Conditions or pathological processes associated with pregnancy. They can occur during or after pregnancy, and range from minor discomforts to serious diseases that require medical interventions. They include diseases in pregnant females, and pregnancies in females with diseases.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
Results of conception and ensuing pregnancy, including LIVE BIRTH; STILLBIRTH; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; INDUCED ABORTION. The outcome may follow natural or artificial insemination or any of the various ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNIQUES, such as EMBRYO TRANSFER or FERTILIZATION IN VITRO.
A complication of PREGNANCY, characterized by a complex of symptoms including maternal HYPERTENSION and PROTEINURIA with or without pathological EDEMA. Symptoms may range between mild and severe. Pre-eclampsia usually occurs after the 20th week of gestation, but may develop before this time in the presence of trophoblastic disease.
A condition in pregnant women with elevated systolic (>140 mm Hg) and diastolic (>90 mm Hg) blood pressure on at least two occasions 6 h apart. HYPERTENSION complicates 8-10% of all pregnancies, generally after 20 weeks of gestation. Gestational hypertension can be divided into several broad categories according to the complexity and associated symptoms, such as EDEMA; PROTEINURIA; SEIZURES; abnormalities in BLOOD COAGULATION and liver functions.
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and a cardiovascular disease. The disease may precede or follow FERTILIZATION and it may or may not have a deleterious effect on the pregnant woman or FETUS.
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and a blood disease (HEMATOLOGIC DISEASES) which involves BLOOD CELLS or COAGULATION FACTORS. The hematologic disease may precede or follow FERTILIZATION and it may or may not have a deleterious effect on the pregnant woman or FETUS.
Pathological processes of the female URINARY TRACT, the reproductive system (GENITALIA, FEMALE), and disorders related to PREGNANCY.
The beginning third of a human PREGNANCY, from the first day of the last normal menstrual period (MENSTRUATION) through the completion of 14 weeks (98 days) of gestation.
A potentially life-threatening condition in which EMBRYO IMPLANTATION occurs outside the cavity of the UTERUS. Most ectopic pregnancies (>96%) occur in the FALLOPIAN TUBES, known as TUBAL PREGNANCY. They can be in other locations, such as UTERINE CERVIX; OVARY; and abdominal cavity (PREGNANCY, ABDOMINAL).
Expulsion of the product of FERTILIZATION before completing the term of GESTATION and without deliberate interference.
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and NEOPLASMS. The neoplastic disease may precede or follow FERTILIZATION.
The failure of a FETUS to attain its expected FETAL GROWTH at any GESTATIONAL AGE.
Premature separation of the normally implanted PLACENTA from the UTERUS. Signs of varying degree of severity include UTERINE BLEEDING, uterine MUSCLE HYPERTONIA, and FETAL DISTRESS or FETAL DEATH.
CHILDBIRTH before 37 weeks of PREGNANCY (259 days from the first day of the mother's last menstrual period, or 245 days after FERTILIZATION).
The process of bearing developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero in non-human mammals, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (CHORIONIC VILLI) derived from TROPHOBLASTS and a maternal portion (DECIDUA) derived from the uterine ENDOMETRIUM. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (PLACENTAL HORMONES).
The middle third of a human PREGNANCY, from the beginning of the 15th through the 28th completed week (99 to 196 days) of gestation.
A branch arising from the internal iliac artery in females, that supplies blood to the uterus.
The last third of a human PREGNANCY, from the beginning of the 29th through the 42nd completed week (197 to 294 days) of gestation.
Deliberate and planned acts of unlawful behavior engaged in by aggrieved segments of the population in seeking social change.
Pathologic processes that affect patients after a surgical procedure. They may or may not be related to the disease for which the surgery was done, and they may or may not be direct results of the surgery.
Pathological processes or abnormal functions of the PLACENTA.
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and an INFECTION. The infection may precede or follow FERTILIZATION.
Onset of HYPERREFLEXIA; SEIZURES; or COMA in a previously diagnosed pre-eclamptic patient (PRE-ECLAMPSIA).
The condition of carrying TWINS simultaneously.
Onset of OBSTETRIC LABOR before term (TERM BIRTH) but usually after the FETUS has become viable. In humans, it occurs sometime during the 29th through 38th week of PREGNANCY. TOCOLYSIS inhibits premature labor and can prevent the BIRTH of premature infants (INFANT, PREMATURE).
An infant during the first month after birth.
The circulation of BLOOD, of both the mother and the FETUS, through the PLACENTA.
The age of the conceptus, beginning from the time of FERTILIZATION. In clinical obstetrics, the gestational age is often estimated as the time from the last day of the last MENSTRUATION which is about 2 weeks before OVULATION and fertilization.
Cells lining the outside of the BLASTOCYST. After binding to the ENDOMETRIUM, trophoblasts develop into two distinct layers, an inner layer of mononuclear cytotrophoblasts and an outer layer of continuous multinuclear cytoplasm, the syncytiotrophoblasts, which form the early fetal-maternal interface (PLACENTA).
Diabetes mellitus induced by PREGNANCY but resolved at the end of pregnancy. It does not include previously diagnosed diabetics who become pregnant (PREGNANCY IN DIABETICS). Gestational diabetes usually develops in late pregnancy when insulin antagonistic hormones peaks leading to INSULIN RESISTANCE; GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; and HYPERGLYCEMIA.
Malformations of organs or body parts during development in utero.
Death of the developing young in utero. BIRTH of a dead FETUS is STILLBIRTH.
An organized and comprehensive program of health care that identifies and reduces a woman's reproductive risks before conception through risk assessment, health promotion, and interventions. Preconception care programs may be designed to include the male partner in providing counseling and educational information in preparation for fatherhood, such as genetic counseling and testing, financial and family planning, etc. This concept is different from PRENATAL CARE, which occurs during pregnancy.
Pregnancy in which the mother and/or FETUS are at greater than normal risk of MORBIDITY or MORTALITY. Causes include inadequate PRENATAL CARE, previous obstetrical history (ABORTION, SPONTANEOUS), pre-existing maternal disease, pregnancy-induced disease (GESTATIONAL HYPERTENSION), and MULTIPLE PREGNANCY, as well as advanced maternal age above 35.
The condition of carrying two or more FETUSES simultaneously.
Extraction of the FETUS by means of abdominal HYSTEROTOMY.
Medical problems associated with OBSTETRIC LABOR, such as BREECH PRESENTATION; PREMATURE OBSTETRIC LABOR; HEMORRHAGE; or others. These complications can affect the well-being of the mother, the FETUS, or both.
The event that a FETUS is born dead or stillborn.
Care provided the pregnant woman in order to prevent complications, and decrease the incidence of maternal and prenatal mortality.
An infant having a birth weight lower than expected for its gestational age.
The hollow thick-walled muscular organ in the female PELVIS. It consists of the fundus (the body) which is the site of EMBRYO IMPLANTATION and FETAL DEVELOPMENT. Beyond the isthmus at the perineal end of fundus, is CERVIX UTERI (the neck) opening into VAGINA. Beyond the isthmi at the upper abdominal end of fundus, are the FALLOPIAN TUBES.
Three or more consecutive spontaneous abortions.
The visualization of tissues during pregnancy through recording of the echoes of ultrasonic waves directed into the body. The procedure may be applied with reference to the mother or the fetus and with reference to organs or the detection of maternal or fetal disease.
Proteins produced by organs of the mother or the PLACENTA during PREGNANCY. These proteins may be pregnancy-specific (present only during pregnancy) or pregnancy-associated (present during pregnancy or under other conditions such as hormone therapy or certain malignancies.)
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual at BIRTH. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
The ratio of the number of conceptions (CONCEPTION) including LIVE BIRTH; STILLBIRTH; and fetal losses, to the mean number of females of reproductive age in a population during a set time period.
The age of the mother in PREGNANCY.
The number of offspring a female has borne. It is contrasted with GRAVIDITY, which refers to the number of pregnancies, regardless of outcome.
Autoantibodies directed against phospholipids. These antibodies are characteristically found in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC;), ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; related autoimmune diseases, some non-autoimmune diseases, and also in healthy individuals.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Failure of the PLACENTA to deliver an adequate supply of nutrients and OXYGEN to the FETUS.
The three approximately equal periods of a normal human PREGNANCY. Each trimester is about three months or 13 to 14 weeks in duration depending on the designation of the first day of gestation.
The development of the PLACENTA, a highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products between mother and FETUS. The process begins at FERTILIZATION, through the development of CYTOTROPHOBLASTS and SYNCYTIOTROPHOBLASTS, the formation of CHORIONIC VILLI, to the progressive increase in BLOOD VESSELS to support the growing fetus.
The offspring in multiple pregnancies (PREGNANCY, MULTIPLE): TWINS; TRIPLETS; QUADRUPLETS; QUINTUPLETS; etc.
Tests to determine whether or not an individual is pregnant.
Delivery of the FETUS and PLACENTA under the care of an obstetrician or a health worker. Obstetric deliveries may involve physical, psychological, medical, or surgical interventions.
Exchange of substances between the maternal blood and the fetal blood at the PLACENTA via PLACENTAL CIRCULATION. The placental barrier excludes microbial or viral transmission.
The state of PREGNANCY in women with DIABETES MELLITUS. This does not include either symptomatic diabetes or GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE induced by pregnancy (DIABETES, GESTATIONAL) which resolves at the end of pregnancy.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
The most common (>96%) type of ectopic pregnancy in which the extrauterine EMBRYO IMPLANTATION occurs in the FALLOPIAN TUBE, usually in the ampullary region where FERTILIZATION takes place.
