetic mutations, such as spinal muscular atrophy and Friedreich's ataxia.

Symptoms of CNS diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the area of the brain or spinal cord that is affected. They may include muscle weakness, paralysis, seizures, loss of sensation, difficulty with coordination and balance, confusion, memory loss, changes in behavior or mood, and pain. Treatment for CNS diseases depends on the specific condition and may involve medications, surgery, rehabilitation therapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of gram-negative bacteria that are commonly found in the human gut and surrounding environment. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can occur when these bacteria enter parts of the body where they are not normally present, such as the bloodstream, urinary tract, or abdominal cavity.

Enterobacteriaceae infections can cause a range of symptoms depending on the site of infection. For example:

* Urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by Enterobacteriaceae may cause symptoms such as frequent urination, pain or burning during urination, and lower abdominal pain.
* Bloodstream infections (bacteremia) caused by Enterobacteriaceae can cause fever, chills, and sepsis, a potentially life-threatening condition characterized by a whole-body inflammatory response to infection.
* Pneumonia caused by Enterobacteriaceae may cause cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Intra-abdominal infections (such as appendicitis or diverticulitis) caused by Enterobacteriaceae can cause abdominal pain, fever, and changes in bowel habits.

Enterobacteriaceae infections are typically treated with antibiotics, but the increasing prevalence of antibiotic-resistant strains of these bacteria has made treatment more challenging in recent years. Preventing the spread of Enterobacteriaceae in healthcare settings and promoting good hygiene practices can help reduce the risk of infection.

'Coccidioides' is a genus of fungi that are commonly found in the soil in certain geographical areas, including the southwestern United States and parts of Mexico and Central and South America. The two species of this genus, C. immitis and C. posadasii, can cause a serious infection known as coccidioidomycosis (also called Valley Fever) in humans and animals who inhale the spores of the fungi.

The infection typically begins in the lungs and can cause symptoms such as cough, fever, chest pain, fatigue, and weight loss. In some cases, the infection can spread to other parts of the body, leading to more severe and potentially life-threatening complications. People with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or who are receiving immunosuppressive therapy, are at higher risk for developing severe coccidioidomycosis.

A "hospitalized child" refers to a minor (an individual who has not yet reached the age of majority, which varies by country but is typically 18 in the US) who has been admitted to a hospital for the purpose of receiving medical treatment and care. This term can encompass children of all ages, from infants to teenagers, and may include those who are suffering from a wide range of medical conditions or injuries, requiring various levels of care and intervention.

Hospitalization can be necessary for a variety of reasons, including but not limited to:

1. Acute illnesses that require close monitoring, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or sepsis.
2. Chronic medical conditions that need ongoing management, like cystic fibrosis, cancer, or congenital heart defects.
3. Severe injuries resulting from accidents, such as fractures, burns, or traumatic brain injuries.
4. Elective procedures, such as surgeries for orthopedic issues or to correct congenital abnormalities.
5. Mental health disorders that necessitate inpatient care and treatment.

Regardless of the reason for hospitalization, healthcare professionals strive to provide comprehensive, family-centered care to ensure the best possible outcomes for their young patients. This may involve working closely with families to address their concerns, providing education about the child's condition and treatment plan, and coordinating care across various disciplines and specialties.

A coma is a deep state of unconsciousness in which an individual cannot be awakened, cannot respond to stimuli, and does not exhibit any sleep-wake cycles. It is typically caused by severe brain injury, illness, or toxic exposure that impairs the function of the brainstem and cerebral cortex.

In a coma, the person may appear to be asleep, but they are not aware of their surroundings or able to communicate or respond to stimuli. Comas can last for varying lengths of time, from days to weeks or even months, and some people may emerge from a coma with varying degrees of brain function and disability.

Medical professionals use various diagnostic tools and assessments to evaluate the level of consciousness and brain function in individuals who are in a coma, including the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), which measures eye opening, verbal response, and motor response. Treatment for coma typically involves supportive care to maintain vital functions, manage any underlying medical conditions, and prevent further complications.

Community-acquired infections are those that are acquired outside of a healthcare setting, such as in one's own home or community. These infections are typically contracted through close contact with an infected person, contaminated food or water, or animals. Examples of community-acquired infections include the common cold, flu, strep throat, and many types of viral and bacterial gastrointestinal infections.

These infections are different from healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), which are infections that patients acquire while they are receiving treatment for another condition in a healthcare setting, such as a hospital or long-term care facility. HAIs can be caused by a variety of factors, including contact with contaminated surfaces or equipment, invasive medical procedures, and the use of certain medications.

It is important to note that community-acquired infections can also occur in healthcare settings if proper infection control measures are not in place. Healthcare providers must take steps to prevent the spread of these infections, such as washing their hands regularly, using personal protective equipment (PPE), and implementing isolation precautions for patients with known or suspected infectious diseases.

