Palatine Tonsil
Tonsillitis
Camels
Maxillary Nerve
Palate
Microscopy, Electron, Scanning
Palate, Soft
Anatomy, Regional
Tongue
Encyclopedias as Topic
Metagenome
Microbiota
Gastrointestinal Tract
RNA, Ribosomal, 16S
Bacteria
Molecular Sequence Data
Identification of a subpopulation of lymphocytes in human peripheral blood cytotoxic to autologous fibroblasts. (1/1274)
A naturally occurring subpopulation of human peripheral blood lymphocytes is cytotoxic to autologous and/or allogeneic fibroblasts. The autocytotoxic lymphocytes have a receptor for the third component of complement and for aggregated gamma globulin, do not form rosettes with sheep red blood cells, and are not removed by passage through nylon. The autocytotoxic subpopulation is not present in the thymus and tonsils of normal children or in the peripheral blood of individuals with X-linked agammaglobulinemia. Fibroblast absorption experiments demonstrate that the autocytotoxic cells are "sensitized" to antigens expressed on allogeneic fibroblasts in addition to the antigens expressed on autologous cells. Some normal individuals have a second subpopulation of lymphocytes that may "regulate" the autocytotoxic cells. The relevance of these observations to the murine autocytotoxic cells is discussed. (+info)Contributory and exacerbating roles of gaseous ammonia and organic dust in the etiology of atrophic rhinitis. (2/1274)
Pigs reared commercially indoors are exposed to air heavily contaminated with particulate and gaseous pollutants. Epidemiological surveys have shown an association between the levels of these pollutants and the severity of lesions associated with the upper respiratory tract disease of swine atrophic rhinitis. This study investigated the role of aerial pollutants in the etiology of atrophic rhinitis induced by Pasteurella multocida. Forty, 1-week-old Large White piglets were weaned and divided into eight groups designated A to H. The groups were housed in Rochester exposure chambers and continuously exposed to the following pollutants: ovalbumin (groups A and B), ammonia (groups C and D), ovalbumin plus ammonia (groups E and F), and unpolluted air (groups G and H). The concentrations of pollutants used were 20 mg m-3 total mass and 5 mg m-3 respirable mass for ovalbumin dust and 50 ppm for ammonia. One week after exposure commenced, the pigs in groups A, C, E, and G were infected with P. multocida type D by intranasal inoculation. After 4 weeks of exposure to pollutants, the pigs were killed and the extent of turbinate atrophy was assessed with a morphometric index (MI). Control pigs kept in clean air and not inoculated with P. multocida (group H) had normal turbinate morphology with a mean MI of 41.12% (standard deviation [SD], +/- 1. 59%). In contrast, exposure to pollutants in the absence of P. multocida (groups B, D, and F) induced mild turbinate atrophy with mean MIs of 49.65% (SD, +/-1.96%), 51.04% (SD, +/-2.06%), and 49.88% (SD, +/-3.51%), respectively. A similar level of atrophy was also evoked by inoculation with P. multocida in the absence of pollutants (group G), giving a mean MI of 50.77% (SD, +/-2.07%). However, when P. multocida inoculation was combined with pollutant exposure (groups A, C, and E) moderate to severe turbinate atrophy occurred with mean MIs of 64.93% (SD, +/-4.64%), 59.18% (SD, +/-2.79%), and 73.30% (SD, +/-3.19%), respectively. The severity of atrophy was greatest in pigs exposed simultaneously to dust and ammonia. At the end of the exposure period, higher numbers of P. multocida bacteria were isolated from the tonsils than from the nasal membrane, per gram of tissue. The severity of turbinate atrophy in inoculated pigs was proportional to the number of P. multocida bacteria isolated from tonsils (r2 = 0.909, P < 0.05) and nasal membrane (r2 = 0.628, P < 0.05). These findings indicate that aerial pollutants contribute to the severity of lesions associated with atrophic rhinitis by facilitating colonization of the pig's upper respiratory tract by P. multocida and also by directly evoking mild atrophy. (+info)Human herpesvirus 8 seroprevalence and evaluation of nonsexual transmission routes by detection of DNA in clinical specimens from human immunodeficiency virus-seronegative patients from central and southern Italy, with and without Kaposi's sarcoma. (3/1274)
In order to investigate the seroprevalence of human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) infection in central and southern Italy, sera from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-seronegative subjects, with and without Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), were analyzed by immunofluorescence assay, using BC-3, a cell line latently infected with HHV-8. High titers of antibody against HHV-8 lytic and latent antigens were detected in all 50 KS patients studied, while in 50 HIV-seronegative subjects without KS, 32 (64%) were found positive for HHV-8 antibodies. Titers in the sera of these patients were lower than those for KS patients. This data suggests that HHV-8 infection is not restricted to KS patients and that the prevalence of HHV-8 infection in the general population may be correlated with differing rates of prevalence of KS in different parts of the world. In view of these findings, possible nonsexual transmission routes were evaluated. Nested PCR was used to test for the presence of HHV-8 DNA in saliva, urine, and tonsillar swabs from KS and non-KS patients. In KS patients, 14 out of 32 tonsillar swabs (43.7%), 11 out of 24 saliva samples (45.8%), and just 2 out of 24 urine samples (8.3%) tested positive for HHV-8 DNA. In the control group, on the contrary, none of the 20 saliva and 20 urine specimens was positive for HHV-8 DNA; only 1 out of 22 tonsillar swabs gave a positive result. This data supports the hypothesis that HHV-8 infects the general population in a latent form. The reactivation of viral infection may result in salivary shedding of HHV-8, contributing to viral spread by nonsexual transmission routes. (+info)Nonimmunoglobulin gene hypermutation in germinal center B cells. (4/1274)