The presence of antibodies directed against phospholipids (ANTIBODIES, ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID). The condition is associated with a variety of diseases, notably systemic lupus erythematosus and other connective tissue diseases, thrombopenia, and arterial or venous thromboses. In pregnancy it can cause abortion. Of the phospholipids, the cardiolipins show markedly elevated levels of anticardiolipin antibodies (ANTIBODIES, ANTICARDIOLIPIN). Present also are high levels of lupus anticoagulant (LUPUS COAGULATION INHIBITOR).
Organized efforts by communities or organizations to improve the health and well-being of the mother.
Clinical and laboratory techniques used to enhance fertility in humans and animals.
Morphological and physiological development of FETUSES.
An infant having a birth weight of 2500 gm. (5.5 lb.) or less but INFANT, VERY LOW BIRTH WEIGHT is available for infants having a birth weight of 1500 grams (3.3 lb.) or less.
Spontaneous tearing of the membranes surrounding the FETUS any time before the onset of OBSTETRIC LABOR. Preterm PROM is membrane rupture before 37 weeks of GESTATION.
An assisted reproductive technique that includes the direct handling and manipulation of oocytes and sperm to achieve fertilization in vitro.
Pregnancy in human adolescent females under the age of 19.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
The hormone-responsive glandular layer of ENDOMETRIUM that sloughs off at each menstrual flow (decidua menstrualis) or at the termination of pregnancy. During pregnancy, the thickest part of the decidua forms the maternal portion of the PLACENTA, thus named decidua placentalis. The thin portion of the decidua covering the rest of the embryo is the decidua capsularis.
The ratio of two odds. The exposure-odds ratio for case control data is the ratio of the odds in favor of exposure among cases to the odds in favor of exposure among noncases. The disease-odds ratio for a cohort or cross section is the ratio of the odds in favor of disease among the exposed to the odds in favor of disease among the unexposed. The prevalence-odds ratio refers to an odds ratio derived cross-sectionally from studies of prevalent cases.
A disorder of HEMOSTASIS in which there is a tendency for the occurrence of THROMBOSIS.
Statistical models which describe the relationship between a qualitative dependent variable (that is, one which can take only certain discrete values, such as the presence or absence of a disease) and an independent variable. A common application is in epidemiology for estimating an individual's risk (probability of a disease) as a function of a given risk factor.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Unintended accidental pregnancy, including pregnancy resulting from failed contraceptive measures.
The qualitative or quantitative estimation of the likelihood of adverse effects that may result from exposure to specified health hazards or from the absence of beneficial influences. (Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 1988)
Pregnancy, usually accidental, that is not desired by the parent or parents.
Complications that affect patients during surgery. They may or may not be associated with the disease for which the surgery is done, or within the same surgical procedure.
A thiol-containing amino acid formed by a demethylation of METHIONINE.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Norway" is a country name and doesn't have a medical definition. If you have any medical or health-related questions, I'd be happy to help!
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
The co-occurrence of pregnancy and parasitic diseases. The parasitic infection may precede or follow FERTILIZATION.
A human infant born before 37 weeks of GESTATION.
A term used to describe pregnancies that exceed the upper limit of a normal gestational period. In humans, a prolonged pregnancy is defined as one that extends beyond 42 weeks (294 days) after the first day of the last menstrual period (MENSTRUATION), or birth with gestational age of 41 weeks or more.
Intentional removal of a fetus from the uterus by any of a number of techniques. (POPLINE, 1978)
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
Predetermined sets of questions used to collect data - clinical data, social status, occupational group, etc. The term is often applied to a self-completed survey instrument.
A range of values for a variable of interest, e.g., a rate, constructed so that this range has a specified probability of including the true value of the variable.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
A type of ectopic pregnancy in which the EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN implants in the ABDOMINAL CAVITY instead of in the ENDOMETRIUM of the UTERUS.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
Physiological mechanisms that sustain the state of PREGNANCY.
Endometrial implantation of EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN at the BLASTOCYST stage.
The transfer of mammalian embryos from an in vivo or in vitro environment to a suitable host to improve pregnancy or gestational outcome in human or animal. In human fertility treatment programs, preimplantation embryos ranging from the 4-cell stage to the blastocyst stage are transferred to the uterine cavity between 3-5 days after FERTILIZATION IN VITRO.
Conditions or pathological processes associated with the disease of diabetes mellitus. Due to the impaired control of BLOOD GLUCOSE level in diabetic patients, pathological processes develop in numerous tissues and organs including the EYE, the KIDNEY, the BLOOD VESSELS, and the NERVE TISSUE.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
The consequences of exposing the FETUS in utero to certain factors, such as NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS; DRUGS; RADIATION; and other physical or chemical factors. These consequences are observed later in the offspring after BIRTH.
Selective abortion of one or more embryos or fetuses in a multiple gestation pregnancy. The usual goal is to improve the outcome for the remaining embryos or fetuses.
Diminished or absent ability of a female to achieve conception.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the CORPUS LUTEUM and the PLACENTA. Progesterone acts on the UTERUS, the MAMMARY GLANDS and the BRAIN. It is required in EMBRYO IMPLANTATION; PREGNANCY maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for MILK production. Progesterone, converted from PREGNENOLONE, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of GONADAL STEROID HORMONES and adrenal CORTICOSTEROIDS.
Congenital abnormalities caused by medicinal substances or drugs of abuse given to or taken by the mother, or to which she is inadvertently exposed during the manufacture of such substances. The concept excludes abnormalities resulting from exposure to non-medicinal chemicals in the environment.
The repetitive uterine contraction during childbirth which is associated with the progressive dilation of the uterine cervix (CERVIX UTERI). Successful labor results in the expulsion of the FETUS and PLACENTA. Obstetric labor can be spontaneous or induced (LABOR, INDUCED).
A repeat operation for the same condition in the same patient due to disease progression or recurrence, or as followup to failed previous surgery.
Disorders or diseases associated with PUERPERIUM, the six-to-eight-week period immediately after PARTURITION in humans.
The unborn young of a viviparous mammal, in the postembryonic period, after the major structures have been outlined. In humans, the unborn young from the end of the eighth week after CONCEPTION until BIRTH, as distinguished from the earlier EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
A procedure in which a laparoscope (LAPAROSCOPES) is inserted through a small incision near the navel to examine the abdominal and pelvic organs in the PERITONEAL CAVITY. If appropriate, biopsy or surgery can be performed during laparoscopy.
Two individuals derived from two FETUSES that were fertilized at or about the same time, developed in the UTERUS simultaneously, and born to the same mother. Twins are either monozygotic (TWINS, MONOZYGOTIC) or dizygotic (TWINS, DIZYGOTIC).
The processes of milk secretion by the maternal MAMMARY GLANDS after PARTURITION. The proliferation of the mammary glandular tissue, milk synthesis, and milk expulsion or let down are regulated by the interactions of several hormones including ESTRADIOL; PROGESTERONE; PROLACTIN; and OXYTOCIN.
Determination of the nature of a pathological condition or disease in the postimplantation EMBRYO; FETUS; or pregnant female before birth.
Abortion induced to save the life or health of a pregnant woman. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
A gonadotropic glycoprotein hormone produced primarily by the PLACENTA. Similar to the pituitary LUTEINIZING HORMONE in structure and function, chorionic gonadotropin is involved in maintaining the CORPUS LUTEUM during pregnancy. CG consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is virtually identical to the alpha subunits of the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity (CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, BETA SUBUNIT, HUMAN).
Pathophysiological conditions of the FETUS in the UTERUS. Some fetal diseases may be treated with FETAL THERAPIES.
Exposure of the female parent, human or animal, to potentially harmful chemical, physical, or biological agents in the environment or to environmental factors that may include ionizing radiation, pathogenic organisms, or toxic chemicals that may affect offspring. It includes pre-conception maternal exposure.
Non-steroidal chemical compounds with abortifacient activity.
The period of confinement of a patient to a hospital or other health facility.
Artificial introduction of SEMEN or SPERMATOZOA into the VAGINA to facilitate FERTILIZATION.
A clear, yellowish liquid that envelopes the FETUS inside the sac of AMNION. In the first trimester, it is likely a transudate of maternal or fetal plasma. In the second trimester, amniotic fluid derives primarily from fetal lung and kidney. Cells or substances in this fluid can be removed for prenatal diagnostic tests (AMNIOCENTESIS).
The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the MENSTRUAL CYCLE and PREGNANCY. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize MENSTRUATION. After successful FERTILIZATION, it serves to sustain the developing embryo.
Inability to reproduce after a specified period of unprotected intercourse. Reproductive sterility is permanent infertility.
An assisted fertilization technique consisting of the microinjection of a single viable sperm into an extracted ovum. It is used principally to overcome low sperm count, low sperm motility, inability of sperm to penetrate the egg, or other conditions related to male infertility (INFERTILITY, MALE).
Human females who are pregnant, as cultural, psychological, or sociological entities.
The number of pregnancies, complete or incomplete, experienced by a female. It is different from PARITY, which is the number of offspring borne. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