... refers to meningitis caused by a fungal infection. Symptoms of fungal meningitis are generally similar to ... "Meningitis , Fungal Meningitis". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 29 November 2017. Gottfredsson M, Perfect JR (2000). "Fungal meningitis ... and culture tests should be performed on cerebrospinal fluid when fungal meningitis is suspected. Fungal meningitis is treated ... Meningitis Cryptococcal meningitis "Meningitis". Paediatrics & Child Health. 6 (3): 126-7. March 2001. doi:10.1093/pch/6.3.126 ...
The most common fungal meningitis is cryptococcal meningitis due to Cryptococcus neoformans. In Africa, cryptococcal meningitis ... Fungal meningitis, such as cryptococcal meningitis, is treated with long courses of high dose antifungals, such as amphotericin ... Meningitis may also result from various non-infectious causes. The term aseptic meningitis refers to cases of meningitis in ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to Meningitis. Meningitis at Curlie Meningitis U.S. Centers for Disease Control and ...
If injected, the second steroid may cause fungal meningitis, while the heart drug may cause a different fungal infection. As of ... Pharmacy In Meningitis Outbreak". CBS News Boston. 15 October 2012. Retrieved October 15, 2012. "Multistate Fungal Meningitis ... "Pharmacy knew of mold contamination before meningitis outbreak - Health - The Seattle Times". "Multistate Fungal Meningitis ... and some of these patients developed symptoms consistent with fungal meningitis. This form of meningitis can be caused by ...
"Insights into fungal pathogenesis from the iatrogenic epidemic of Exserohilum rostratum fungal meningitis". Fungal Genetics and ... "Insights into fungal pathogenesis from the iatrogenic epidemic of Exserohilum rostratum fungal meningitis". Fungal Genetics and ... In 2012, E. rostratum was responsible for the nationwide outbreak of fungal meningitis in the U.S caused by contaminated ... 55: 248-9. "Multistate Outbreak of Fungal Meningitis and Other Infections , HAI , CDC". 23 April 2019. Andes, David; Casadevall ...
Multistate Fungal Meningitis Outbreak - Current Case Count Archived November 22, 2013, at the Wayback Machine "Study Divides ... September 21 - December 28 - There are 39 deaths out of 656 cases of people in 19 states infected with fungal meningitis from ... Falco, Miriam (October 5, 2012). "More patients linked to fungal meningitis infections, CDC says". CNN. Archived from the ...
In 2023, a fungal meningitis outbreak linked to two cosmetic surgery clinics in Matamoros, Mexico resulted in the death seven ... "Some patients in fungal meningitis outbreak have surprising complications, doctors say". NBC News. 2023-07-03. Archived from ... Syal, Akshay (2023-06-12). "Fungal meningitis outbreak in U.S. kills 4 as CDC tries to track patients of clinics in Mexico". ... "Outbreak of suspected fungal meningitis associated with surgical procedures performed under spinal anaesthesia - the United ...
"US and Mexico seek WHO help with fungal meningitis outbreak". Mexico News Daily. May 29, 2023. Retrieved May 31, 2023. "Top ... Health authorities urged the World Health Organization (WHO) to issue a warning about a Meningitis outbreak linked to two ...
64 people were killed and 750 were infected by fungal meningitis. Rep. Upton's district had 3 deaths and there were 19 total in ... "Multi-State Meningitis Outbreak - Current Case Count". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 15 November 2013. ... The bill was written in response to the New England Compounding Center meningitis outbreak that took place in 2012, which ... "House Passes Upton Bill to Prevent Repeat of Deadly Meningitis Outbreak, Strengthen Prescription Drug Supply Chain". Office of ...
Health Alert Network (HAN) - 00492 (2023-06-01). "Important Updates on Outbreak of Fungal Meningitis in U.S. Patients Who ... "Interim Recommendations for Diagnosing and Managing Suspected Fungal Meningitis Associated with Epidural Anesthesia ... Fungal spores come into contact with the damaged cornea and grow. Without treatment, the hyphae can grow into the cornea and ... F. solani is also a major cause of fungal keratitis in HIV positive patients in Africa. As of 2011, F. solani was implicated in ...
Pettit, A.C.; Kropski, Castilho (2012). "The index case for the fungal meningitis outbreak in the United States". New England ... Meningitis inflames and breaks down any protective membrane and cells surrounding the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of ... Bacterial meningitis is normally caused by a bacterial infection that enters the bloodstream and enters the blood-brain barrier ... The initial series of events is asymptomatic meningitis, which can remain in the human body system and produce more damage ...
Less common deeper fungal infections may present with pneumonia like symptoms or meningitis. Mycoses are caused by certain ... Fungal infections can mimic COVID-19, occur at the same time as COVID-19 and more serious fungal infections can complicate ... "Types of Fungal Diseases , Fungal Diseases , CDC". www.cdc.gov. 27 June 2019. Retrieved 12 June 2021. "Thrush in Men". NHS. ... Worldwide, every year fungal infections affect more than one billion people. An estimated 1.6 million deaths from fungal ...
It was found that tainted batches of the steroid methylprednisolone acetate caused hundreds of cases of fungal meningitis. ... "Ameridose, Sister Company to Pharmacy Linked to Fungal Meningitis Outbreak, Laying off Hundreds." Boston.com. The New York ... was implicated as the source of a nationwide fungal meningitis outbreak of 2012. ... Sampson, Zachary T. "New England Compounding Center, Blamed for Meningitis Outbreak, Files for Bankruptcy." Boston.com. The New ...
PV, Chin-Hong (2001). "Invasive fungal sinusitis and meningitis due to Arthrographis kalrae in a patient with AIDS". J. Clin. ... Based on the statistics, the number of immunocompromised individuals and the incidence of fungal infection outbreaks increases ... DE, Corzo-Leon (2015). "Epidemiology and outcomes of invasive fungal infections in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell ... transplant recipients in the era of anti fungal prophylaxis: a single-centre study with focus on emerging pathogens". Mycoses. ...
"Pharmacist at Center of 2012 Fungal Meningitis Outbreak Sentenced to 9 Years in Prison". Fisher Broyles LLP. Retrieved 28 July ... Pharmacy Linked To Meningitis Outbreak, Files For Bankruptcy". The Huffington Post. December 21, 2012. Meningitis-linked ... The company became the center of a scandal resulting from a meningitis outbreak that started on May 21, 2012 and is linked to ... "Scant Oversight of Drug Maker in Fatal Meningitis Outbreak", Denise Grady; Andrew Pollack; Sabrina Tavernisd, The New York ...
A Continuing Investigation into the Fungal Meningitis Outbreak and Whether It Could Have Been Prevented. Statement of Margraret ... Reconsidering the Draft Safe Drug Compounding Act of 2007 in Light of the Ongoing Fungal Meningitis Outbreak. Mjlr.org (2013-03 ... Meningitis outbreak toll: 119 cases, 11 deaths. Usatoday.com (2012-10-09). Retrieved on 2012-12-19. Morgan, David (October 22, ... state law regulating the practice of pharmacy In October 2012 news reports surfaced of an outbreak of fungal meningitis tied to ...
... fungal, protozoal, protozoan infections and prionic infections. Most forms of aseptic meningitis are viral in origin, though ... Neonatal meningitis is a particular classification by age. Brain abscess, Epidural abscess, including spinal epidural and ... They include mostly viral infections, less commonly bacterial infections, fungal infections, prion diseases and protozoan ... cranial epidural Encephalitis Meningitis There are five main causes of CNS infections, namely bacterial, viral, ...
However, fungal meningitis and encephalitis, especially as a secondary infection for AIDS patients, are often caused by C. ... Fungal pathogens of humans, Animal fungal diseases, Fungal plant pathogens and diseases, Yeasts, Bird diseases, Fungi and ... Cryptococcal meningitis should be treated for two weeks with intravenous amphotericin B 0.7-1.0 mg/kg/day and oral flucytosine ... "Fungal protein found to cross blood-brain barrier". Lin X, Hull CM, Heitman J (2005). "Sexual reproduction between partners of ...
Conversely, diseases like meningitis can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens. Robert ...
She also led the discovery of additional novel antifungal agents that target the Gwt1 enzyme in fungal pathogens. APX2039 was ... In addition, she and her team discovered the novel antifungal agent, APX2039, for the treatment of cryptococcal meningitis. As ... It is currently in preclinical development for the treatment of cryptococcal meningitis. Shaw has over 100 published articles. ... This molecule is currently in Phase 2 clinical development for the treatment of invasive fungal infections. ...
Meningitis and encephalitis caused by viral, bacterial, and fungal infections of the brain have been associated with dystonia. ...
Mammalian and fungal membranes both contain sterols, a primary membrane target for amphotericin B. Because mammalian and fungal ... It is considered first line therapy for invasive mucormycosis infections, cryptococcal meningitis, and certain aspergillus and ... Amphotericin B is an antifungal medication used for serious fungal infections and leishmaniasis. The fungal infections it is ... In the past it had been used for fungal infections of the surface of the GI tract such as thrush, but has been replaced by ...
