A chronic, clinically mild, infectious pneumonia of PIGS caused by MYCOPLASMA HYOPNEUMONIAE. Ninety percent of swine herds worldwide are infected with this economically costly disease that primarily affects animals aged two to six months old. The disease can be associated with porcine respiratory disease complex. PASTEURELLA MULTOCIDA is often found as a secondary infection.
A genus of gram-negative, mostly facultatively anaerobic bacteria in the family MYCOPLASMATACEAE. The cells are bounded by a PLASMA MEMBRANE and lack a true CELL WALL. Its organisms are pathogens found on the MUCOUS MEMBRANES of humans, ANIMALS, and BIRDS.
Infections with species of the genus MYCOPLASMA.
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).
Infection of the lung often accompanied by inflammation.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by bacterial infections.
A species of the genus MYCOPLASMA, originally isolated infrequently from the lower genital tract of humans, and possessing uncertain pathogenicity. The incognitus strain of M. fermentans has been identified in necrotizing lesions of multiple organs from AIDS and non-AIDS patients dying of an acute influenza-like disease.
Diseases of domestic swine and of the wild boar of the genus Sus.
Short filamentous organism of the genus Mycoplasma, which binds firmly to the cells of the respiratory epithelium. It is one of the etiologic agents of non-viral primary atypical pneumonia in man.
Interstitial pneumonia caused by extensive infection of the lungs (LUNG) and BRONCHI, particularly the lower lobes of the lungs, by MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIAE in humans. In SHEEP, it is caused by MYCOPLASMA OVIPNEUMONIAE. In CATTLE, it may be caused by MYCOPLASMA DISPAR.
A species of gram-negative bacteria strongly implicated in oral infection, PERIODONTAL DISEASES, eye and ear disorders, and SEPTIC ARTHRITIS.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by a viral infection.
A febrile disease caused by STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
A genus of gram-negative, nonmotile bacteria which are common parasitic inhabitants of the urogenital tracts of humans, cattle, dogs, and monkeys.
A genus of gram-negative organisms including saprophytic and parasitic or pathogenic species.
A common inhabitant of the vagina and cervix and a potential human pathogen, causing infections of the male and female reproductive tracts. It has also been associated with respiratory disease and pharyngitis. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Compounds consisting of a short peptide chain conjugated with an acyl chain.
Infections with bacteria of the order MYCOPLASMATALES.
An interstitial lung disease of unknown etiology, occurring between 21-80 years of age. It is characterized by a dramatic onset of a "pneumonia-like" illness with cough, fever, malaise, fatigue, and weight loss. Pathological features include prominent interstitial inflammation without collagen fibrosis, diffuse fibroblastic foci, and no microscopic honeycomb change. There is excessive proliferation of granulation tissue within small airways and alveolar ducts.
A species of gram-negative bacteria that causes MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIA OF SWINE. The organism damages the CILIA in the airways of the pig, and thus compromises one of the most effective mechanical barriers against invading pathogens. The resulting weakening of the IMMUNE SYSTEM can encourage secondary infections, leading to porcine respiratory disease complex.
An organism originally isolated from sewage, manure, humus, and soil, but recently found as a parasite in mammals and birds.
Closely congeneric derivatives of the polycyclic naphthacenecarboxamide. (Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p1117)
A pulmonary disease in humans occurring in immunodeficient or malnourished patients or infants, characterized by DYSPNEA, tachypnea, and HYPOXEMIA. Pneumocystis pneumonia is a frequently seen opportunistic infection in AIDS. It is caused by the fungus PNEUMOCYSTIS JIROVECII. The disease is also found in other MAMMALS where it is caused by related species of Pneumocystis.
A pattern recognition receptor that forms heterodimers with TLR2 RECEPTOR. The complex interacts with a variety of ligands including LIPOPROTEINS from MYCOPLASMA.
A species of gram-negative bacteria highly pathogenic to RATS and MICE. It is the primary cause of murine respiratory mycoplasmosis.
Pneumonia caused by infections with bacteria of the genus STAPHYLOCOCCUS, usually with STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS.
Serious INFLAMMATION of the LUNG in patients who required the use of PULMONARY VENTILATOR. It is usually caused by cross bacterial infections in hospitals (NOSOCOMIAL INFECTIONS).
Pathological processes of the VAGINA.
A type of lung inflammation resulting from the aspiration of food, liquid, or gastric contents into the upper RESPIRATORY TRACT.
Genetically developed small pigs for use in biomedical research. There are several strains - Yucatan miniature, Sinclair miniature, and Minnesota miniature.
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
Any infection acquired in the community, that is, contrasted with those acquired in a health care facility (CROSS INFECTION). An infection would be classified as community-acquired if the patient had not recently been in a health care facility or been in contact with someone who had been recently in a health care facility.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
The lone species of the genus Asfivirus. It infects domestic and wild pigs, warthogs, and bushpigs. Disease is endemic in domestic swine in many African countries and Sardinia. Soft ticks of the genus Ornithodoros are also infected and act as vectors.
Pneumonia due to aspiration or inhalation of various oily or fatty substances.
An acute, highly contagious disease affecting swine of all ages and caused by the CLASSICAL SWINE FEVER VIRUS. It has a sudden onset with high morbidity and mortality.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
A species of the PESTIVIRUS genus causing exceedingly contagious and fatal hemorrhagic disease of swine.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
A sometimes fatal ASFIVIRUS infection of pigs, characterized by fever, cough, diarrhea, hemorrhagic lymph nodes, and edema of the gallbladder. It is transmitted between domestic swine by direct contact, ingestion of infected meat, or fomites, or mechanically by biting flies or soft ticks (genus Ornithodoros).
A diverse group of lung diseases that affect the lung parenchyma. They are characterized by an initial inflammation of PULMONARY ALVEOLI that extends to the interstitium and beyond leading to diffuse PULMONARY FIBROSIS. Interstitial lung diseases are classified by their etiology (known or unknown causes), and radiological-pathological features.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
A group of interstitial lung diseases with no known etiology. There are several entities with varying patterns of inflammation and fibrosis. They are classified by their distinct clinical-radiological-pathological features and prognosis. They include IDIOPATHIC PULMONARY FIBROSIS; CRYPTOGENIC ORGANIZING PNEUMONIA; and others.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A gram-positive organism found in the upper respiratory tract, inflammatory exudates, and various body fluids of normal and/or diseased humans and, rarely, domestic animals.
An enterovirus infection of swine clinically indistinguishable from FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE, vesicular stomatitis, and VESICULAR EXANTHEMA OF SWINE. It is caused by a strain of HUMAN ENTEROVIRUS B.
A species of the genus PNEUMOVIRUS causing pneumonia in mice.
A species of PNEUMOCYSTIS infecting humans and causing PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA. It also occasionally causes extrapulmonary disease in immunocompromised patients. Its former name was Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. hominis.
A genus of ascomycetous FUNGI, family Pneumocystidaceae, order Pneumocystidales. It includes various host-specific species causing PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA in humans and other MAMMALS.
Washing liquid obtained from irrigation of the lung, including the BRONCHI and the PULMONARY ALVEOLI. It is generally used to assess biochemical, inflammatory, or infection status of the lung.
An acute, sometimes fatal, pneumonia-like bacterial infection characterized by high fever, malaise, muscle aches, respiratory disorders and headache. It is named for an outbreak at the 1976 Philadelphia convention of the American Legion.
X-ray visualization of the chest and organs of the thoracic cavity. It is not restricted to visualization of the lungs.
Virus diseases caused by the ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE.
Any infection which a patient contracts in a health-care institution.
Acute inflammation of the intestine associated with infectious DIARRHEA of various etiologies, generally acquired by eating contaminated food containing TOXINS, BIOLOGICAL derived from BACTERIA or other microorganisms. Dysentery is characterized initially by watery FECES then by bloody mucoid stools. It is often associated with ABDOMINAL PAIN; FEVER; and DEHYDRATION.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
A condition characterized by infiltration of the lung with EOSINOPHILS due to inflammation or other disease processes. Major eosinophilic lung diseases are the eosinophilic pneumonias caused by infections, allergens, or toxic agents.
This drug combination has proved to be an effective therapeutic agent with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. It is effective in the treatment of many infections, including PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA in AIDS.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is associated with BRONCHITIS, usually involving lobular areas from TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES to the PULMONARY ALVEOLI. The affected areas become filled with exudate that forms consolidated patches.
The confinement of a patient in a hospital.
Chronic respiratory disease caused by the VISNA-MAEDI VIRUS. It was formerly believed to be identical with jaagsiekte (PULMONARY ADENOMATOSIS, OVINE) but is now recognized as a separate entity.
A calicivirus infection of swine characterized by hydropic degeneration of the oral and cutaneous epithelia.
A species of SWINE, in the family Suidae, comprising a number of subspecies including the domestic pig Sus scrofa domestica.
Any method of artificial breathing that employs mechanical or non-mechanical means to force the air into and out of the lungs. Artificial respiration or ventilation is used in individuals who have stopped breathing or have RESPIRATORY INSUFFICIENCY to increase their intake of oxygen (O2) and excretion of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Mechanical devices used to produce or assist pulmonary ventilation.
Washing out of the lungs with saline or mucolytic agents for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. It is very useful in the diagnosis of diffuse pulmonary infiltrates in immunosuppressed patients.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Hospital units providing continuous surveillance and care to acutely ill patients.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
An acute and chronic contagious disease of young pigs caused by Erysipelothrix insidiosa.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 2. It is endemic in both human and pig populations.
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Substances that prevent infectious agents or organisms from spreading or kill infectious agents in order to prevent the spread of infection.
Infections with bacteria of the genus PSEUDOMONAS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infections with STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
The science of breeding, feeding and care of domestic animals; includes housing and nutrition.
The prototype species of PNEUMOCYSTIS infecting the laboratory rat, Rattus norvegicus (RATS). It was formerly called Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. carinii. Other species of Pneumocystis can also infect rats.
Presence of pus in a hollow organ or body cavity.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that is the causative agent of LEGIONNAIRES' DISEASE. It has been isolated from numerous environmental sites as well as from human lung tissue, respiratory secretions, and blood.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
The type species of the genus INFLUENZAVIRUS A that causes influenza and other diseases in humans and animals. Antigenic variation occurs frequently between strains, allowing classification into subtypes and variants. Transmission is usually by aerosol (human and most non-aquatic hosts) or waterborne (ducks). Infected birds shed the virus in their saliva, nasal secretions, and feces.
Invasion of the host RESPIRATORY SYSTEM by microorganisms, usually leading to pathological processes or diseases.
A condition of chronic gastroenteritis in adult pigs and fatal gastroenteritis in piglets caused by a CORONAVIRUS.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Infections with bacteria of the genus PASTEURELLA.
Gram-negative aerobic rods, isolated from surface water or thermally polluted lakes or streams. Member are pathogenic for man. Legionella pneumophila is the causative agent for LEGIONNAIRES' DISEASE.
Infections with bacteria of the species STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
Child hospitalized for short term care.
A human or animal whose immunologic mechanism is deficient because of an immunodeficiency disorder or other disease or as the result of the administration of immunosuppressive drugs or radiation.
Antiprotozoal agent effective in trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and some fungal infections; used in treatment of PNEUMOCYSTIS pneumonia in HIV-infected patients. It may cause diabetes mellitus, central nervous system damage, and other toxic effects.
Pneumonia caused by infections with the genus CHLAMYDIA; and CHLAMYDOPHILA, usually with CHLAMYDOPHILA PNEUMONIAE.
Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the bronchi.
Viruses containing two or more pieces of nucleic acid (segmented genome) from different parents. Such viruses are produced in cells coinfected with different strains of a given virus.
The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion.
Opportunistic infections found in patients who test positive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The most common include PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA, Kaposi's sarcoma, cryptosporidiosis, herpes simplex, toxoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and infections with Mycobacterium avium complex, Microsporidium, and Cytomegalovirus.
Bovine respiratory disease found in animals that have been shipped or exposed to CATTLE recently transported. The major agent responsible for the disease is MANNHEIMIA HAEMOLYTICA and less commonly, PASTEURELLA MULTOCIDA or HAEMOPHILUS SOMNUS. All three agents are normal inhabitants of the bovine nasal pharyngeal mucosa but not the LUNG. They are considered opportunistic pathogens following STRESS, PHYSIOLOGICAL and/or a viral infection. The resulting bacterial fibrinous BRONCHOPNEUMONIA is often fatal.
Infections with bacteria of the genus HAEMOPHILUS.
A process in which normal lung tissues are progressively replaced by FIBROBLASTS and COLLAGEN causing an irreversible loss of the ability to transfer oxygen into the bloodstream via PULMONARY ALVEOLI. Patients show progressive DYSPNEA finally resulting in death.
Material coughed up from the lungs and expectorated via the mouth. It contains MUCUS, cellular debris, and microorganisms. It may also contain blood or pus.
Sudden increase in the incidence of a disease. The concept includes EPIDEMICS and PANDEMICS.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Infections with bacteria of the genus KLEBSIELLA.
A positive-stranded RNA virus species in the genus HEPEVIRUS, causing enterically-transmitted non-A, non-B hepatitis (HEPATITIS E).
Places where animals are slaughtered and dressed for market.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 2. The H3N2 subtype was responsible for the Hong Kong flu pandemic of 1968.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
An acute disease of young pigs that is usually associated with weaning. It is characterized clinically by paresis and subcutaneous edema.
Diseases of non-human animals that may be transmitted to HUMANS or may be transmitted from humans to non-human animals.
Pathological processes involving any part of the LUNG.
Gram-negative, non-motile, capsulated, gas-producing rods found widely in nature and associated with urinary and respiratory infections in humans.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria commonly isolated from clinical specimens (wound, burn, and urinary tract infections). It is also found widely distributed in soil and water. P. aeruginosa is a major agent of nosocomial infection.
An infection caused by an organism which becomes pathogenic under certain conditions, e.g., during immunosuppression.
Epidemics of infectious disease that have spread to many countries, often more than one continent, and usually affecting a large number of people.
The type species of the genus VESIVIRUS infecting pigs. The resulting infection is an acute febrile disease which is clinically indistinguishable from FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE. Transmission is by contaminated food.
Accumulations of solid or liquid animal excreta usually from stables and barnyards with or without litter material. Its chief application is as a fertilizer. (From Webster's 3d ed)
Acute INFLAMMATION of the LIVER in humans; caused by HEPATITIS E VIRUS, a non-enveloped single-stranded RNA virus. Similar to HEPATITIS A, its incubation period is 15-60 days and is enterically transmitted, usually by fecal-oral transmission.
Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria normally found in the flora of the mouth and respiratory tract of animals and birds. It causes shipping fever (see PASTEURELLOSIS, PNEUMONIC); HEMORRHAGIC BACTEREMIA; and intestinal disease in animals. In humans, disease usually arises from a wound infection following a bite or scratch from domesticated animals.
Infections with bacteria of the genus TREPONEMA.
Infections with viruses of the genus PNEUMOVIRUS, family PARAMYXOVIRIDAE. This includes RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS INFECTIONS, an important cause of respiratory disease in humans.
Infections with species in the genus PNEUMOCYSTIS, a fungus causing interstitial plasma cell pneumonia (PNEUMONIA, PNEUMOCYSTIS) and other infections in humans and other MAMMALS. Immunocompromised patients, especially those with AIDS, are particularly susceptible to these infections. Extrapulmonary sites are rare but seen occasionally.
Round, granular, mononuclear phagocytes found in the alveoli of the lungs. They ingest small inhaled particles resulting in degradation and presentation of the antigen to immunocompetent cells.
An infant during the first month after birth.
Solitary or multiple collections of PUS within the lung parenchyma as a result of infection by bacteria, protozoa, or other agents.
Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is associated with PLEURISY, inflammation of the PLEURA.
A species of ARTERIVIRUS causing reproductive and respiratory disease in pigs. The European strain is called Lelystad virus. Airborne transmission is common.
The period of confinement of a patient to a hospital or other health facility.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by HYPOTENSION despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called SEPTIC SHOCK.
Failure to adequately provide oxygen to cells of the body and to remove excess carbon dioxide from them. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
A species of CHLAMYDOPHILA that causes acute respiratory infection, especially atypical pneumonia, in humans, horses, and koalas.
The top portion of the pharynx situated posterior to the nose and superior to the SOFT PALATE. The nasopharynx is the posterior extension of the nasal cavities and has a respiratory function.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
Small polyhedral outpouchings along the walls of the alveolar sacs, alveolar ducts and terminal bronchioles through the walls of which gas exchange between alveolar air and pulmonary capillary blood takes place.
Infections caused by bacteria that show up as pink (negative) when treated by the gram-staining method.
A common interstitial lung disease of unknown etiology, usually occurring between 50-70 years of age. Clinically, it is characterized by an insidious onset of breathlessness with exertion and a nonproductive cough, leading to progressive DYSPNEA. Pathological features show scant interstitial inflammation, patchy collagen fibrosis, prominent fibroblast proliferation foci, and microscopic honeycomb change.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
Pneumonia caused by infection with bacteria of the family RICKETTSIACEAE.
A mental state characterized by bewilderment, emotional disturbance, lack of clear thinking, and perceptual disorientation.
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
A group of often glycosylated macrocyclic compounds formed by chain extension of multiple PROPIONATES cyclized into a large (typically 12, 14, or 16)-membered lactone. Macrolides belong to the POLYKETIDES class of natural products, and many members exhibit ANTIBIOTIC properties.
A family of large icosahedral DNA viruses infecting insects and poikilothermic vertebrates. Genera include IRIDOVIRUS; RANAVIRUS; Chloriridovirus; Megalocytivirus; and Lymphocystivirus.
Species of ENTEROVIRUS causing mild to severe neurological diseases among pigs especially in Eastern Europe. Mild strains are also present in Canada, U.S., and Australia. Specific species include Porcine enterovirus A and Porcine enterovirus B.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
Presence of fluid in the pleural cavity resulting from excessive transudation or exudation from the pleural surfaces. It is a sign of disease and not a diagnosis in itself.
A syndrome characterized by outbreaks of late term abortions, high numbers of stillbirths and mummified or weak newborn piglets, and respiratory disease in young unweaned and weaned pigs. It is caused by PORCINE RESPIRATORY AND REPRODUCTIVE SYNDROME VIRUS. (Radostits et al., Veterinary Medicine, 8th ed, p1048)
'Housing, Animal' refers to the physical structure or environment designed and constructed to provide shelter, protection, and specific living conditions for various domestic or captive animals, meeting their biological and behavioral needs while ensuring their welfare and well-being.
Enumeration by direct count of viable, isolated bacterial, archaeal, or fungal CELLS or SPORES capable of growth on solid CULTURE MEDIA. The method is used routinely by environmental microbiologists for quantifying organisms in AIR; FOOD; and WATER; by clinicians for measuring patients' microbial load; and in antimicrobial drug testing.
A mixture of liquid hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum. It is used as laxative, lubricant, ointment base, and emollient.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
A vital statistic measuring or recording the rate of death from any cause in hospitalized populations.
## I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Japan" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located in Asia, known as Nihon-koku or Nippon-koku in Japanese, and is renowned for its unique culture, advanced technology, and rich history. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!
Pulmonary diseases caused by fungal infections, usually through hematogenous spread.
A genus of the family CIRCOVIRIDAE that infects SWINE; PSITTACINES; and non-psittacine BIRDS. Species include Beak and feather disease virus causing a fatal disease in psittacine birds, and Porcine circovirus causing postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome in pigs (PORCINE POSTWEANING MULTISYSTEMIC WASTING SYNDROME).
A broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic with a very long half-life and high penetrability to meninges, eyes and inner ears.
A procedure involving placement of a tube into the trachea through the mouth or nose in order to provide a patient with oxygen and anesthesia.
Advanced and highly specialized care provided to medical or surgical patients whose conditions are life-threatening and require comprehensive care and constant monitoring. It is usually administered in specially equipped units of a health care facility.
Diseases of domestic cattle of the genus Bos. It includes diseases of cows, yaks, and zebus.
A process involving chance used in therapeutic trials or other research endeavor for allocating experimental subjects, human or animal, between treatment and control groups, or among treatment groups. It may also apply to experiments on inanimate objects.
Difficulty in SWALLOWING which may result from neuromuscular disorder or mechanical obstruction. Dysphagia is classified into two distinct types: oropharyngeal dysphagia due to malfunction of the PHARYNX and UPPER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER; and esophageal dysphagia due to malfunction of the ESOPHAGUS.
A renal dehydropeptidase-I and leukotriene D4 dipeptidase inhibitor. Since the antibiotic, IMIPENEM, is hydrolyzed by dehydropeptidase-I, which resides in the brush border of the renal tubule, cilastatin is administered with imipenem to increase its effectiveness. The drug also inhibits the metabolism of leukotriene D4 to leukotriene E4.
Adrenal cortex hormones are steroid hormones produced by the outer portion of the adrenal gland, consisting of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens, which play crucial roles in various physiological processes such as metabolism regulation, stress response, electrolyte balance, and sexual development and function.
A cattle disease of uncertain cause, probably an allergic reaction.
A strain of Staphylococcus aureus that is non-susceptible to the action of METHICILLIN. The mechanism of resistance usually involves modification of normal or the presence of acquired PENICILLIN BINDING PROTEINS.
A peptide hormone that lowers calcium concentration in the blood. In humans, it is released by thyroid cells and acts to decrease the formation and absorptive activity of osteoclasts. Its role in regulating plasma calcium is much greater in children and in certain diseases than in normal adults.
Infections with viruses of the family PARAMYXOVIRIDAE. This includes MORBILLIVIRUS INFECTIONS; RESPIROVIRUS INFECTIONS; PNEUMOVIRUS INFECTIONS; HENIPAVIRUS INFECTIONS; AVULAVIRUS INFECTIONS; and RUBULAVIRUS INFECTIONS.
A highly contagious herpesvirus infection affecting the central nervous system of swine, cattle, dogs, cats, rats, and other animals.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria normally commensal in the flora of CATTLE and SHEEP. But under conditions of physical or PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS, it can cause MASTITIS in sheep and SHIPPING FEVER or ENZOOTIC CALF PNEUMONIA in cattle. Its former name was Pasteurella haemolytica.
Inflammation of the BRONCHIOLES.
Exotoxins produced by certain strains of streptococci, particularly those of group A (STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES), that cause HEMOLYSIS.
A sulfone active against a wide range of bacteria but mainly employed for its actions against MYCOBACTERIUM LEPRAE. Its mechanism of action is probably similar to that of the SULFONAMIDES which involves inhibition of folic acid synthesis in susceptible organisms. It is also used with PYRIMETHAMINE in the treatment of malaria. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p157-8)
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
A species of gram-negative bacteria causing MASTITIS; ARTHRITIS; and RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASES in CATTLE.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.
Divisions of the year according to some regularly recurrent phenomena usually astronomical or climatic. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Potentially pathogenic bacteria found in nasal membranes, skin, hair follicles, and perineum of warm-blooded animals. They may cause a wide range of infections and intoxications.