The capacity to conceive or to induce conception. It may refer to either the male or female.
Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.
Bleeding or escape of blood from a vessel.
Infection occurring at the site of a surgical incision.
Termination of pregnancy under conditions allowed under local laws. (POPLINE Thesaurus, 1991)
The process of giving birth to one or more offspring.
The beta subunit of human CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN. Its structure is similar to the beta subunit of LUTEINIZING HORMONE, except for the additional 30 amino acids at the carboxy end with the associated carbohydrate residues. HCG-beta is used as a diagnostic marker for early detection of pregnancy, spontaneous abortion (ABORTION, SPONTANEOUS); ECTOPIC PREGNANCY; HYDATIDIFORM MOLE; CHORIOCARCINOMA; or DOWN SYNDROME.
Failure of equipment to perform to standard. The failure may be due to defects or improper use.
Bleeding from blood vessels in the UTERUS, sometimes manifested as vaginal bleeding.
Techniques for the artifical induction of ovulation, the rupture of the follicle and release of the ovum.
The event that a FETUS is born alive with heartbeats or RESPIRATION regardless of GESTATIONAL AGE. Such liveborn is called a newborn infant (INFANT, NEWBORN).
Removal of an implanted therapeutic or prosthetic device.
Nutrition of a mother which affects the health of the FETUS and INFANT as well as herself.
The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.
The removal of fluids or discharges from the body, such as from a wound, sore, or cavity.
UTERINE BLEEDING from a GESTATION of less than 20 weeks without any CERVICAL DILATATION. It is characterized by vaginal bleeding, lower back discomfort, or midline pelvic cramping and a risk factor for MISCARRIAGE.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
Prevention of CONCEPTION by blocking fertility temporarily, or permanently (STERILIZATION, REPRODUCTIVE). Common means of reversible contraception include NATURAL FAMILY PLANNING METHODS; CONTRACEPTIVE AGENTS; or CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICES.
The smooth muscle coat of the uterus, which forms the main mass of the organ.
Methods of detecting pregnancy by examining the levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in plasma or urine.
Trophoblastic hyperplasia associated with normal gestation, or molar pregnancy. It is characterized by the swelling of the CHORIONIC VILLI and elevated human CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN. Hydatidiform moles or molar pregnancy may be categorized as complete or partial based on their gross morphology, histopathology, and karyotype.
Migration of a foreign body from its original location to some other location in the body.
Three individuals derived from three FETUSES that were fertilized at or about the same time, developed in the UTERUS simultaneously, and born to the same mother.
Use or insertion of a tubular device into a duct, blood vessel, hollow organ, or body cavity for injecting or withdrawing fluids for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. It differs from INTUBATION in that the tube here is used to restore or maintain patency in obstructions.
Nutrition of FEMALE during PREGNANCY.
Chemical substances that interrupt pregnancy after implantation.
A collection of blood outside the BLOOD VESSELS. Hematoma can be localized in an organ, space, or tissue.
Pathologic process consisting of a partial or complete disruption of the layers of a surgical wound.
A distribution in which a variable is distributed like the sum of the squares of any given independent random variable, each of which has a normal distribution with mean of zero and variance of one. The chi-square test is a statistical test based on comparison of a test statistic to a chi-square distribution. The oldest of these tests are used to detect whether two or more population distributions differ from one another.
Hemorrhage following any surgical procedure. It may be immediate or delayed and is not restricted to the surgical wound.
A syndrome of HEMOLYSIS, elevated liver ENZYMES, and low blood platelets count (THROMBOCYTOPENIA). HELLP syndrome is observed in pregnant women with PRE-ECLAMPSIA or ECLAMPSIA who also exhibit LIVER damage and abnormalities in BLOOD COAGULATION.
Any adverse condition in a patient occurring as the result of treatment by a physician, surgeon, or other health professional, especially infections acquired by a patient during the course of treatment.
Female parents, human or animal.
Surgical union or shunt between ducts, tubes or vessels. It may be end-to-end, end-to-side, side-to-end, or side-to-side.
Catheters designed to be left within an organ or passage for an extended period of time.
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.
Diseases in any part of the BILIARY TRACT including the BILE DUCTS and the GALLBLADDER.
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
Methods pertaining to the generation of new individuals, including techniques used in selective BREEDING, cloning (CLONING, ORGANISM), and assisted reproduction (REPRODUCTIVE TECHNIQUES, ASSISTED).
The probability that an event will occur. It encompasses a variety of measures of the probability of a generally unfavorable outcome.
Transfer of preovulatory oocytes from donor to a suitable host. Oocytes are collected, fertilized in vitro, and transferred to a host that can be human or animal.
Devices that provide support for tubular structures that are being anastomosed or for body cavities during skin grafting.
VASCULAR DISEASES that are associated with DIABETES MELLITUS.
Agents that prevent clotting.
Procedures of applying ENDOSCOPES for disease diagnosis and treatment. Endoscopy involves passing an optical instrument through a small incision in the skin i.e., percutaneous; or through a natural orifice and along natural body pathways such as the digestive tract; and/or through an incision in the wall of a tubular structure or organ, i.e. transluminal, to examine or perform surgery on the interior parts of the body.
Formation and development of a thrombus or blood clot in the blood vessel.
Techniques for securing together the edges of a wound, with loops of thread or similar materials (SUTURES).
The disintegration and assimilation of the dead FETUS in the UTERUS at any stage after the completion of organogenesis which, in humans, is after the 9th week of GESTATION. It does not include embryo resorption (see EMBRYO LOSS).
A subtype of DIABETES MELLITUS that is characterized by INSULIN deficiency. It is manifested by the sudden onset of severe HYPERGLYCEMIA, rapid progression to DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS, and DEATH unless treated with insulin. The disease may occur at any age, but is most common in childhood or adolescence.
A set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. In statistics, multivariate analysis is interpreted as any analytic method that allows simultaneous study of two or more dependent variables.
A condition of fetal overgrowth leading to a large-for-gestational-age FETUS. It is defined as BIRTH WEIGHT greater than 4,000 grams or above the 90th percentile for population and sex-specific growth curves. It is commonly seen in GESTATIONAL DIABETES; PROLONGED PREGNANCY; and pregnancies complicated by pre-existing diabetes mellitus.
Behavior patterns of those practicing CONTRACEPTION.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
The threadlike, vascular projections of the chorion. Chorionic villi may be free or embedded within the DECIDUA forming the site for exchange of substances between fetal and maternal blood (PLACENTA).
Intractable VOMITING that develops in early PREGNANCY and persists. This can lead to DEHYDRATION and WEIGHT LOSS.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
A method of hemostasis utilizing various agents such as Gelfoam, silastic, metal, glass, or plastic pellets, autologous clot, fat, and muscle as emboli. It has been used in the treatment of spinal cord and INTRACRANIAL ARTERIOVENOUS MALFORMATIONS, renal arteriovenous fistulas, gastrointestinal bleeding, epistaxis, hypersplenism, certain highly vascular tumors, traumatic rupture of blood vessels, and control of operative hemorrhage.
The period of care beginning when the patient is removed from surgery and aimed at meeting the patient's psychological and physical needs directly after surgery. (From Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
The 17-beta-isomer of estradiol, an aromatized C18 steroid with hydroxyl group at 3-beta- and 17-beta-position. Estradiol-17-beta is the most potent form of mammalian estrogenic steroids.
Maternal deaths resulting from complications of pregnancy and childbirth in a given population.
The weight of the FETUS in utero. It is usually estimated by various formulas based on measurements made during PRENATAL ULTRASONOGRAPHY.
A prediction of the probable outcome of a disease based on a individual's condition and the usual course of the disease as seen in similar situations.
Percutaneous transabdominal puncture of the uterus during pregnancy to obtain amniotic fluid. It is commonly used for fetal karyotype determination in order to diagnose abnormal fetal conditions.
The yellow body derived from the ruptured OVARIAN FOLLICLE after OVULATION. The process of corpus luteum formation, LUTEINIZATION, is regulated by LUTEINIZING HORMONE.
Morphological and physiological development of EMBRYOS or FETUSES.
Procedures that avoid use of open, invasive surgery in favor of closed or local surgery. These generally involve use of laparoscopic devices and remote-control manipulation of instruments with indirect observation of the surgical field through an endoscope or similar device.
Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with LONGITUDINAL STUDIES which are followed over a period of time.
Incision into the side of the abdomen between the ribs and pelvis.
The transference of a part of or an entire liver from one human or animal to another.
Health care programs or services designed to assist individuals in the planning of family size. Various methods of CONTRACEPTION can be used to control the number and timing of childbirths.
Blood of the fetus. Exchange of nutrients and waste between the fetal and maternal blood occurs via the PLACENTA. The cord blood is blood contained in the umbilical vessels (UMBILICAL CORD) at the time of delivery.
Abnormal communication most commonly seen between two internal organs, or between an internal organ and the surface of the body.
Preservation of cells, tissues, organs, or embryos by freezing. In histological preparations, cryopreservation or cryofixation is used to maintain the existing form, structure, and chemical composition of all the constituent elements of the specimens.
Inhaling and exhaling the smoke of burning TOBACCO.
Studies to determine the advantages or disadvantages, practicability, or capability of accomplishing a projected plan, study, or project.