Somatic hypermutation is the most critical mechanism underlying the diversification of Ig genes. Although mutation occurs specifically in B cells during the germinal center reaction, it remains a matter of debate whether the mutation machinery also targets non-Ig genes. We have studied mutations in the 5' noncoding region of the Bcl6 gene in different subtypes of lymphomas. We found frequent hypermutation in follicular lymphoma (25 of 59 = 42%) (germinal center cell origin) and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma (19 of 45 = 42%) (postgerminal center), but only occasionally in mantle cell lymphoma (1 of 21 = 4.8%) (pregerminal center). Most mutations were outside the motifs potentially important for transcription, suggesting they were not important in lymphomagenesis but may, like Ig mutation, represent an inherent feature of the lymphoma precursor cells. Therefore, we investigated their normal cell counterparts microdissected from a reactive tonsil. Bcl6 mutation was found in 13 of 24 (54%) clones from the germinal centre but only in 1 of 24 (4%) clones from the naive B cells of the mantle zone. The frequency, distribution, and nature of these mutations were similar to those resulting from the Ig hypermutation process. The results show unequivocal evidence of non-Ig gene hypermutation in germinal center B cells and provide fresh insights into the process of hypermutation and lymphomagenesis. (+info)Toward a role of dendritic cells in the germinal center reaction: triggering of B cell proliferation and isotype switching. (5/1274)
We have reported previously that in vitro generated dendritic cells (DC) can directly regulate B cell responses. Recently, germinal center DC (GCDC) were identified within B cell follicles. Due to their particular localization, we have tested in the present study whether GCDC could contribute to key events characteristic of the GC reaction. Our present results demonstrate that 1) ex vivo GCDC induce a dramatic GC B cell expansion upon CD40 and IL-2 activation and drive plasma cell differentiation, 2) this property is shared by GCDC and blood DC, but not by Langerhans cells, 3) IL-12 production by GCDC is critical in GC B cell expansion and differentiation, and 4) importantly, GCDC also induce IL-10-independent isotype switching toward IgG1. These observations support the novel concept that GCDC directly contribute to the germinal center reaction. (+info)Mucosal dendritic cells and immunodeficiency viruses. (6/1274)
Dendritic cells [DCs] have been implicated in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). When skin was used as a model for mucosae, the cutaneous DC-T cell milieu allowed the growth of HIV-1 and much of the newly produced virus could be detected in multinucleated DC-T cell syncytia. Such virus replication occurs irrespective of the genetic subtype, the syncytium- and non-syncytium-inducing capacities of the viruses, and whether they are classified as T cell- or macrophage-tropic. Similar DC-syncytia have been identified within the mucosal surfaces of the tonsillar tissue of HIV-1-infected persons. More recently, it was demonstrated that DC-T cell mixtures from the skin, mucosae, and blood of healthy macaques similarly support the replication of simian immunodeficiency virus. In both the human and monkey systems, active virus replication requires the presence of both DCs and T cells. Further studies using the macaque model are underway to elucidate the role of DCs in the transmission and spread of HIV infection. (+info)Antigen receptor engagement selectively induces macrophage inflammatory protein-1 alpha (MIP-1 alpha) and MIP-1 beta chemokine production in human B cells. (7/1274)
We show herein that B cell Ag receptor (BCR) triggering, but not stimulation by CD40 mAb and/or IL-4, rapidly induced the coordinated expression of two closely related T cell chemoattractants, macrophage inflammatory protein-1 beta (MIP-1 beta) and MIP-1 alpha, by human B cells. Naive, memory, and germinal center B cells all produced MIP-1 alpha/beta in response to BCR triggering. In contrast to MIP-1 alpha/beta, IL-8, which is spontaneously produced by germinal center B cells but not by naive and memory B cells, was not regulated by BCR triggering. Culturing follicular dendritic cell-like HK cells with activated B cells did not regulate MIP-1 alpha/beta production, but it did induce production of IL-8 by HK cells. Microchemotaxis assays showed that CD4+CD45RO+ T cells of the effector/helper phenotype actively migrated along a chemotactic gradient formed by BCR-stimulated B cells. This effect was partially blocked by anti-MIP-1 beta and anti-CC chemokine receptor 5 Ab, but not by anti-MIP-1 alpha Ab suggesting that MIP-1 beta plays a major role in this chemoattraction. Since maturation of the B cell response to a peptide Ag is mostly dependent on the availability of T cell help, the ability of Ag-stimulated B cells to recruit T cells via MIP-1 alpha/beta, may represent one possible mechanism enabling cognate interactions between rare in vivo Ag-specific T and B cells. (+info)Age-dependent altered proportions in subpopulations of tonsillar lymphocytes. (8/1274)
Age-related changes in functional subsets of lymphocytes may influence the potential to build up immune responses. In particular, the capacity of tonsillar lymphocytes to counter infections may be altered during ageing. In order to address this question we investigated the proportional distribution of several subsets of tonsillar T and B cells with regard to ageing. Tonsils were derived from 119 patients between 2 and 65 years of age. Lymphocyte subsets were monitored by three-colour fluorescence of relevant CD markers in flow cytometry. As a general tendency the percentage of CD3+ T cells steadily increased whereas that of CD19+ B cells decreased at the same time. No significant differences were observed between lymphocytes of patients with and without inflammatory history of the tonsils. The percentage of CD8+ T cells declined whereas that of CD4+ T cells increased during the same time span. CD45RA+ T cells increased during the first two decades of life and gradually decreased thereafter. In contrast, CD45RO+ T cells showed an opposite trend. No differences were seen in the population of CD3-/CD56+ natural killer (NK) cells. The mature B cell marker CD40 showed no significant changes during ageing. However, CD38+ B cells, representing B cells of late maturation stages, dramatically declined up to the age of 65. In a similar manner the CD5+ subpopulation of B cells decreased during ageing. Substantial changes in major tonsillar T and B cell populations as shown in this study may have an impact on the ageing process of the immune system. (+info)The palatine tonsils, also known as the "tonsils," are two masses of lymphoid tissue located on either side of the oropharynx, at the back of the throat. They are part of the immune system and play a role in protecting the body from inhaled or ingested pathogens. Each tonsil has a surface covered with crypts and follicles that contain lymphocytes, which help to filter out bacteria and viruses that enter the mouth and nose.