Application of a nested polymerase chain reaction assay to detect Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae from nasal swabs. (1/66)

The porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) is an increasingly important cause of decreased swine productivity and is characterized by slow growth, decreased feed efficiency, anorexia, cough, and dyspnea. Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae is among the most prevalent and important infectious agents associated with PRDC. Understanding of mycoplasmal pneumonia has been hindered by inadequate diagnostic methods. Many of the currently available tests are relatively insensitive or nonspecific when used in a diagnostic laboratory setting or are too costly or difficult for routine diagnostic use. Several polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays have been described, but they are not sensitive enough to detect the microorganisms in live pigs, from either nasal or tracheal swabs. A nested PCR using 2 species-specific sets of primers from the 16S ribosomal DNA gave positive results with as little as 80 microorganisms and did not cross-react with other mycoplasma species or with other microorganisms commonly found in the respiratory tract of pigs. This assay was better suited for detection of M. hyopneumoniae from nasal swabs than was conventional PCR. Nasal swab samples were taken at different time periods following experimental challenge of 10 susceptible pigs. Only 2 of the 55 swabs examined gave a positive result with conventional PCR, whereas 30 of the 55 swabs gave a positive result using the nested PCR. Twenty of 40 (50%) nasal swabs from pigs experiencing a respiratory disease outbreak where M. hyopneumoniae had been diagnosed also gave a positive result with the nested PCR. To confirm that the amplified product was specific, 4 nested PCR products were purified, sequences were determined and aligned, and they were confirmed to be from M. hyopneumoniae.  (+info)

Detection and localization of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae DNA in lungs from naturally infected pigs by in situ hybridization using a digoxigenin-labeled probe. (2/66)

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae DNA was detected in 20 naturally infected pigs by in situ hybridization using a nonradioactive digoxigenin-labeled DNA probe. A 520-base-pair DNA probe targeting a reiterative sequence of the M. hyopneumoniae genome was generated by the polymerase chain reaction. All 20 pigs infected with M. hyopneumoniae had distinct and positive hybridization signals without background staining. A strong hybridization signal was detected mainly in the luminal surface of bronchial and bronchiolar lining epithelial cells, whereas no hybridization signal was seen in the cytoplasm of bronchial and bronchiolar lining epithelial cells. When hybridization signal was detected in the luminal surface of bronchial and bronchiolar lining epithelial cells, a given bronchus or bronchiole had peribronchiolar lymphoid hyperplastic tissues. Hybridization signals were not seen in the peribronchiolar lymphoid hyperplastic tissues. A less intense signal was detected in the interstitial and alveolar macrophages randomly scattered in the thickened alveolar septa and spaces. Hybridization signal was rarely detected in the type I pneumocytes. The in situ hybridization technique developed in this study was useful for detection of M. hyopneumoniae nucleic acids in tissues taken from naturally infected piglets and may be a valuable technique for studying the pathogenesis of M. hyopneumoniae infection.  (+info)

Diagnosis and differentiation of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and Mycoplasma hyorhinis infections in pigs by PCR amplification of the p36 and p46 genes. (3/66)

The genome of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae encodes several immunodominant proteins, including a cytosolic protein (p36), three membranous proteins (p46, p65, and p74), and an adhesin (p97). Cross-reactions with M. flocculare and M. hyorhinis reduce the specificity of conventional serological detection methods. However, certain antigenic determinants of the p36 and p46 proteins have been shown to be specific for M. hyopneumoniae. In the present study, pairs of oligonucleotide primers were designed to permit PCR amplification of entire p36 and p46 genes and of internal fragments of these genes. Specific amplicons could be obtained with as low as 0.5 to 50 pg of extracted chromosomal DNA. No amplification product was obtained when testing p36 and p46 primer pairs with genomic DNA or RNA from other mycoplasma species, bacteria, and viruses commonly associated with respiratory diseases in pigs. By using the single p36-PCR method, a positive reaction was demonstrated in 100% (30 of 30) of lungs from pigs that developed typical lesions associated with an M. hyopneumoniae infection, and no false-positive results were detected when 62 apparently normal lungs were tested. On the other hand, with the single p46-PCR method a sensitivity of 86.6% (26 of 30) and a specificity of 96.7% (60 of 62) were obtained in comparison with the necropsy findings. A mixed infection with M. hyorhinis was diagnosed in 13.3% (4 of 30) of the cases by using species-specific primers for the heterologous p37 gene. The sensitivity of the single p36-PCR method for the detection of M. hyopneumoniae, when tested on tracheobronchial swabs, was 100% (20 positive samples), with a specificity of 93.3% (14 of 15 negative samples), compared to the necropsy findings. Both expected amplicons were obtained with 86.6% (26 of 30) positive lungs when p36 and p46 primers were used simultaneously (multiplex PCR) to further increase the specificity of the PCR assay.  (+info)

Growth performance and whole-body composition of pigs experimentally infected with Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. (4/66)

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (Mh) is the primary infectious pathogen responsible for enzootic pneumonia in pigs. Although Mh is thought to impair growth performance, whole-body composition, and fat and protein accretion in pigs with pneumonia have not been reported and the mechanism through which Mh reduces growth is unknown. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of Mh on growth performance, whole-body composition, and protein and fat accretion in nursery pigs and to determine whether Mh infection increases the expression of interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). Sixty-four 2-wk-old Mh-free pigs were used (two trials) in a randomized complete block design. In each trial, two pigs were housed in each of 16 disease-containment chambers. At 4 wk of age, pigs were inoculated intratracheally with 3 mL of Mh broth (P5722-3, 10(7) cfu/mL) or sterile Friis culture medium. Clinical signs of disease and feed intake were monitored daily and body weight was determined weekly for 4 wk. Whole-body composition was determined from pigs killed 0, 14, and 28 d after inoculation, and the comparative slaughter technique was used to estimate protein and fat accretion. At death, gross lung lesions were quantified, and lung tissue was collected to verify the presence or absence of Mh, and to determine cytokine mRNA levels. Control pigs displayed no overt signs of infection and were Mh-negative and free of pulmonary lesions. Pigs inoculated with Mh showed pneumonic coughing (P < 0.005), were Mh-positive, and had pulmonary lesions that affected 4.5% (P < 0.01) and 14.1% (P < 0.001) of total lung surface area at 14 and 28 d, respectively, after inoculation. Ribonuclease protection assays revealed increased IL-1beta (P < 0.04) and TNF-alpha (P < 0.06) mRNA in lung tissue collected from a lesion site compared with tissue collected 10 cm from a lesion site or from control pigs. Interestingly, Mh did not depress weight gain or feed efficiency during any week of the 28-d study (P > 0.10). Moreover, Mh did not affect whole-body fat or protein accretion (P > 0.10). Thus, in spite of inducing disease and expression of inflammatory cytokines, Mh alone did not affect growth performance and whole-body composition of nursery pigs during the 4-wk experiment. The ability of pigs to contend with Mh may have resulted from the absence of other pathogens that generally co-exist with Mh under commercial conditions.  (+info)

Infection of growing swine with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae--effects on growth, serum metabolites, and insulin-like growth factor-I. (5/66)

This study evaluated the influence of concomitant infections with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae on growth performance, serum metabolite concentrations, and serum insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) in growing pigs. Twenty-two barrows (10 weeks of age) were treated with either an intranasal administration of PRRSV and an intratracheal infusion of M. hyopneumoniae (treatment; n = 8) or a sham inoculation with medium (sham; n = 8), or were not treated (control; n = 6). The sham pigs were matched by body weight and pair-wise fed with treatment pigs. Pigs were weighed on the day of inoculation (day 0) and at 4 weeks postinoculation (day 28). Blood samples were collected prior to inoculation and at weekly intervals for 4 weeks. Pigs in the treatment group exhibited clinical signs consistent with PRRSV infection and M. hyopneumoniae pneumonia. Diagnostic procedures confirmed that treatment pigs were inoculated with PRRSV and M. hyopneumoniae and that sham and control pigs remained free of both pathogens. Average daily gain and feed conversion did not differ among the 3 groups. The IGF-I levels differed (P < 0.05) between control and treatment pigs, even after feed intake returned to similar levels among groups. At day 7, IGF-I concentrations were greater in sham pigs compared with treatment pigs, despite similar feed intake. Sham inoculation and decreased feed intake in sham pigs did not alter serum IGF-I concentrations. Evidently, IGF-I status of pigs affected with disease is influenced by nutritional and nonnutritional factors during the disease process.  (+info)

Monoclonal antibodies to Escherichia coli-expressed P46 and P65 membranous proteins for specific immunodetection of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in lungs of infected pigs. (6/66)

The P46 and P65 proteins of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae are two membranous proteins carrying species-specific antigenic determinants. Based on the genomic sequence of the reference strain ATCC 25934, primers were designed for PCR amplification of the genes encoding entire P46 (1,260 bp) and P65 (1,803 bp) and N-terminally truncated P65(c) (1,200 bp). These primers were shown to be specific to M. hyopneumoniae since no DNA amplicons could be obtained with other mycoplasma species that commonly colonize the porcine respiratory tract. Both amplified genes were then cloned into the pGEX-4T-1 vector to be expressed in Escherichia coli cells as recombinant fusion proteins with glutathione S-transferase (GST). Prior to generation of expression constructs, TGA nonsense codons, exceptionally used for tryptophan residues by M. hyopneumoniae, had been converted to TGG codons by PCR-directed mutagenesis. Following induction by IPTG (isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside), both GST-P46 and GST-P65(c) recombinant fusion proteins were recovered by disrupting transformed cells by sonication, purified by affinity chromatography, and then cut with thrombin to release the P46 and P65(c) moieties. The enriched E. coli-expressed P46 and P65c proteins were used to immunize female BALB/c mice for the generation of anti-P46 and anti-P65(c) monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). The polypeptide specificities of MAbs obtained was confirmed by Western blotting with cell lysates prepared from the homologous strain. Cross-reactivity study of the anti-P46 and anti-P65(c) MAbs towards two other M. hyopneumoniae reference strains (ATCC 25095 and J strains) and Quebec field strains that had been isolated in culture, suggested that the MAbs obtained against both membranous proteins were directed against highly conserved species-specific epitopes. No reactivity to other mycoplasma species tested was demonstrated. Clinical signs and lesions suggestive of enzootic pneumonia were reproduced in specific-pathogen-free pigs that had been inoculated intratracheally with a virulent Quebec field strain (IAF-DM9827) of M. hyopneumoniae. Both anti-P46 and anti-P65(c) MAbs permitted effective detection by indirect immunofluorescence and indirect immunoperoxidase assay of M. hyopneumoniae in, respectively, frozen and formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded lung sections from pigs that were killed after the 6- to 7-week observation period.  (+info)

Dynamics of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae infection in 12 farms with different production systems. (7/66)

This study had 2 objectives: 1) to determine the involvement of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in respiratory outbreaks in herds of pigs, with the use of a nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR) and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); and 2) to determine if the dynamics of M. hyopneumoniae infection differ between 3-site versus 1- or 2-site production systems (in which at least farrowing/gestation and nursery pigs are on the same site). Animals of different ages from 12 Spanish farms with respiratory problems were randomly sampled. Blood samples and nasal swabs were collected in a single farm visit, and ELISA and nPCR tests, respectively, were performed. All the farms demonstrated M. hyopneumoniae. According to the proportions of infected animals and the appearance of clinical signs in the different age groups, the farms were divided into 2 groups: farms in which M. hyopneumoniae probably played an important role in the observed respiratory outbreak and farms in which M. hyopneumoniae was not the main agent involved in the outbreak. Although seroconversion occurred in most herds in the finishing units, the number of seropositive pigs in the first group of farms was greater than the number in the second group. Statistically significant differences (P < 0.0001) between farms with a 1- or 2-site production system versus those with a 3-site production system were detected in nPCR results but not in rates of seroconversion. The farm effect also had a great influence on both controlled parameters: the pathogen's DNA and antibody detection. Thus, although M. hyopneumoniae was present in all the studied farms, there were significant differences in the infection dynamics and clinical implications according to the type of production system, and M. hyopneumoniae colonization and seroconversion were greatly influenced by the effect of the individual farm.  (+info)

Antibody response in sows and piglets following vaccination against Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, toxigenic Pasteurella multocida, and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae. (8/66)

The aim of the experimental study was to compare the humoral immune response and occurrence of adverse effects following single or multiple simultaneous vaccination of sows against Mycoplasma hyopneumonia, toxigenic Pasteurella multocida, and Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae. In addition, passively transferred antibodies to piglets were studied until weaning at 3 weeks of age. Fever was seen in a few sows within the first 12 hours after the 1st and 2nd vaccination. No difference in the occurrence of other adverse effects was observed between groups. Antibody levels were significantly higher in vaccinated sows and their offspring compared with the control group. This was found to be independent of single or simultaneous vaccinations with the 3 vaccines. In conclusion, applying multiple vaccines simultaneously to sows appeared not to influence the occurrence of adverse effects or the sow's serum levels of antibodies at the time of farrowing, nor the offspring's serum levels up to 3 weeks of age.  (+info)

Medical Definition:

Mycoplasmal Pneumonia of Swine, also known as Enzootic Pneumonia, is a respiratory disease in pigs caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. It primarily affects the lungs and is characterized by coughing, difficulty breathing, and reduced growth rates in affected animals. The disease is called "enzootic" because it is widespread among swine populations in many parts of the world.

The bacteria responsible for this condition are highly contagious and can spread rapidly among pigs through direct contact with infected animals or contaminated surfaces. Infection can also occur through aerosolized droplets expelled by coughing pigs. The disease is often associated with other respiratory pathogens, such as Pasteurella multocida and Haemophilus parasuis, which can exacerbate the severity of the symptoms.

Mycoplasmal Pneumonia of Swine is a significant economic concern for the swine industry due to its impact on growth rates, feed conversion efficiency, and increased mortality. Control measures typically involve a combination of management practices, vaccination, and biosecurity protocols to minimize the spread of the disease within herds.

Mycoplasma: A type of bacteria that lack a cell wall and are among the smallest organisms capable of self-replication. They can cause various infections in humans, animals, and plants. In humans, they are associated with respiratory tract infections (such as pneumonia), urogenital infections (like pelvic inflammatory disease), and some sexually transmitted diseases. Mycoplasma species are also known to contaminate cell cultures and can interfere with research experiments. Due to their small size and lack of a cell wall, they are resistant to many common antibiotics, making them difficult to treat.

Mycoplasma infections refer to illnesses caused by bacteria belonging to the genus Mycoplasma. These are among the smallest free-living organisms, lacking a cell wall and possessing a unique molecular structure. They can cause various respiratory tract infections (like pneumonia, bronchitis), urogenital infections, and other systemic diseases in humans, animals, and birds.

The most common Mycoplasma species that infect humans include M. pneumoniae, M. genitalium, M. hominis, and Ureaplasma urealyticum. Transmission usually occurs through respiratory droplets or sexual contact. Symptoms can vary widely depending on the site of infection but may include cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing, fatigue, joint pain, rash, and genital discharge or pelvic pain in women. Diagnosis often requires specific laboratory tests due to their unique growth requirements and resistance to many common antibiotics. Treatment typically involves macrolide or fluoroquinolone antibiotics.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

Pneumonia is an infection or inflammation of the alveoli (tiny air sacs) in one or both lungs. It's often caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Accumulated pus and fluid in these air sacs make it difficult to breathe, which can lead to coughing, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. The severity of symptoms can vary from mild to life-threatening, depending on the underlying cause, the patient's overall health, and age. Pneumonia is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as chest X-rays or blood tests. Treatment usually involves antibiotics for bacterial pneumonia, antivirals for viral pneumonia, and supportive care like oxygen therapy, hydration, and rest.

Bacterial pneumonia is a type of lung infection that's caused by bacteria. It can affect people of any age, but it's more common in older adults, young children, and people with certain health conditions or weakened immune systems. The symptoms of bacterial pneumonia can vary, but they often include cough, chest pain, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing.

The most common type of bacteria that causes pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus). Other types of bacteria that can cause pneumonia include Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Bacterial pneumonia is usually treated with antibiotics, which are medications that kill bacteria. The specific type of antibiotic used will depend on the type of bacteria causing the infection. It's important to take all of the prescribed medication as directed, even if you start feeling better, to ensure that the infection is completely cleared and to prevent the development of antibiotic resistance.

In severe cases of bacterial pneumonia, hospitalization may be necessary for close monitoring and treatment with intravenous antibiotics and other supportive care.

"Mycoplasma fermentans" is a type of bacteria that lacks a cell wall and is commonly found as a commensal organism in the human respiratory and urogenital tracts. However, it can also cause opportunistic infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. It is known to be associated with chronic respiratory infections, inflammatory diseases, and has been suggested as a possible co-factor in the pathogenesis of certain conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and chronic fatigue syndrome.

The medical definition of "Mycoplasma fermentans" is:
A species of small, gram-negative, pleomorphic bacteria belonging to the genus Mycoplasma, which lacks a cell wall and is capable of causing opportunistic infections in humans. It is commonly found as a commensal organism in the respiratory and urogenital tracts, but has been associated with chronic respiratory infections, inflammatory diseases, and other conditions. Its identification typically requires specialized laboratory tests, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or culture-based methods.

Swine diseases refer to a wide range of infectious and non-infectious conditions that affect pigs. These diseases can be caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, or environmental factors. Some common swine diseases include:

1. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS): a viral disease that causes reproductive failure in sows and respiratory problems in piglets and grower pigs.
2. Classical Swine Fever (CSF): also known as hog cholera, is a highly contagious viral disease that affects pigs of all ages.
3. Porcine Circovirus Disease (PCVD): a group of diseases caused by porcine circoviruses, including Porcine CircoVirus Associated Disease (PCVAD) and Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS).
4. Swine Influenza: a respiratory disease caused by type A influenza viruses that can infect pigs and humans.
5. Mycoplasma Hyopneumoniae: a bacterial disease that causes pneumonia in pigs.
6. Actinobacillus Pleuropneumoniae: a bacterial disease that causes severe pneumonia in pigs.
7. Salmonella: a group of bacteria that can cause food poisoning in humans and a variety of diseases in pigs, including septicemia, meningitis, and abortion.
8. Brachyspira Hyodysenteriae: a bacterial disease that causes dysentery in pigs.
9. Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae: a bacterial disease that causes erysipelas in pigs.
10. External and internal parasites, such as lice, mites, worms, and flukes, can also cause diseases in swine.

Prevention and control of swine diseases rely on good biosecurity practices, vaccination programs, proper nutrition, and management practices. Regular veterinary check-ups and monitoring are essential to detect and treat diseases early.

"Mycoplasma pneumoniae" is a type of bacteria that lacks a cell wall and can cause respiratory infections, particularly bronchitis and atypical pneumonia. It is one of the most common causes of community-acquired pneumonia. Infection with "M. pneumoniae" typically results in mild symptoms, such as cough, fever, and fatigue, although more severe complications can occur in some cases. The bacteria can also cause various extrapulmonary manifestations, including skin rashes, joint pain, and neurological symptoms. Diagnosis of "M. pneumoniae" infection is typically made through serological tests or PCR assays. Treatment usually involves antibiotics such as macrolides or tetracyclines.

Mycoplasma pneumonia is a type of atypical pneumonia, which is caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. This organism is not a true bacterium, but rather the smallest free-living organisms known. They lack a cell wall and have a unique mode of reproduction.

Mycoplasma pneumonia infection typically occurs in small outbreaks or sporadically, often in crowded settings such as schools, colleges, and military barracks. It can also be acquired in the community. The illness is often mild and self-limiting, but it can also cause severe pneumonia and extra-pulmonary manifestations.

The symptoms of Mycoplasma pneumonia are typically less severe than those caused by typical bacterial pneumonia and may include a persistent cough that may be dry or produce small amounts of mucus, fatigue, fever, headache, sore throat, and chest pain. The infection can also cause extrapulmonary manifestations such as skin rashes, joint pain, and neurological symptoms.

Diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumonia is often challenging because the organism is difficult to culture, and serological tests may take several weeks to become positive. PCR-based tests are now available and can provide a rapid diagnosis.

Treatment typically involves antibiotics such as macrolides (e.g., azithromycin), tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline), or fluoroquinolones (e.g., levofloxacin). However, because Mycoplasma pneumonia is often self-limiting, antibiotic treatment may not shorten the duration of illness but can help prevent complications and reduce transmission.