Obstetric and neonatal outcome following chronic hypertension in pregnancy among different ethnic groups. (1/938)

We retrospectively studied pre-eclampsia rate and obstetric outcome in a cohort of 436 pregnancies amongst 318 women of different ethnic backgrounds attending an antenatal hypertension clinic from 1980-1997, identifying 152 women (213 pregnancies) with chronic essential hypertension. The ethnic breakdown was: White, 64 (30.0%) pregnancies in 48 (31.5%) women; Black/Afro-Caribbean, 79 (37.1%) pregnancies in 56 (36.8%) women; and Indo-Asians, 70 (32.3%) pregnancies in 48 (31.6%) women. The prevalences of pre-eclampsia in White, Black and Indo-Asian women were 17.2%, 12.7% and 18.6%, respectively (p = 0.58). Pregnancies of Indo-Asian women were of shorter gestation, and babies in this group also had lower birth weight and ponderal index compared to those of White and Black women (all p < 0.05). The proportions of overall perinatal mortality were 1.6% for Whites (1/64), 3.8% for Blacks (3/79) and 10.0% for Indo-Asians (7/70), suggesting increased risk in the Indo-Asian group. Indo-Asian women with chronic essential hypertension need careful antenatal care and observation during pregnancy.  (+info)

Outcome of pregnancy in women with congenital shunt lesions. (2/938)

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the outcome of pregnancy in women with congenital shunt lesions. SETTING: Retrospective study in a tertiary care centre. METHODS: Pregnancy history was obtained by a standardised questionnaire and medical records were reviewed. PATIENTS: 175 women were identified, at a mean (SD) age of 42 (14) years. Pregnancies occurred in 126 women: 50 with an atrial septal defect, 22 with a ventricular septal defect, 22 with an atrioventricular septal defect, 19 with tetralogy of Fallot, and 13 with other complex shunt lesions. RESULTS: 309 pregnancies were reported by 126 woman (2.5 (1.6) pregnancies per woman). The shortening fraction of the systemic ventricle was 40 (8)%, and 98% were in New York Heart Association class I-II at last follow up. Spontaneous abortions occurred in 17% of pregnancies (abortion rate, 0.4 (0.9) per woman). Gestational age of the 241 newborn infants was 8.8 (0.8) months. There were no maternal deaths related to pregnancy. Pre-eclampsia and embolic events were observed in 1.3% and 0.6%, respectively of all pregnancies. Women with complex shunt lesions more often underwent caesarean section (70% v 15-30%, p = 0.005) and gave birth to smaller babies for equivalent gestation (2577 (671) g v 3016 (572) to 3207 (610) g, p < 0.05). The recurrence risk of congenital heart disease was 2.5%. CONCLUSIONS: The outcome of pregnancy is favourable in women with congenital shunt lesions if their functional class and their systolic ventricular function are good. Such patients can be reassured.  (+info)

Pregnancy after atrial repair for transposition of the great arteries. (3/938)

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the risk of pregnancy in patients with transposition of the great arteries (TGA) who have undergone atrial repair. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis (1962-94) of 342 TGA patients who underwent atrial repair. Of 231 known late survivors, 48 were women over 18 years old who were interviewed about possible reproductive plans and previous pregnancies. As a control, comparison was made with data of 57 500 women (mean age 26 years) obtained from the Swiss Statistical Bank in Bern. RESULTS: Mean follow up was 13.7 years; 66% remained asymptomatic, 29% had mild to moderate cardiac symptoms, and 5% suffered from severe cardiac symptoms (New York Heart Association grade III-IV). Thirty six of the 48 women wished to bear children and, to date, there have been 10 live births, two spontaneous first trimester abortions, and one induced abortion at 16 weeks. During pregnancy there was one case of cardiac deterioration and two cases of pneumonia. There was no evidence of congenital heart disease in the children. CONCLUSIONS: In this relatively small series the completion of pregnancy in women with TGA who had undergone atrial repair and who had normal functional cardiac status was uncomplicated  (+info)