The palatine tonsils are visible through the mouth and can be seen during a routine physical examination. They vary in size, but typically are about the size of a large olive or almond. Swelling or inflammation of the tonsils is called tonsillitis, which can cause symptoms such as sore throat, difficulty swallowing, fever, and swollen lymph nodes in the neck. In some cases, enlarged tonsils may need to be removed through a surgical procedure called a tonsillectomy.
Tonsillar neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the tonsils, which are two masses of lymphoid tissue located on either side of the back of the throat (oropharynx). These growths can be benign or malignant (cancerous), and their symptoms may include difficulty swallowing, sore throat, ear pain, and swollen lymph nodes in the neck.
Tonsillar neoplasms are relatively rare, but they can occur at any age. The most common type of malignant tonsillar neoplasm is squamous cell carcinoma, which accounts for about 90% of all cases. Other types of malignant tonsillar neoplasms include lymphomas and sarcomas.
The diagnosis of tonsillar neoplasms typically involves a physical examination, imaging studies such as CT or MRI scans, and sometimes a biopsy to confirm the type of tumor. Treatment options depend on the stage and location of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor for recurrence and manage any long-term effects of treatment.
Tonsillitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation and infection of the tonsils, which are two masses of lymphoid tissue located on either side of the back of the throat. The tonsils serve as a defense mechanism against inhaled or ingested pathogens; however, they can become infected themselves, leading to tonsillitis.
The inflammation of the tonsils is often accompanied by symptoms such as sore throat, difficulty swallowing, fever, swollen and tender lymph nodes in the neck, cough, headache, and fatigue. In severe or recurrent cases, a tonsillectomy (surgical removal of the tonsils) may be recommended to alleviate symptoms and prevent complications.
Tonsillitis can be caused by both viral and bacterial infections, with group A streptococcus being one of the most common bacterial causes. It is typically diagnosed based on a physical examination and medical history, and sometimes further confirmed through laboratory tests such as a throat swab or rapid strep test. Treatment may include antibiotics for bacterial tonsillitis, pain relievers, and rest to aid in recovery.
Adenoids are a pair of masses of lymphoid tissue located in the nasopharynx, which is the upper part of the throat behind the nose. They are part of the immune system and help to protect against infection. Adenoids are largest in children and tend to shrink in size as people get older. In some cases, adenoids can become enlarged or infected, leading to problems such as breathing difficulties, ear infections, and sleep disorders. Treatment for enlarged or infected adenoids may include antibiotics, medications to reduce swelling, or surgical removal of the adenoids (adenoidectomy).
A tonsillectomy is a surgical procedure in which the tonsils, two masses of lymphoid tissue located on both sides of the back of the throat, are removed. This procedure is typically performed to treat recurrent or severe cases of tonsillitis (inflammation of the tonsils), sleep-disordered breathing such as obstructive sleep apnea, and other conditions where the tonsils are causing problems or complications. The surgery can be done under general anesthesia, and there are various methods for removing the tonsils, including traditional scalpel excision, electrocautery, and laser surgery. After a tonsillectomy, patients may experience pain, swelling, and difficulty swallowing, but these symptoms typically improve within 1-2 weeks post-surgery.
The hard palate is the anterior, bony part of the roof of the mouth, forming a vertical partition between the oral and nasal cavities. It is composed of the maxilla and palatine bones, and provides attachment for the muscles of the soft palate, which functions in swallowing, speaking, and breathing. The hard palate also contains taste buds that contribute to our ability to taste food.
A "camel" is a large, even-toed ungulate that belongs to the genus Camelus in the family Camelidae. There are two species of camels: the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius), also known as the Arabian camel, which has one hump, and the Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), which has two humps.
Camels are well adapted to life in arid environments and are native to the Middle East and Central Asia. They have long legs, large, flat feet that help them walk on sand, and a thick coat of hair that helps protect them from the sun and cold temperatures. Camels are also known for their ability to store fat in their humps, which they can convert into water and energy when food and water are scarce.
Camels have been domesticated for thousands of years and have played an important role in human history as transportation, pack animals, and sources of meat, milk, and wool. They are also used in traditional medicine and religious ceremonies in some cultures.