"Mycoplasma salivarium" is a type of bacteria that belongs to the genus Mycoplasma. It is commonly found in the human oral cavity, particularly on the surface of the tongue and in dental plaque. This organism is unique because it lacks a cell wall, which makes it resistant to many antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. "M. salivarium" is usually considered to be part of the normal oral flora, but under certain conditions, it can cause opportunistic infections, such as respiratory tract infections or bacteremia (bacteria in the bloodstream). However, it is generally not associated with serious or life-threatening diseases.

Viral pneumonia is a type of pneumonia caused by viral infection. It primarily affects the upper and lower respiratory tract, leading to inflammation of the alveoli (air sacs) in the lungs. This results in symptoms such as cough, difficulty breathing, fever, fatigue, and chest pain. Common viruses that can cause pneumonia include influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and adenovirus. Viral pneumonia is often milder than bacterial pneumonia but can still be serious, especially in young children, older adults, and people with weakened immune systems. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as rest, hydration, and fever reduction, while the body fights off the virus. In some cases, antiviral medications may be used to help manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Pneumonia, pneumococcal is a type of pneumonia caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (also known as pneumococcus). This bacteria can colonize the upper respiratory tract and occasionally invade the lower respiratory tract, causing infection.

Pneumococcal pneumonia can affect people of any age but is most common in young children, older adults, and those with weakened immune systems. The symptoms of pneumococcal pneumonia include fever, chills, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, and rapid breathing. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as bacteremia (bacterial infection in the blood), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), and respiratory failure.

Pneumococcal pneumonia can be prevented through vaccination with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) or the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV). These vaccines protect against the most common strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae that cause invasive disease. It is also important to practice good hygiene, such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and washing hands frequently, to prevent the spread of pneumococcal bacteria.

Ureaplasma is a genus of bacteria that are commonly found in the lower reproductive tract of humans. They belong to the family Mycoplasmataceae and are characterized by their small size and lack of a cell wall. Ureaplasmas are unique because they have the ability to metabolize urea, which they use as a source of energy for growth.

There are several species of Ureaplasma that can infect humans, including Ureaplasma urealyticum and Ureaplasma parvum. These bacteria can cause a variety of clinical syndromes, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems or underlying respiratory or genitourinary tract disorders.

Infections caused by Ureaplasma are often asymptomatic but can lead to complications such as urethritis, cervicitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, and pneumonia. In newborns, Ureaplasma infections have been associated with bronchopulmonary dysplasia, a chronic lung disorder that can lead to long-term respiratory problems.

Diagnosis of Ureaplasma infections typically involves the use of nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays. Treatment usually consists of antibiotics such as macrolides or fluoroquinolones, which are effective against these bacteria.

Acholeplasma is a genus of bacteria that are characterized by their lack of a cell wall and their ability to grow in the absence of cholesterol, which is required for the growth of related genera such as Mycoplasma. These organisms are commonly found in various environments, including water, soil, and animals, and can cause opportunistic infections in humans and other animals.

Acholeplasma species are small, pleomorphic bacteria that lack a cell wall and therefore do not stain with Gram's stain. They are typically spherical or coccoid in shape, but can also appear as rods or filaments. These organisms are resistant to many antibiotics due to their lack of a cell wall and the absence of a peptidoglycan layer.

In humans, Acholeplasma species have been associated with respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and bloodstream infections, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. However, these organisms are often considered to be commensals or colonizers rather than true pathogens, as they can also be found in healthy individuals without causing any symptoms.

Overall, Acholeplasma species are important bacteria that can cause opportunistic infections in humans and other animals, but their role in health and disease is still not fully understood.

Mycoplasma hominis is a species of bacteria that lack a cell wall and are among the smallest free-living organisms. They are commonly found as part of the normal flora in the genitourinary tract of humans, particularly in the urethra, cervix, and vagina. However, they can also cause various infections, especially in individuals with compromised immune systems or in the presence of other risk factors.

M. hominis has been associated with several types of infections, including:

1. Genital tract infections: M. hominis can cause pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), cervicitis, urethritis, and endometritis in women. In men, it may lead to urethritis and prostatitis.
2. Postpartum and post-abortion fever: M. hominis can contribute to febrile morbidity following delivery or abortion.
3. Respiratory tract infections: While rare, M. hominis has been implicated in some cases of respiratory tract infections, particularly in immunocompromised individuals.
4. Joint and soft tissue infections: M. hominis can cause septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, and other soft tissue infections, especially in patients with underlying joint diseases or compromised immune systems.
5. Central nervous system (CNS) infections: Although uncommon, M. hominis has been associated with CNS infections such as meningitis and brain abscesses, primarily in immunocompromised individuals.
6. Bloodstream infections: Bacteremia due to M. hominis is rare but can occur in immunocompromised patients or those with indwelling catheters.

Diagnosis of M. hominis infections typically involves the detection of the organism through various laboratory methods, such as culture, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or serological tests. Treatment usually consists of antibiotics that target mycoplasmas, such as macrolides (e.g., azithromycin) or tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline). However, resistance to certain antibiotics has been reported in some M. hominis strains.

Lipopeptides are a type of molecule that consists of a lipid (fatty acid) tail attached to a small peptide (short chain of amino acids). They are produced naturally by various organisms, including bacteria, and play important roles in cell-to-cell communication, signaling, and as components of bacterial membranes. Some lipopeptides have also been found to have antimicrobial properties and are being studied for their potential use as therapeutic agents.

Mycoplasmatales infections refer to illnesses caused by bacteria belonging to the order Mycoplasmatales, which are characterized as the smallest self-replicating organisms lacking a cell wall. The most common pathogens in this group include Mycoplasma pneumoniae, M. genitalium, M. hominis, and Ureaplasma urealyticum.

Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia, while M. genitalium is associated with sexually transmitted infections, including urethritis, cervicitis, and pelvic inflammatory disease. M. hominis and U. urealyticum are typically commensals but can cause invasive diseases such as septic arthritis, endocarditis, or meningitis, especially in immunocompromised individuals.

Infections caused by these organisms often present with nonspecific symptoms, making diagnosis challenging. Diagnosis usually involves serological tests, nucleic acid amplification techniques (NAATs), or culture methods. Treatment typically includes macrolides, tetracyclines, or fluoroquinolones, depending on the specific pathogen and its antibiotic susceptibility profile.

Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (COP) is a type of lung disorder that is characterized by the presence of inflammation and scarring in the lungs. The term "cryptogenic" means that the cause of the condition is unknown or unclear.

Organizing pneumonia is a specific pattern of injury to the lungs that can be caused by various factors, including infections, medications, and autoimmune disorders. However, in cases of COP, there is no clear underlying cause that can be identified.

The main symptoms of COP include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and fatigue. The condition can also cause crackles or wheezing sounds when listening to the lungs with a stethoscope. Diagnosis of COP typically involves a combination of imaging studies, such as chest X-rays or CT scans, and lung biopsy.

Treatment for COP usually involves the use of corticosteroids, which can help to reduce inflammation and improve symptoms. In some cases, other medications may also be used to manage the condition. The prognosis for people with COP is generally good, with most individuals responding well to treatment and experiencing improvement in their symptoms over time. However, recurrence of the condition is possible, and long-term monitoring may be necessary.

"Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae" is a type of bacteria that primarily affects the respiratory system of pigs, causing a disease known as Enzootic Pneumonia. It is one of the most common causes of pneumonia in pigs and can lead to reduced growth rates, decreased feed conversion efficiency, and increased mortality in infected herds.

The bacteria lack a cell wall, which makes them resistant to many antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. They are also highly infectious and can be transmitted through direct contact with infected pigs or contaminated fomites such as feed, water, and equipment. Infection with "Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae" can lead to the development of lesions in the lungs, which can make the animal more susceptible to secondary bacterial and viral infections.

Diagnosis of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae infection typically involves a combination of clinical signs, laboratory tests such as serology, PCR, or culture, and sometimes histopathological examination of lung tissue. Control measures may include antibiotic treatment, vaccination, biosecurity measures, and herd management practices aimed at reducing the spread of the bacteria within and between pig populations.

*Acholeplasma laidlawii* is a species of bacteria that belongs to the class Mollicutes. It is a wall-less, pleomorphic organism that can exist in various shapes such as coccoid, rod-like, or filamentous. This bacterium is commonly found in the environment, including water, soil, and plants, and can also be part of the normal microbiota of animals, including humans.

*Acholeplasma laidlawii* is an obligate parasite, meaning it requires a host to survive and reproduce. It is typically associated with causing opportunistic infections in immunocompromised individuals or as a contaminant in laboratory settings. This bacterium can be difficult to culture and identify due to its small size and lack of a cell wall.

It's worth noting that *Acholeplasma laidlawii* is not considered a significant human pathogen, and infections caused by this organism are rare and usually mild. However, it has been used as a model organism in various research studies, including those investigating the mechanisms of bacterial cell division, membrane composition, and interactions with host cells.

Tetracyclines are a class of antibiotics that are widely used in medicine for their bacteriostatic properties, meaning they inhibit the growth of bacteria without necessarily killing them. They have a broad spectrum of activity and are effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as some other microorganisms such as rickettsiae, chlamydiae, and mycoplasmas.

Tetracyclines work by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis and preventing the bacteria from multiplying. They are commonly used to treat a variety of infections, including respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, urinary tract infections, sexually transmitted diseases, and anthrax exposure.

Some examples of tetracyclines include tetracycline, doxycycline, minocycline, and oxytetracycline. It is important to note that the use of tetracyclines during tooth development (pregnancy and up to the age of 8 years) can cause permanent discoloration of teeth, and they should be avoided in this population unless there are no other treatment options available. Additionally, tetracyclines can also cause photosensitivity, so patients should be advised to avoid excessive sun exposure while taking these medications.

"Pneumonia, Pneumocystis" is more commonly referred to as "Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)." It is a type of pneumonia caused by the microorganism Pneumocystis jirovecii. This organism was previously classified as a protozoan but is now considered a fungus.

PCP is an opportunistic infection, which means that it mainly affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, transplant recipients, or people taking immunosuppressive medications. The symptoms of PCP can include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and difficulty exercising. It is a serious infection that requires prompt medical treatment, typically with antibiotics.

It's important to note that PCP is not the same as pneumococcal pneumonia, which is caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. While both conditions are types of pneumonia, they are caused by different organisms and require different treatments.

Toll-like receptor 6 (TLR6) is a type of protein belonging to the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family, which plays a crucial role in the innate immune system. TLRs are responsible for recognizing various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) derived from microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

TLR6 is primarily expressed on the surface of sentinel cells like macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells. It functions in conjunction with another TLR, TLR2, forming a heterodimer (TLR2/6) to recognize specific PAMPs. The TLR2/6 complex is known to detect diacylated lipopeptides found on the cell walls of certain Gram-positive bacteria and mycoplasma.

Once TLR6 recognizes its ligand, it triggers a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). These transcription factors induce the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and costimulatory molecules necessary for initiating an immune response against the invading pathogen.

In summary, TLR6 is a vital component of the innate immune system that helps recognize specific microbial components and subsequently activates downstream signaling pathways to orchestrate an effective immune response.

"Mycoplasma pulmonis" is a species of bacteria that belongs to the genus Mycoplasma, which are characterized as the smallest free-living organisms. "M. pulmonis" is known to primarily infect rodents, particularly mice and rats, causing respiratory diseases. It colonizes the upper and lower respiratory tract, leading to conditions such as murine respiratory mycoplasmosis (MRM).

The bacteria lack a cell wall, which makes them resistant to many antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. They can cause chronic inflammation and damage to the respiratory system, including airway obstruction, bronchiolitis, and alveolitis. Transmission of "M. pulmonis" typically occurs through direct contact with infected animals or their aerosolized secretions.

It is important to note that "Mycoplasma pulmonis" does not infect humans and is primarily a research model for studying bacterial respiratory infections and host immune responses.

Staphylococcal pneumonia is a type of pneumonia caused by the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus. This bacteria can colonize the upper respiratory tract and sometimes invade the lower respiratory tract, causing pneumonia.

The symptoms of staphylococcal pneumonia are often severe and may include fever, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, and production of purulent sputum. The disease can progress rapidly, leading to complications such as pleural effusion (accumulation of fluid in the space surrounding the lungs), empyema (pus in the pleural space), and bacteremia (bacteria in the bloodstream).

Staphylococcal pneumonia can occur in otherwise healthy individuals, but it is more common in people with underlying medical conditions such as chronic lung disease, diabetes, or a weakened immune system. It can also occur in healthcare settings, where S. aureus may be transmitted from person to person or through contaminated equipment.

Treatment of staphylococcal pneumonia typically involves the use of antibiotics that are active against S. aureus, such as nafcillin or vancomycin. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to drain fluid from the pleural space.

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a specific type of pneumonia that develops in patients who have been mechanically ventilated through an endotracheal tube for at least 48 hours. It is defined as a nosocomial pneumonia (healthcare-associated infection occurring >48 hours after admission) that occurs in this setting. VAP is typically caused by aspiration of pathogenic microorganisms from the oropharynx or stomach into the lower respiratory tract, and it can lead to significant morbidity and mortality.

The diagnosis of VAP is often challenging due to the overlap of symptoms with other respiratory conditions and the potential for contamination of lower respiratory samples by upper airway flora. Clinical criteria, radiographic findings, and laboratory tests, such as quantitative cultures of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid or protected specimen brush, are often used in combination to make a definitive diagnosis.

Preventing VAP is crucial in critically ill patients and involves several evidence-based strategies, including elevating the head of the bed, oral care with chlorhexidine, and careful sedation management to allow for spontaneous breathing trials and early extubation when appropriate.

Vaginal diseases refer to various medical conditions that affect the vagina, which is the female reproductive organ that extends from the cervix (the lower part of the uterus) to the external part of the genitalia (vulva). These diseases can cause a range of symptoms, including discharge, itching, burning, pain, and discomfort. Some common vaginal diseases include:

1. Vaginitis: It is an inflammation or infection of the vagina that can cause abnormal discharge, itching, and irritation. The most common causes of vaginitis are bacterial vaginosis, yeast infections, and trichomoniasis.
2. Vulvovaginitis: It is an inflammation or infection of both the vagina and vulva that can cause redness, swelling, itching, and pain. The causes of vulvovaginitis are similar to those of vaginitis and include bacterial infections, yeast infections, and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
3. Vaginal dryness: It is a common condition that affects many women, especially after menopause. It can cause discomfort during sexual intercourse and lead to other symptoms such as itching and burning.
4. Vaginal cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that develop in the vagina due to various reasons, including inflammation, injury, or congenital abnormalities.
5. Vaginal cancer: It is a rare type of cancer that affects the vagina. The most common symptoms include abnormal vaginal bleeding, discharge, and pain during sexual intercourse.
6. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs): Several STIs, such as chlamydia, gonorrhea, genital herpes, and human papillomavirus (HPV), can affect the vagina and cause various symptoms, including discharge, pain, and sores.

It is essential to seek medical attention if you experience any symptoms of vaginal diseases to receive proper diagnosis and treatment.

Aspiration pneumonia is a type of pneumonia that occurs when foreign materials such as food, liquid, or vomit enter the lungs, resulting in inflammation or infection. It typically happens when a person inhales these materials involuntarily due to impaired swallowing mechanisms, which can be caused by various conditions such as stroke, dementia, Parkinson's disease, or general anesthesia. The inhalation of foreign materials can cause bacterial growth in the lungs, leading to symptoms like cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. Aspiration pneumonia can be a serious medical condition, particularly in older adults or individuals with weakened immune systems, and may require hospitalization and antibiotic treatment.

"Miniature Swine" is not a medical term per se, but it is commonly used in the field of biomedical research to refer to certain breeds or types of pigs that are smaller in size compared to traditional farm pigs. These miniature swine are often used as animal models for human diseases due to their similarities with humans in terms of anatomy, genetics, and physiology. Examples of commonly used miniature swine include the Yucatan, Sinclair, and Göttingen breeds. It is important to note that while these animals are often called "miniature," they can still weigh between 50-200 pounds depending on the specific breed or age.

A lung is a pair of spongy, elastic organs in the chest that work together to enable breathing. They are responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. The left lung has two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. The lungs are protected by the ribcage and are covered by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The trachea divides into two bronchi, which further divide into smaller bronchioles, leading to millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of gases occurs.

Community-acquired infections are those that are acquired outside of a healthcare setting, such as in one's own home or community. These infections are typically contracted through close contact with an infected person, contaminated food or water, or animals. Examples of community-acquired infections include the common cold, flu, strep throat, and many types of viral and bacterial gastrointestinal infections.

These infections are different from healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), which are infections that patients acquire while they are receiving treatment for another condition in a healthcare setting, such as a hospital or long-term care facility. HAIs can be caused by a variety of factors, including contact with contaminated surfaces or equipment, invasive medical procedures, and the use of certain medications.

It is important to note that community-acquired infections can also occur in healthcare settings if proper infection control measures are not in place. Healthcare providers must take steps to prevent the spread of these infections, such as washing their hands regularly, using personal protective equipment (PPE), and implementing isolation precautions for patients with known or suspected infectious diseases.

Bacterial antibodies are a type of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by bacteria. These antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the bacterial cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Bacterial antibodies can be classified into several types based on their structure and function, including IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against bacterial infections and provide immunity to future infections with the same bacteria.

African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) is a large, double-stranded DNA virus that belongs to the Asfarviridae family. It is the causative agent of African swine fever (ASF), a highly contagious and deadly disease in domestic pigs and wild boars. The virus can be transmitted through direct contact with infected animals, contaminated feed, or fomites (inanimate objects).

ASFV infects cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage and replicates in the cytoplasm of these cells. The virus causes a range of clinical signs, including fever, loss of appetite, hemorrhages, and death in severe cases. There is no effective vaccine or treatment available for ASF, and control measures rely on early detection, quarantine, and culling of infected animals to prevent the spread of the disease.

It's important to note that African swine fever virus is not a threat to human health, but it can have significant economic impacts on the pig industry due to high mortality rates in affected herds and trade restrictions imposed by countries to prevent the spread of the disease.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Lipid Pneumonia" is not a type of pneumonia that is defined by the presence of lipids in the lungs. Instead, it refers to a condition where an abnormal amount of lipids or fatty substances accumulate in the lung tissue, which can lead to inflammation and infection, resulting in pneumonia.

Lipid pneumonia can occur due to various reasons, such as aspiration of lipid-containing materials (like oil-based nasal drops, mineral oil, or contaminated food), impaired lipid metabolism, or lung damage from certain medical conditions or treatments. The accumulation of these fatty substances in the lungs can cause an inflammatory response, leading to symptoms similar to those seen in other types of pneumonia, such as cough, fever, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.

Therefore, lipid pneumonia is not a medical definition per se but rather a term used to describe a condition where lipids accumulate in the lungs and cause inflammation and infection.

Classical Swine Fever (CSF), also known as Hog Cholera, is a highly contagious and often fatal viral disease in pigs that is caused by a Pestivirus. The virus can be spread through direct contact with infected pigs or their bodily fluids, as well as through contaminated feed, water, and objects.

Clinical signs of CSF include fever, loss of appetite, lethargy, reddening of the skin, vomiting, diarrhea, abortion in pregnant sows, and neurological symptoms such as tremors and weakness. The disease can cause significant economic losses in the swine industry due to high mortality rates, reduced growth rates, and trade restrictions.

Prevention and control measures include vaccination, biosecurity measures, quarantine, and stamping out infected herds. CSF is not considered a public health threat as it does not infect humans. However, it can have significant impacts on the swine industry and food security in affected regions.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

Classical Swine Fever Virus (CSFV) is a positive-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the genus Pestivirus within the family Flaviviridae. It is the causative agent of Classical Swine Fever (CSF), also known as hog cholera, which is a highly contagious and severe disease in pigs. The virus is primarily transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their body fluids, but it can also be spread through contaminated feed, water, and fomites.

CSFV infects pigs of all ages, causing a range of clinical signs that may include fever, loss of appetite, lethargy, weakness, diarrhea, vomiting, and respiratory distress. In severe cases, the virus can cause hemorrhages in various organs, leading to high mortality rates. CSF is a significant disease of economic importance in the swine industry, as it can result in substantial production losses and trade restrictions.

Prevention and control measures for CSF include vaccination, biosecurity practices, and stamping-out policies. Vaccines against CSF are available but may not provide complete protection or prevent the virus from shedding, making it essential to maintain strict biosecurity measures in pig farms. In some countries, stamping-out policies involve the rapid detection and elimination of infected herds to prevent the spread of the disease.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

African Swine Fever (ASF) is a highly contagious and deadly viral disease that affects both domestic and wild pigs. It is caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV), which belongs to the Asfarviridae family. The disease is not zoonotic, meaning it does not infect or cause disease in humans.

Clinical signs of ASF can vary depending on the strain of the virus and the age and overall health status of the infected pig. However, common symptoms include high fever, loss of appetite, weakness, skin redness or blueness, diarrhea, vomiting, coughing, difficulty breathing, and abortion in pregnant sows. In severe cases, ASF can cause sudden death within a few days after infection.

ASF is transmitted through direct contact with infected pigs or their body fluids, as well as through contaminated feed, water, and fomites (inanimate objects). The virus can also be spread by soft ticks of the genus Ornithodoros, which can transmit the virus to wild suids such as warthogs and bushpigs.

There is no effective treatment or vaccine available for ASF, and control measures rely on early detection, quarantine, and culling of infected animals. Prevention measures include strict biosecurity protocols, restriction of pig movements, and proper disposal of carcasses and waste.

ASF is endemic in many African countries and has spread to other parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and South America. It poses a significant threat to the global pork industry due to its high mortality rate and lack of effective control measures.

Interstitial lung diseases (ILDs) are a group of disorders characterized by inflammation and scarring (fibrosis) in the interstitium, the tissue and space around the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs. The interstitium is where the blood vessels that deliver oxygen to the lungs are located. ILDs can be caused by a variety of factors, including environmental exposures, medications, connective tissue diseases, and autoimmune disorders.