Focal aneurysmal dilatation of subchorionic vessels simulating chorioangioma. (4/938)

Subchorionic vascular aneurysms of the placenta are rare lesions and may present confusion with chorioangioma or focal mesenchymal dysplasia on sonography. To our knowledge, the findings of placental aneurysms have not been reported in the ultrasound literature. We present a case with detailed sonographic evaluation, including spectral and color Doppler and pathological analysis, that was mistaken for chorioangioma prenatally. Knowledge of this benign entity may allow the sonologist to recommend conservative management in similar cases.  (+info)

A strategy for reducing maternal mortality. (5/938)

A confidential system of enquiry into maternal mortality was introduced in Malaysia in 1991. The methods used and the findings obtained up to 1994 are reported below and an outline is given of the resulting recommendations and actions.  (+info)

Pregnancy in patients after valve replacement. (6/938)

This report is based on information obtained from a questionnaire sent to major cardiac centres in the United Kingdom. This produced details of 39 pregnancies in 34 patients after valve replacement. The 39 pregnancies gave rise to 30 healthy babies. The small size of the series probably reflects both the increasing rarity of young women with rheumatic heart disease in this country and the cautious attitude of their cardiologists. This makes it likely that these women represented the best end of the spectrum of cardiac function after valve replacement. Twenty-four pregnancies in 20 women who were not given anticoagulants producted 23 healthy babies and 1 spontaneous abortion. This group comprised 6 patients with free aortic homografts, 1 patient with a fascia lata mitral valve, 1 with a Beall tricuspid prosthesis, 1 with a combined mitral homograft and Starr Edwards aortic prosthesis, and 1 with mitral and aortic frame-mounted fascia lata valves. There were no maternal deaths or thromboembolic complications in this group which included 5 patients who were in atrial fibrillation. Fifteen pregnancies in 14 women who received anticoagulants gave rise to 7 healthy babies. The fetal losses were one stillbirth, one intrauterine death at 34 weeks, and 3 spontaneous abortions; one surviving child has hydrocephalus as a result of blood clot and there were 2 maternal deaths. This group included 13 patients with Starr Edwards valves, 11 mitral and 2 aortic. A patient with a Hammersmith mitral valve was the only one to have been treated with heparin and her valve thrombosed. One patient with a mounted mitral homograft had a cerebral embolus. Nine of these patients were in atrial fibrillation. In 3 additional patients the valve replacement was carried out during pregnancy. Two of the patients survived operation. In one of these who was treated with warfarin the pregnancy well, but there is an increased fetal wastage in patients pregnancy gave rise to a congenitally malformed baby who died in the neonatal period. The baby born to the mother who did not receive anticoagulants has a hare-lip and talipes. Women with artificial valves can tolerate the haemodynamic load of pregnancy well, but there is an increased fetal wastage in patients taking oral anticoagulants. This is probably largely attributable to fetal haemorrhage but there is also a risk of malformation caused by a teratogenic effect of warfarin. Experience gained in non-pregnant patients suggests that withholding anticoagulatns in pregnant patients with prosthetic valves would usually be undersirable but warfarin should be avoided. The advantages of biological valves were apparent in this series.  (+info)

Insulin in obstetrics: a main parameter in the management of pregnancy. (7/938)

Insulin plays a central role in human pregnancy. Maternal insulin sensitivity decreases with advancing gestation in order to provide glucose and possibly other nutrients for feto-placental growth and energy needs. Moreover, alterations of insulin metabolism are clearly involved in the development of gestational diabetes. In recent years, hyperinsulinaemia has been also proposed as a possible pathogenic factor in the development of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia; furthermore it has also been postulated that there is an involvement of insulin sensitivity in fetal growth restriction. These intriguing data have stimulated our interest in summarizing the physiopathological mechanisms by which the pancreatic hormone could be involved in obstetrics.  (+info)

Turner's syndrome and pregnancies after oocyte donation. (8/938)

A total of 20 clinical pregnancies was achieved among 18 women with Turner's syndrome who were treated in an oocyte donation programme. The oocytes were donated by voluntary unpaid donors. A mean of 1.8 embryos per transfer was given to each recipient by way of 28 fresh and 25 frozen embryo transfers. With fresh and frozen embryos, 13 and seven pregnancies respectively were achieved. The clinical pregnancy rate per fresh embryo transfer was 46%, and the implantation rate 30%, being similar to the corresponding rates among our oocyte recipients with primary ovarian failure in general. The corresponding rates with frozen embryos were 28 and 19%. Of these pregnancies, 40% ended in miscarriage. This high rate may be explained by uterine factors. Six women were hypertensive during pregnancy, a rate comparable with that in other oocyte donation pregnancies. All these women delivered by Caesarean section. Pregnancy and implantation rates after oocyte donation were high in women with Turner's syndrome, but the risk of cardiovascular and other complications is high. Careful assessment before and during follow-up of pregnancy are important. Transfer of only one embryo at a time to avoid the additional complications caused by twin pregnancy is recommended.  (+info)

Pregnancy complications refer to any health problems that arise during pregnancy which can put both the mother and the baby at risk. These complications may occur at any point during the pregnancy, from conception until childbirth. Some common pregnancy complications include:

1. Gestational diabetes: a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy in women who did not have diabetes before becoming pregnant.
2. Preeclampsia: a pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and damage to organs such as the liver or kidneys.
3. Placenta previa: a condition where the placenta covers the cervix, which can cause bleeding and may require delivery via cesarean section.
4. Preterm labor: when labor begins before 37 weeks of gestation, which can lead to premature birth and other complications.
5. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR): a condition where the fetus does not grow at a normal rate inside the womb.
6. Multiple pregnancies: carrying more than one baby, such as twins or triplets, which can increase the risk of premature labor and other complications.
7. Rh incompatibility: a condition where the mother's blood type is different from the baby's, which can cause anemia and jaundice in the newborn.
8. Pregnancy loss: including miscarriage, stillbirth, or ectopic pregnancy, which can be emotionally devastating for the parents.

It is important to monitor pregnancy closely and seek medical attention promptly if any concerning symptoms arise. With proper care and management, many pregnancy complications can be treated effectively, reducing the risk of harm to both the mother and the baby.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

Pregnancy outcome refers to the final result or status of a pregnancy, including both the health of the mother and the newborn baby. It can be categorized into various types such as:

1. Live birth: The delivery of one or more babies who show signs of life after separation from their mother.
2. Stillbirth: The delivery of a baby who has died in the womb after 20 weeks of pregnancy.
3. Miscarriage: The spontaneous loss of a pregnancy before the 20th week.
4. Abortion: The intentional termination of a pregnancy before the fetus can survive outside the uterus.
5. Ectopic pregnancy: A pregnancy that develops outside the uterus, usually in the fallopian tube, which is not viable and requires medical attention.
6. Preterm birth: The delivery of a baby before 37 weeks of gestation, which can lead to various health issues for the newborn.
7. Full-term birth: The delivery of a baby between 37 and 42 weeks of gestation.
8. Post-term pregnancy: The delivery of a baby after 42 weeks of gestation, which may increase the risk of complications for both mother and baby.

The pregnancy outcome is influenced by various factors such as maternal age, health status, lifestyle habits, genetic factors, and access to quality prenatal care.

Pre-eclampsia is a pregnancy-related disorder, typically characterized by the onset of high blood pressure (hypertension) and damage to organs, such as the kidneys, after the 20th week of pregnancy. It is often accompanied by proteinuria, which is the presence of excess protein in the urine. Pre-eclampsia can lead to serious complications for both the mother and the baby if left untreated or unmanaged.