The maxillary nerve, also known as the second division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V2), is a primary sensory nerve that provides innervation to the skin of the lower eyelid, side of the nose, part of the cheek, upper lip, and roof of the mouth. It also supplies sensory fibers to the mucous membranes of the nasal cavity, maxillary sinus, palate, and upper teeth. Furthermore, it contributes motor innervation to the muscles involved in chewing (muscles of mastication), specifically the tensor veli palatini and tensor tympani. The maxillary nerve originates from the trigeminal ganglion and passes through the foramen rotundum in the skull before reaching its target areas.
The palate is the roof of the mouth in humans and other mammals, separating the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. It consists of two portions: the anterior hard palate, which is composed of bone, and the posterior soft palate, which is composed of muscle and connective tissue. The palate plays a crucial role in speech, swallowing, and breathing, as it helps to direct food and air to their appropriate locations during these activities.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is a type of electron microscopy that uses a focused beam of electrons to scan the surface of a sample and produce a high-resolution image. In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of a specimen, and secondary electrons are emitted from the sample due to interactions between the electrons and the atoms in the sample. These secondary electrons are then detected by a detector and used to create an image of the sample's surface topography. SEM can provide detailed images of the surface of a wide range of materials, including metals, polymers, ceramics, and biological samples. It is commonly used in materials science, biology, and electronics for the examination and analysis of surfaces at the micro- and nanoscale.
Mouth abnormalities, also known as oral or orofacial anomalies, refer to structural or functional differences or defects in the mouth and surrounding structures, including the lips, teeth, gums, palate, tongue, and salivary glands. These abnormalities can be present at birth (congenital) or acquired later in life due to injury, disease, or surgery. They can range from minor variations in size, shape, or position of oral structures to more significant anomalies that may affect speech, swallowing, chewing, breathing, and overall quality of life.
Examples of mouth abnormalities include cleft lip and palate, macroglossia (enlarged tongue), microglossia (small tongue), ankyloglossia (tongue-tie), high or narrow palate, bifid uvula (split uvula), dental malocclusion (misaligned teeth), supernumerary teeth (extra teeth), missing teeth, and various oral tumors or cysts. Some mouth abnormalities may require medical intervention, such as surgery, orthodontic treatment, or speech therapy, while others may not necessitate any treatment.
The soft palate, also known as the velum, is the rear portion of the roof of the mouth that is made up of muscle and mucous membrane. It extends from the hard palate (the bony front part of the roof of the mouth) to the uvula, which is the small piece of tissue that hangs down at the back of the throat.
The soft palate plays a crucial role in speech, swallowing, and breathing. During swallowing, it moves upward and backward to block off the nasal cavity, preventing food and liquids from entering the nose. In speech, it helps to direct the flow of air from the mouth into the nose, which is necessary for producing certain sounds.
Anatomically, the soft palate consists of several muscles that allow it to change shape and move. These muscles include the tensor veli palatini, levator veli palatini, musculus uvulae, palatopharyngeus, and palatoglossus. The soft palate also contains a rich supply of blood vessels and nerves that provide sensation and help regulate its function.
Regional anatomy is a subfield of anatomy that focuses on the study of specific regions or parts of the human body, such as the head and neck, thorax, abdomen, or extremities. It involves the detailed examination of the structures and functions of the organs, tissues, and systems within these regions, including their relationships with adjacent regions. Regional anatomy is often taught in medical schools and other health professions programs to provide a foundation for understanding clinical conditions and performing medical procedures. It is also relevant for professionals in fields such as athletic training, physical therapy, and exercise science, who need to understand the regional anatomy of the body to design safe and effective exercise programs or rehabilitation plans.
Adenoidectomy is a surgical procedure in which the adenoids are removed. The adenoids are a patch of tissue located behind the nasal cavity, near the roof of the mouth. They help to filter out germs that are breathed in through the nose. However, sometimes the adenoids can become enlarged or infected, leading to problems such as difficulty breathing through the nose, recurrent ear infections, and sleep apnea. In these cases, an adenoidectomy may be recommended to remove the adenoids and alleviate these symptoms.
The procedure is typically performed on an outpatient basis, which means that the patient can go home the same day as the surgery. The surgeon will use a special instrument to remove the adenoids through the mouth, without making any external incisions. After the surgery, the patient may experience some discomfort, sore throat, and difficulty swallowing for a few days. However, these symptoms usually resolve within a week or two.
It is important to note that an adenoidectomy is not the same as a tonsillectomy, which is the surgical removal of the tonsils. While the tonsils and adenoids are both part of the immune system and located in the same area of the mouth, they serve different functions and may be removed separately or together depending on the individual's medical needs.
In medical terms, the tongue is a muscular organ in the oral cavity that plays a crucial role in various functions such as taste, swallowing, and speech. It's covered with a mucous membrane and contains papillae, which are tiny projections that contain taste buds to help us perceive different tastes - sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. The tongue also assists in the initial process of digestion by moving food around in the mouth for chewing and mixing with saliva. Additionally, it helps in forming words and speaking clearly by shaping the sounds produced in the mouth.
An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work containing articles on various topics, usually arranged in alphabetical order. In the context of medicine, a medical encyclopedia is a collection of articles that provide information about a wide range of medical topics, including diseases and conditions, treatments, tests, procedures, and anatomy and physiology. Medical encyclopedias may be published in print or electronic formats and are often used as a starting point for researching medical topics. They can provide reliable and accurate information on medical subjects, making them useful resources for healthcare professionals, students, and patients alike. Some well-known examples of medical encyclopedias include the Merck Manual and the Stedman's Medical Dictionary.