In patients with tuberculous meningitis, the addition of aspirin reduced the risk of new cerebral infarction [RR = 0.52 (0.29- ... 0.92)]. A role of aspirin on bacterial and fungal biofilm is also being supported by growing evidence. Evidence from ...
In May 2023, the CDC reported about an outbreak of fungal meningitis in US residents returning from Matamoros after medical or ... Health Alert Network (HAN) - 00492 (1 June 2023). "Important Updates on Outbreak of Fungal Meningitis in U.S. Patients Who ... "Fungal Infections Following Surgical Procedures in Mexico - Alert - Level 2, Practice Enhanced Precautions - Travel Health ...
Bacterial meningitis and viral meningoencephalitis are most prevalent, though fungal infections can occur in antenatal, ... For example, infectious causes of seizures (meningitis, meningoencephalitis), are often treated with antimicrobials (antibiotic ...
Towards the end of his career, he was able to publish and share his identification of a new thermally dimorphic fungal species ... Dupont, B., & Drouhet, E. (1987). Cryptococcal meningitis and fluconazole. Annals of Internal Medicine, 106(5), 778-778. Dupont ... Since then, Drouhet had opened up the field to include human and animal fungal pathogens as well. Drouhet's work looked into ... He extensively studied the serum of fungal antigens such as fluconazole, ketoconazole, amphotericin-B, fluorocytosin, and ...
Moreover, pulmonary cryptococcosis worsen the prognosis of cryptococcal meningitis. Cryptococcal meningitis (infection of the ... Cryptococcosis is a potentially fatal fungal infection of mainly the lungs, presenting as a pneumonia, and brain, where it ... Cryptococcus (both C. neoformans and C. gattii) is the dominant and leading etiologic agent of meningitis in adults with HIV ... Often there is also silent dissemination throughout the brain when meningitis is present. People with defects in their cell- ...
Whereas meningitis can be caused by a variety of bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens, cholera is only caused by ... Infection by fungal pathogens is treated with anti-fungal medication. Athlete's foot, jock itch, and ringworm are fungal skin ... These internal infections can either be treated with anti-fungal creams or with oral medication. Common anti-fungal drugs for ... which can cause a severe form of meningitis. Typical fungal spores are 4.7 μm long or smaller. Prions are misfolded proteins ...
If these are ruled out, as well as other causes such as parasitic or fungal causes, then the cause of the meningitis is likely ... Drug-Induced Aseptic Meningitis (DIAM) is a type of aseptic meningitis related to the use of medications such as nonsteroidal ... Growth indicated a bacterial meningitis, while no growth indicated another cause denoted "aseptic" meningitis. The most common ... In patients with SLE, DIAM should be distinguished from lupus aseptic meningitis (LAM). This can be done by CSF analysis (DIAM ...
Known side effects include bacterial sepsis, viral meningitis, invasive fungal disease and progressive multifocal ...
... an interesting target for synthesis because it was observed to be active against a fungal pathogen that resulted in meningitis ...
Fungal Meningitis causes, risk factors, transmission, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention ... People get meningitis if the fungal infection spreads from the lungs to the brain or spinal cord. Fungal meningitis does not ... Healthcare-Associated Fungal Meningitis. While rare, outbreaks of fungal meningitis following medical and surgical procedures ... Fungal meningitis can develop after a fungal infection spreads from somewhere else in the body to the brain or spinal cord. ...
Fungal meningitis refers to meningitis caused by a fungal infection. Symptoms of fungal meningitis are generally similar to ... "Meningitis , Fungal Meningitis". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 29 November 2017. Gottfredsson M, Perfect JR (2000). "Fungal meningitis ... and culture tests should be performed on cerebrospinal fluid when fungal meningitis is suspected. Fungal meningitis is treated ... Meningitis Cryptococcal meningitis "Meningitis". Paediatrics & Child Health. 6 (3): 126-7. March 2001. doi:10.1093/pch/6.3.126 ...
"Fungal meningitis in general is rare. But aspergillus meningitis - the kind were talking about here - is super rare and very ... Meningitis affects the membranous lining of the brain and spinal cord. Early symptoms of fungal meningitis, such as headache, ... Unlike bacterial meningitis, fungal meningitis is not transmitted from person to person. Only people who received the steroid ... Health officials are urging thousands of back pain patients to be on the lookout for symptoms of fungal meningitis amid an ...
Update on Fungal Meningitisexternal icon *Archive of Updates on Fungal Meningitis Outbreakexternal icon ... The investigation includes fungal meningitis (a form of meningitis that is not contagious), localized spinal or paraspinal ... All relevant materials for patients and clinicians concerning the multistate outbreak of fungal meningitis and other infections ... Multistate Outbreak of Fungal Meningitis and Other Infections. ... Multistate Meningitis Outbreakplus icon *Meningitis Case Counts ...
CDC is monitoring 224 patients at risk for fungal meningitis from surgery at two clinics in Matamoros, Mexico. 2 have died, and ... CDC is monitoring 224 patients at risk for fungal meningitis from surgery at two clinics in Matamoros, Mexico. 2 have died, and ... The CDC is monitoring more than 200 U.S. patients who may be at risk for fungal meningitis likely tied to surgical procedures ... CDC monitoring 200+ people for fungal meningitis Erica Carbajal - Thursday, May 25th, 2023. ...
Fungal meningitis is a rare, life-threatening fungal infection that causes swelling of the areas around the brain and spinal ... you are at risk for fungal meningitis: Go to the nearest emergency room as soon as possible to be evaluated for fungal ... If you are at risk for fungal meningitis, go to the emergency room (ER) right away, even if you do not have symptoms. For more ... Anyone who is at risk for fungal meningitis should go to the nearest emergency room right away to be tested. Testing is done by ...
A Brownsville mother adored by the community died after battling fungal meningitis following a procedure in Matamoros. Crystal ... Brownsville mother fights fungal meningitis after cosmetic procedure in Matamoros ValleyCentral spoke with Villegas in July ... Matamoros fungal meningitis cases may be linked to 2022 outbreak, expert theorizes ... BROWNSVILLE, Texas (ValleyCentral) - A Brownsville mother is being mourned after she died battling fungal meningitis she ...
Fungal meningitis usually occurs in immunocompromised patients. The initial step in fungal meningitis is the pulmonary exposure ... Patients with immunosuppression are the most vulnerable to fungal meningitis.. *Fungal meningitis may uncommonly occur In ... The initial step in fungal meningitis is the pulmonary exposure to the fungi by the inhalation of airborne fungal spores. ... The Steps in Meningeal Fungal Infection. The steps involved in the pathogenesis of fungal meningitis is a complex process. ...
Estimated Deaths and Illnesses Averted During Fungal Meningitis Outbreak Associated with Contaminated Steroid Injections, ... Estimated Deaths and Illnesses Averted During Fungal Meningitis Outbreak Associated with Contaminated Steroid Injections, ... Clinical characteristics and 60-day case fatality rates for meningitis and stroke patients given a diagnosis on or before ...
The fungal biomarker (1,3)-beta-D-glucan can help in the diagnosis of fungal meningitis; however, this test has several ... no vaccine is available to prevent fungal meningitis.4. *Healthcare providers should immediately report suspected fungal ... If fungal meningitis is suspected, treatment should be initiated as soon as possible after obtaining CSF; treatment should not ... Outbreak of Suspected Fungal Meningitis in U.S. Patients who Underwent Surgical Procedures under Epidural Anesthesia in ...
... no vaccine is available to prevent fungal meningitis.. *Healthcare providers should immediately report suspected fungal ... If fungal meningitis is suspected, treatment should be initiated as soon as possible after obtaining CSF; treatment should not ... Some patients with fungal meningitis may initially present with mild or non-specific symptoms. Healthcare providers should have ... ARCHIVED] Advisory: Outbreak of Suspected Fungal Meningitis in Patients who Underwent Procedures in Mexico. June 1, 2023 ...
The fungal biomarker (1,3)-beta-D-glucan can help in the diagnosis of fungal meningitis; however, this test has several ... no vaccine is available to prevent fungal meningitis.4. *Healthcare providers should immediately report suspected fungal ... If fungal meningitis is suspected, treatment should be initiated as soon as possible after obtaining CSF; treatment should not ... Outbreak of Suspected Fungal Meningitis in U.S. Patients who Underwent Surgical Procedures under Epidural Anesthesia in ...
... and Mexican officials have specifically linked two clinics to the fungal meningitis outbreak, both of which closed last month. ... Fungal meningitis infections aren't contagious and starting treatment right away if you are found to have fungal ... 1, 2023, and May 13, 2023, is potentially exposed and at risk for fungal meningitis. The CDC said those individuals should go ... Federal health officials are investigating a multinational outbreak of fungal meningitis linked to procedures in Mexico that ...