The exact causes of pre-eclampsia are not fully understood, but it is believed that placental issues, genetic factors, and immune system problems may contribute to its development. Risk factors include first-time pregnancies, history of pre-eclampsia in previous pregnancies, chronic hypertension, obesity, older age (35 or older), and assisted reproductive technology (ART) pregnancies.

Pre-eclampsia can progress to a more severe form called eclampsia, which is characterized by the onset of seizures. HELLP syndrome, another severe complication, involves hemolysis (breaking down of red blood cells), elevated liver enzymes, and low platelet count.

Early detection and management of pre-eclampsia are crucial to prevent severe complications. Regular prenatal care, including frequent blood pressure checks and urine tests, can help identify early signs of the condition. Treatment typically involves close monitoring, medication to lower blood pressure, corticosteroids to promote fetal lung maturity, and, in some cases, delivery of the baby if the mother's or baby's health is at risk.

Pregnancy-induced hypertension (PIH), also known as gestational hypertension, is a condition characterized by the new onset of high blood pressure (≥140 mm Hg systolic or ≥90 mm Hg diastolic) after 20 weeks of pregnancy in a woman who was normotensive before. It can sometimes progress to more severe conditions like preeclampsia and eclampsia, which are associated with damage to other organ systems such as the liver and kidneys.

PIH is typically classified into two types:

1. Gestational hypertension: This is when a woman develops high blood pressure after 20 weeks of pregnancy without any protein in the urine or evidence of damage to other organ systems. Women with gestational hypertension are at increased risk for preeclampsia and may require closer monitoring.

2. Preeclampsia: This is a more severe form of PIH, characterized by high blood pressure and proteinuria (≥0.3 g in a 24-hour urine collection) after 20 weeks of pregnancy. Preeclampsia can also involve damage to other organ systems, such as the liver, kidneys, or brain, and may progress to eclampsia, a life-threatening condition characterized by seizures.

The exact causes of PIH are not fully understood, but it is thought to be related to problems with the development and function of the blood vessels that supply the placenta. Risk factors for developing PIH include first-time pregnancies, obesity, older age, a history of chronic hypertension or kidney disease, and carrying multiples (twins, triplets, etc.).

Treatment for PIH depends on the severity of the condition and the gestational age of the pregnancy. In mild cases, close monitoring of blood pressure, urine protein levels, and fetal growth may be sufficient. More severe cases may require medication to lower blood pressure, corticosteroids to promote fetal lung maturity, or early delivery of the baby to prevent further complications.

Cardiovascular complications in pregnancy refer to conditions that affect the heart and blood vessels, which can arise during pregnancy, childbirth, or after delivery. These complications can be pre-existing or new-onset and can range from mild to severe, potentially threatening the life of both the mother and the fetus. Some examples of cardiovascular complications in pregnancy include:

1. Hypertension disorders: This includes chronic hypertension (high blood pressure before pregnancy), gestational hypertension (high blood pressure that develops after 20 weeks of pregnancy), and preeclampsia/eclampsia (a pregnancy-specific disorder characterized by high blood pressure, proteinuria, and potential organ damage).

2. Cardiomyopathy: A condition in which the heart muscle becomes weakened, leading to an enlarged heart and reduced pumping efficiency. Peripartum cardiomyopathy is a specific type that occurs during pregnancy or in the months following delivery.

3. Arrhythmias: Irregularities in the heart's rhythm, such as tachycardia (rapid heartbeat) or bradycardia (slow heartbeat), can occur during pregnancy and may require medical intervention.

4. Valvular heart disease: Pre-existing valve disorders, like mitral stenosis or aortic insufficiency, can worsen during pregnancy due to increased blood volume and cardiac output. Additionally, new valve issues might develop during pregnancy.

5. Venous thromboembolism (VTE): Pregnancy increases the risk of developing blood clots in the veins, particularly deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE).

6. Ischemic heart disease: Although rare, coronary artery disease and acute coronary syndrome can occur during pregnancy, especially in women with risk factors such as obesity, diabetes, or smoking history.

7. Heart failure: Severe cardiac dysfunction leading to fluid accumulation, shortness of breath, and reduced exercise tolerance may develop due to any of the above conditions or other underlying heart diseases.

Early recognition, monitoring, and appropriate management of these cardiovascular complications in pregnancy are crucial for maternal and fetal well-being.

Hematologic pregnancy complications refer to disorders related to the blood and blood-forming tissues that occur during pregnancy. These complications can have serious consequences for both the mother and the fetus if not properly managed. Some common hematologic pregnancy complications include:

1. Anemia: A condition characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells or hemoglobin in the blood, which can lead to fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath. Iron-deficiency anemia is the most common type of anemia during pregnancy.
2. Thrombocytopenia: A condition characterized by a decrease in the number of platelets (cells that help blood clot) in the blood. Mild thrombocytopenia is relatively common during pregnancy, but severe thrombocytopenia can increase the risk of bleeding during delivery.
3. Gestational thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (GTTP): A rare but serious disorder that can cause blood clots to form in small blood vessels throughout the body, leading to a decrease in the number of platelets and red blood cells. GTTP can cause serious complications such as stroke, kidney failure, and even death if not promptly diagnosed and treated.
4. Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC): A condition characterized by abnormal clotting and bleeding throughout the body. DIC can be triggered by various conditions such as severe infections, pregnancy complications, or cancer.
5. Hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, and low platelets (HELLP) syndrome: A serious complication of pregnancy that can cause damage to the liver and lead to bleeding. HELLP syndrome is often associated with preeclampsia, a condition characterized by high blood pressure and damage to organs such as the liver and kidneys.

It's important for pregnant women to receive regular prenatal care to monitor for these and other potential complications, and to seek prompt medical attention if any concerning symptoms arise.

'Female urogenital diseases' refer to a range of medical conditions that affect the urinary and reproductive systems in women. These may include:

1. Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): These are infections that occur in any part of the urinary system, including the kidneys, bladder, ureters, and urethra.
2. Kidney Stones: These are small, hard deposits that form inside the kidneys when there is a concentration of minerals and salts in the urine.
3. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID): This is an infection of the reproductive organs in women, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
4. Endometriosis: This is a condition where the tissue that lines the inside of the uterus grows outside of it, leading to pain, irregular bleeding, and infertility.
5. Ovarian Cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that form on the ovaries and can cause pain and discomfort.
6. Uterine Fibroids: These are noncancerous growths that develop in or on the uterus, leading to heavy menstrual bleeding, pelvic pressure, and pain during sex.

'Pregnancy complications' refer to medical conditions that can arise during pregnancy and can affect both the mother and the baby. These may include:

1. Preeclampsia: This is a pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and damage to organs such as the liver and kidneys.
2. Gestational Diabetes: This is a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy and can increase the risk of complications for both the mother and the baby.
3. Placenta Previa: This is a condition where the placenta covers the cervix, leading to bleeding and an increased risk of preterm labor.
4. Preterm Labor: This is when labor begins before 37 weeks of pregnancy, increasing the risk of complications such as respiratory distress syndrome and developmental delays in the baby.
5. Ectopic Pregnancy: This is a rare but serious condition where the fertilized egg implants outside of the uterus, usually in the fallopian tube.
6. Miscarriage: This is the loss of a pregnancy before 20 weeks of gestation and can be caused by various factors such as chromosomal abnormalities, maternal health problems, and environmental factors.

The first trimester of pregnancy is defined as the period of gestational development that extends from conception (fertilization of the egg by sperm) to the end of the 13th week. This critical phase marks significant transformations in both the mother's body and the growing embryo/fetus.

During the first trimester, the fertilized egg implants into the uterine lining (implantation), initiating a series of complex interactions leading to the formation of the placenta - an organ essential for providing nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus while removing waste products. Simultaneously, the embryo undergoes rapid cell division and differentiation, giving rise to various organs and systems. By the end of the first trimester, most major structures are present, although they continue to mature and grow throughout pregnancy.