A metagenome is the collective genetic material contained within a sample taken from a specific environment, such as soil or water, or within a community of organisms, like the microbiota found in the human gut. It includes the genomes of all the microorganisms present in that environment or community, including bacteria, archaea, fungi, viruses, and other microbes, whether they can be cultured in the lab or not. By analyzing the metagenome, scientists can gain insights into the diversity, abundance, and functional potential of the microbial communities present in that environment.
Medical Definition of Microbiota:
The community of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microscopic life forms, that inhabit a specific environment or body part. In the human body, microbiota can be found on the skin, in the mouth, gut, and other areas. The largest concentration of microbiota is located in the intestines, where it plays an essential role in digestion, immune function, and overall health.
The composition of the microbiota can vary depending on factors such as age, diet, lifestyle, genetics, and environmental exposures. Dysbiosis, or imbalance of the microbiota, has been linked to various health conditions, including gastrointestinal disorders, allergies, autoimmune diseases, and neurological disorders.
Therefore, maintaining a healthy and diverse microbiota is crucial for overall health and well-being. This can be achieved through a balanced diet, regular exercise, adequate sleep, stress management, and other lifestyle practices that support the growth and maintenance of beneficial microorganisms in the body.
The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also known as the digestive tract, is a continuous tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is responsible for ingesting, digesting, absorbing, and excreting food and waste materials. The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, colon, rectum, anus), and accessory organs such as the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The primary function of this system is to process and extract nutrients from food while also protecting the body from harmful substances, pathogens, and toxins.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes, which are complex structures inside cells where protein synthesis occurs. The "16S" refers to the sedimentation coefficient of the rRNA molecule, which is a measure of its size and shape. In particular, 16S rRNA is a component of the smaller subunit of the prokaryotic ribosome (found in bacteria and archaea), and is often used as a molecular marker for identifying and classifying these organisms due to its relative stability and conservation among species. The sequence of 16S rRNA can be compared across different species to determine their evolutionary relationships and taxonomic positions.
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are among the earliest known life forms on Earth. They are typically characterized as having a cell wall and no membrane-bound organelles. The majority of bacteria have a prokaryotic organization, meaning they lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
Bacteria exist in diverse environments and can be found in every habitat on Earth, including soil, water, and the bodies of plants and animals. Some bacteria are beneficial to their hosts, while others can cause disease. Beneficial bacteria play important roles in processes such as digestion, nitrogen fixation, and biogeochemical cycling.
Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission or budding, and some species can also exchange genetic material through conjugation. They have a wide range of metabolic capabilities, with many using organic compounds as their source of energy, while others are capable of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.
Bacteria are highly adaptable and can evolve rapidly in response to environmental changes. This has led to the development of antibiotic resistance in some species, which poses a significant public health challenge. Understanding the biology and behavior of bacteria is essential for developing strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections and diseases.
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.
Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.
Palatine tonsil
Gill
Soft palate
Palatoglossus muscle
Tubal tonsil
Lingual artery
Tonsil
Lesser palatine arteries
Adenoid
Psoriasis
Pharyngeal pouch (embryology)
Ascending palatine artery
Face and neck development of the human embryo
Tonsillar fossa
Palatopharyngeus muscle
Facial nerve
Head and neck anatomy
HPV-positive oropharyngeal cancer
Pharyngeal artery
Bovine viral diarrhea
Vincent's angina
Tonsil stones
Tonsillectomy
Fauces (throat)
Tonsillar crypts
Throat
Waldeyer's tonsillar ring
Pharynx
Tonsillar artery
Necrotizing periodontal diseases
Palatine tonsil - Wikipedia
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Lingual15
- It forms part of the Waldeyer's ring, which comprises the adenoid, the paired tubal tonsils, the paired palatine tonsils and the lingual tonsils. (wikipedia.org)
- Blood supply is provided by tonsillar branches of five arteries: the dorsal lingual artery (of the lingual artery), ascending palatine artery (of the facial artery), tonsillar branch (of the facial artery), ascending pharyngeal artery (of the external carotid artery), and the lesser palatine artery (a branch of the descending palatine artery, itself a branch of the maxillary artery). (wikipedia.org)
- The tonsils venous drainage is by the peritonsillar plexus, which drain into the lingual and pharyngeal veins, which in turn drain into the internal jugular vein. (wikipedia.org)
- There are four types of tonsils: adenoid, palatine, lingual and tubal. (iheartguts.com)
- The palatine and lingual tonsils are located here. (cliffsnotes.com)
- We have three different types of tonsils -the palatine tonsils, the adenoids, and the lingual tonsils. (opencare.com)
- Lingual tonsils sit further back in the throat at the base of the tongue, just in front of the larynx. (luriechildrens.org)
- The lingual tonsils are harder to access than the palatine tonsils," said Douglas Johnston, MD , an otolaryngologist - head and neck surgeon. (luriechildrens.org)
- If those procedures still have not alleviated the problem, we need to look further," said Dr. Johnston, "which is often the lingual tonsils. (luriechildrens.org)
- Surgically removing the lingual tonsils, if deemed a cause of obstruction, can help prevent this. (luriechildrens.org)
- While lingual tonsil surgery is the main use for the advanced robotic technology currently, the hope is to expand it to other areas, including potentially the larynx for airway reconstruction. (luriechildrens.org)