The scarring and inflammation in ILDs can make it difficult for the lungs to expand and contract normally, leading to symptoms such as shortness of breath, cough, and fatigue. The scarring can also make it harder for oxygen to move from the air sacs into the bloodstream.

There are many different types of ILDs, including:

* Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF): a type of ILD that is caused by unknown factors and tends to progress rapidly
* Hypersensitivity pneumonitis: an ILD that is caused by an allergic reaction to inhaled substances, such as mold or bird droppings
* Connective tissue diseases: ILDs can be a complication of conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis and scleroderma
* Sarcoidosis: an inflammatory disorder that can affect multiple organs, including the lungs
* Asbestosis: an ILD caused by exposure to asbestos fibers

Treatment for ILDs depends on the specific type of disease and its underlying cause. Some treatments may include corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, and oxygen therapy. In some cases, a lung transplant may be necessary.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

Idiopathic interstitial pneumonias (IIPs) are a group of rare lung diseases with no known cause, characterized by inflammation and scarring (fibrosis) of the lung tissue. The term "idiopathic" means that the cause is unknown, and "interstitial" refers to the spaces between the air sacs in the lungs where the inflammation and scarring occur.

IIPs are classified into several subtypes based on their clinical, radiological, and pathological features. These include:

1. Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF): This is the most common and aggressive form of IIP, characterized by progressive scarring of the lung tissue, which leads to difficulty breathing and decreased lung function over time.
2. Nonspecific Interstitial Pneumonia (NSIP): This subtype is characterized by varying degrees of inflammation and fibrosis in the lung tissue. NSIP can be idiopathic or associated with connective tissue diseases.
3. Respiratory Bronchiolitis-Interstitial Lung Disease (RB-ILD): This subtype primarily affects smokers and is characterized by inflammation of the small airways and surrounding lung tissue.
4. Desquamative Interstitial Pneumonia (DIP): This subtype is also more common in smokers and is characterized by accumulation of pigmented macrophages in the lung tissue.
5. Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia (COP): This subtype is characterized by the formation of fibrous masses in the small airways and alveoli, leading to cough and shortness of breath.
6. Acute Interstitial Pneumonia (AIP)/Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS): This subtype is a severe form of IIP that can rapidly progress to respiratory failure and requires immediate medical attention.

The diagnosis of IIPs typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and lung biopsy. Treatment options may include corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, and oxygen therapy, depending on the severity and subtype of the disease.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as the pneumococcus, is a gram-positive, alpha-hemolytic bacterium frequently found in the upper respiratory tract of healthy individuals. It is a leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia and can also cause other infectious diseases such as otitis media (ear infection), sinusitis, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection). The bacteria are encapsulated, and there are over 90 serotypes based on variations in the capsular polysaccharide. Some serotypes are more virulent or invasive than others, and the polysaccharide composition is crucial for vaccine development. S. pneumoniae infection can be treated with antibiotics, but the emergence of drug-resistant strains has become a significant global health concern.

Swine Vesicular Disease (SVD) is a contagious viral disease affecting pigs, caused by the Swine Vesicular Disease Virus (SVDV), which is closely related to human, bovine, and enteric cytopathic types of Coxsackie B virus. The disease is characterized by the sudden onset of fever, lameness, and the development of vesicles or blisters on the snout, mouth, and hooves of infected animals. It can result in significant economic losses to the swine industry due to reduced growth rates, decreased feed conversion efficiency, and trade restrictions on affected herds.

SVD is primarily spread through the ingestion of contaminated food or water, direct contact with infected pigs, or indirectly through fomites such as vehicles, equipment, and clothing. The virus can also be transmitted via aerosolized particles, making it highly contagious in susceptible populations.

While SVD is not considered a significant threat to human health, its clinical signs are similar to those of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD), which can have severe consequences for both animal and human health. As such, SVD is often reported to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) and is subject to strict control measures in affected countries.

Murine pneumonia virus (MPV) is not a widely recognized or officially established medical term. However, it may refer to the Pneumonia Virus of Mice (PVM), which is a pathogen that affects mice and can cause interstitial pneumonia.

PVM is an enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus belonging to the family Paramyxoviridae and the genus Pneumovirus. It primarily infects laboratory mice but has also been found in wild mouse populations. The virus replicates in the respiratory epithelium, leading to interstitial pneumonia and inflammation of the airways.

It is essential to note that Murine Pneumonia Virus should not be confused with Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS), which is also known as "mouse-related pulmonary syndrome." HPS is a severe, sometimes fatal, respiratory disease in humans caused by exposure to hantaviruses, which are found in rodents.

"Pneumocystis jirovecii" is a species of fungus that commonly infects the lungs of humans, leading to a serious respiratory infection known as Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). This fungal infection primarily affects individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplant recipients. The organism was previously classified as a protozoan but has since been reclassified as a fungus based on genetic analysis. It is typically acquired through inhalation of airborne spores and can cause severe illness if left untreated.

"Pneumocystis" is a genus of fungi that are commonly found in the lungs of many mammals, including humans. The most well-known and studied species within this genus is "Pneumocystis jirovecii," which was previously known as "Pneumocystis carinii." This organism can cause a serious lung infection known as Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or who are undergoing immunosuppressive therapy.

It's worth noting that while "Pneumocystis" was once classified as a protozoan, it is now considered to be a fungus based on its genetic and biochemical characteristics.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid is a type of clinical specimen obtained through a procedure called bronchoalveolar lavage. This procedure involves inserting a bronchoscope into the lungs and instilling a small amount of saline solution into a specific area of the lung, then gently aspirating the fluid back out. The fluid that is recovered is called bronchoalveolar lavage fluid.

BAL fluid contains cells and other substances that are present in the lower respiratory tract, including the alveoli (the tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs). By analyzing BAL fluid, doctors can diagnose various lung conditions, such as pneumonia, interstitial lung disease, and lung cancer. They can also monitor the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions by comparing the composition of BAL fluid before and after treatment.

BAL fluid is typically analyzed for its cellular content, including the number and type of white blood cells present, as well as for the presence of bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms. The fluid may also be tested for various proteins, enzymes, and other biomarkers that can provide additional information about lung health and disease.

Legionnaires' disease is a severe and often lethal form of pneumonia, a lung infection, caused by the bacterium Legionella pneumophila. It's typically contracted by inhaling microscopic water droplets containing the bacteria, which can be found in various environmental sources like cooling towers, hot tubs, whirlpools, decorative fountains, and large plumbing systems. The disease is not transmitted through person-to-person contact. Symptoms usually appear within 2-10 days after exposure and may include cough, fever, chills, muscle aches, headache, and shortness of breath. Some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems, elderly people, and smokers, are at higher risk for developing Legionnaires' disease. Early diagnosis and appropriate antibiotic treatment can improve the chances of recovery. Preventive measures include regular testing and maintenance of potential sources of Legionella bacteria in buildings and other facilities.

Thoracic radiography is a type of diagnostic imaging that involves using X-rays to produce images of the chest, including the lungs, heart, bronchi, great vessels, and the bones of the spine and chest wall. It is a commonly used tool in the diagnosis and management of various respiratory, cardiovascular, and thoracic disorders such as pneumonia, lung cancer, heart failure, and rib fractures.

During the procedure, the patient is positioned between an X-ray machine and a cassette containing a film or digital detector. The X-ray beam is directed at the chest, and the resulting image is captured on the film or detector. The images produced can help identify any abnormalities in the structure or function of the organs within the chest.

Thoracic radiography may be performed as a routine screening test for certain conditions, such as lung cancer, or it may be ordered when a patient presents with symptoms suggestive of a respiratory or cardiovascular disorder. It is a safe and non-invasive procedure that can provide valuable information to help guide clinical decision making and improve patient outcomes.

Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes influenza A, B, and C viruses, which can cause respiratory infections in humans. Orthomyxoviridae infections are typically characterized by symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, muscle or body aches, headaches, and fatigue.

Influenza A and B viruses can cause seasonal epidemics of respiratory illness that occur mainly during the winter months in temperate climates. Influenza A viruses can also cause pandemics, which are global outbreaks of disease that occur when a new strain of the virus emerges to which there is little or no immunity in the human population.

Influenza C viruses are less common and typically cause milder illness than influenza A and B viruses. They do not cause epidemics and are not usually included in seasonal flu vaccines.

Orthomyxoviridae infections can be prevented through vaccination, good respiratory hygiene (such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing), hand washing, and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. Antiviral medications may be prescribed to treat influenza A and B infections, particularly for people at high risk of complications, such as older adults, young children, pregnant women, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

Cross infection, also known as cross-contamination, is the transmission of infectious agents or diseases between patients in a healthcare setting. This can occur through various means such as contaminated equipment, surfaces, hands of healthcare workers, or the air. It is an important concern in medical settings and measures are taken to prevent its occurrence, including proper hand hygiene, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), environmental cleaning and disinfection, and safe injection practices.

Dysentery is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the intestine, particularly the colon, leading to severe diarrhea containing blood, mucus, and/or pus. It is typically caused by infectious agents such as bacteria (like Shigella, Salmonella, or Escherichia coli) or parasites (such as Entamoeba histolytica). The infection can be acquired through contaminated food, water, or direct contact with an infected person. Symptoms may also include abdominal cramps, fever, and dehydration. Immediate medical attention is required for proper diagnosis and treatment to prevent potential complications.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral infection that attacks the respiratory system of humans. It is caused by influenza viruses A, B, or C and is characterized by the sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, muscle pain, sore throat, cough, runny nose, and fatigue. Influenza can lead to complications such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and ear infections, and can be particularly dangerous for young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. The virus is spread through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can also survive on surfaces for a period of time. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, which makes it necessary to get vaccinated annually to protect against the most recent and prevalent strains.

'Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype' is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes flu in humans and animals. It contains certain proteins called hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) on its surface, with this subtype specifically having H1 and N1 antigens. The H1N1 strain is well-known for causing the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which was a global outbreak of flu that resulted in significant morbidity and mortality. This subtype can also cause seasonal flu, although the severity and symptoms may vary. It is important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, and new strains or subtypes can emerge over time, requiring regular updates to vaccines to protect against them.

Pulmonary eosinophilia is a condition characterized by an increased number of eosinophils, a type of white blood cell, in the lungs or pulmonary tissues. Eosinophils play a role in the body's immune response to parasites and allergens, but an overabundance can contribute to inflammation and damage in the lungs.

The condition may be associated with various underlying causes, such as:

1. Asthma or allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA)
2. Eosinophilic lung diseases, like eosinophilic pneumonia or idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome
3. Parasitic infections, such as ascariasis or strongyloidiasis
4. Drug reactions, including certain antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs
5. Connective tissue disorders, like rheumatoid arthritis or Churg-Strauss syndrome
6. Malignancies, such as lymphoma or leukemia
7. Other less common conditions, like tropical pulmonary eosinophilia or cryptogenic organizing pneumonia

Symptoms of pulmonary eosinophilia can vary but often include cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, and chest discomfort. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and laboratory tests, such as complete blood count (CBC) with differential, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), or lung biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include corticosteroids, antibiotics, or antiparasitic medications.

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination is an antibiotic medication used to treat various bacterial infections. It contains two active ingredients: trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole, which work together to inhibit the growth of bacteria by interfering with their ability to synthesize folic acid, a vital component for their survival.

Trimethoprim is a bacteriostatic agent that inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, an enzyme needed for bacterial growth, while sulfamethoxazole is a bacteriostatic sulfonamide that inhibits the synthesis of tetrahydrofolate by blocking the action of the enzyme bacterial dihydropteroate synthase. The combination of these two agents produces a synergistic effect, increasing the overall antibacterial activity of the medication.

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is commonly used to treat urinary tract infections, middle ear infections, bronchitis, traveler's diarrhea, and pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), a severe lung infection that can occur in people with weakened immune systems. It is also used as a prophylactic treatment to prevent PCP in individuals with HIV/AIDS or other conditions that compromise the immune system.

As with any medication, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination can have side effects and potential risks, including allergic reactions, skin rashes, gastrointestinal symptoms, and blood disorders. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully and report any adverse reactions promptly.

Bronchopneumonia is a type of pneumonia that involves inflammation and infection of the bronchioles (small airways in the lungs) and alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs). It can be caused by various bacteria, viruses, or fungi and often occurs as a complication of a respiratory tract infection.

The symptoms of bronchopneumonia may include cough, chest pain, fever, chills, shortness of breath, and fatigue. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as respiratory failure or sepsis. Treatment typically involves antibiotics for bacterial infections, antiviral medications for viral infections, and supportive care such as oxygen therapy and hydration.

Hospitalization is the process of admitting a patient to a hospital for the purpose of receiving medical treatment, surgery, or other health care services. It involves staying in the hospital as an inpatient, typically under the care of doctors, nurses, and other healthcare professionals. The length of stay can vary depending on the individual's medical condition and the type of treatment required. Hospitalization may be necessary for a variety of reasons, such as to receive intensive care, to undergo diagnostic tests or procedures, to recover from surgery, or to manage chronic illnesses or injuries.

Progressive interstitial pneumonia of sheep, also known as ovine progressive pneumonic dyspnea (OPPD), is a contagious and fatal disease that affects the respiratory system of sheep. It is caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae.

The disease is characterized by inflammation and fibrosis of the interstitial tissue of the lungs, which leads to progressive difficulty in breathing, coughing, and weight loss. The infection can also spread to the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs, causing pus-filled lesions and further compromising lung function.

OPPD is a chronic disease that can take several months to progress from initial infection to death. It is highly contagious and can be spread through direct contact with infected animals or contaminated equipment. The disease is most commonly seen in sheep that are under stress, such as those that have been transported or housed in close quarters.

Prevention and control measures for OPPD include good biosecurity practices, such as quarantine and testing of new animals before introducing them to a flock, as well as vaccination of susceptible animals. Treatment is generally not effective once clinical signs appear, and affected animals usually need to be euthanized to prevent further spread of the disease.

Vesicular Exanthema of Swine (VES) is a viral disease that affects pigs, characterized by the formation of blisters or vesicles on the skin and mucous membranes. The causative agent is an RNA virus known as Vesicular Exanthema of Swine Virus (VESV), which belongs to the family Caliciviridae.

The disease is primarily transmitted through direct contact with infected pigs or contaminated fomites, and it can also be spread through the ingestion of contaminated food or water. The incubation period for VES ranges from 2-6 days, after which affected animals develop fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, and lameness.

The most notable clinical sign of VES is the development of vesicles on the snout, coronary bands, and hooves of infected pigs. These lesions can rupture and form crusts or scabs, leading to secondary bacterial infections. In severe cases, lameness can progress to the point where affected animals are unable to stand or walk.

VES is a highly contagious disease that can cause significant economic losses for pig farmers. While it does not pose a direct threat to human health, VESV can cause a mild self-limiting illness in humans who come into contact with infected pigs or their secretions.

It's worth noting that Vesicular Exanthema of Swine has been eradicated from the United States since 1952, and it is now considered a foreign animal disease. However, it remains a significant concern for the global swine industry due to its potential to cause significant economic losses.

'Sus scrofa' is the scientific name for the wild boar, a species of suid that is native to much of Eurasia and North Africa. It is not a medical term or concept. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help with those instead!

Artificial respiration is an emergency procedure that can be used to provide oxygen to a person who is not breathing or is breathing inadequately. It involves manually forcing air into the lungs, either by compressing the chest or using a device to deliver breaths. The goal of artificial respiration is to maintain adequate oxygenation of the body's tissues and organs until the person can breathe on their own or until advanced medical care arrives. Artificial respiration may be used in conjunction with cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in cases of cardiac arrest.

Mechanical Ventilators are medical devices that assist with breathing by providing mechanical ventilation to patients who are unable to breathe sufficiently on their own. These machines deliver breaths to the patient through an endotracheal tube or a tracheostomy tube, which is placed in the windpipe (trachea). Mechanical Ventilators can be set to deliver breaths at specific rates and volumes, and they can also be adjusted to provide varying levels of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) to help keep the alveoli open and improve oxygenation.

Mechanical ventilation is typically used in critical care settings such as intensive care units (ICUs), and it may be employed for a variety of reasons, including respiratory failure, sedation, neuromuscular disorders, or surgery. Prolonged use of mechanical ventilation can lead to complications such as ventilator-associated pneumonia, muscle weakness, and decreased cardiac function, so the goal is usually to wean patients off the ventilator as soon as possible.

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is a medical procedure in which a small amount of fluid is introduced into a segment of the lung and then gently suctioned back out. The fluid contains cells and other materials that can be analyzed to help diagnose various lung conditions, such as inflammation, infection, or cancer.

The procedure is typically performed during bronchoscopy, which involves inserting a thin, flexible tube with a light and camera on the end through the nose or mouth and into the lungs. Once the bronchoscope is in place, a small catheter is passed through the bronchoscope and into the desired lung segment. The fluid is then introduced and suctioned back out, and the sample is sent to a laboratory for analysis.

BAL can be helpful in diagnosing various conditions such as pneumonia, interstitial lung diseases, alveolar proteinosis, and some types of cancer. It can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of treatment for certain lung conditions. However, like any medical procedure, it carries some risks, including bleeding, infection, and respiratory distress. Therefore, it is important that the procedure is performed by a qualified healthcare professional in a controlled setting.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

An Intensive Care Unit (ICU) is a specialized hospital department that provides continuous monitoring and advanced life support for critically ill patients. The ICU is equipped with sophisticated technology and staffed by highly trained healthcare professionals, including intensivists, nurses, respiratory therapists, and other specialists.

Patients in the ICU may require mechanical ventilation, invasive monitoring, vasoactive medications, and other advanced interventions due to conditions such as severe infections, trauma, cardiac arrest, respiratory failure, or post-surgical complications. The goal of the ICU is to stabilize patients' condition, prevent further complications, and support organ function while the underlying illness is treated.

ICUs may be organized into different units based on the type of care provided, such as medical, surgical, cardiac, neurological, or pediatric ICUs. The length of stay in the ICU can vary widely depending on the patient's condition and response to treatment.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Swine Erysipelas is a bacterial disease in pigs, caused by the bacterium Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae. The disease is characterized by sudden onset, high fever, lethargy, skin lesions (typically raised, red, and firm), and lameness. It can also cause endocarditis, which can lead to heart failure. The bacteria can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals or their meat, but human cases are rare and usually result in only mild symptoms. In pigs, the disease can be prevented through vaccination.

'Influenza A Virus, H1N2 Subtype' is a type of influenza virus that causes respiratory illness in humans and animals. The 'H' and 'N' in the name refer to two proteins on the surface of the virus, hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N), respectively. In this subtype, the specific forms are H1 and N2.

Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on these surface proteins, and H1N2 is one of several subtypes that can infect humans. The H1N2 virus is known to have circulated in human populations since at least 2001, and it is thought to arise through the reassortment of genes from other influenza A viruses.

Like other influenza viruses, H1N2 can cause a range of symptoms including fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, muscle or body aches, headaches, and fatigue. In some cases, it can lead to more severe illnesses such as pneumonia and bronchitis, particularly in people with weakened immune systems, chronic medical conditions, or the elderly.

It is important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, and new subtypes and strains can emerge over time. This is why annual flu vaccinations are recommended to help protect against the most common circulating strains of the virus.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Anti-infective agents are a class of medications that are used to treat infections caused by various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These agents work by either killing the microorganism or inhibiting its growth, thereby helping to control the infection and alleviate symptoms.

There are several types of anti-infective agents, including:

1. Antibiotics: These are medications that are used to treat bacterial infections. They work by either killing bacteria (bactericidal) or inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic).
2. Antivirals: These are medications that are used to treat viral infections. They work by interfering with the replication of the virus, preventing it from spreading and causing further damage.
3. Antifungals: These are medications that are used to treat fungal infections. They work by disrupting the cell membrane of the fungus, killing it or inhibiting its growth.
4. Antiparasitics: These are medications that are used to treat parasitic infections. They work by either killing the parasite or inhibiting its growth and reproduction.

It is important to note that anti-infective agents are not effective against all types of infections, and it is essential to use them appropriately to avoid the development of drug-resistant strains of microorganisms.

Pseudomonas infections are infections caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa or other species of the Pseudomonas genus. These bacteria are gram-negative, opportunistic pathogens that can cause various types of infections, including respiratory, urinary tract, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and bloodstream infections.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common cause of healthcare-associated infections, particularly in patients with weakened immune systems, chronic lung diseases, or those who are hospitalized for extended periods. The bacteria can also infect wounds, burns, and medical devices such as catheters and ventilators.

Pseudomonas infections can be difficult to treat due to the bacteria's resistance to many antibiotics. Treatment typically involves the use of multiple antibiotics that are effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In severe cases, intravenous antibiotics or even hospitalization may be necessary.

Prevention measures include good hand hygiene, contact precautions for patients with known Pseudomonas infections, and proper cleaning and maintenance of medical equipment.

Pneumococcal vaccines are immunizing agents that protect against infections caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. These vaccines help to prevent several types of diseases, including pneumonia, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection).

There are two main types of pneumococcal vaccines available:

1. Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV): This vaccine is recommended for children under 2 years old, adults aged 65 and older, and people with certain medical conditions that increase their risk of pneumococcal infections. PCV protects against 13 or 20 serotypes (strains) of Streptococcus pneumoniae, depending on the formulation (PCV13 or PCV20).
2. Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine (PPSV): This vaccine is recommended for adults aged 65 and older, children and adults with specific medical conditions, and smokers. PPSV protects against 23 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that recognize and fight off the bacteria if an individual comes into contact with it in the future. Both types of pneumococcal vaccines have been proven to be safe and effective in preventing severe pneumococcal diseases.

Animal husbandry is the practice of breeding and raising animals for agricultural purposes, such as for the production of meat, milk, eggs, or fiber. It involves providing proper care for the animals, including feeding, housing, health care, and breeding management. The goal of animal husbandry is to maintain healthy and productive animals while also being mindful of environmental sustainability and animal welfare.