The mother may experience several physiological changes during this time, including:
- Morning sickness (nausea and vomiting)
- Fatigue
- Breast tenderness
- Frequent urination
- Food aversions or cravings
- Mood swings

Additionally, hormonal shifts can cause various symptoms and prepare the body for potential changes in lactation, posture, and pelvic alignment as pregnancy progresses. Regular prenatal care is crucial during this period to monitor both maternal and fetal wellbeing, identify any potential complications early on, and provide appropriate guidance and support throughout the pregnancy.

Ectopic pregnancy is a type of abnormal pregnancy that occurs outside the uterine cavity. The most common site for an ectopic pregnancy is the fallopian tube, accounting for about 95% of cases. This condition is also known as tubal pregnancy. Other less common sites include the ovary, cervix, and abdominal cavity.

In a normal pregnancy, the fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube and implants itself in the lining of the uterus. However, in an ectopic pregnancy, the fertilized egg implants and starts to develop somewhere other than the uterus. The growing embryo cannot survive outside the uterus, and if left untreated, an ectopic pregnancy can cause life-threatening bleeding due to the rupture of the fallopian tube or other organs.

Symptoms of ectopic pregnancy may include abdominal pain, vaginal bleeding, shoulder pain, lightheadedness, fainting, and in severe cases, shock. Diagnosis is usually made through a combination of medical history, physical examination, ultrasound, and blood tests to measure the levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone produced during pregnancy.

Treatment for ectopic pregnancy depends on several factors, including the location, size, and growth rate of the ectopic mass, as well as the patient's overall health and desire for future pregnancies. Treatment options may include medication to stop the growth of the embryo or surgery to remove the ectopic tissue. In some cases, both methods may be used together. Early diagnosis and treatment can help prevent serious complications and improve the chances of preserving fertility in future pregnancies.

Spontaneous abortion, also known as miscarriage, is the unintentional expulsion of a nonviable fetus from the uterus before the 20th week of gestation. It is a common complication of early pregnancy, with most miscarriages occurring during the first trimester. Spontaneous abortion can have various causes, including chromosomal abnormalities, maternal health conditions, infections, hormonal imbalances, and structural issues of the uterus or cervix. In many cases, the exact cause may remain unknown.

The symptoms of spontaneous abortion can vary but often include vaginal bleeding, which may range from light spotting to heavy bleeding; abdominal pain or cramping; and the passing of tissue or clots from the vagina. While some miscarriages occur suddenly and are immediately noticeable, others may progress slowly over several days or even weeks.

In medical practice, healthcare providers often use specific terminology to describe different stages and types of spontaneous abortion. For example:

* Threatened abortion: Vaginal bleeding during early pregnancy, but the cervix remains closed, and there is no evidence of fetal demise or passing of tissue.
* Inevitable abortion: Vaginal bleeding with an open cervix, indicating that a miscarriage is imminent or already in progress.
* Incomplete abortion: The expulsion of some but not all products of conception from the uterus, requiring medical intervention to remove any remaining tissue.
* Complete abortion: The successful passage of all products of conception from the uterus, often confirmed through an ultrasound or pelvic examination.
* Missed abortion: The death of a fetus in the uterus without any expulsion of the products of conception, which may be discovered during routine prenatal care.
* Septic abortion: A rare and life-threatening complication of spontaneous abortion characterized by infection of the products of conception and the surrounding tissues, requiring prompt medical attention and antibiotic treatment.

Healthcare providers typically monitor patients who experience a spontaneous abortion to ensure that all products of conception have been expelled and that there are no complications, such as infection or excessive bleeding. In some cases, medication or surgical intervention may be necessary to remove any remaining tissue or address other issues related to the miscarriage. Counseling and support services are often available for individuals and couples who experience a spontaneous abortion, as they may face emotional challenges and concerns about future pregnancies.

Neoplastic pregnancy complications refer to the abnormal growth of cells (neoplasia) that can occur during pregnancy. These growths can be benign or malignant and can arise from any type of tissue in the body. However, when they occur in pregnant women, they can pose unique challenges due to the potential effects on the developing fetus and the changes in the mother's body.

Some common neoplastic pregnancy complications include:

1. Gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD): This is a group of rare tumors that occur in the uterus during pregnancy. GTD can range from benign conditions like hydatidiform mole to malignant forms like choriocarcinoma.
2. Breast cancer: Pregnancy-associated breast cancer (PABC) is a type of breast cancer that occurs during pregnancy or within one year after delivery. It can be aggressive and challenging to diagnose due to the changes in the breast tissue during pregnancy.
3. Cervical cancer: Cervical cancer can occur during pregnancy, and its management depends on the stage of the disease and the gestational age. In some cases, treatment may need to be delayed until after delivery.
4. Lung cancer: Pregnancy does not increase the risk of lung cancer, but it can make diagnosis and treatment more challenging.
5. Melanoma: Melanoma is the most common malignant skin cancer during pregnancy. It can spread quickly and requires prompt treatment.

The management of neoplastic pregnancy complications depends on several factors, including the type and stage of the tumor, gestational age, and the patient's wishes. In some cases, surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy may be necessary. However, these treatments can have potential risks to the developing fetus, so a multidisciplinary team of healthcare providers is often involved in the care of pregnant women with neoplastic complications.

Fetal growth retardation, also known as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), is a condition in which a fetus fails to grow at the expected rate during pregnancy. This can be caused by various factors such as maternal health problems, placental insufficiency, chromosomal abnormalities, and genetic disorders. The fetus may be smaller than expected for its gestational age, have reduced movement, and may be at risk for complications during labor and delivery. It is important to monitor fetal growth and development closely throughout pregnancy to detect any potential issues early on and provide appropriate medical interventions.

Abruptio placentae, also known as placental abruption, is a medical condition that occurs when the placenta separates from the uterus before the baby is born. The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy to provide oxygen and nutrients to the growing fetus.

In abruptio placentae, the separation of the placenta from the uterus can cause bleeding, which can be serious or life-threatening for both the mother and the baby. The severity of the condition depends on how much of the placenta has separated from the uterus and how much bleeding has occurred.

Abruptio placentae can cause a range of symptoms, including vaginal bleeding, abdominal pain, contractions, and fetal distress. In severe cases, it can lead to preterm labor, low birth weight, and even stillbirth. The exact cause of abruptio placentae is not always known, but risk factors include high blood pressure, smoking, cocaine use, trauma to the abdomen, and advanced maternal age. Treatment may involve hospitalization, bed rest, medication to prevent contractions, or delivery of the baby if the pregnancy is at term.

A premature birth is defined as the delivery of a baby before 37 weeks of gestation. This can occur spontaneously or as a result of medical intervention due to maternal or fetal complications. Premature babies, also known as preemies, may face various health challenges depending on how early they are born and their weight at birth. These challenges can include respiratory distress syndrome, jaundice, anemia, issues with feeding and digestion, developmental delays, and vision problems. With advancements in medical care and neonatal intensive care units (NICUs), many premature babies survive and go on to lead healthy lives.

"Animal pregnancy" is not a term that is typically used in medical definitions. However, in biological terms, animal pregnancy refers to the condition where a fertilized egg (or eggs) implants and develops inside the reproductive tract of a female animal, leading to the birth of offspring (live young).

The specific details of animal pregnancy can vary widely between different species, with some animals exhibiting phenomena such as placental development, gestation periods, and hormonal changes that are similar to human pregnancy, while others may have very different reproductive strategies.

It's worth noting that the study of animal pregnancy and reproduction is an important area of biological research, as it can provide insights into fundamental mechanisms of embryonic development, genetics, and evolution.

The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy and provides oxygen and nutrients to the growing baby through the umbilical cord. It also removes waste products from the baby's blood. The placenta attaches to the wall of the uterus, and the baby's side of the placenta contains many tiny blood vessels that connect to the baby's circulatory system. This allows for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste between the mother's and baby's blood. After the baby is born, the placenta is usually expelled from the uterus in a process called afterbirth.