The fungal meningitis outbreak discovered in Nashville and now spread to other states (Minnesota, Ohio, Florida, North Carolina ... Fungal Meningitis, Tort Reform, and Damages in Tennessee Personal Injury and Wrongful Death Cases. by The Law Offices of John ... If the fungal meningitis is successfully treated and if there are no permanent effects, the only other damages that he or she ... This means that fungal meningitis patient and his or her spouse can recover only $750,000 for non-economic damages, even if the ...
Fungal Meningitis Outbreak Update: Framingham, Massachusetts-Based Compound Pharmaceutical Company Now a Defendant in Dozens of ... New Fungal Meningitis Cases and Spinal Infections Continue to Baffle Doctors, ABC News, December 12, 2012 ... According to ABC News, even though the 42-day risk period for developing fungal meningitis from the contaminated steroids ended ... In Massachusetts, please contact our Boston fungal meningitis law firm to request your free case evaluation. ...
Darin contracted fungal meningitis from a contaminated steroid shot that he and many others received from the Michigan Pain ... Brighton man suffers from fungal meningitis after contaminated injections. By Hannah Saunders. ...
5 U.S. states and jurisdictions have been identified who might be at risk of fungal meningitis because they received epidural ... Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.) (2023). Important updates on outbreak of fungal meningitis in U.S. patients ... Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.) "Important updates on outbreak of fungal meningitis in U.S. patients ... Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.) "Important updates on outbreak of fungal meningitis in U.S. patients ...
Meningitis is an inflammation of the protective tissues and fluid surrounding the brain. Children tend to be more susceptible. ... Fungal meningitis The treatment for fungal meningitis is a long course of high-dose antifungal medicines. A healthcare ... Viral meningitis is relatively nonserious and self-resolving, but bacterial and fungal meningitis need close observation and ... Fungal meningitis. Although less common than viruses and bacteria, fungi can also cause meningitis in children. ...
... meningitis; see the image below) and those primarily confined to the parenchyma (encephalitis).{file37574}Meningitis is a ... Normal or mildly increased in tuberculous meningitis; may be increased in fungal; AIDS patients with cryptococcal meningitis ... Treatment of Bacterial Meningitis. Bacterial meningitis (including meningococcal meningitis, Haemophilus influenzae meningitis ... Treatment of Viral Meningitis. Most cases of viral meningitis are benign and self-limited. Often, patients need only supportive ...
US outbreak of fungal meningitis triggers debate on pharmaceutical compounding. Fungal meningitis, unlike viral and bacterial ... Fungal meningitis outbreak linked to medical tourism in Mexico, CDC warns. The Center for Disease Control says a fungal ... Some patients in fungal meningitis outbreak have surprising complications, doctors say. As public health officials continue to ... HOUSTON - In the last month, three people in Texas have died from fungal meningitis, bringing the death toll in the state to 11 ...
Fungal meningitis outbreak linked to medical tourism in Mexico, CDC warns. The Center for Disease Control says a fungal ... Some patients in fungal meningitis outbreak have surprising complications, doctors say. As public health officials continue to ... HOUSTON - In the last month, three people in Texas have died from fungal meningitis, bringing the death toll in the state to 11 ... I got fungal meningitis from a botched BBL in Mexico - now Im fighting for my life ...
US outbreak of fungal meningitis triggers debate on pharmaceutical compounding. Fungal meningitis, unlike viral and bacterial ... Fungal meningitis outbreak linked to medical tourism in Mexico, CDC warns. The Center for Disease Control says a fungal ... HOUSTON - In the last month, three people in Texas have died from fungal meningitis, bringing the death toll in the state to 11 ... I got fungal meningitis from a botched BBL in Mexico - now Im fighting for my life ...
US outbreak of fungal meningitis triggers debate on pharmaceutical compounding. Fungal meningitis, unlike viral and bacterial ... Fungal meningitis outbreak linked to medical tourism in Mexico, CDC warns. The Center for Disease Control says a fungal ... Some patients in fungal meningitis outbreak have surprising complications, doctors say. As public health officials continue to ... HOUSTON - In the last month, three people in Texas have died from fungal meningitis, bringing the death toll in the state to 11 ...
Fungal meningitis from contaminated steroid injections keeps expanding in the US. Fungal meningitis outbreak linked to ... US outbreak of fungal meningitis triggers debate on pharmaceutical compounding. Fungal meningitis, unlike viral and bacterial ... I got fungal meningitis from a botched BBL in Mexico - now Im fighting for my life ... Medrano passed away from fungal meningitis on May 16. Their surgeon, Dr. Luis Manuel Rivera De Anda, also operated on Lauren ...
Today the Food and Drug Administration issued a Statement on the Fungal Meningitis Outbreak. The FDA reports that a new product ... The call in number for this is 888-791-6180 (passcode 1281914). We suggest that patients diagnosed with fungal meningitis and ... Our personal injury attorneys are providing free phone consultations to anyone concerned about the fungal meningitis outbreak. ... The CDC is having a phone conference for physicians on Tuesday October 16, 2012 called Fungal Meningitis Guidance for ...
but they were doing so in a reckless way that led to hundreds of people suffering fungal meningitis and other infections. ... US pharmaceutical company searched after potential link to fungal meningitis outbreak. US pharmaceutical company, the New ... is being investigated after a suggested link to a multi-state fungal meningitis outbreak in the US. The NECC was raided after ... Baby with meningitis dies after hospital doctors say he has tonsillitis and send him home ...
How Do You Get Meningitis? - Meningitis Causes - Page 6 of 8 - Healthella ...
... fungal - Sharing our stories on preparing for and responding to public health events ... Outbreak Investigation: Meningitis. One Case Sparks National Action Imagine… A patient goes to the doctor for a routine steroid ...
CATES: Fungal meningitis outbreak. Carol A. Cates - June 19, 2023. 0 CATES: Water safety. Carol A. Cates - June 5, 2023. 0 ...
  • Fungal meningitis can develop after a fungal infection spreads from somewhere else in the body to the brain or spinal cord. (cdc.gov)
  • People get meningitis if the fungal infection spreads from the lungs to the brain or spinal cord. (cdc.gov)
  • Fungal meningitis refers to meningitis caused by a fungal infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • People who are at an increased risk of acquiring particular fungal infections in general may also be at an increased risk of developing fungal meningitis, as the infection may in some cases spread to the central nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fungal meningitis is a rare, life-threatening fungal infection that causes swelling of the areas around the brain and spinal cord. (cdc.gov)
  • however, CSF values were notable for significantly elevated white blood cell counts and, in one patient, elevated levels of (1,3)-beta-D-glucan, a biomarker for fungal infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Children can develop meningitis from close contact with a person who has the infection or through surfaces and inanimate objects infected with the germ that causes meningitis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A simple cold or respiratory tract infection can also lead to meningitis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A viral infection is one of the most common causes of meningitis in children. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • In most cases, fungal meningitis is an opportunistic infection - that is, it develops when the child's immune system gets weakened from another infection or treatment. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Meningitis is an infection that affects the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord and can be very serious. (bing.com)
  • Related: You know what increases one's risk of contracting a bacterial or fungal infection such as this? (cdc.news)
  • Cryptococcal meningitis is a fungal infection of the tissues covering the brain and spinal cord. (medlineplus.gov)
  • People who recover from cryptococcal meningitis need long-term medicine to prevent the infection from coming back. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The fungal infection involved the mold, Aspergillus fumigatus, which was linked to the steroid, methylprednisolone acetate, that originated at NECC. (yourlawyer.com)
  • In addition, elevated levels of beta-D-glucan, a biomarker of fungal infection, have been detected in the CSF of at least six patients. (cdc.gov)
  • Although the occurrence of neonatal meningitis is uncommon, it remains a devastating infection with high mortality and high morbidity. (medscape.com)
  • A deadly fungal infection is spreading in hospitals. (yahoo.com)
  • A deadly fungal infection is spreading at 'an alarming rate' inside health facilities and. (yahoo.com)
  • A warning against a new fungal infection spreading "dramatically" across the US has been issued by. (yahoo.com)
  • US health experts are raising alarm about a rise in cases of a deadly fungal infection dubbed. (yahoo.com)
  • What to know about the deadly fungal infection spreading across the U.S. (yahoo.com)