"Pneumocystis carinii" is an outdated term. The organism it refers to is now known as "Pneumocystis jirovecii" and it's a type of fungus that can cause a serious lung infection called pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). This infection mainly affects people with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or who have had organ transplants. It's important to note that "Pneumocystis jirovecii" is not the same as the bacterium "Legionella pneumophila" which causes Legionnaires' disease.

Empyema is a medical condition characterized by the accumulation of pus in a body cavity, most commonly in the pleural space surrounding the lungs. It is usually caused by a bacterial infection that spreads from the lung tissue to the pleural space. The buildup of pus can cause chest pain, cough, fever, and difficulty breathing. Empyema can be a complication of pneumonia or other respiratory infections, and it may require treatment with antibiotics, drainage of the pus, and sometimes surgery.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

"Legionella pneumophila" is a species of Gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that are commonly found in freshwater environments such as lakes and streams. It can also be found in man-made water systems like hot tubs, cooling towers, and decorative fountains. This bacterium is the primary cause of Legionnaires' disease, a severe form of pneumonia, and Pontiac fever, a milder illness resembling the flu. Infection typically occurs when people inhale tiny droplets of water containing the bacteria. It is not transmitted from person to person.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Influenza A virus is defined as a negative-sense, single-stranded, segmented RNA virus belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae. It is responsible for causing epidemic and pandemic influenza in humans and is also known to infect various animal species, such as birds, pigs, horses, and seals. The viral surface proteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), are the primary targets for antiviral drugs and vaccines. There are 18 different HA subtypes and 11 known NA subtypes, which contribute to the diversity and antigenic drift of Influenza A viruses. The zoonotic nature of this virus allows for genetic reassortment between human and animal strains, leading to the emergence of novel variants with pandemic potential.

Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infections that affect the respiratory system, which includes the nose, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea), bronchi, and lungs. These infections can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or, less commonly, fungi.

RTIs are classified into two categories based on their location: upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) and lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs). URTIs include infections of the nose, sinuses, throat, and larynx, such as the common cold, flu, laryngitis, and sinusitis. LRTIs involve the lower airways, including the bronchi and lungs, and can be more severe. Examples of LRTIs are pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis.

Symptoms of RTIs depend on the location and cause of the infection but may include cough, congestion, runny nose, sore throat, difficulty breathing, wheezing, fever, fatigue, and chest pain. Treatment for RTIs varies depending on the severity and underlying cause of the infection. For viral infections, treatment typically involves supportive care to manage symptoms, while antibiotics may be prescribed for bacterial infections.

Transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE) of swine is a viral infection that primarily affects the gastrointestinal tract of pigs. It is caused by the Transmissible Gastroenteritis Coronavirus (TGEV), which is an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family Coronaviridae.

The disease is highly contagious and can spread rapidly in swine populations through direct contact with infected animals or their feces, as well as via aerosolized particles. Ingestion of contaminated feed or water can also lead to infection.

Clinical signs of TGE in pigs include vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, and weight loss. The disease is most severe in young piglets, with mortality rates reaching up to 100% in animals younger than two weeks old. In older pigs, the infection may be milder or even asymptomatic, although they can still serve as carriers of the virus and contribute to its spread.

Transmissible gastroenteritis is a significant concern for the swine industry due to its high mortality rate in young animals and the potential economic losses associated with reduced growth rates and decreased feed conversion efficiency in infected herds. Prevention strategies include strict biosecurity measures, vaccination of sows, and proper disposal of infected pig manure.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Pasteurella infections are diseases caused by bacteria belonging to the genus Pasteurella, with P. multocida being the most common species responsible for infections in humans. These bacteria are commonly found in the upper respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tracts of animals, particularly domestic pets such as cats and dogs.

Humans can acquire Pasteurella infections through animal bites, scratches, or contact with contaminated animal secretions like saliva. The infection can manifest in various forms, including:

1. Skin and soft tissue infections: These are the most common types of Pasteurella infections, often presenting as cellulitis, abscesses, or wound infections after an animal bite or scratch.
2. Respiratory tract infections: Pasteurella bacteria can cause pneumonia, bronchitis, and other respiratory tract infections, especially in individuals with underlying lung diseases or weakened immune systems.
3. Ocular infections: Pasteurella bacteria can infect the eye, causing conditions like conjunctivitis, keratitis, or endophthalmitis, particularly after an animal scratch to the eye or face.
4. Septicemia: In rare cases, Pasteurella bacteria can enter the bloodstream and cause septicemia, a severe and potentially life-threatening condition.
5. Other infections: Pasteurella bacteria have also been known to cause joint infections (septic arthritis), bone infections (osteomyelitis), and central nervous system infections (meningitis or brain abscesses) in some cases.

Prompt diagnosis and appropriate antibiotic treatment are crucial for managing Pasteurella infections, as they can progress rapidly and lead to severe complications, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems.

Legionella is the genus of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that can cause serious lung infections known as legionellosis. The most common species causing disease in humans is Legionella pneumophila. These bacteria are widely found in natural freshwater environments such as lakes and streams. However, they can also be found in man-made water systems like cooling towers, hot tubs, decorative fountains, and plumbing systems. When people breathe in small droplets of water containing the bacteria, especially in the form of aerosols or mist, they may develop Legionnaires' disease, a severe form of pneumonia, or Pontiac fever, a milder flu-like illness. The risk of infection increases in individuals with weakened immune systems, chronic lung diseases, older age, and smokers. Appropriate disinfection methods and regular maintenance of water systems can help prevent the growth and spread of Legionella bacteria.

Pneumococcal infections are illnesses caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. This bacterium can infect different parts of the body, including the lungs (pneumonia), blood (bacteremia or sepsis), and the covering of the brain and spinal cord (meningitis). Pneumococcal infections can also cause ear infections and sinus infections. The bacteria spread through close contact with an infected person, who may spread the bacteria by coughing or sneezing. People with weakened immune systems, children under 2 years of age, adults over 65, and those with certain medical conditions are at increased risk for developing pneumococcal infections.

A "hospitalized child" refers to a minor (an individual who has not yet reached the age of majority, which varies by country but is typically 18 in the US) who has been admitted to a hospital for the purpose of receiving medical treatment and care. This term can encompass children of all ages, from infants to teenagers, and may include those who are suffering from a wide range of medical conditions or injuries, requiring various levels of care and intervention.

Hospitalization can be necessary for a variety of reasons, including but not limited to:

1. Acute illnesses that require close monitoring, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or sepsis.
2. Chronic medical conditions that need ongoing management, like cystic fibrosis, cancer, or congenital heart defects.
3. Severe injuries resulting from accidents, such as fractures, burns, or traumatic brain injuries.
4. Elective procedures, such as surgeries for orthopedic issues or to correct congenital abnormalities.
5. Mental health disorders that necessitate inpatient care and treatment.

Regardless of the reason for hospitalization, healthcare professionals strive to provide comprehensive, family-centered care to ensure the best possible outcomes for their young patients. This may involve working closely with families to address their concerns, providing education about the child's condition and treatment plan, and coordinating care across various disciplines and specialties.

An immunocompromised host refers to an individual who has a weakened or impaired immune system, making them more susceptible to infections and decreased ability to fight off pathogens. This condition can be congenital (present at birth) or acquired (developed during one's lifetime).

Acquired immunocompromised states may result from various factors such as medical treatments (e.g., chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunosuppressive drugs), infections (e.g., HIV/AIDS), chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes, malnutrition, liver disease), or aging.

Immunocompromised hosts are at a higher risk for developing severe and life-threatening infections due to their reduced immune response. Therefore, they require special consideration when it comes to prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of infectious diseases.

Pentamidine is an antimicrobial drug that is primarily used to treat and prevent certain types of pneumonia caused by the parasitic organisms Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly known as P. carinii) and Leishmania donovani. It can also be used for the treatment of some fungal infections caused by Histoplasma capsulatum and Cryptococcus neoformans.

Pentamidine works by interfering with the DNA replication and protein synthesis of these microorganisms, which ultimately leads to their death. It is available as an injection or inhaled powder for medical use. Common side effects of pentamidine include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and changes in blood sugar levels. More serious side effects can include kidney damage, hearing loss, and heart rhythm disturbances.

It is important to note that the use of pentamidine should be under the supervision of a healthcare professional due to its potential for serious side effects and drug interactions.

Chlamydial pneumonia is a type of lung infection caused by the bacterium Chlamydophila pneumoniae (previously known as Chlamydia pneumoniae). It is often a mild to moderate respiratory infection, but in some cases, it can be more severe and require hospitalization.

The symptoms of chlamydial pneumonia may include cough, chest pain, fever, fatigue, and difficulty breathing. The infection is usually spread through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. It can also be spread by touching contaminated surfaces and then touching the mouth or nose.

Chlamydial pneumonia is often treated with antibiotics, such as azithromycin or doxycycline. In some cases, hospitalization may be necessary for more severe infections, especially in people with weakened immune systems or other underlying health conditions.

It's worth noting that chlamydial pneumonia is different from chlamydia trachomatis, which is a sexually transmitted infection caused by a different species of Chlamydia.

Bronchoscopy is a medical procedure that involves the examination of the inside of the airways and lungs with a flexible or rigid tube called a bronchoscope. This procedure allows healthcare professionals to directly visualize the airways, take tissue samples for biopsy, and remove foreign objects or secretions. Bronchoscopy can be used to diagnose and manage various respiratory conditions such as lung infections, inflammation, cancer, and bleeding. It is usually performed under local or general anesthesia to minimize discomfort and risks associated with the procedure.

Reassortant viruses are formed when two or more different strains of a virus infect the same cell and exchange genetic material, creating a new strain. This phenomenon is most commonly observed in segmented RNA viruses, such as influenza A and B viruses, where each strain may have a different combination of gene segments. When these reassortant viruses emerge, they can sometimes have altered properties, such as increased transmissibility or virulence, which can pose significant public health concerns. For example, pandemic influenza viruses often arise through the process of reassortment between human and animal strains.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is a medical condition that occurs when bacteria from another source, such as an infection in another part of the body, enter the bloodstream. Bacteremia can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and rapid heart rate, and it can lead to serious complications such as sepsis if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

Bacteremia is often a result of an infection elsewhere in the body that allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream. This can happen through various routes, such as during medical procedures, intravenous (IV) drug use, or from infected wounds or devices that come into contact with the bloodstream. In some cases, bacteremia may also occur without any obvious source of infection.

It is important to note that not all bacteria in the bloodstream cause harm, and some people may have bacteria in their blood without showing any symptoms. However, if bacteria in the bloodstream multiply and cause an immune response, it can lead to bacteremia and potentially serious complications.

AIDS-related opportunistic infections (AROIs) are infections that occur more frequently or are more severe in people with weakened immune systems, such as those with advanced HIV infection or AIDS. These infections take advantage of a weakened immune system and can affect various organs and systems in the body.

Common examples of AROIs include:

1. Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), caused by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii
2. Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection, caused by a type of bacteria called mycobacteria
3. Candidiasis, a fungal infection that can affect various parts of the body, including the mouth, esophagus, and genitals
4. Toxoplasmosis, caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii
5. Cryptococcosis, a fungal infection that affects the lungs and central nervous system
6. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, caused by a type of herpes virus
7. Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis
8. Cryptosporidiosis, a parasitic infection that affects the intestines
9. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a viral infection that affects the brain

Preventing and treating AROIs is an important part of managing HIV/AIDS, as they can cause significant illness and even death in people with weakened immune systems. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is used to treat HIV infection and prevent the progression of HIV to AIDS, which can help reduce the risk of opportunistic infections. In addition, medications to prevent specific opportunistic infections may be prescribed for people with advanced HIV or AIDS.

Pasteurellosis, pneumonic is a specific form of pasteurellosis that is caused by the bacterium *Pasteurella multocida* and primarily affects the respiratory system. It is characterized by inflammation and infection of the lungs (pneumonia) and can result in symptoms such as cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain, fever, and decreased appetite.

This condition often occurs as a secondary infection in animals with underlying respiratory diseases, and it can be transmitted to humans through close contact with infected animals, such as through bites, scratches, or inhalation of respiratory secretions. Pneumonic pasteurellosis is more likely to occur in people who have weakened immune systems due to other health conditions.

Prompt medical treatment with antibiotics is necessary to prevent complications and improve outcomes. The prognosis for pneumonic pasteurellosis depends on the severity of the infection, the patient's overall health, and how quickly they receive appropriate medical care.

Haemophilus infections are caused by bacteria named Haemophilus influenzae. Despite its name, this bacterium does not cause the flu, which is caused by a virus. There are several different strains of Haemophilus influenzae, and some are more likely to cause severe illness than others.

Haemophilus infections can affect people of any age, but they are most common in children under 5 years old. The bacteria can cause a range of infections, from mild ear infections to serious conditions such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord) and pneumonia (infection of the lungs).

The bacterium is spread through respiratory droplets when an infected person coughs or sneezes. It can also be spread by touching contaminated surfaces and then touching the mouth, nose, or eyes.

Prevention measures include good hygiene practices such as handwashing, covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. Vaccination is also available to protect against Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) infections, which are the most severe and common form of Haemophilus infection.

Pulmonary fibrosis is a specific type of lung disease that results from the thickening and scarring of the lung tissues, particularly those in the alveoli (air sacs) and interstitium (the space around the air sacs). This scarring makes it harder for the lungs to properly expand and transfer oxygen into the bloodstream, leading to symptoms such as shortness of breath, coughing, fatigue, and eventually respiratory failure. The exact cause of pulmonary fibrosis can vary, with some cases being idiopathic (without a known cause) or related to environmental factors, medications, medical conditions, or genetic predisposition.

Sputum is defined as a mixture of saliva and phlegm that is expelled from the respiratory tract during coughing, sneezing or deep breathing. It can be clear, mucoid, or purulent (containing pus) depending on the underlying cause of the respiratory issue. Examination of sputum can help diagnose various respiratory conditions such as infections, inflammation, or other lung diseases.

A disease outbreak is defined as the occurrence of cases of a disease in excess of what would normally be expected in a given time and place. It may affect a small and localized group or a large number of people spread over a wide area, even internationally. An outbreak may be caused by a new agent, a change in the agent's virulence or host susceptibility, or an increase in the size or density of the host population.

Outbreaks can have significant public health and economic impacts, and require prompt investigation and control measures to prevent further spread of the disease. The investigation typically involves identifying the source of the outbreak, determining the mode of transmission, and implementing measures to interrupt the chain of infection. This may include vaccination, isolation or quarantine, and education of the public about the risks and prevention strategies.

Examples of disease outbreaks include foodborne illnesses linked to contaminated food or water, respiratory infections spread through coughing and sneezing, and mosquito-borne diseases such as Zika virus and West Nile virus. Outbreaks can also occur in healthcare settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes, where vulnerable populations may be at increased risk of infection.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Klebsiella infections are caused by bacteria called Klebsiella spp., with the most common species being Klebsiella pneumoniae. These gram-negative, encapsulated bacilli are normal inhabitants of the human gastrointestinal tract and upper respiratory tract but can cause various types of infections when they spread to other body sites.

Commonly, Klebsiella infections include:

1. Pneumonia: This is a lung infection that can lead to symptoms like cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing, and fever. It often affects people with weakened immune systems, chronic lung diseases, or those who are hospitalized.

2. Urinary tract infections (UTIs): Klebsiella can cause UTIs, particularly in individuals with compromised urinary tracts, such as catheterized patients or those with structural abnormalities. Symptoms may include pain, burning during urination, frequent urges to urinate, and lower abdominal or back pain.

3. Bloodstream infections (bacteremia/septicemia): When Klebsiella enters the bloodstream, it can cause bacteremia or septicemia, which can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition characterized by an overwhelming immune response to infection. Symptoms may include fever, chills, rapid heart rate, and rapid breathing.

4. Wound infections: Klebsiella can infect wounds, particularly in patients with open surgical wounds or traumatic injuries. Infected wounds may display redness, swelling, pain, pus discharge, and warmth.

5. Soft tissue infections: These include infections of the skin and underlying soft tissues, such as cellulitis and abscesses. Symptoms can range from localized redness, swelling, and pain to systemic symptoms like fever and malaise.

Klebsiella infections are increasingly becoming difficult to treat due to their resistance to multiple antibiotics, including carbapenems, which has led to the term "carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae" (CRE) or "carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae" (CRKP). These infections often require the use of last-resort antibiotics like colistin and tigecycline. Infection prevention measures, such as contact precautions, hand hygiene, and environmental cleaning, are crucial to controlling the spread of Klebsiella in healthcare settings.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus that belongs to the family Hepeviridae and genus Orthohepevirus. It primarily infects the liver, causing acute hepatitis in humans. The virus is transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water or food sources. Ingestion of raw or undercooked pork or deer meat can also lead to HEV infection.

HEV infection typically results in self-limiting acute hepatitis, characterized by symptoms such as jaundice, fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, and dark urine. In some cases, particularly among pregnant women and individuals with weakened immune systems, HEV infection can lead to severe complications, including fulminant hepatic failure and death.

There are four main genotypes of HEV that infect humans: genotype 1 and 2 are primarily found in developing countries and are transmitted through contaminated water; genotype 3 and 4 are found worldwide and can be transmitted through both zoonotic and human-to-human routes.

Prevention measures include improving sanitation, access to clean water, and food safety practices. Currently, there is no specific antiviral treatment for HEV infection, but supportive care can help manage symptoms. A vaccine against HEV is available in China and has shown efficacy in preventing the disease.

An abattoir is a facility where animals are slaughtered and processed for human consumption. It is also known as a slaughterhouse. The term "abattoir" comes from the French word "abattre," which means "to take down" or "slaughter." In an abattoir, animals such as cattle, pigs, sheep, and chickens are killed and then butchered into smaller pieces of meat that can be sold to consumers.

Abattoirs must follow strict regulations to ensure the humane treatment of animals and the safety of the meat products they produce. These regulations cover various aspects of the slaughtering and processing process, including animal handling, stunning, bleeding, evisceration, and inspection. The goal of these regulations is to minimize the risk of contamination and ensure that the meat is safe for human consumption.

It's important to note that while abattoirs play an essential role in providing a reliable source of protein for humans, they can also be controversial due to concerns about animal welfare and the environmental impact of large-scale animal agriculture.

"Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes respiratory illness and is known to circulate in humans and animals, including birds and pigs. The "H3N2" refers to the two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). In this subtype, the H protein is of the H3 variety and the N protein is of the N2 variety. This subtype has been responsible for several influenza epidemics and pandemics in humans, including the 1968 Hong Kong flu pandemic. It is one of the influenza viruses that are monitored closely by public health authorities due to its potential to cause significant illness and death, particularly in high-risk populations such as older adults, young children, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Edema disease of swine, also known as porcine edema disease, is a condition that primarily affects young pigs between 2 weeks and 5 months of age. It is characterized by the sudden onset of neurological symptoms and fluid accumulation in various tissues, particularly in the brain and skin around the neck and shoulders.

The cause of edema disease is a bacterial toxin called Shiga-like toxin IIe (Stx2e) produced by certain strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria. These bacteria colonize the pig's small intestine and produce the toxin, which then enters the bloodstream and damages the endothelial cells that line the blood vessels. This damage leads to increased permeability of the blood vessels, allowing fluid to leak out into surrounding tissues and causing edema (swelling).

The neurological symptoms of edema disease are thought to be caused by the direct toxic effects of Stx2e on nerve cells in the brainstem. The exact mechanism is not fully understood, but it is believed that the toxin disrupts the normal functioning of these nerve cells, leading to symptoms such as muscle weakness, tremors, and difficulty breathing.

Treatment of edema disease typically involves supportive care, such as fluid therapy and antibiotics to control the E. coli infection. Prevention measures include vaccination against E. coli strains that produce Stx2e and maintaining good hygiene practices in pig farming operations.

Zoonoses are infectious diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. They are caused by pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi that naturally infect non-human animals and can sometimes infect and cause disease in humans through various transmission routes like direct contact with infected animals, consumption of contaminated food or water, or vectors like insects. Some well-known zoonotic diseases include rabies, Lyme disease, salmonellosis, and COVID-19 (which is believed to have originated from bats). Public health officials work to prevent and control zoonoses through various measures such as surveillance, education, vaccination, and management of animal populations.

Lung diseases refer to a broad category of disorders that affect the lungs and other structures within the respiratory system. These diseases can impair lung function, leading to symptoms such as coughing, shortness of breath, chest pain, and wheezing. They can be categorized into several types based on the underlying cause and nature of the disease process. Some common examples include:

1. Obstructive lung diseases: These are characterized by narrowing or blockage of the airways, making it difficult to breathe out. Examples include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiectasis, and cystic fibrosis.
2. Restrictive lung diseases: These involve stiffening or scarring of the lungs, which reduces their ability to expand and take in air. Examples include idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, sarcoidosis, and asbestosis.
3. Infectious lung diseases: These are caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites that infect the lungs. Examples include pneumonia, tuberculosis, and influenza.
4. Vascular lung diseases: These affect the blood vessels in the lungs, impairing oxygen exchange. Examples include pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension, and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH).
5. Neoplastic lung diseases: These involve abnormal growth of cells within the lungs, leading to cancer. Examples include small cell lung cancer, non-small cell lung cancer, and mesothelioma.
6. Other lung diseases: These include interstitial lung diseases, pleural effusions, and rare disorders such as pulmonary alveolar proteinosis and lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM).

It is important to note that this list is not exhaustive, and there are many other conditions that can affect the lungs. Proper diagnosis and treatment of lung diseases require consultation with a healthcare professional, such as a pulmonologist or respiratory therapist.

"Klebsiella pneumoniae" is a medical term that refers to a type of bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It's a gram-negative, encapsulated, non-motile, rod-shaped bacterium that can be found in various environments, including soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals.