- Lingual tonsils are also situated at the back of the throat. (medindia.net)
- the lingual and palatine tonsils, and the superior pharyngeal constrictor muscle encircles it. (3d4medical.com)
- Your lingual tonsils, like other lymph nodes, are crucial for protecting your body from infections, but frequent cases of tonsillitis can have a negative impact on your quality of life. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
- Lingual tonsils are at base of tongue directly below endotracheal tube at point where tongue meets epiglottis. (medscape.com)
Tonsillitis14
- Tonsillitis is an inflammation of the tonsils and will often, but not necessarily, cause a sore throat and fever. (wikipedia.org)
- We present here a case of hamartomatous polyp of the tonsil occurring in a 32-year-old male who presented with bilateral enlarged palatine tonsils with recurrent tonsillitis. (iranpath.org)
- Both the tonsils showed features of chronic tonsillitis. (iranpath.org)
- Often, antibiotic treatment of the infection does not suffice and if a patient has seven or more cases of tonsillitis per year the complete removal of the tonsils is recommended [2]. (strath.ac.uk)
- Studies of tonsillitis infections have been performed previously by Chloe and Faddis, showing the presence of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria within the tonsil crypts, presenting the ultrastructural appearance of a biofilm matrix [3]. (strath.ac.uk)
- Tonsil stones may be caused by poor dental hygiene, large tonsils, chronic tonsillitis (inflamed tonsils), or chronic sinus issues. (opencare.com)
- People are more prone to tonsil stones if they have dry mouth, postnasal drip, overactive salivary glands, infections, or recurrent tonsillitis. (opencare.com)
- In fact, a study published in the British Dental Journal discovered that 75 patients in the study who had tonsillitis also had tonsil stones. (opencare.com)
- Angina, or acute tonsillitis, develops as a result of penetration of pathogenic microorganisms into the mucous membrane of the tonsils: staphylococci, streptococci, anaerobes. (abchealthonline.com)
- Tonsillitis refers to acute inflammation of the tonsils . (medindia.net)
- Tonsil stones, also known as tonsillitis , are benign clusters of bacteria and debris in the crypts of some of the tonsils of humans. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Tonsillitis, an infection of the tonsils, is the most typical. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
- Sore throat and inflamed tonsil s are two of the most typical signs of tonsillitis. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
- If you frequently get tonsillitis or if big tonsils are causing other issues, including snoring, your doctor may advise the treatment. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Crypts6
- Palatine tonsils consist of approximately 15 crypts, which result in a large internal surface. (wikipedia.org)
- Tonsils have tonsillar crypts which are like pits, crevices, or tunnels. (opencare.com)
- Tonsil stones, also called tonsilloliths, are white or yellow formations made up of bacteria and live biofilm that get stuck in these tonsillar crypts and harden. (opencare.com)
- Debris in your tonsil crypts, whether it be particles of food from insufficient teeth cleaning or mucus from postnasal drip, can also cause tonsil stones. (opencare.com)
- Crypts are visible in the palatine tonsils. (howmed.net)
- The medial free surface projects into the oropharynx and is covered by a thin layer of stratified squamous epithelium, which extends from the surface deep into the tonsil, forming crypts. (medscape.com)
Types of tonsils1
- What are the different types of tonsils? (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Human palatine2
- In human palatine tonsils, the very first part exposed to the outside environment is tonsillar epithelium. (wikipedia.org)
- This is a histology slide of a human palatine tonsil. (histology-world.com)
Left palatine tonsil1
- We report a case of carcinosarcoma of the minor salivary glands of the left palatine tonsil, an especially rare location. (ajnr.org)
Right palatine1
- Open in a separate window Physique 1 (A) In physical examination, a large oval mass composed of soft tissue arose from the right palatine tonsil and extended across the midline of the oropharynx. (thetechnoant.info)
Throat9
- Palatine tonsils, commonly called the tonsils and occasionally called the faucial tonsils, are tonsils located on the left and right sides at the back of the throat, which can often be seen as flesh-colored, pinkish lumps. (wikipedia.org)
- The tonsils sit toward the back of the throat, one on either side. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- In addition to chronic bad breath , common symptoms of tonsil stones include white or yellow spots on tonsils, a sore or restricted throat, swollen tonsils, a feeling that something is stuck in your throat, ear pain, and/or difficulty swallowing. (opencare.com)
- Symptoms that require medical attention include (but aren't necessarily limited to): pus from the tonsil area, severely enlarged or very red tonsils, bleeding tonsils, breathing issues, pain (especially if uneven on each side), swallowing problems, and a sore throat of over a month. (opencare.com)
- The tonsils (mostly referring to the palatine tonsils) are two small lymphoid organs that lie on either side of the back of the throat that one can see when the mouth is opened. (medindia.net)
- Both the tonsils and adenoids act as the body s first line of defense (by producing antibodies ) to protect the throat against disease germs that enter via the nose and mouth. (medindia.net)
- Tonsils are retained by bacteria and viruses that enter the body through the throat. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- At the end of the throat are the little organs known as the tonsils. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
- It may be challenging to breathe or swallow if you have a peritonsillar abscess, a pocket of infection that forces your tonsil to the other side of your throat. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Pharynx5
- Pharyngitis is an infection or irritation of the pharynx or tonsils, and it accounts for more than 12 million healthcare encounters annually in the United States. (3d4medical.com)
- Palatine tonsils are glandular structures in the back of the pharynx. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- This infection of the pharynx and tonsils is more common in children. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Both tonsils and adenoid are part of the Waldeyer ring, which is a ring of lymphoid tissue found in the pharynx. (medscape.com)