  • A large-scale clinical trial has demonstrated the efficacy of a new therapeutic protocol to treat cryptococcal meningitis associated with HIV infection and shown that it leads to fewer adverse effects. (pasteur.fr)
  • Cryptococcal meningitis is a severe invasive fungal infection caused by a yeast. (pasteur.fr)
  • The Molecular Mycology Unit is continuing to investigate this fungal infection, especially the mechanisms that enable the fungus to survive inside phagocytic cells like macrophages. (pasteur.fr)
  • In high-resource countries, meningitis usually results from reactivated infection. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Because tuberculous meningitis has a rapid and destructive course and because diagnostic tests are limited, this infection should be treated based on clinical suspicion. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Mening-ococcal meningitis is a bacterial form of mening-itis, a serious infection of the thin lining that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. (cheatography.com)
  • Meningococcal diseases include meningococcal meningitis (see below) and meningococcaemia (also known as meningococcal septicaemia), which is an infection of the blood. (who.int)
  • The infection may also spread through the body and cause meningitis, and must be treated immediately with antibiotics. (who.int)
  • Meningitis is a life-threatening infection of the meninges (the three membranes that envelop the brain and spinal cord) that affects the brain and spinal cord. (who.int)
  • Additional causes of meningitis include fungal infection, chemical irritation, bleeding into the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain, and cancer. (who.int)
  • When clinically significant fungal infection is suspected, fungal cultures are usually obtained. (medscape.com)
  • Living in certain areas of the United States may increase the risk for fungal lung infections, which can spread to the brain or spinal cord, causing meningitis. (cdc.gov)
  • Knowing the cause of fungal meningitis is important because doctors treat different types of fungal infections differently. (cdc.gov)
  • Fungal meningitis may be caused by the following (and also other) types of fungi: Candida - C. albicans is the most common Candida species that causes infections of the central nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
  • Aspergillus - Aspergillus infections account for 5% of fungal infections involving the central nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
  • All relevant materials for patients and clinicians concerning the multistate outbreak of fungal meningitis and other infections are located on this page. (cdc.gov)
  • In September 2012, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in collaboration with state and local health departments and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) external icon , began investigating a multistate outbreak of fungal meningitis and other infections among patients who received contaminated preservative-free MPA steroid injections from the New England Compounding Center in Framingham, Massachusetts. (cdc.gov)
  • The investigation includes fungal meningitis (a form of meningitis that is not contagious), localized spinal or paraspinal infections, such as epidural abscess and arachnoiditis, and infections associated with injections in a peripheral joint space, such as a knee, shoulder, or ankle. (cdc.gov)
  • These fungi are common in the environment, however fungal infections are not transmitted from person to person. (cdc.gov)
  • On September 26, 2012 , NECC voluntarily recalled three lots of preservative-free MPA associated with the multistate outbreak of fungal meningitis and other infections. (cdc.gov)
  • Although CDC has received reports of illness in patients who have received the medications listed in the table below, including some patients who had evidence of meningeal inflammation, CDC and public health officials have no reports of laboratory-confirmed bacterial or fungal meningitis, spinal, or paraspinal infections caused by these products. (cdc.gov)
  • To date, all people with confirmed fungal meningitis infections in the current outbreak have been linked to two clinics in Matamoros, Mexico (River Side Surgical Center and Clinica K-3). (cdc.gov)
  • Fungal infections are not contagious so they do not spread from one person to another.With an associated impaired immune response the fungus may disseminate. (wikidoc.org)
  • Fungal infections are not contagious so they do not spread from one person to another. (wikidoc.org)
  • Multiple pathogens can cause healthcare-associated fungal meningitis, and infections may involve multiple pathogens at once. (cdc.gov)
  • Fungal meningitis infections aren't contagious and starting treatment 'right away if you are found to have fungal meningitis greatly increases the likelihood of survival,' the CDC said. (foxla.com)
  • At least 50 federal lawsuits have been filed in nine states seeking products liability compensation from the New England Compounding Center, the Framingham, Massachusetts pharmaceutical company that is the identified source of a tainted steroid injection that has made nearly 600 people ill with fungal meningitis, spinal infections, and/or other complications, including joint infections and stroke. (bostoninjurylawyerblog.com)
  • According to ABC News, even though the 42-day risk period for developing fungal meningitis from the contaminated steroids ended on November 7, new meningitis cases, and also spinal infections, joint complications and other afflictions are still occurring, sometimes even in those that already were treated for the outbreak. (bostoninjurylawyerblog.com)
  • Meningitis and parameningeal infections are extremely rare complications of epidural injection, with few cases reported. (bing.com)
  • The Monroe County Health Department ruled out bacterial meningitis but not viral meningitis or other infections. (bing.com)
  • The FDA reports that a new product manufactured by the New England Compounding Center (NECC) has been associated with possible meningitis and/or infections -that is triamcinolone acetonide. (goldbergfinnegan.com)
  • but they were doing so in a reckless way that led to hundreds of people suffering fungal meningitis and other infections. (bing.com)
  • These meningitis infections particularly pose a high risk when injected near the spine for back pain as compared to peripheral joint infections, which involve knee, hip, shoulder or elbow. (theathletarian.com)
  • The most common causes of meningitis are viral infections. (medlineplus.gov)
  • But, bacterial meningitis infections are very serious. (medlineplus.gov)
  • A second wave of fungal infections was diagnosed in dozens of patients and included symptoms such as excruciating abscesses or inflamed back nerves. (yourlawyer.com)
  • Acute infections such as bacterial and viral meningitis and enceph-alitis require quick distin-gui-shing and treatment. (cheatography.com)
  • Approximately 90% of fungal infections are due to dermatophytes, which do not usually require fungal culture for diagnosis. (medscape.com)
  • Cryptococcus (Cryptococcal meningitis) - it is thought to be acquired through inhalation of soil contaminated with bird droppings. (wikipedia.org)
  • [1] Cryptococcal meningitis is most common due to the virulence factors of the organism that enhance invasion of the blood brain barrier . (wikidoc.org)
  • Cryptococcal meningitis is a common fungal form of the disease. (cdc.news)
  • In most cases, cryptococcal meningitis is caused by the fungus Cryptococcus neoformans . (medlineplus.gov)
  • This would explain the observation that people who survive a bout of cryptococcal meningitis can continue to have a malfunctioning immune system afterward. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Most commonly, C. neoformans causes the form of meningitis called cryptococcal meningitis. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Treatment for cryptococcal meningitis usually includes anti-fungal drugs such as fluconazole. (encyclopedia.com)
  • An article published in the New England Journal of Medicine in March 2022 proposed an innovative treatment approach for cryptococcal meningitis. (pasteur.fr)
  • It is the largest randomized clinical trial to have been conducted, including 844 advanced-stage HIV patients presenting with cryptococcal meningitis. (pasteur.fr)
  • The unit is also involved in the design and development of an innovative antigen diagnostic approach based on a quantitative PCR method that will facilitate diagnosis and monitoring of patients receiving treatment for cryptococcal meningitis. (pasteur.fr)
  • In Early 2023, cases of fungal meningitis were attributed to patients that received cosmetic surgery in Matamoros Mexico. (wikipedia.org)
  • The CDC warned that anyone who had procedures under epidural anesthesia at the two clinics between Jan. 1, 2023, and May 13, 2023, is potentially exposed and at risk for fungal meningitis. (foxla.com)
  • MINNEAPOLIS/ST. PAUL (08/22/2023) -A team of University of Minnesota Medical School researchers successfully tested a new antifungal therapy to treat fungal meningitis. (bing.com)
  • World Meningitis Day 2023: What is meningitis? (bing.com)
  • As of June 1, 2023, a multistate outbreak of fungal meningitis is ongoing among patients who underwent procedures under epidural anesthesia in the city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico, at two clinics: River Side Surgical Center and Clinica K-3. (cdc.gov)