"Klebsiella pneumoniae" is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause a range of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions. It's a common cause of healthcare-associated infections, such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, and wound infections.

The bacterium is known for its ability to produce a polysaccharide capsule that makes it resistant to phagocytosis by white blood cells, allowing it to evade the host's immune system. Additionally, "Klebsiella pneumoniae" has developed resistance to many antibiotics, making infections caused by this bacterium difficult to treat and a growing public health concern.

"Pseudomonas aeruginosa" is a medically important, gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is widely found in the environment, such as in soil, water, and on plants. It's an opportunistic pathogen, meaning it usually doesn't cause infection in healthy individuals but can cause severe and sometimes life-threatening infections in people with weakened immune systems, burns, or chronic lung diseases like cystic fibrosis.

P. aeruginosa is known for its remarkable ability to resist many antibiotics and disinfectants due to its intrinsic resistance mechanisms and the acquisition of additional resistance determinants. It can cause various types of infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, gastrointestinal infections, dermatitis, and severe bloodstream infections known as sepsis.

The bacterium produces a variety of virulence factors that contribute to its pathogenicity, such as exotoxins, proteases, and pigments like pyocyanin and pyoverdine, which aid in iron acquisition and help the organism evade host immune responses. Effective infection control measures, appropriate use of antibiotics, and close monitoring of high-risk patients are crucial for managing P. aeruginosa infections.

Opportunistic infections (OIs) are infections that occur more frequently or are more severe in individuals with weakened immune systems, often due to a underlying condition such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplantation. These infections are caused by microorganisms that do not normally cause disease in people with healthy immune function, but can take advantage of an opportunity to infect and cause damage when the body's defense mechanisms are compromised. Examples of opportunistic infections include Pneumocystis pneumonia, tuberculosis, candidiasis (thrush), and cytomegalovirus infection. Preventive measures, such as antimicrobial medications and vaccinations, play a crucial role in reducing the risk of opportunistic infections in individuals with weakened immune systems.

A pandemic is a global outbreak of a disease that spreads easily from person to person across a large region, such as multiple continents or worldwide. It is declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) when the spread of a disease poses a significant threat to the global population due to its severity and transmissibility.

Pandemics typically occur when a new strain of virus emerges that has not been previously seen in humans, for which there is little or no pre-existing immunity. This makes it difficult to control the spread of the disease, as people do not have natural protection against it. Examples of pandemics include the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic and the more recent COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

During a pandemic, healthcare systems can become overwhelmed, and there may be significant social and economic disruption as governments take measures to slow the spread of the disease, such as travel restrictions, quarantines, and lockdowns. Effective vaccines and treatments are critical in controlling the spread of pandemics and reducing their impact on public health.

Vesicular exanthema of swine (VES) is a viral disease that affects pigs, characterized by the formation of blisters or vesicles on the skin and mucous membranes. The causative agent of VES is a member of the Caliciviridae family, specifically the vesicular exanthema of swine virus (VESV).

The disease is highly contagious and can spread rapidly in pig populations through direct contact with infected animals or contaminated fomites. The incubation period for VES is typically 2-6 days, after which affected pigs may develop fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, and lameness. Within a few days, small fluid-filled vesicles appear on the snout, lips, ears, and coronary bands of the hooves. These vesicles can rupture, leading to the formation of raw, painful erosions that may become secondarily infected with bacteria.

While VES is not a direct threat to human health, it can cause significant economic losses in the swine industry due to decreased growth rates, reduced feed conversion, and increased mortality in affected animals. Additionally, the clinical signs of VES are similar to those of other vesicular diseases, such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), which can lead to costly trade restrictions and quarantines.

Historically, VES was a significant problem in the United States swine industry, but extensive vaccination programs and eradication efforts have largely eliminated the disease from domestic pig populations. However, VESV continues to circulate in wild pig populations and remains a potential threat to the swine industry.

"Manure" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. However, it is commonly referred to in agriculture and horticulture. Manure is defined as organic matter, such as animal feces and urine, that is used as a fertilizer to enrich and amend the soil. It is often rich in nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are essential for plant growth. While manure can be beneficial for agriculture and gardening, it can also pose risks to human health if not handled properly due to the potential presence of pathogens and other harmful substances.

Hepatitis E is a viral infection that specifically affects the liver, caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV). The disease is primarily transmitted through the fecal-oral route, often through contaminated water or food. It can also be spread through blood transfusions and vertical transmission from mother to fetus.

The incubation period for hepatitis E ranges from 2 to 10 weeks. Symptoms of the disease are similar to other types of viral hepatitis and may include jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes), fatigue, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, joint pain, and dark urine.

In most cases, hepatitis E is a self-limiting disease, meaning that it resolves on its own within a few weeks to months. However, in some individuals, particularly those with weakened immune systems, the infection can lead to severe complications such as acute liver failure and death. Pregnant women, especially those in the third trimester, are at higher risk of developing severe disease and have a mortality rate of up to 25%.

Prevention measures include maintaining good hygiene practices, practicing safe food handling and preparation, and ensuring access to clean water sources. Currently, there is no specific treatment for hepatitis E, but supportive care can help manage symptoms. Vaccines are available in some countries to prevent the disease.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

"Pasteurella multocida" is a gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, coccobacillus bacterium that is part of the normal flora in the respiratory tract of many animals, including birds, dogs, and cats. It can cause a variety of infections in humans, such as respiratory infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and bloodstream infections, particularly in individuals who have close contact with animals or animal bites or scratches. The bacterium is named after Louis Pasteur, who developed a vaccine against it in the late 19th century.

Treponemal infections are a group of diseases caused by the spirochete bacterium Treponema pallidum. This includes syphilis, yaws, bejel, and pinta. These infections can affect various organ systems in the body and can have serious consequences if left untreated.

1. Syphilis: A sexually transmitted infection that can also be passed from mother to fetus during pregnancy or childbirth. It is characterized by sores (chancres) on the genitals, anus, or mouth, followed by a rash and flu-like symptoms. If left untreated, it can lead to serious complications such as damage to the heart, brain, and nervous system.
2. Yaws: A tropical infection that is spread through direct contact with infected skin lesions. It primarily affects children in rural areas of Africa, Asia, and South America. The initial symptom is a painless bump on the skin that eventually ulcerates and heals, leaving a scar. If left untreated, it can lead to disfigurement and destruction of bone and cartilage.
3. Bejel: Also known as endemic syphilis, this infection is spread through direct contact with infected saliva or mucous membranes. It primarily affects children in dry and arid regions of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. The initial symptom is a painless sore on the mouth or skin, followed by a rash and other symptoms similar to syphilis.
4. Pinta: A tropical infection that is spread through direct contact with infected skin lesions. It primarily affects people in rural areas of Central and South America. The initial symptom is a red or brown spot on the skin, which eventually turns into a scaly rash. If left untreated, it can lead to disfigurement and destruction of pigmentation in the skin.

Treponemal infections can be diagnosed through blood tests that detect antibodies against Treponema pallidum. Treatment typically involves antibiotics such as penicillin, which can cure the infection if caught early enough. However, untreated treponemal infections can lead to serious health complications and even death.

Pneumovirus infections refer to respiratory illnesses caused by viruses belonging to the Pneumoviridae family, specifically human respirovirus (hRSV) and human metapneumovirus (hMPV). These viruses primarily infect the respiratory tract and can cause a wide range of symptoms, from mild upper respiratory tract infections to severe lower respiratory tract illnesses such as bronchiolitis and pneumonia.

Human respirovirus (hRSV) is a leading cause of bronchiolitis and pneumonia in infants and young children, while human metapneumovirus (hMPV) tends to infect older children and adults, causing similar respiratory symptoms. Both viruses can also cause more severe disease in immunocompromised individuals, the elderly, and those with underlying medical conditions.

Transmission of these viruses typically occurs through close contact with infected individuals or contaminated surfaces, and they are highly contagious. Preventive measures include good hygiene practices, such as frequent handwashing and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. Currently, there are no vaccines available to prevent pneumovirus infections, but antiviral treatments and supportive care can help manage the symptoms and reduce the risk of complications.

"Pneumocystis infection" is most commonly caused by the microorganism Pneumocystis jirovecii, which can lead to a serious lung infection known as pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP). This infection primarily affects individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplant recipients.

The microorganism that causes Pneumocystis infections was previously classified as a protozoan but is now considered a fungus. It exists in the environment and can be found in the lungs of healthy individuals without causing illness. However, in people with compromised immune systems, it can replicate and cause pneumonia, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

Symptoms of PCP include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and difficulty breathing. Diagnosis typically involves microscopic examination of respiratory samples, such as sputum or lung fluid, to detect the presence of the organism. Treatment usually consists of antimicrobial medications, such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX), pentamidine, or atovaquone. Preventive measures, such as prophylaxis with TMP-SMX or other medications, may be recommended for individuals at high risk of developing PCP.

Alveolar macrophages are a type of macrophage (a large phagocytic cell) that are found in the alveoli of the lungs. They play a crucial role in the immune defense system of the lungs by engulfing and destroying any foreign particles, such as dust, microorganisms, and pathogens, that enter the lungs through the process of inhalation. Alveolar macrophages also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response. They are important for maintaining the health and function of the lungs by removing debris and preventing infection.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

A lung abscess is a localized collection of pus in the lung parenchyma caused by an infectious process, often due to bacterial infection. It's characterized by necrosis and liquefaction of pulmonary tissue, resulting in a cavity filled with purulent material. The condition can develop as a complication of community-acquired or nosocomial pneumonia, aspiration of oral secretions containing anaerobic bacteria, septic embolism, or contiguous spread from a nearby infected site.

Symptoms may include cough with foul-smelling sputum, chest pain, fever, weight loss, and fatigue. Diagnosis typically involves imaging techniques such as chest X-ray or CT scan, along with microbiological examination of the sputum to identify the causative organism(s). Treatment often includes antibiotic therapy tailored to the identified pathogen(s), as well as supportive care such as bronchoscopy, drainage, or surgery in severe cases.

Pleuropneumonia is a medical condition characterized by inflammation that affects both the lung tissue (pneumonia) and the pleural space (pleurisy) surrounding the lungs. It is often caused by bacterial infections, such as Streptococcus pneumoniae or Haemophilus influenzae, that spread from the lungs to the pleural space.

The inflammation can cause symptoms such as chest pain, cough, fever, and difficulty breathing. In severe cases, it may lead to complications such as pleural effusion (accumulation of fluid in the pleural space), lung abscesses, or empyema (pus in the pleural space).

Pleuropneumonia can be diagnosed through physical examination, medical history, imaging studies such as chest X-rays or CT scans, and laboratory tests such as blood cultures or analysis of sputum or pleural fluid. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to eliminate the infection, along with supportive care such as pain management, hydration, and respiratory support if necessary.

Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome Virus (PRRSV) is an enveloped, positive-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Arteriviridae family. It is the causative agent of Porcine Respiratory and Reproductive Syndrome (PRRS), also known as "blue ear disease" or "porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome."

The virus primarily affects pigs, causing a wide range of clinical signs including respiratory distress in young animals and reproductive failure in pregnant sows. The infection can lead to late-term abortions, stillbirths, premature deliveries, and weak or mummified fetuses. In growing pigs, PRRSV can cause pneumonia, which is often accompanied by secondary bacterial infections.

PRRSV has a tropism for cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage, and it replicates within these cells, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the development of the clinical signs associated with the disease. The virus is highly infectious and can spread rapidly in susceptible pig populations, making it a significant concern for the swine industry worldwide.

It's important to note that PRRSV has two distinct genotypes: Type 1 (European) and Type 2 (North American). Both types have a high degree of genetic diversity, which can make controlling the virus challenging. Vaccination is available for PRRSV, but it may not provide complete protection against all strains of the virus, and it may not prevent infection or shedding. Therefore, biosecurity measures, such as strict sanitation and animal movement controls, are critical to preventing the spread of this virus in pig populations.

"Length of Stay" (LOS) is a term commonly used in healthcare to refer to the amount of time a patient spends receiving care in a hospital, clinic, or other healthcare facility. It is typically measured in hours, days, or weeks and can be used as a metric for various purposes such as resource planning, quality assessment, and reimbursement. The length of stay can vary depending on the type of illness or injury, the severity of the condition, the patient's response to treatment, and other factors. It is an important consideration in healthcare management and can have significant implications for both patients and providers.

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to an infection injures its own tissues and organs. It is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (systemic inflammation) that can lead to blood clotting issues, tissue damage, and multiple organ failure.

Sepsis happens when an infection you already have triggers a chain reaction throughout your body. Infections that lead to sepsis most often start in the lungs, urinary tract, skin, or gastrointestinal tract.

Sepsis is a medical emergency. If you suspect sepsis, seek immediate medical attention. Early recognition and treatment of sepsis are crucial to improve outcomes. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and may require oxygen, medication to raise blood pressure, and corticosteroids. In severe cases, surgery may be required to clear the infection.

Respiratory insufficiency is a condition characterized by the inability of the respiratory system to maintain adequate gas exchange, resulting in an inadequate supply of oxygen and/or removal of carbon dioxide from the body. This can occur due to various causes, such as lung diseases (e.g., chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pneumonia), neuromuscular disorders (e.g., muscular dystrophy, spinal cord injury), or other medical conditions that affect breathing mechanics and/or gas exchange.

Respiratory insufficiency can manifest as hypoxemia (low oxygen levels in the blood) and/or hypercapnia (high carbon dioxide levels in the blood). Symptoms of respiratory insufficiency may include shortness of breath, rapid breathing, fatigue, confusion, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness or even death. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition and may include oxygen therapy, mechanical ventilation, medications, and/or other supportive measures.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' is a type of bacteria that can cause respiratory infections in humans. It is the causative agent of a form of pneumonia known as "atypical pneumonia," which is characterized by milder symptoms and a slower onset than other types of pneumonia.

The bacteria are transmitted through respiratory droplets, such as those produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes. 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' infections can occur throughout the year, but they are more common in the fall and winter months.

Symptoms of a 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' infection may include cough, chest pain, fever, fatigue, and difficulty breathing. The infection can also cause other respiratory symptoms, such as sore throat, headache, and muscle aches. In some cases, the infection may spread to other parts of the body, causing complications such as ear infections or inflammation of the heart or brain.

Diagnosis of 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' infection typically involves testing a sample of respiratory secretions, such as sputum or nasal swabs, for the presence of the bacteria. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, such as azithromycin or doxycycline, which are effective against 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae'.

It's important to note that while 'Chlamydophila pneumoniae' infections can cause serious respiratory illness, they are generally not as severe as other types of bacterial pneumonia. However, if left untreated, the infection can lead to complications and worsening symptoms.

The nasopharynx is the uppermost part of the pharynx (throat), which is located behind the nose. It is a muscular cavity that serves as a passageway for air and food. The nasopharynx extends from the base of the skull to the lower border of the soft palate, where it continues as the oropharynx. Its primary function is to allow air to flow into the respiratory system through the nostrils while also facilitating the drainage of mucus from the nose into the throat. The nasopharynx contains several important structures, including the adenoids and the opening of the Eustachian tubes, which connect the middle ear to the back of the nasopharynx.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Pulmonary alveoli, also known as air sacs, are tiny clusters of air-filled pouches located at the end of the bronchioles in the lungs. They play a crucial role in the process of gas exchange during respiration. The thin walls of the alveoli, called alveolar membranes, allow oxygen from inhaled air to pass into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide from the bloodstream to pass into the alveoli to be exhaled out of the body. This vital function enables the lungs to supply oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body and remove waste products like carbon dioxide.

Gram-negative bacterial infections refer to illnesses or diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria, which are a group of bacteria that do not retain crystal violet dye during the Gram staining procedure used in microbiology. This characteristic is due to the structure of their cell walls, which contain a thin layer of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane composed of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), proteins, and phospholipids.

The LPS component of the outer membrane is responsible for the endotoxic properties of Gram-negative bacteria, which can lead to severe inflammatory responses in the host. Common Gram-negative bacterial pathogens include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Proteus mirabilis, among others.

Gram-negative bacterial infections can cause a wide range of clinical syndromes, such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, meningitis, and soft tissue infections. The severity of these infections can vary from mild to life-threatening, depending on the patient's immune status, the site of infection, and the virulence of the bacterial strain.

Effective antibiotic therapy is crucial for treating Gram-negative bacterial infections, but the increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant strains has become a significant global health concern. Therefore, accurate diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial stewardship are essential to ensure optimal patient outcomes and prevent further spread of resistance.

Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (IPF) is a specific type of chronic, progressive, and irreversible fibrotic lung disease of unknown cause, characterized by scarring (fibrosis) in the lungs that thickens and stiffens the lining of the air sacs (alveoli). This makes it increasingly difficult for the lungs to transfer oxygen into the bloodstream, leading to shortness of breath, cough, decreased exercise tolerance, and, eventually, respiratory failure.

The term "idiopathic" means that the cause of the disease is unknown. The diagnosis of IPF requires a combination of clinical, radiological, and pathological findings, excluding other known causes of pulmonary fibrosis. It primarily affects middle-aged to older adults, with a higher prevalence in men than women.

The progression of IPF varies from person to person, but the prognosis is generally poor, with a median survival time of 3-5 years after diagnosis. Currently, there are two FDA-approved medications for the treatment of IPF (nintedanib and pirfenidone), which can help slow down disease progression but do not cure the condition. Lung transplantation remains an option for select patients with advanced IPF.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

Rickettsial pneumonia is a type of pneumonia caused by certain species of Rickettsia bacteria, which are intracellular pathogens that infect endothelial cells. The infection leads to inflammation and damage to the lungs, resulting in symptoms such as cough, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing.

Rickettsial pneumonia is typically transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected arthropod vector, such as a tick or flea. It can also be acquired through inhalation of contaminated aerosols or exposure to infected body fluids.

The two main types of Rickettsial pneumonia are:

1. Scrub typhus (Tsutsugamushi disease): Caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi and transmitted through the bite of an infected chigger mite.
2. Q fever (Coxiella burnetii infection): Caused by Coxiella burnetii and transmitted through inhalation of contaminated aerosols, usually from infected animals or their excreta.

Treatment for Rickettsial pneumonia typically involves antibiotics such as doxycycline or chloramphenicol. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent severe complications and improve outcomes.

Confusion is a state of bewilderment or disorientation in which a person has difficulty processing information, understanding their surroundings, and making clear decisions. It can be caused by various medical conditions such as infections, brain injury, stroke, dementia, alcohol or drug intoxication or withdrawal, and certain medications. Confusion can also occur in older adults due to age-related changes in the brain.

In medical terms, confusion is often referred to as "acute confusional state" or "delirium." It is characterized by symptoms such as difficulty paying attention, memory loss, disorientation, hallucinations, and delusions. Confusion can be a serious medical condition that requires immediate evaluation and treatment by a healthcare professional.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Macrolides are a class of antibiotics derived from natural products obtained from various species of Streptomyces bacteria. They have a large ring structure consisting of 12, 14, or 15 atoms, to which one or more sugar molecules are attached. Macrolides inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit, thereby preventing peptide bond formation. Common examples of macrolides include erythromycin, azithromycin, and clarithromycin. They are primarily used to treat respiratory, skin, and soft tissue infections caused by susceptible gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Iridoviridae is a family of double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of hosts, including insects, fish, amphibians, and reptiles. The name "iridovirus" comes from the Greek word "iris," meaning rainbow, due to the characteristic iridescent coloration of infected insects' cuticles.

Iridoviruses are large, icosahedral virions with a diameter of approximately 120-300 nanometers. They have a complex internal structure, including a lipid membrane and several protein layers. The genome of iridoviruses is a circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that ranges in size from about 100 to 200 kilobases.

Iridoviruses can cause a variety of diseases in their hosts, including hemorrhagic septicemia, hepatopancreatic necrosis, and developmental abnormalities. Infection typically occurs through ingestion or injection of viral particles, and the virus replicates in the host's nuclei.

There are several genera within the family Iridoviridae, including Ranavirus, Lymphocystivirus, Megalocyivirus, and Iridovirus. Each genus has a specific host range and causes distinct clinical symptoms. For example, ranaviruses infect amphibians, reptiles, and fish, while lymphocystiviruses primarily infect teleost fish.

Iridoviruses are of interest to medical researchers because they have potential as biological control agents for pests and vectors of human diseases, such as mosquitoes and ticks. However, their use as biocontrol agents is still being studied, and there are concerns about the potential ecological impacts of releasing iridoviruses into the environment.

Enteroviruses, Porcine are a group of viruses that belong to the family Picornaviridae and include several species that can infect pigs. These viruses are typically associated with respiratory and gastrointestinal illnesses in pigs, although some strains have been linked to reproductive problems and neurological disorders as well.

Some of the enteroviruses that can infect pigs include Porcine Enterovirus A (PEVA), Porcine Enterovirus B (PEVB), Porcine Enterovirus C (PEVC), Porcine Enterovirus D (PEVD), and Porcine Enterovirus E (PEVE). These viruses are usually spread through the fecal-oral route, and they can cause a range of clinical signs depending on the specific virus and the age and health status of the infected pig.

In general, porcine enteroviruses are not considered to be a significant threat to human health, although there have been rare reports of transmission from pigs to humans in cases where proper biosecurity measures were not followed. However, further research is needed to fully understand the potential risks associated with these viruses and their impact on both animal and human health.

Serotyping is a laboratory technique used to classify microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the specific antigens or proteins present on their surface. It involves treating the microorganism with different types of antibodies and observing which ones bind to its surface. Each distinct set of antigens corresponds to a specific serotype, allowing for precise identification and characterization of the microorganism. This technique is particularly useful in epidemiology, vaccine development, and infection control.