- Tonsillopharyngitis Tonsillopharyngitis is acute infection of the pharynx, palatine tonsils, or both. (msdmanuals.com)
Surface of the tonsils2
- The patient undergoes bacteriological inoculation of the discharge from the surface of the tonsils or from the lacunae, followed by determination of sensitivity to antibiotics. (abchealthonline.com)
- Objects such as food, dirt and other particles can get stuck on the surface of the tonsils. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
Posterior2
- The glossopharyngeal nerve continues past the palatine tonsil and innervates the posterior 1/3 of the tongue to provide general and taste sensation. (wikipedia.org)
- These branches lie immediately posterior to the palatine tonsils (see the images below). (medscape.com)
Hard palate1
- Common sites of extension include the tonsils, retromolar trigone, inferior or superior alveolar process, hard palate, and base of tongue. (medscape.com)
Inflammation3
- The peptidase inhibitor 16 (PI16)-expressing reticular cell (PI16 + RC) subset of adult tonsils exhibited the strongest inflammation-associated structural remodeling. (nih.gov)
- Only 6 percent didn't develop tonsil stones as a result of this inflammation. (opencare.com)
- If the tonsils increase, the inflammation and the formation of scar tissue can block the holes. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
Symptoms10
- Tonsils only present as "white lumps" if they are inflamed or infected with symptoms of exudates (pus drainage) and severe swelling. (wikipedia.org)
- Some people do not notice any symptoms until tonsil cancer has started to spread. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- Learn tonsil stone symptoms, prevention methods, and who to trust if you need removal. (opencare.com)
- That's because the size and location of tonsils stones affect the symptoms they cause. (opencare.com)
- Although some tonsil stones may be difficult to access, they can still cause noticeable symptoms. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Smaller tonsil stones, which are more common than large ones , cannot cause any symptoms. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Some people do not have symptoms with tonsil stones. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Those who have symptoms often report redness or irritation of the tonsils. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- There are several other symptoms that can be associated with tonsil stones, with bad breath being one of the most obvious. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Pain in the tonsils, a lump in your neck, and blood in your saliva (spit) are all tonsil infection symptoms. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Adenoids6
- Enlarged palatine tonsils and adenoids are thought to cause obstruction of the upper airway , triggering changes in breathing patterns, which in turn lead to dentofacial alterations, including malocclusions . (bvsalud.org)
- Adenoids unlike tonsils require special instruments to be viewed. (medindia.net)
- Tonsils and adenoids, anterior and sagittal view. (medscape.com)
- Flexible nasopharyngoscopy demonstrating adenoids and tonsils from perspective of nose and nasopharynx. (medscape.com)
- This view is very different from view obtained by looking through mouth and yields better approximation of degree of obstruction caused by adenoids and tonsils. (medscape.com)
- View of tonsils and adenoids through mouth. (medscape.com)
Adenoid1
- The pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) lies at the back of the nasopharynx. (cliffsnotes.com)
Type of oropharyngeal cancer2
- Tonsil cancer is a type of oropharyngeal cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- Tonsil cancer, the most common type of oropharyngeal cancer, is frequently associated with the human papillomavirus (HPV). (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Tissue7
- Samples were collected via a swab from the surface of unfixed palatine tonsil tissue acquired via tonsillectomy at the NHS Royal Hospital for Children, Glasgow, which had been transported and stored in PBS for 2 hours before processing. (strath.ac.uk)
- It can occur in people who have had their tonsils removed, as some tonsil tissue often remains after surgery. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- These masses of lymphatic tissue are also called palatine tonsils, or sometimes just tonsils. (innerbody.com)
- Tonsils are made of tissue similar to our lymph nodes and are coated with pink mucosa. (opencare.com)
- It's possible for your tonsils to become deeply infected or for large tonsil stones to damage tonsil tissue, so err on the side of caution when dealing with large tonsil stones. (opencare.com)
- When rinsing, the medicinal solution only interacts with the external tissue of the tonsils, and the tonsils are deep in the lacunae. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- The palatine tonsils are dense compact bodies of lymphoid tissue that are located in the lateral wall of the oropharynx, bounded by the palatoglossus muscle anteriorly and the palatopharyngeus and superior constrictor muscles posteriorly and laterally. (medscape.com)
Infection2
- We report the first demonstration of mesoscopic imaging of bacterial infection of the palatine tonsil using the Mesolens. (strath.ac.uk)
- Infection with human papillomavirus (HPV) seems to increase the risk and affect the prognosis of tonsil cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
Palatopharyngeal arch1
- The palatine tonsils are located in the isthmus of the fauces, between the palatoglossal arch and the palatopharyngeal arch of the soft palate. (wikipedia.org)
Lesser palati2
- The nerves supplying the palatine tonsils come from the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve via the lesser palatine nerves, and from the tonsillar branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve. (wikipedia.org)
- From the pterygopalatine ganglion via the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve (CN 5): The greater palatine nerve and lesser palatine nerves. (medscape.com)
Glossopharyngeal nerve1
- This is because your tonsils are connected to your ears by the glossopharyngeal nerve, which is commonly referred to as Jacobson's nerve. (opencare.com)
Epithelium1
- The tonsils contain four lymphoid compartments that influence immune functions, namely the reticular crypt epithelium, the extrafollicular area, the mantle zones of lymphoid follicles, and the follicular germinal centers. (wikipedia.org)
Glands1
- The palatine glands are in the back of the mouth, on both sides of the tongue and closely associated with the palate. (innerbody.com)
Lymph1