  • A total of 212 residents in 25 U.S. states and jurisdictions have been identified who might be at risk of fungal meningitis because they received epidural anesthesia at the clinics of interest in 2023. (cdc.gov)
  • Healthcare providers, public health officials, and the public should be aware that all patients, including those without symptoms, who underwent medical or surgical procedures under epidural anesthesia at River Side Surgical Center or Clinica K-3 in Matamoros, Mexico, since January 1, 2023, should be evaluated for fungal meningitis as soon as possible. (cdc.gov)
  • Note: All patients, regardless of symptoms, who received procedures under epidural anesthesia at River Side Surgical Center or Clinica K-3 since January 2023 should be evaluated for fungal meningitis including an LP or spinal tap and MRI of the brain. (cdc.gov)
  • Although vaccines are available to prevent certain types bacterial and viral meningitis, no vaccine is available to prevent fungal meningitis. (snohd.org)
  • Babies younger than 1 month old are more likely to have severe illness from viral meningitis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • In most cases, viral meningitis resolves on its own without treatment within 7-10 days . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) , non- polio enteroviruses are the leading cause of viral meningitis in the United States. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • In areas where vaccines are not available, the mumps virus is responsible for 10-20% of viral meningitis cases. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Bacterial meningitis is more serious than viral meningitis, and around 250,000 people lose their lives to the illness every year. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This virus is spread by mosquito bites and is an important cause of viral meningitis in most of the United States. (medlineplus.gov)
  • You cannot tell if you have bacterial or viral meningitis by how you feel. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Antibiotics do not treat viral meningitis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Viral meningitis is usually not serious, and symptoms should disappear within 2 weeks with no lasting complications. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This review focuses on common presentations of treatable bacterial and viral meningitis in the neonatal period, defined as the period from birth to 44 weeks after conception. (medscape.com)
  • The same organisms respon-sible for viral meningitis usually are also respon-sible for enceph-alitis. (cheatography.com)
  • The CDC is monitoring more than 200 U.S. patients who may be at risk for fungal meningitis likely tied to surgical procedures they underwent at clinics in a Mexico border city, the agency said May 24. (beckershospitalreview.com)
  • Anyone who is at risk for fungal meningitis should go to the nearest emergency room right away to be tested. (cdc.gov)
  • If you or someone you know are at risk for fungal meningitis, learn more about what to expect for testing and treatment. (cdc.gov)
  • In children aged 5 years and above, meningococcal meningitis is the most prevalent type of bacterial meningitis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Bacterial meningitis (including meningococcal meningitis , Haemophilus influenzae meningitis , and staphylococcal meningitis ) is a neurologic emergency that is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. (medscape.com)
  • The meningococcal vaccines protect against meningococcal meningitis. (bing.com)
  • some communities hold vaccination campaigns after an outbreak of meningococcal meningitis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Household members and others in close contact with people who have meningococcal meningitis should receive antibiotics to prevent becoming infected. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Smoking and close and prolonged contact with infected persons, as well as mass gatherings, such as the Haj pilgrimage, facilitate the spread of meningococcal meningitis. (who.int)
  • Meningococcal meningitis is of particular importance due to its potential to cause large epidemics. (who.int)
  • The Hajj pilgrimage in Saudi Arabia has been associated with two major outbreaks of meningococcal meningitis caused by N. meningitidis serogroups A and W135, resulting in the global dissemination of meningococcal disease in 1987 and also in 2000 respectively. (who.int)
  • The initial step in fungal meningitis is the pulmonary exposure to the fungi by the inhalation of airborne fungal spores . (wikidoc.org)
  • In most cases of fungal meningitis , the fungi undergo hematogenous spread. (wikidoc.org)
  • Many viruses, bacteria, and fungi cause meningitis in children. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Although less common than viruses and bacteria, fungi can also cause meningitis in children. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Meningitides caused by HIV and fungi are excluded, as are those caused by other organisms implicated in congenital CNS damage (eg, cytomegalovirus [CMV] and Toxoplasma ). (medscape.com)
  • As of November 5, 2012, the CDC reported that 409 patients had laboratory-confirmed fungal meningitis caused by injections with contaminated medication. (wikipedia.org)
  • The fungal meningitis outbreak discovered in Nashville and now spread to other states (Minnesota, Ohio, Florida, North Carolina, Indiana, Michigan, Virginia and Maryland) will shed new light on compounding pharmacies and epidural steroid injections . (dayontorts.com)
  • An alarming revelation supported by federal health officials stated that the fungus present in the steroid injections produced by the New England Compounding Center, matched the one connected to the meningitis outbreak. (theathletarian.com)
  • ABC News and other media outlets have reported that the fungal meningitis outbreak may have been caused by spinal injections of methylprednisolone acetate for back pain. (tennesseedefenselitigation.com)
  • A just-filed federal settlement with a bankruptcy judge will create a multi-million dollar fund meant for compensation to victims of the meningitis outbreak that was tied to a Massachusetts compounding pharmacy and tainted spinal steroid injections. (yourlawyer.com)
  • Patients who were treated with injections of methylprednisolone acetate, which was produced by NECC, were initially sickened with fungal meningitis. (yourlawyer.com)
  • According to the nation's Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), nearly 200 people in at least 13 states including Texas have contracted fungal meningitis likely as a result of receiving tainted steroid injections in their neck or spine. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • Symptoms of fungal meningitis are generally similar to those of other types of meningitis, and include: a fever, stiff neck, severe headache, photophobia (sensitivity to light), nausea and vomiting, and altered mental status (drowsiness or confusion). (wikipedia.org)
  • Early symptoms of fungal meningitis, such as headache, fever, dizziness, nausea and slurred speech, are subtler than those of bacterial meningitis and can take nearly a month to appear. (go.com)
  • Healthcare providers and the public should be aware that patients who underwent medical or surgical procedures under epidural anesthesia in Matamoros, Mexico, and who have developed signs or symptoms of possible meningitis (e.g., fever, headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, photophobia, altered mental status) should promptly seek evaluation by a healthcare provider and convey that medical history. (cdc.gov)
  • In children, the first symptoms of meningitis are usually a fever , severe headache , and vomiting . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Although fever is one of the most telling signs of meningitis, it is often absent in babies younger than 3 months old. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Early symptoms of fungal meningitis, such as headache, fever, dizziness, nausea, sensitivity to light, stiff neck, weakness or numbness, slurred speech and pain, redness or swelling at the injection site can take more than a month to appear. (tennesseedefenselitigation.com)
  • The most common symptoms of meningitis are a stiff neck, high fever, sensitivity to light, confusion, headaches and vomiting. (who.int)
  • People can get sick if they breathe in fungal spores. (cdc.gov)
  • It's often contracted by breathing in fungal spores that may be found in soil, decaying wood, and bird droppings. (cdc.news)
  • Typically, acquiring fungus-related meningitis involves breathing in fungus spores from the environment, and it is impossible to spread fungus-related meningitis from one individual to another. (healthnews.com)
  • Fungal meningitis, unlike viral and bacterial meningitis, is not contagious. (bing.com)
  • The good news is that fungal meningitis is not contagious, so the CDC cannot, even if it wanted to, turn this into another Wuhan coronavirus (Covid-19) type of situation. (cdc.news)
  • Unlike other types of meningitis, the fungal form is not contagious and must be directly introduced into a patient's central nervous system through a shot or other means. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • This form of meningitis starts slowly, over a few days to a few weeks. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Antifungal medicines are used to treat this form of meningitis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Testing conducted on a sampling of vials revealed that many were contaminated with a fungus that was responsible for the outbreak of the deadly form of meningitis. (yourlawyer.com)