Pleural effusion is a medical condition characterized by the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the pleural space, which is the thin, fluid-filled space that surrounds the lungs and lines the inside of the chest wall. This space typically contains a small amount of fluid to allow for smooth movement of the lungs during breathing. However, when an excessive amount of fluid accumulates, it can cause symptoms such as shortness of breath, coughing, and chest pain.

Pleural effusions can be caused by various underlying medical conditions, including pneumonia, heart failure, cancer, pulmonary embolism, and autoimmune disorders. The fluid that accumulates in the pleural space can be transudative or exudative, depending on the cause of the effusion. Transudative effusions are caused by increased pressure in the blood vessels or decreased protein levels in the blood, while exudative effusions are caused by inflammation, infection, or cancer.

Diagnosis of pleural effusion typically involves a physical examination, chest X-ray, and analysis of the fluid in the pleural space. Treatment depends on the underlying cause of the effusion and may include medications, drainage of the fluid, or surgery.

Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) is a viral disease that affects pigs, causing reproductive failure in breeding herds and respiratory illness in young pigs. The disease is caused by the PRRS virus, which belongs to the family Arteriviridae.

In pregnant sows, PRRS can cause abortions, stillbirths, mummified fetuses, and weak or infertile offspring. In growing pigs, it can lead to pneumonia, reduced growth rates, and increased susceptibility to other infections. The virus is highly contagious and can spread rapidly within a herd through direct contact with infected pigs, aerosols, or contaminated fomites.

PRRS is a significant disease of global importance, causing substantial economic losses to the swine industry. Control measures include biosecurity practices, vaccination, and testing to detect and eliminate the virus from affected herds. However, there is no specific treatment for PRRS, and eradication of the virus from the pig population is unlikely due to its widespread distribution and ability to persist in infected animals and the environment.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Housing, Animal" is not a standard term in medical terminology. Medical terminology typically relates to the human body, diseases, treatments, and healthcare practices. "Housing, Animal" would be more related to veterinary medicine or animal care fields, which pertain to the accommodation and environment provided for animals. If you have any questions related to medical terminology, I'd be happy to help!

A "colony count" is a method used to estimate the number of viable microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, in a sample. In this technique, a known volume of the sample is spread onto the surface of a solid nutrient medium in a petri dish and then incubated under conditions that allow the microorganisms to grow and form visible colonies. Each colony that grows on the plate represents an individual cell (or small cluster of cells) from the original sample that was able to divide and grow under the given conditions. By counting the number of colonies that form, researchers can make a rough estimate of the concentration of microorganisms in the original sample.

The term "microbial" simply refers to microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Therefore, a "colony count, microbial" is a general term that encompasses the use of colony counting techniques to estimate the number of any type of microorganism in a sample.

Colony counts are used in various fields, including medical research, food safety testing, and environmental monitoring, to assess the levels of contamination or the effectiveness of disinfection procedures. However, it is important to note that colony counts may not always provide an accurate measure of the total number of microorganisms present in a sample, as some cells may be injured or unable to grow under the conditions used for counting. Additionally, some microorganisms may form clusters or chains that can appear as single colonies, leading to an overestimation of the true cell count.

Medical Definition of Mineral Oil:

Mineral oil is a commonly used laxative, which is a substance that promotes bowel movements. It is a non-digestible, odorless, and tasteless oil that is derived from petroleum. When taken orally, mineral oil passes through the digestive system without being absorbed, helping to soften stools and relieve constipation by increasing the weight and size of the stool, stimulating the reflexes in the intestines that trigger bowel movements.

Mineral oil is also used topically as a moisturizer and emollient for dry skin conditions such as eczema and dermatitis. It forms a barrier on the skin, preventing moisture loss and protecting the skin from irritants. However, mineral oil should not be used on broken or inflamed skin, as it can trap bacteria and delay healing.

It is important to note that long-term use of mineral oil laxatives can lead to dependence and may interfere with the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D, E, and K. Therefore, it should be used only under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

Hospital mortality is a term used to describe the number or rate of deaths that occur in a hospital setting during a specific period. It is often used as a measure of the quality of healthcare provided by a hospital, as a higher hospital mortality rate may indicate poorer care or more complex cases being treated. However, it's important to note that hospital mortality rates can be influenced by many factors, including the severity of illness of the patients being treated, patient demographics, and the availability of resources and specialized care. Therefore, hospital mortality rates should be interpreted with caution and in the context of other quality metrics.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Japan" is not a medical term. Japan is the name of a country, officially known as Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku in Japanese, and is located in East Asia. It is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean with a population of about 126 million people.

If you have any medical questions or terms that you would like me to define, please let me know!

Fungal lung diseases, also known as fungal pneumonia or mycoses, refer to a group of respiratory disorders caused by the infection of fungi in the lungs. These fungi are commonly found in the environment, such as soil, decaying organic matter, and contaminated materials. People can develop lung diseases from fungi after inhaling spores or particles that contain fungi.

There are several types of fungal lung diseases, including:

1. Aspergillosis: This is caused by the Aspergillus fungus and can affect people with weakened immune systems. It can cause allergic reactions, lung infections, or invasive aspergillosis, which can spread to other organs.
2. Cryptococcosis: This is caused by the Cryptococcus fungus and is usually found in soil contaminated with bird droppings. It can cause pneumonia, meningitis, or skin lesions.
3. Histoplasmosis: This is caused by the Histoplasma capsulatum fungus and is commonly found in the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys. It can cause flu-like symptoms, lung infections, or disseminated histoplasmosis, which can spread to other organs.
4. Blastomycosis: This is caused by the Blastomyces dermatitidis fungus and is commonly found in the southeastern and south-central United States. It can cause pneumonia, skin lesions, or disseminated blastomycosis, which can spread to other organs.
5. Coccidioidomycosis: This is caused by the Coccidioides immitis fungus and is commonly found in the southwestern United States. It can cause flu-like symptoms, lung infections, or disseminated coccidioidomycosis, which can spread to other organs.

Fungal lung diseases can range from mild to severe, depending on the type of fungus and the person's immune system. Treatment may include antifungal medications, surgery, or supportive care. Prevention measures include avoiding exposure to contaminated soil or dust, wearing protective masks in high-risk areas, and promptly seeking medical attention if symptoms develop.

Circoviruses are a type of small, non-enveloped viruses that belong to the family Circoviridae. They have a single-stranded, circular DNA genome and can infect a wide range of hosts, including birds, pigs, and some mammals. Circoviruses are associated with various diseases in animals, such as porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD) in pigs and beak and feather disease in birds. However, there is currently no evidence to suggest that circoviruses infect or cause disease in humans.

Ceftriaxone is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic, which is used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall. Ceftriaxone has a broad spectrum of activity and is effective against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Ceftriaxone is available in injectable form and is commonly used to treat serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and sepsis. It is also used to prevent infections after surgery or trauma. The drug is generally well-tolerated, but it can cause side effects such as diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and rash. In rare cases, it may cause serious side effects such as anaphylaxis, kidney damage, and seizures.

It's important to note that Ceftriaxone should be used only under the supervision of a healthcare professional, and that it is not recommended for use in individuals with a history of allergic reactions to cephalosporins or penicillins. Additionally, as with all antibiotics, it should be taken as directed and for the full duration of the prescribed course of treatment, even if symptoms improve before the treatment is finished.

Intubation, intratracheal is a medical procedure in which a flexible plastic or rubber tube called an endotracheal tube (ETT) is inserted through the mouth or nose, passing through the vocal cords and into the trachea (windpipe). This procedure is performed to establish and maintain a patent airway, allowing for the delivery of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide during mechanical ventilation in various clinical scenarios, such as:

1. Respiratory failure or arrest
2. Procedural sedation
3. Surgery under general anesthesia
4. Neuromuscular disorders
5. Ingestion of toxic substances
6. Head and neck trauma
7. Critical illness or injury affecting the airway

The process of intubation is typically performed by trained medical professionals, such as anesthesiologists, emergency medicine physicians, or critical care specialists, using direct laryngoscopy or video laryngoscopy to visualize the vocal cords and guide the ETT into the correct position. Once placed, the ETT is secured to prevent dislodgement, and the patient's respiratory status is continuously monitored to ensure proper ventilation and oxygenation.

Intensive care is a specialized level of medical care that is provided to critically ill patients. It's usually given in a dedicated unit of a hospital called the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) or Critical Care Unit (CCU). The goal of intensive care is to closely monitor and manage life-threatening conditions, stabilize vital functions, and support organs until they recover or the patient can be moved to a less acute level of care.

Intensive care involves advanced medical equipment and technologies, such as ventilators to assist with breathing, dialysis machines for kidney support, intravenous lines for medication administration, and continuous monitoring devices for heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen levels, and other vital signs.

The ICU team typically includes intensive care specialists (intensivists), critical care nurses, respiratory therapists, and other healthcare professionals who work together to provide comprehensive, round-the-clock care for critically ill patients.

Cattle diseases are a range of health conditions that affect cattle, which include but are not limited to:

1. Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD): Also known as "shipping fever," BRD is a common respiratory illness in feedlot cattle that can be caused by several viruses and bacteria.
2. Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD): A viral disease that can cause a variety of symptoms, including diarrhea, fever, and reproductive issues.
3. Johne's Disease: A chronic wasting disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. It primarily affects the intestines and can cause severe diarrhea and weight loss.
4. Digital Dermatitis: Also known as "hairy heel warts," this is a highly contagious skin disease that affects the feet of cattle, causing lameness and decreased productivity.
5. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis (IBK): Also known as "pinkeye," IBK is a common and contagious eye infection in cattle that can cause blindness if left untreated.
6. Salmonella: A group of bacteria that can cause severe gastrointestinal illness in cattle, including diarrhea, dehydration, and septicemia.
7. Leptospirosis: A bacterial disease that can cause a wide range of symptoms in cattle, including abortion, stillbirths, and kidney damage.
8. Blackleg: A highly fatal bacterial disease that causes rapid death in young cattle. It is caused by Clostridium chauvoei and vaccination is recommended for prevention.
9. Anthrax: A serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Cattle can become infected by ingesting spores found in contaminated soil, feed or water.
10. Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD): A highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hooved animals, including cattle. It is characterized by fever and blisters on the feet, mouth, and teats. FMD is not a threat to human health but can have serious economic consequences for the livestock industry.

It's important to note that many of these diseases can be prevented or controlled through good management practices, such as vaccination, biosecurity measures, and proper nutrition. Regular veterinary care and monitoring are also crucial for early detection and treatment of any potential health issues in your herd.

"Random allocation," also known as "random assignment" or "randomization," is a process used in clinical trials and other research studies to distribute participants into different intervention groups (such as experimental group vs. control group) in a way that minimizes selection bias and ensures the groups are comparable at the start of the study.

In random allocation, each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group, and the assignment is typically made using a computer-generated randomization schedule or other objective methods. This process helps to ensure that any differences between the groups are due to the intervention being tested rather than pre-existing differences in the participants' characteristics.

Deglutition disorders, also known as swallowing disorders, are conditions that affect the ability to move food or liquids from the mouth to the stomach safely and efficiently. These disorders can occur at any stage of the swallowing process, which includes oral preparation (chewing and manipulating food in the mouth), pharyngeal phase (activating muscles and structures in the throat to move food toward the esophagus), and esophageal phase (relaxing and contracting the esophagus to propel food into the stomach).

Symptoms of deglutition disorders may include coughing or choking during or after eating, difficulty initiating a swallow, food sticking in the throat or chest, regurgitation, unexplained weight loss, and aspiration (inhaling food or liquids into the lungs), which can lead to pneumonia.

Deglutition disorders can be caused by various factors, such as neurological conditions (e.g., stroke, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis), structural abnormalities (e.g., narrowing or blockage of the esophagus), muscle weakness or dysfunction, and cognitive or behavioral issues. Treatment for deglutition disorders may involve dietary modifications, swallowing exercises, medications, or surgical interventions, depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition.

Cilastatin is a medication that is primarily used as a stabilizer and renal protective agent for the antibiotic imipenem. Cilastatin works by inhibiting the deactivation of imipenem by renal dehydropeptidase-I, which helps maintain its therapeutic effectiveness in the body.

Imipenem/cilastatin is a combination medication used to treat various bacterial infections, including pneumonia, sepsis, and skin and urinary tract infections. Cilastatin does not have any antibacterial activity on its own.

It's important to note that the use of cilastatin should be under medical supervision, as with any medication. Always consult a healthcare professional for accurate information regarding medications and their uses.

The adrenal cortex hormones are a group of steroid hormones produced and released by the outer portion (cortex) of the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each kidney. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes, including:

1. Glucose metabolism: Cortisol helps control blood sugar levels by increasing glucose production in the liver and reducing its uptake in peripheral tissues.
2. Protein and fat metabolism: Cortisol promotes protein breakdown and fatty acid mobilization, providing essential building blocks for energy production during stressful situations.
3. Immune response regulation: Cortisol suppresses immune function to prevent overactivation and potential damage to the body during stress.
4. Cardiovascular function: Aldosterone regulates electrolyte balance and blood pressure by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.
5. Sex hormone production: The adrenal cortex produces small amounts of sex hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, which contribute to sexual development and function.
6. Growth and development: Cortisol plays a role in normal growth and development by influencing the activity of growth-promoting hormones like insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1).

The main adrenal cortex hormones include:

1. Glucocorticoids: Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid, responsible for regulating metabolism and stress response.
2. Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone is the primary mineralocorticoid, involved in electrolyte balance and blood pressure regulation.
3. Androgens: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate derivative (DHEAS) are the most abundant adrenal androgens, contributing to sexual development and function.
4. Estrogens: Small amounts of estrogens are produced by the adrenal cortex, mainly in women.

Disorders related to impaired adrenal cortex hormone production or regulation can lead to various clinical manifestations, such as Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency), Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism), and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).

Atypical Interstitial Pneumonia of Cattle, also known as "enzootic pneumonia" or "shipping fever," is a respiratory disease in cattle caused by a variety of bacterial and viral pathogens. The term "atypical" refers to the fact that this form of pneumonia does not present with typical symptoms such as consolidation and purulent exudate, but rather with interstitial inflammation and diffuse alveolar damage.

The disease is often associated with stressors such as transportation, commingling, or weather changes, which can lead to a suppressed immune response in the animal and make it more susceptible to infection. Common bacterial pathogens involved include Mycoplasma bovis, Pasteurella multocida, and Histophilus somni, while viral pathogens such as bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) and parainfluenza type 3 (PI-3) can also contribute to the disease.

Clinical signs of atypical interstitial pneumonia in cattle may include depression, decreased appetite, increased respiratory rate and effort, coughing, nasal discharge, and fever. Diagnosis is typically made based on clinical signs, history, and laboratory testing such as serology, PCR, or culture. Treatment usually involves the use of antibiotics to target bacterial pathogens, as well as supportive care such as anti-inflammatory drugs and fluid therapy. Prevention strategies include vaccination, good biosecurity practices, and reducing stressors that can predispose animals to infection.

Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a type of bacteria that is resistant to many antibiotics, including methicillin and other related antibiotics such as oxacillin, penicillin, and amoxicillin. This bacterium can cause a range of infections, from skin infections to more severe and potentially life-threatening conditions such as pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and surgical site infections.

MRSA is often associated with healthcare settings, where it can spread through contaminated surfaces, equipment, and direct contact with an infected person or carrier. However, community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) has also emerged as a significant public health concern, causing infections outside of healthcare facilities, such as in schools, gyms, and other community settings.

It's important to note that while MRSA is resistant to certain antibiotics, there are still some treatment options available for MRSA infections, including vancomycin, linezolid, daptomycin, and others. However, the emergence of MRSA strains with reduced susceptibility to these antibiotics has become a growing concern, highlighting the importance of infection control measures and the development of new antimicrobial agents.

Calcitonin is a hormone that is produced and released by the parafollicular cells (also known as C cells) of the thyroid gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating calcium homeostasis in the body. Specifically, it helps to lower elevated levels of calcium in the blood by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts, which are bone cells that break down bone tissue and release calcium into the bloodstream. Calcitonin also promotes the uptake of calcium in the bones and increases the excretion of calcium in the urine.

Calcitonin is typically released in response to high levels of calcium in the blood, and its effects help to bring calcium levels back into balance. In addition to its role in calcium regulation, calcitonin may also have other functions in the body, such as modulating immune function and reducing inflammation.

Clinically, synthetic forms of calcitonin are sometimes used as a medication to treat conditions related to abnormal calcium levels, such as hypercalcemia (high blood calcium) or osteoporosis. Calcitonin can be administered as an injection, nasal spray, or oral tablet, depending on the specific formulation and intended use.

Paramyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes several important pathogens causing respiratory infections in humans and animals. According to the medical perspective, Paramyxoviridae infections refer to the diseases caused by these viruses.

Some notable human paramyxovirus infections include:

1. Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Infection: RSV is a common cause of respiratory tract infections, particularly in young children and older adults. It can lead to bronchiolitis and pneumonia, especially in infants and patients with compromised immune systems.
2. Measles (Rubeola): Measles is a highly contagious viral disease characterized by fever, cough, coryza (runny nose), conjunctivitis, and a maculopapular rash. It can lead to severe complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis, and even death, particularly in malnourished children and individuals with weakened immune systems.
3. Parainfluenza Virus Infection: Parainfluenza viruses are responsible for upper and lower respiratory tract infections, including croup, bronchitis, and pneumonia. They mainly affect young children but can also infect adults, causing mild to severe illnesses.
4. Mumps: Mumps is a contagious viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands, causing painful swelling. It can lead to complications such as meningitis, encephalitis, deafness, and orchitis (inflammation of the testicles) in rare cases.
5. Human Metapneumovirus (HMPV) Infection: HMPV is a respiratory virus that can cause upper and lower respiratory tract infections, similar to RSV and parainfluenza viruses. It mainly affects young children and older adults, leading to bronchitis, pneumonia, and exacerbations of chronic lung diseases.

Prevention strategies for Paramyxoviridae infections include vaccination programs, practicing good personal hygiene, and implementing infection control measures in healthcare settings.

Pseudorabies, also known as Aujeszky's disease, is a viral disease that primarily affects animals, particularly pigs, but can occasionally infect other mammals including dogs, cats, and humans. The disease is caused by the Suid herpesvirus 1 (SuHV-1) and is named "pseudorabies" because it can cause symptoms similar to rabies, such as neurological signs and aggression. However, it is not related to rabies and is caused by a different virus.

In pigs, the disease can cause a range of symptoms including respiratory distress, fever, neurological signs, and reproductive failure. In other animals, pseudorabies can cause severe neurological signs such as seizures, disorientation, and aggression.

Humans can become infected with pseudorabies through close contact with infected animals or their tissues, but it is rare and usually only occurs in people who work closely with pigs or other susceptible animals. In humans, the disease typically causes mild flu-like symptoms or a skin rash, but in rare cases, it can cause more severe neurological signs.

There is no specific treatment for pseudorabies, and prevention measures such as vaccination and biosecurity are critical to controlling the spread of the disease in animal populations.

"Mannheimia haemolytica" is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is commonly found as part of the normal flora in the upper respiratory tract of cattle and other ruminants. However, under certain conditions such as stress, viral infection, or sudden changes in temperature or humidity, the bacteria can multiply rapidly and cause a severe respiratory disease known as shipping fever or pneumonic pasteurellosis.

The bacterium is named "haemolytica" because it produces a toxin that causes hemolysis, or the breakdown of red blood cells, resulting in the characteristic clear zones around colonies grown on blood agar plates. The bacteria can also cause other symptoms such as fever, coughing, difficulty breathing, and depression.

"Mannheimia haemolytica" is a significant pathogen in the cattle industry, causing substantial economic losses due to mortality, reduced growth rates, and decreased milk production. Prevention and control measures include good management practices, vaccination, and prompt treatment of infected animals with antibiotics.

Bronchiolitis is a common respiratory infection in infants and young children, typically caused by a viral infection. It is characterized by inflammation and congestion of the bronchioles (the smallest airways in the lungs), which can lead to difficulty breathing and wheezing.

The most common virus that causes bronchiolitis is respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), but other viruses such as rhinovirus, influenza, and parainfluenza can also cause the condition. Symptoms of bronchiolitis may include cough, wheezing, rapid breathing, difficulty feeding, and fatigue.

In severe cases, bronchiolitis can lead to respiratory distress and require hospitalization. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as providing fluids and oxygen therapy, and in some cases, medications to help open the airways may be used. Prevention measures include good hand hygiene and avoiding close contact with individuals who are sick.

Streptolysins are exotoxins produced by certain strains of Streptococcus bacteria, primarily Group A Streptococcus (GAS). These toxins are classified into two types: streptolysin O (SLO) and streptolysin S (SLS).

1. Streptolysin O (SLO): It is a protein exotoxin that exhibits oxygen-labile hemolytic activity, meaning it can lyse or destroy red blood cells in the presence of oxygen. SLO is capable of entering host cells and causing various cellular damages, including inhibition of phagocytosis, modulation of immune responses, and induction of apoptosis (programmed cell death).

2. Streptolysin S (SLS): It is a non-protein, oxygen-stable hemolysin that can also lyse red blood cells but does so independently of oxygen presence. SLS is more heat-resistant than SLO and has a stronger ability to penetrate host cell membranes.

Both streptolysins contribute to the virulence of Streptococcus pyogenes, which can cause various clinical infections such as pharyngitis (strep throat), impetigo, scarlet fever, and invasive diseases like necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock syndrome.

The detection of streptolysin O antibodies (ASO titer) is often used as a diagnostic marker for past or recent GAS infections, particularly in cases of rheumatic fever, where elevated ASO titers indicate ongoing or previous streptococcal infection.

Dapsone is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called sulfones. It is primarily used to treat bacterial skin infections such as leprosy and dermatitis herpetiformis (a skin condition associated with coeliac disease). Dapsone works by killing the bacteria responsible for these infections.