- For instance, the lymph, a clear and colorless fluid, is used by the tonsils to wash away viruses and bacteria that invade the body through the nose and mouth. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Nerves1
- This fascia extends into the tonsil itself, forming septa, which allow passage of nerves and vessels. (medscape.com)
Follicular1
- In the overwhelming majority of cases, the follicular apparatus of the palatine tonsils is exposed to inflammatory lesions. (abchealthonline.com)
Bacteria2
- The tonsils catch and destroy bacteria and viruses. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- The tonsils' primary job is to stop the body from being infected by the bacteria that are inhaled. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Immune4
- The tonsils are part of the immune system. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- Small but mighty, our tonsils are an important part of our body's immune system and can develop tonsil stones if you're not careful. (opencare.com)
- Tonsils are outgrowths of tissues in the back of the mouth, containing clusters of cells of the immune system. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- You can relax knowing that the tonsils will not harm the immune system or general health if your doctor advises removal. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Infections3
- According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the number of tonsil cancer cases appears to be rising, possibly due to an increase in HPV infections. (medicalnewstoday.com)
- Because tonsils are one of the organs you can live without, surgeons removed them to help solve sleeping problems, reduce infections and keep tonsils in creepy jars in their basements. (iheartguts.com)
- Tonsils are involved in the fight against infections but do not play a special role in this process. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
Tonsilloliths1
- Little white or yellow lumps that form in your tonsils are referred to as tonsilloliths. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Earache1
- Tonsil stone pain can even spread to your ear and create a chronic earache. (opencare.com)
Bacterial1
- In the human body, against the background of a decrease in general and local immunity, a bacterial agent that has entered the airborne or alimentary way is introduced into the mucous membrane of the tonsils, promotes the migration of leukocytes, the appearance of edema, and the active formation of antibodies in the body. (abchealthonline.com)
Tonsillectomy1
- They'll probably advise a tonsillectomy (tonsil removal) if it doesn't help. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Arches2
- The object of the present study was to correlate the size (grade) of the palatine tonsil with measurements of the maxillary and mandibular dental arches in children . (bvsalud.org)
- According to the results of this study there is no significant correlation between the dental arches and the tonsil grade. (bvsalud.org)
Stones23
- Tonsil stones smell, hurt, and can be bad for your health. (opencare.com)
- What are tonsil stones? (opencare.com)
- Here's everything you need to know about how to keep your tonsils healthy and what to do if you are affected by tonsil stones. (opencare.com)
- Some sources say around 8 percent of the population has tonsil stones, while other studies claim as many as 30 percent of people have them. (opencare.com)
- Tonsil stones causes can root from genetic factors. (opencare.com)
- You're at an increased risk to develop tonsil stones if you're between the ages of 20 to 40. (opencare.com)
- Women are around 33 percent more likely to get tonsil stones than men. (opencare.com)
- Frequently, people with tonsil stones don't even realize they have them. (opencare.com)
- Small tonsil stones may even be swallowed or coughed up without the person noticing. (opencare.com)
- However, if you cough up tonsil stones, you'll likely notice the smell right away. (opencare.com)
- Why do tonsil stones make your breath small bad? (opencare.com)
- Sometimes, tonsil stones smell. (opencare.com)
- Tonsil stones have a foul odor because they have a high amount of sulfur. (opencare.com)
- According to a study conducted at the National Center for Biotechnology Information, 75 percent of people with uncommonly high quantities of sulfur in their mouths have tonsil stones. (opencare.com)
- Tonsil stones raise your chances of bad breath by up to 10 times. (opencare.com)
- Tonsil stones smell bad and can make your breath also suffer. (opencare.com)
- In this Article, we are going to share the best treatment for tonsil stones. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Tonsil stones may seem like bad medical hoaxes, they can be a real problem. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- These growing objects are almond plugs, also called tonsil stones. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- As a rule, tonsil stones can be considered as white, yellow or gray knots on the tonsils. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Many tonsil stones are not visible because they are buried inside the tonsil. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- Tonsils stones are usually removed by rinsing the tonsils or vacuum suction. (naturalfoodsfacts.com)
- If you have tonsil stones, your doctor may think about laser resurfacing. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Oropharynx1
- Palatine tonsils located on either lateral aspect of oropharynx can be easily visualized. (medscape.com)
Lacunae1
- In the lacunae of the tonsils and on the surface of the mucous membrane, fibrin plaque or purulent discharge is determined. (abchealthonline.com)
Foul1
- They may cause foul breath, bad taste, or tonsil pain. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Benign1
- Lupovitch A, Salama D, Batmanghelichi O. Benign hamartomatous polyp of the palatine tonsil. (iranpath.org)
Soft1
- The paratonsillar vein descends from the soft palate across the lateral aspect of the capsule of the tonsil before piercing the pharyngeal wall to join the pharyngeal plexus. (medscape.com)
Noticeable1
- The tonsils are tiny and hardly noticeable in newborns and adults. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
Mouth5
- Tonsils trap germs in your mouth. (iheartguts.com)
- However, our palatine tonsils are the only ones that can easily be seen through an open mouth. (opencare.com)
- By expanding the mouth wide in front of a mirror, you can see the tonsils. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
- The tonsils are the two fleshy bumps on the sides and back of the mouth. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
- If you open your mouth wide and take a look with the help of a mirror, you can see your tonsils if you still have them. (sriramakrishnahospital.com)