  • Since then, public health officials have identified a multistate outbreak of fungal meningitis among patients who received procedures under epidural anesthesia at River Side Surgical Center or Clinica K-3. (cdc.gov)
  • People who had procedures under epidural anesthesia at other clinics in Mexico and develop symptoms should contact their healthcare provider if they are concerned about possible meningitis. (cdc.gov)
  • CDC, the Mexican Ministry of Health, and U.S. state and local health departments are responding to a multinational outbreak of fungal meningitis among people who had procedures under epidural anesthesia in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico. (cdc.gov)
  • The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is issuing this Health Alert Network Health Advisory about an outbreak of suspected fungal meningitis among U.S. patients hospitalized in Texas after undergoing cosmetic procedures under epidural anesthesia in the city of Matamoros, state of Tamaulipas, Mexico. (cdc.gov)
  • Two additional female patients hospitalized in Texas developed suspected fungal meningitis 1-8 weeks after undergoing cosmetic procedures under epidural anesthesia at Clinica K-3 in Matamoros, Mexico. (cdc.gov)
  • Recommendations for diagnosis and management of patients with possible fungal meningitis associated with epidural anesthesia administered in Matamoros, Mexico, are available on CDC's website , which will be updated as new information becomes available. (cdc.gov)
  • Federal health officials are investigating a multinational outbreak of fungal meningitis linked to procedures in Mexico that has already killed four people. (foxla.com)
  • Learn more about the types of meningitis here. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Learn about the symptoms, causes and treatment options for the different types of meningitis. (bing.com)
  • Aspergillus has been very rarely associated with meningitis while cases caused explicitly by Exserohilum in otherwise healthy individuals have not been previously reported. (wikipedia.org)
  • But aspergillus meningitis - the kind we're talking about here - is super rare and very serious," said Dr. William Schaffner, president of the National Foundation for Infectious Diseases and chairman of preventive medicine at Vanderbilt University Medical Center in Nashville, Tenn. (go.com)
  • There's no such thing as mild aspergillus meningitis. (go.com)
  • 2 Healthcare providers can consider ordering other diagnostic tests including serum and CSF Aspergillus galactomannan and fungal polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing. (cdc.gov)
  • If a doctor suspects meningitis, he or she may collect samples of blood or cerebrospinal fluid (fluid surrounding the spinal cord). (cdc.gov)
  • If suspected, fungal meningitis is diagnosed by testing blood and cerebrospinal fluid for pathogens. (wikipedia.org)
  • Measurement of opening pressure, cell count with differential, glucose and protein concentrations, Gram's stain, India ink, and culture tests should be performed on cerebrospinal fluid when fungal meningitis is suspected. (wikipedia.org)
  • A fungal etiology is suspected based on elevated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of the fungal biomarker (1,3)-beta-D-glucan in at least one patient. (cdc.gov)
  • In acute meningitis, regardless of presentation, a lumbar puncture (LP) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) examination are indicated to identify the causative organism and, in bacterial meningitis, the antibiotic sensitivities. (medscape.com)
  • If the provider thinks you have meningitis, a lumbar puncture ( spinal tap ) should be done to remove a sample of spinal fluid (cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF) for testing. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Three U.S. laboratories (CDC Mycotic Diseases Branch's Laboratory, UCSF Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, and UW Medicine Molecular Microbiology laboratory) and the Mexican national laboratory (InDRE) have detected fungal signals consistent with the Fusarium solani species complex from the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of patients receiving follow-up care in Mexico or the United States. (cdc.gov)
  • Health officials are urging thousands of back pain patients to be on the lookout for symptoms of fungal meningitis amid an outbreak that has killed at least five people and sickened 42 across seven states. (go.com)
  • Find information on testing and treatment options for patients with suspected or confirmed fungal meningitis. (cdc.gov)
  • A third of patients presenting with disseminated coccidioidomycosis have developed meningitis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Overall mortality for Candida meningitis is 10-20%, 31% for patients with HIV, and 11% in neurosurgical cases (when treated). (wikipedia.org)
  • Fungal meningitis usually occurs in immunocompromised patients . (wikidoc.org)
  • Patients with immunosuppression are the most vulnerable to fungal meningitis. (wikidoc.org)
  • Fungal meningitis may uncommonly occur In patients with no underlying immunosuppression . (wikidoc.org)
  • Because some patients with fungal meningitis may initially present with mild or non-specific symptoms, healthcare providers should have a low threshold for performing brain imaging and LP. (cdc.gov)
  • Some patients with fungal meningitis may initially present with mild or non-specific symptoms. (snohd.org)
  • 5 days prior to presentation) are more commonly immunosuppressed, have comorbidities, have fungal etiologies, have higher rates of hypoglycorrhachia, and have abnormal neurological findings than patients with acute meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • [ 39 ] Furthermore, patients with subacute meningitis are less likely to be treated empirically with intravenous antibiotics and have lower levels of CSF pleocytosis and serum WBC counts than patients with acute meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • We suggest that patients diagnosed with fungal meningitis and their loved ones may want to call in for this phone call in order to be sure they are knowledgeable of the most up to date medical information about the meningitis outbreak. (goldbergfinnegan.com)
  • Cryptococcus gattii can also cause meningitis, but this form can cause disease in patients with a normal immune system as well. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Los Angeles [US], May 26: More than 200 American patients could be at risk of fungal meningitis after having surgical procedures at clinics in a Mexico border city, according to the latest warning of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (washingtondcdespatch.com)
  • Four American patients have died and nearly two dozen others contracted fungal meningitis tied to cosmetic operations in two Mexico medical facilities. (healthnews.com)
  • When patients went to the emergency departments [to get tested], they were turned away because the doctors said you don't have any symptoms, you can't have meningitis," says Melendez. (healthnews.com)
  • According to the CDC, two different types of mold have been detected in fungal meningitis patients who were administered shots created at NECC's compounding facility. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • At presentation, the majority of patients with H influenzae type b (Hib) meningitis have an elevated white blood cell (WBC) count, with a left shift. (medscape.com)
  • Lumbar puncture is critical in the evaluation of patients with suspected meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • Approximately 90% of immunocompetent patients with culture-proven meningitis have CSF findings characteristic of acute community-acquired bacterial meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • Immunocompromised patients and patients with tuberculosis meningitis may present with acellular/low-white blood cell (WBC)-CSF meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • Healthcare providers who suspect possible meningitis should perform a lumbar puncture (unless contraindicated). (cdc.gov)
  • If the initial lumbar puncture results are abnormal, healthcare providers can request additional testing for fungal pathogens. (cdc.gov)
  • Lumbar puncture was performed, and empirical treatment for tuberculous and fungal meningitis was commenced. (ox.ac.uk)
  • A lumbar puncture ( spinal tap ) is used to diagnose meningitis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Evaluation for fungal meningitis includes a lumbar puncture (LP, also known as spinal tap) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain. (cdc.gov)
  • Lumbar puncture should be strongly considered in all infants aged 2-12 months with a history suggestive of Haemophilus influenzae meningitis and the finding of meningismus on physical examination. (medscape.com)
  • Lumbar puncture results may confirm the diagnosis of meningitis or suggest an alternative diagnosis. (medscape.com)
  • CSF abnormalities are found in approximately 16-20% of children who are evaluated by lumbar puncture for possible meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • In young febrile children, lumbar puncture should be performed if meningitis cannot be otherwise excluded (after appropriate consideration of such contraindications as asymmetrical space-occupying lesion). (medscape.com)
  • Doctors treat fungal meningitis with long courses of high-dose antifungal medications, often given directly into a vein through an IV. (cdc.gov)
  • Fungal meningitis is treated with long courses of high dose antifungal medications. (wikipedia.org)