In addition, dapsone has anti-inflammatory properties and is sometimes used off-label to manage inflammatory conditions such as vasculitis, bullous pemphigoid, and chronic urticaria. It is available in oral tablet form and topical cream or gel form.

Like all medications, dapsone can cause side effects, which may include nausea, loss of appetite, and headache. More serious side effects, such as methemoglobinemia (a blood disorder that affects the body's ability to transport oxygen), peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage that causes pain, numbness, or weakness in the hands and feet), and liver damage, can occur but are less common.

It is important for patients taking dapsone to be monitored by a healthcare provider to ensure safe and effective use of the medication.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

"Mycoplasma bovis" is a species of bacteria that lack a cell wall and are characterized by their small size. They can cause various diseases in cattle, including pneumonia, mastitis (inflammation of the mammary gland), arthritis, and otitis (inflammation of the ear). The bacteria can be transmitted through direct contact between animals, contaminated milk, and aerosols. Infection with Mycoplasma bovis can result in decreased productivity and increased mortality in affected herds, making it a significant concern for the cattle industry. Diagnosis is often made through culture or PCR-based tests, and treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics, although resistance to certain antibiotics has been reported. Prevention strategies include biosecurity measures such as testing and culling infected animals, as well as good hygiene practices to limit the spread of the bacteria.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "seasons" is not a term that has a medical definition. Seasons refer to the four divisions of the year (spring, summer, autumn or fall, and winter) based on the position of the earth in its orbit around the sun. If you have any questions related to health or medicine, I'd be happy to try to help answer those!

Staphylococcus aureus is a type of gram-positive, round (coccal) bacterium that is commonly found on the skin and mucous membranes of warm-blooded animals and humans. It is a facultative anaerobe, which means it can grow in the presence or absence of oxygen.

Staphylococcus aureus is known to cause a wide range of infections, from mild skin infections such as pimples, impetigo, and furuncles (boils) to more severe and potentially life-threatening infections such as pneumonia, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, and sepsis. It can also cause food poisoning and toxic shock syndrome.

The bacterium is often resistant to multiple antibiotics, including methicillin, which has led to the emergence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains that are difficult to treat. Proper hand hygiene and infection control practices are critical in preventing the spread of Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA.

Flanders, Frank; Gillespie, James R. (2015). "Chapter 23 Diseases and parasites of swine. Mycoplasmal pneumonia". Modern ... Porcine enzootic pneumonia, also known as mycoplasmal pneumonia, is a chronic respiratory disease of pigs caused by Mycoplasma ... This may lead to signs of pneumonia and systemic involvement. Diagnosis relies on culture and isolation of the bacteria but ... It is part of the Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex along with Swine Influenza, PRRS and Porcine circovirus 2, and even ...
Mycoplasmal pneumonia of swine Waris ME, Toikka P, Saarinen T, et al. (November 1998). "Diagnosis of Mycoplasma pneumoniae ... Mycoplasma pneumonia (also known as "walking pneumonia") is a form of bacterial pneumonia caused by the bacterial species ... It is also known as PPLO, which is an acronym for Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organism. Mycoplasma pneumoniae is spread through ... The infection caused by this bacterium is called atypical pneumonia because of its protracted course and lack of sputum ...
... of swine MeSH C22.905.469 - gastroenteritis, transmissible, of swine MeSH C22.905.626 - pneumonia of swine, mycoplasmal MeSH ... african swine fever MeSH C22.905.170 - classical swine fever MeSH C22.905.260 - edema disease of swine MeSH C22.905.323 - ... swine vesicular disease MeSH C22.905.927 - vesicular exanthema of swine The list continues at List of MeSH codes (C23). ( ... pneumonia, atypical interstitial, of cattle MeSH C22.196.090.675 - pneumonia of calves, enzootic MeSH C22.196.106 - bovine ...
... pneumonia of calves, enzootic MeSH C01.252.620.540 - pneumonia of swine, mycoplasmal MeSH C01.252.620.550 - pneumonia, ... pneumonia, pneumocystis MeSH C01.703.617.300 - encephalitozoonosis MeSH C01.703.770.700 - pneumonia, pneumocystis MeSH C01.703. ... pneumococcal MeSH C01.252.620.600 - pneumonia, rickettsial MeSH C01.252.620.620 - pneumonia, staphylococcal MeSH C01.252. ... pneumonia, pneumococcal MeSH C01.252.410.890.731 - rheumatic fever MeSH C01.252.410.890.731.649 - rheumatic heart disease MeSH ...
... pneumonia of calves, enzootic MeSH C08.381.677.540.540 - pneumonia of swine, mycoplasmal MeSH C08.381.677.540.550 - pneumonia, ... pneumonia of calves, enzootic MeSH C08.730.610.540.540 - pneumonia of swine, mycoplasmal MeSH C08.730.610.540.550 - pneumonia, ... pneumonia, aspiration MeSH C08.381.677.529.612 - pneumonia, lipid MeSH C08.381.677.540 - pneumonia, bacterial MeSH C08.381. ... pneumonia, aspiration MeSH C08.730.610.529.612 - pneumonia, lipid MeSH C08.730.610.540 - pneumonia, bacterial MeSH C08.730. ...
M. hyorhinis is thought to facilitate and exacerbate the development of diseases such as porcine enzootic pneumonia and porcine ... Swine diseases, Pathogenic bacteria, Mycoplasma, All stub articles, Veterinary medicine stubs). ... reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS). Rarely, it may cause mycoplasma arthritis, mycoplasmal polyserositis or ...
Flanders, Frank; Gillespie, James R. (2015). "Chapter 23 Diseases and parasites of swine. Mycoplasmal pneumonia". Modern ... Porcine enzootic pneumonia, also known as mycoplasmal pneumonia, is a chronic respiratory disease of pigs caused by Mycoplasma ... This may lead to signs of pneumonia and systemic involvement. Diagnosis relies on culture and isolation of the bacteria but ... It is part of the Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex along with Swine Influenza, PRRS and Porcine circovirus 2, and even ...
... injection behaves in the pig explains why this antimicrobial remains a valuable treatment for swine respiratory disease (SRD). ... Mycoplasmal pneumonia (enzootic pneumonia). Iowa State Unimversity. Benchaoui HA, et al. Pharmacokinetics and lung tissue ... Important safety information for swine:. Withdraw Draxxin/Draxxin 25 five (5) days prior to slaughter in swine. Do not use in ... Effects of Draxxin at weaning for control of swine respiratory disease in pigs experiencing a natural outbreak.. Am Assoc Swine ...
It has been reported that Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a vital role in swine pneumonia progression. However, the underlying ... TLR9 may serve as a novel therapeutic target for swine pneumonia. Our research may provide a theoretical basis for the ... This research was aimed at investigating the molecular mechanism by which TLR9 regulates swine pneumonia progression. Our ... thereby accelerating the inflammatory response in the progression of swine pneumonia. ...
In swine, transmissible gastroenteritis, swine mycoplasmal pneumonia, pseudorabies, and rabies infections are serious health ... EXAMPLE 5 Proposed Protocol For the Production of Swine With Human Beta Interferon Gene Swine containing the human interferon ...
It is a common secondary invader in MYCOPLASMAL PNEUMONIA OF SWINE.. Living Donors. Non-cadaveric providers of organs for ... 1. Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP): A type of pneumonia caused by the fungus Pneumocystis jirovecii, which is commonly found in ... Swine. Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with ... 2. Pneumonia and bronchitis. 3. Appendicitis and other abdominal emergencies. 4. Heart attacks and strokes. 5. Asthma attacks ...
Occurrence Mycoplasmal pneumonia of swine (MPS, also referred to as "enzootic pneumonia," EP) is a common, widely ... Mycoplasmal Pneumonia (Enzootic Pneumonia). Definition A widespread, chronic respiratory disease of swine characterized by ... Swine dysentery (Brachyspira hyodysenteriae). Swine Dysentery and Spirochaetal Colitis (Brachyspira [previously Serpulina and ... Definition This organism causes severe pleuropneumonia which is a highly contagious disease of swine often characterized by ...
Oral vaccination against mycoplasmal pneumonia of swine using a live Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae vaccine strain as a vector. ... We thus evaluated the possible use of the strain as a vector for oral vaccination against mycoplasmal pneumonia of swine. ... Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Koganei 65-0.15 strain, the live swine erysipelas vaccine for subcutaneous injection, has been ... Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, the causative agent of swine erysipelas, is a facultative intracellular Gram-positive bacterium. ...
An international leader in swine respiratory disease research, Switzer identified the cause of mycoplasmal pneumonia and ... Mycoplasmal pneumonia and polyserositis-arthritis. Colleagues and publishers frequently requested Switzers knowledge in the ... A prolific writer, Switzer is the author or co-author of more than 100 articles, primarily on his research with swine and ... He was the first researcher to describe trichomonads in the nasal cavities of swine and also discovered a method for protecting ...
This injection can also be used to treat mycoplasmal arthritis, dysentery and erysipelas in swine as well as metritis, ... Treats pneumonia (shipping fever), foot rot, diphtheria and metritis in cattle. *Treats arthritis, pneumonia, erysipelas and ... that treats certain diseases in cattle and swine including bovine respiratory complex such as shipping fever and pneumonia. ... An antibiotic for beef cattle, non-lactating dairy cattle and swine only ...
Mycoplasmal pneumonia. * Colibacillosis and edema. * Brucellosis. * Atrophic rhinitis. * Swine fever. * Foot and mouth disease ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal [C01.150.252.620.330] Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal * Pneumonia, Mycoplasma [C01.150.252.620. ... Bacterial Pneumonia. Bacterial Pneumonias. Pneumonias, Bacterial. Tree number(s):. C01.150.252.620. C01.748.610.540. C08.381. ... Pneumonia, Bacterial - Preferred Concept UI. M0027639. Scope note. Inflammation of the lung parenchyma that is caused by ... Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal [C01.748.610.540.540] Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal * Pneumonia, Mycoplasma [C01.748.610.540. ...
Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Neumonía Porcina por Micoplasma. C02 - Viroses. Infecções por ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. C02 - Virosis. Infecciones por Avulavirus. Avulavirus ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. C02 - Virosis. Infecciones por Avulavirus. Avulavirus ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. C02 - Virosis. Infecciones por Avulavirus. Avulavirus ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. Neumonía Porcina por Micoplasma. C02 - Virus Diseases. ...
Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Neumonía Porcina por Micoplasma. C02 - Viroses. Infecções por ...
Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Neumonía Porcina por Micoplasma. C02 - Viroses. Infecções por ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. Neumonía Porcina por Micoplasma. C02 - Virus Diseases. ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. C02 - Virosis. Infecciones por Avulavirus. Avulavirus ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. Neumonía Porcina por Micoplasma. C02 - Virus Diseases. ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. C02 - Virosis. Infecciones por Avulavirus. Avulavirus ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal. Pneumonia Suína Micoplasmática. Neumonía Porcina por Micoplasma. C02 - Virus Diseases. ...
Respiratory infections in pigs are a formidable threat to swine farmers worldwide. It is multifactorial and is caused by the ... The present study aimed to identify mycoplasmal agents causing respiratory infections in pigs. A total of 43 samples, ... This study hints at the significance of M. hyorhinis in causing respiratory infections in swine and also suggests that M. ... hyopneumoniae may not be a significant health hazard for swine populations of north Kerala. ...
Gastroenteritis, Transmissible, of Swine [C22.905.469] * Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal [C22.905.626] ... Vesicular Exanthema of Swine Preferred Concept UI. M0022636. Scope Note. A calicivirus infection of swine characterized by ... caused by a calicivirus; dont forget also SWINE (NIM) & check tag ANIMALS. Scope Note. A calicivirus infection of swine ... Vesicular Exanthema of Swine Preferred Term Term UI T043026. Date01/01/1999. LexicalTag NON. ThesaurusID NLM (1971). ...
... antigen class II haplotypes and immune-related traits in a swine line selected for resistance to mycoplasmal pneumonia. Ando ...
... which is evidence of the presence of different genetic profiles among the Mhp field strains that circulate in Brazilian swine ... Porcine enzootic pneumonia is a worldwide problem in swine production. The infected host demonstrates a respiratory disease ... exploratory epidemiological investigations to research mycoplasmal association in enzootic pneumonia-like lesions in ... Porcine enzootic pneumonia is a worldwide problem in swine production. The infected host demonstrates a respiratory disease ...
Pneumonia due to methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus. *Pneumonia of Calves, Enzootic. *Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal ...
Mycoplasmal Diseases.. In Diseases of Swine 8th edition, Edited by Straw, B. E., DAllaire, S., Mengeling, W.E. and Taylor, D.J ... Enzootic pneumonia, caused by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, affects over 90% of all pig herds and in severely affected farms over ... American Association of Swine Veterinarians Conference, Nashville, Tennessee, USA, 237-241 Martinon, O., Tiberghien, M.P., ... Baekbo, P., Andreasen, M., Wachmann, H. and Christensen, G. (2002) Growth reduction in pigs with Pneumonia.. Proceedings of the ...
Pneumonia of Swine, Mycoplasmal / prevention & control; Stress, Physiological; Swine; Weaning ... Swine Diseases / epidemiology; Swine Diseases / etiology; Swine Diseases / transmission ... Swine; Swine Diseases / immunology; Swine Diseases / prevention & control ... Swine / blood; Swine / physiology; Tetracycline / administration & dosage; Tetracycline / blood; Water / chemistry ...
  • Porcine enzootic pneumonia, also known as mycoplasmal pneumonia, is a chronic respiratory disease of pigs caused by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. (wikipedia.org)
  • Porcine enzootic pneumonia is a worldwide problem in swine production. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae (Mhp) is the primary etiologic agent of porcine enzootic pneumonia (EP), a respiratory disease that affects swine worldwide. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Enzootic pneumonia, caused by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae , affects over 90% of all pig herds and in severely affected farms over 90% of the pigs will have classical lung lesions at slaughter affecting the distal parts of the apical, cardiac and diaphragmatic lobes. (octagon-services.co.uk)
  • There has been some controversy over the extent of the percentage improvements in ADG but a recent paper by Baekbo et al (2002) looked at 8 Danish herds and examine 999 pigs at slaughter and 42% had enzootic pneumonia lesions. (octagon-services.co.uk)
  • Diseases of the respiratory and alimentary tract of bacterial or mycoplasmal origin (e.g. pasteurellosis, actinobacillosis, mycoplasmosis, coli-bacillosis, coli-septicaemia and salmonellosis) and mulifactorial diseases such as atrophic rhinitis and enzootic pneumonia, where clinical experience, supported where possible by sensitivity testing of the causal organism, indicates enrofloxacin as the drug of choice. (nbinjection.com)
  • It is part of the Porcine Respiratory Disease Complex along with Swine Influenza, PRRS and Porcine circovirus 2, and even though on its own it is quite a mild disease, it predisposes to secondary infections with organisms such as Pasteurella multocida. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pharmacologic research demonstrating how Draxxin (tulathromycin) injection behaves in the pig explains why this antimicrobial remains a valuable treatment for swine respiratory disease (SRD). (thepigsite.com)
  • At the time the studies were conducted, the investigators concluded that "The high distribution to lung and slow elimination following a single dose of [Draxxin] are desirable pharmacokinetic attributes for an antimicrobial drug indicated for the treatment of respiratory disease in swine. (thepigsite.com)
  • Definition A widespread, chronic respiratory disease of swine characterized by coughing, growth retardation and reduced feed efficiency. (edu.vn)
  • An international leader in swine respiratory disease research, Switzer identified the cause of mycoplasmal pneumonia and polyserositis-arthritis in swine. (pubpub.org)
  • Chapter 23 Diseases and parasites of swine. (wikipedia.org)
  • What is more, swine pneumonia has a strong infectivity, and it also causes other infectious diseases, which seriously affects economic benefits [ 2 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • He was awarded the rank of Distinguished Professor and made many contributions to research, such as swine disease especially respiratory diseases. (pubpub.org)
  • Colleagues and publishers frequently requested Switzer's knowledge in the writing of chapters in veterinary texts, including the influential Veterinary Bacteriology and Virology , Diseases of Swine , and Mycoplasmatales and the L-Phase of Bacteria . (pubpub.org)
  • He was a member of the American Veterinary Medical Association, Iowa Veterinary Medical Association, American Association of Swine Practitioners, Conference of Research Workers in Animal Diseases, and the International Organization of Mycoplasmologists. (pubpub.org)
  • Contains tylosin which is an antibiotic that treats certain diseases in cattle and swine including bovine respiratory complex such as shipping fever and pneumonia. (homelabvet.com)
  • Diseases of the respiratory and alimentary tract of bacterial or mycoplasmal origin (e.g. pasteurellosis, mycoplasmosis, coli-bacillosis, coli-septicaemia and salmonellosis) and secondary bacterial infections subsequent to viral conditions (e.g. viral pneumonia) where clinical experience, supported where possible by sensitivity testing of the causal organism, indicates enrofloxacin as the drug of choice. (nbinjection.com)
  • It was Switzer's groundbreaking research on atrophic rhinitis of swine that led to the development of a Bordetella bronchiseptica bacterin. (pubpub.org)
  • This was the first federally licensed vaccine to prevent atrophic rhinitis is swine, which save U.S. pork producers an estimated $60 million annually. (pubpub.org)
  • A prolific writer, Switzer is the author or co-author of more than 100 articles, primarily on his research with swine and atrophic rhinitis, Mycoplasmal pneumonia and polyserositis-arthritis. (pubpub.org)
  • This injection can also be used to treat mycoplasmal arthritis, dysentery and erysipelas in swine as well as metritis, diphtheria and foot rot in cattle. (homelabvet.com)
  • Swine pneumonia commonly known as swine pasteurellosis is an infectious disease of swine caused by Pasteurella multocida infection. (hindawi.com)
  • Swine pneumonia, commonly known as swine pasteurellosis, is a contagious disease induced by Pasteurella multocida infection which is divided into chronic type, acute type, and most acute type according to clinical manifestations and the course of the disease [ 1 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Respiratory infections in pigs are a formidable threat to swine farmers worldwide. (jvas.in)
  • The present study aimed to identify mycoplasmal agents causing respiratory infections in pigs. (jvas.in)
  • Most commonly, it is the result of infections (bacterial, viral, or fungal), but it can occur as a result of chemical injury (gastric acid/aspiration of food/hydrocarbon and lipoid pneumonia/radiation-induced pneumonia). (pediatriconcall.com)
  • Some forms of viral pneumonia, particularly adenoviral disease, tend to cause bronchiolitis obliterans and hyperlucent lung syndrome. (pediatriconcall.com)
  • Lymphocytic predominance may be seen in viral pneumonia, pertussis, and atypical infections. (pediatriconcall.com)
  • This study hints at the significance of M. hyorhinis in causing respiratory infections in swine and also suggests that M. hyopneumoniae may not be a significant health hazard for swine populations of north Kerala. (jvas.in)
  • Etrapenam Is Being Projected As Drug For Community Acquired Pneumonia, Intractable Abdominal Infections And Complicated Uti. (pediatriconcall.com)
  • He was the first researcher to describe trichomonads in the nasal cavities of swine and also discovered a method for protecting swine breeding herds from outbreaks of turbinate atrophy. (pubpub.org)
  • It was also noted that samples from the same farm were genetically different from each other and samples from different regions could be genetically similar, which is evidence of the presence of different genetic profiles among the Mhp field strains that circulate in Brazilian swine herds. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In 2016, the American Thoracic Society (ATS) and the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) updated guidelines for the management of HAP and ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP). (medscape.com)
  • Pig is one of the susceptible animals of Pasteurella multocida, which mainly causes swine lung disease [ 6 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Localized crepitations in a febrile child without underlying lung disease is pneumonia until proven otherwise. (pediatriconcall.com)
  • A calicivirus infection of swine characterized by hydropic degeneration of the oral and cutaneous epithelia. (nih.gov)
  • Pneumonia is an infection of the lungs. (pediatriconcall.com)
  • [ 1 ] Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) results from the invasion of the lower respiratory tract and lung parenchyma by microorganisms. (medscape.com)
  • Definition This organism causes severe pleuropneumonia which is a highly contagious disease of swine often characterized by sudden onset, short clinical course, high morbidity, and high mortality. (edu.vn)
  • Early-onset pneumonia occurs within the first 4 days of hospitalization, whereas late-onset VAP develops 5 or more days after admission. (medscape.com)
  • Late-onset pneumonias are usually associated with multidrug-resistant (MDR) organisms. (medscape.com)
  • The incidence of pneumonia in developing countries in children less than 5 years old is almost 30% with a high mortality rate. (pediatriconcall.com)
  • [ 9 ] Pseudomonas or Acinetobacter pneumonia is associated with higher mortality rates than those associated with other organisms. (medscape.com)
  • Therefore, it is urgent to elucidate the specific pathogenesis of swine pneumonitis for seeking effective therapeutic drugs. (hindawi.com)
  • This research was aimed at investigating the molecular mechanism by which TLR9 regulates swine pneumonia progression. (hindawi.com)
  • Our research may provide a theoretical basis for the prevention and treatment of swine pneumonia. (hindawi.com)
  • Staphylococcal pneumonia, although rare, can be very serious despite treatment. (pediatriconcall.com)
  • Swine of all ages can be affected, but animals in the growth and finishing phases are most affected [ 1 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Decreased breath sounds with a dull note on percussion and the presence of bronchial breathing are also suggestive of pneumonia. (pediatriconcall.com)
  • In this paper, we aimed to study the specific mechanism of swine pneumonia induced by HD-13. (hindawi.com)
  • Other awards include the Gamma Sigma Delta International Award for Distinguished Service to Agriculture (1981) and the Howard W. Dunne Memorial Award for Outstanding Service to the AASP and the Swine Industry (1981). (pubpub.org)
  • Persistent effusions and empyemas are the most common serious complications of bacterial pneumonia. (pediatriconcall.com)