  • Dual agent antifungal therapy can be considered and has been used in previous fungal meningitis outbreaks. (snohd.org)
  • Once diagnosed, a fungal meningitis patient must be treated with antifungal drugs for several weeks. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • BROWNSVILLE, Texas ( ValleyCentral ) - A Brownsville mother is being mourned after she died battling fungal meningitis she contracted at a Matamoros clinic. (valleycentral.com)
  • Many of the plaintiffs' attorneys are also seeking fungal meningitis compensation from other defendants, including Barry Cadden, who is the co-founder of NECC, Greg Conigliaro, also a co-founder, Ameridose, a NECC sister company, and Medical Sales Management, which is a support arm. (bostoninjurylawyerblog.com)
  • US pharmaceutical company, the New England Compounding Center (NECC), is being investigated after a suggested link to a multi-state fungal meningitis outbreak in the US. (bing.com)
  • CDC investigators have purportedly linked a preservative-free steroid called methylprednisolone created at the New England Compounding Center (NECC) to the fungal meningitis outbreak. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • Unlike in the case of viruses, some bacteria that cause meningitis release a toxin in the body, which can lead to neurological complications. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Early diagnosis and treatment of bacterial meningitis is essential to prevent permanent neurological damage. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Despite the development of effective vaccines, useful tools for rapid identification of pathogens and potent antimicrobial drugs, neonatal meningitis continues to contribute substantially to neurological disability worldwide. (medscape.com)
  • Cryptococcus neoformans is a yeast that is the sole species of the genus capable of causing mycotic (fungal) disease. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Cryptococcus gattii can also cause meningitis. (stlukes-stl.com)
  • Twenty-nine of the meningitis cases - three of them lethal - have been in Tennessee, where more than 900 residents received the drug since July. (go.com)
  • As of May 24, the CDC has identified nine suspected cases and nine probable cases of fungal meningitis among Americans in 24 states and the District of Columbia. (beckershospitalreview.com)
  • In addition to the seven deaths, the CDC is also raising fear about an additional 161 "suspected cases" of fungal meningitis that the agency says have no visible symptoms (sound familiar? (cdc.news)
  • Healthcare providers should immediately report suspected fungal meningitis cases, including those possibly related to this outbreak, to their state or local health department," the agency said. (cdc.news)
  • The recent outbreak of fungal meningitis has led to 28 deaths and 363 cases across 19 states. (theathletarian.com)
  • The number of fatalities due to the consequential outbreak of fungal meningitis has reached 28, while a total of 363 cases have been reported across 19 states. (theathletarian.com)
  • Despite these measures, health officials are preparing for an increase in meningitis cases, given that symptoms can take up to a month or more to appear. (theathletarian.com)
  • Tennessee, more than any other state, has been most affected by the outbreak where there are 49 cases of fungal meningitis that have been reported including six that have been fatal. (tennesseedefenselitigation.com)
  • Because both molds normally grow slowly and initial fungal meningitis symptoms may be subtle, the CDC stated more cases are likely to be diagnosed in the near future. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • Two more cases of meningitis have been reported in Florida. (wuft.org)
  • Four fungal meningitis cases have been confirmed in Florida, according to Gov. Rick Scott. (wuft.org)
  • A rare and deadly form of fungal meningitis has killed five and sickened 47 in seven states, with two cases reported in Florida. (wuft.org)
  • Among US neonates, group B streptococci (GBS) are the most commonly identified causes of bacterial meningitis, implicated in roughly 50% of all cases. (medscape.com)
  • In a series from Africa and South Asia, Tiskumara et al noted that 75% of cases of late-onset meningitis were due to gram-negative bacilli. (medscape.com)
  • As cases of neonatal enteroviral sepsis and aseptic meningitis come to be more frequently recognized, reporting and identification of more virulent serotypes as they affect infants are likely to play a growing role. (medscape.com)
  • Serum glucose values are often abnormal (low or high) in cases of acute bacterial meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion ( SIADH ) develops in approximately half of all cases of Hib meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • In cases of bacterial meningitis, CSF Gram stain and culture may identify the organism causing meningitis, which is advantageous in that treatment and prognostication can be adjusted to the specific organism. (medscape.com)
  • In such cases, performing puncture avoids the diagnostic difficulties associated with partially treated meningitis in the event that the infant returns within the next few days with clinical worsening. (medscape.com)
  • Aseptic meningitis is a syndrome of multiple etiologies, but many cases are caused by a viral agent. (cdc.gov)
  • That said, children with bacterial meningitis are at a higher risk of developing complications with long-term effects. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • United States authorities are trying to discourage Americans from traveling to Mexico to get less expensive and more wide-ranging medical procedures by telling them they could end up dying from fungal meningitis. (cdc.news)
  • A Texas woman is among three Americans who have died from fungal meningitis after an outbreak linked to cosmetic surgeries in Mexico. (tamaulipaspost.com)
  • Less than half of the Americans who may have been exposed before the clinics were closed, according to Tom Chiller, director of the CDC's fungal diseases section, have been contacted by authorities. (healthnews.com)
  • C. neoformans is the most common pathogen to cause fungal meningitis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The type of pathogen that causes meningitis influences its symptoms and the severity of the disease. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This is the most important pathogen for meningitis (Neisseria Mening-itides) because it has the potential to cause epidemics. (cheatography.com)
  • It may mimic acute bacterial meningitis. (cdc.news)
  • Acute meningitis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Brouwer MC, Thwaites GE, Tunkel AR, van de Beek D. Dilemmas in the diagnosis of acute community-acquired bacterial meningitis. (medscape.com)
  • US and Mexican authorities are urging the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare a public health emergency over a fungal outbreak linked to cosmetic operations in Mexico. (bing.com)
  • The fungus Candida can also cause meningitis. (cdc.gov)
  • While rare, outbreaks of fungal meningitis following medical and surgical procedures have occurred. (cdc.gov)
  • Meningitis affects the membranous lining of the brain and spinal cord. (go.com)
  • Meningitis is an inflammation of the protective tissues and fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • However, encephalitis is inflammation of the brain, while meningitis is inflammation of the membranes protecting the brain and spinal cord. (office.net)
  • Meningitis is a disease in which the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord, also known as the meninges, become infected and inflamed. (bing.com)
  • According to ABC News "meningitis affects the membranous lining of the brain and spinal cord. (tennesseedefenselitigation.com)
  • Meningitis causes the membrane that surrounds a victim's brain and spinal column to swell. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • Specimens for routine fungal culture should be first inoculated in nonselective media such as Sabouraud dextrose brain heart infusion (BHI) agar or plain BHI agar. (medscape.com)
  • Although the incubation period can vary, fungal meningitis symptoms will generally begin to appear anywhere between one and four weeks after a patient is exposed to the fungus. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • Darin contracted fungal meningitis from a contaminated steroid shot that he and many others received from the Michigan Pain Specialist clinic in Brighton. (fox2detroit.com)
  • This steroid is being investigated as a potential cause of the meningitis outbreak. (theathletarian.com)
  • If you or a loved one contracted fungal meningitis after receiving a steroid injection, you should contact an experienced personal injury attorney. (texasinjurylawyersblog.com)
  • After the fungal meningitis scare, in which 300 people have been infected, and 17 killed by syringes containing a steroid made by. (jdjournal.com)
  • This Health Update provides updates on the status of the ongoing fungal meningitis outbreak and highlights interim recommendations for diagnosis and treatment. (cdc.gov)
  • Subacute meningitis develops over days to a few weeks. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Subacute and chronic meningitis may result from a wide variety of organisms and conditions. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The pathophysiology of fungal meningitis is not very well studied however, it is known to have a lot of similarities with bacterial meningitis . (wikidoc.org)