The second trimester of pregnancy is the period between the completion of 12 weeks (the end of the first trimester) and 26 weeks (the beginning of the third trimester) of gestational age. It is often considered the most comfortable period for many pregnant women as the risk of miscarriage decreases significantly, and the symptoms experienced during the first trimester, such as nausea and fatigue, typically improve.

During this time, the uterus expands above the pubic bone, allowing more space for the growing fetus. The fetal development in the second trimester includes significant growth in size and weight, formation of all major organs, and the beginning of movement sensations that the mother can feel. Additionally, the fetus starts to hear, swallow and kick, and the skin is covered with a protective coating called vernix.

Prenatal care during this period typically includes regular prenatal appointments to monitor the mother's health and the baby's growth and development. These appointments may include measurements of the uterus, fetal heart rate monitoring, and screening tests for genetic disorders or other potential issues.

The uterine artery is a paired branch of the internal iliac (hip) artery that supplies blood to the uterus and vagina. It anastomoses (joins) with the ovarian artery to form a rich vascular network that nourishes the female reproductive organs. The right and left uterine arteries run along the sides of the uterus, where they divide into several branches to supply oxygenated blood and nutrients to the myometrium (uterine muscle), endometrium (lining), and cervix. These arteries undergo significant changes in size and structure during pregnancy to accommodate the growing fetus and placenta, making them crucial for maintaining a healthy pregnancy.

The third trimester of pregnancy is the final stage of pregnancy that lasts from week 29 until birth, which typically occurs around the 40th week. During this period, the fetus continues to grow and mature, gaining weight rapidly. The mother's body also prepares for childbirth by dilating the cervix and producing milk in preparation for breastfeeding. Regular prenatal care is crucial during this time to monitor the health of both the mother and the developing fetus, as well as to prepare for delivery.

Civil disorders refer to disturbances of peace and order in a civil society, often involving large groups of people engaging in protest, rioting, or other forms of disorderly conduct. These events can result in property damage, injury, and even loss of life. Civil disorders may be sparked by a variety of factors, including social inequality, political unrest, or economic instability. In the medical field, civil disorders can have significant impacts on public health, as they can disrupt access to healthcare services, increase the risk of violence and trauma, and exacerbate existing health disparities.

Postoperative complications refer to any unfavorable condition or event that occurs during the recovery period after a surgical procedure. These complications can vary in severity and may include, but are not limited to:

1. Infection: This can occur at the site of the incision or inside the body, such as pneumonia or urinary tract infection.
2. Bleeding: Excessive bleeding (hemorrhage) can lead to a drop in blood pressure and may require further surgical intervention.
3. Blood clots: These can form in the deep veins of the legs (deep vein thrombosis) and can potentially travel to the lungs (pulmonary embolism).
4. Wound dehiscence: This is when the surgical wound opens up, which can lead to infection and further complications.
5. Pulmonary issues: These include atelectasis (collapsed lung), pneumonia, or respiratory failure.
6. Cardiovascular problems: These include abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), heart attack, or stroke.
7. Renal failure: This can occur due to various reasons such as dehydration, blood loss, or the use of certain medications.
8. Pain management issues: Inadequate pain control can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and decreased mobility.
9. Nausea and vomiting: These can be caused by anesthesia, opioid pain medication, or other factors.
10. Delirium: This is a state of confusion and disorientation that can occur in the elderly or those with certain medical conditions.

Prompt identification and management of these complications are crucial to ensure the best possible outcome for the patient.

Placental diseases, also known as placental pathologies, refer to a group of conditions that affect the development and function of the placenta during pregnancy. The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy and provides oxygen and nutrients to the developing fetus while removing waste products.

Placental diseases can have serious consequences for both the mother and the fetus, including preterm labor, growth restriction, stillbirth, and long-term health problems for the child. Some common placental diseases include:

1. Placental abruption: This occurs when the placenta separates from the uterine wall before delivery, causing bleeding and potentially harming the fetus.
2. Placental previa: This is a condition where the placenta implants in the lower part of the uterus, covering the cervix. It can cause bleeding and may require cesarean delivery.
3. Preeclampsia: This is a pregnancy-related disorder characterized by high blood pressure and damage to organs such as the liver and kidneys. Placental dysfunction is thought to play a role in its development.
4. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR): This occurs when the fetus does not grow properly due to poor placental function, leading to low birth weight and potential health problems.
5. Chorioamnionitis: This is an infection of the membranes surrounding the fetus, which can lead to preterm labor and other complications.
6. Placental infarction: This occurs when a portion of the placenta dies due to a lack of blood flow, which can lead to growth restriction or stillbirth.

Prompt diagnosis and treatment of placental diseases are essential for ensuring the best possible outcomes for both the mother and the fetus.

Infectious pregnancy complications refer to infections that occur during pregnancy and can affect the mother, fetus, or both. These infections can lead to serious consequences such as preterm labor, low birth weight, birth defects, stillbirth, or even death. Some common infectious agents that can cause pregnancy complications include:

1. Bacteria: Examples include group B streptococcus, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes, which can cause sepsis, meningitis, or pneumonia in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.
2. Viruses: Examples include cytomegalovirus, rubella, varicella-zoster, and HIV, which can cause congenital anomalies, developmental delays, or transmission of the virus to the fetus.
3. Parasites: Examples include Toxoplasma gondii, which can cause severe neurological damage in the fetus if transmitted during pregnancy.
4. Fungi: Examples include Candida albicans, which can cause fungal infections in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.

Preventive measures such as vaccination, good hygiene practices, and avoiding high-risk behaviors can help reduce the risk of infectious pregnancy complications. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of infections during pregnancy are also crucial to prevent adverse outcomes.

Eclampsia is a serious pregnancy complication characterized by the onset of seizures or convulsions in a woman who has already developed preeclampsia, which is a condition marked by high blood pressure and damage to organs such as the liver and kidneys. Eclampsia can occur before, during, or after delivery and is considered a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment. It can pose significant risks to both the mother and the baby, including premature birth, fetal growth restriction, and even maternal and fetal death.

The exact causes of eclampsia are not fully understood, but it is thought to be related to problems with the placenta and abnormal blood vessel development in the uterus. Risk factors for developing eclampsia include preexisting medical conditions such as chronic hypertension or diabetes, a history of preeclampsia or eclampsia in previous pregnancies, multiple gestation (carrying more than one baby), and certain genetic factors.

Treatment for eclampsia typically involves delivering the baby as soon as possible to prevent further complications. In some cases, medication may be given to manage seizures and prevent their recurrence. Close monitoring of both the mother and the baby is essential to ensure the best possible outcomes.

Twin pregnancy refers to a type of multiple pregnancy where a woman is carrying two fetuses simultaneously. There are two types of twin pregnancies: monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal). Monoygotic twins occur when a single fertilized egg (zygote) splits and develops into two separate embryos, resulting in identical twins who share the same genetic material. Dizygotic twins, on the other hand, result from the fertilization of two separate eggs by two different sperm cells, leading to non-identical twins who have their own unique genetic material.

Twin pregnancies are associated with higher risks of complications compared to singleton pregnancies, including preterm labor, low birth weight, gestational diabetes, and preeclampsia. Close monitoring by healthcare providers is essential to ensure the best possible outcomes for both the mother and the twins.

Premature obstetric labor, also known as preterm labor, is defined as regular contractions leading to cervical changes that begin before 37 weeks of gestation. This condition can result in premature birth and potentially complications for the newborn, depending on how early the delivery occurs. It's important to note that premature labor requires medical attention and intervention to try to stop or delay it, if possible, to allow for further fetal development.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

Placental circulation refers to the specialized circulatory system that develops during pregnancy to allow for the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products between the mother's blood and the fetal blood in the placenta. The placenta is a highly vascular organ that grows within the uterus and is connected to the developing fetus via the umbilical cord.

In the maternal side of the placenta, the spiral arteries branch into smaller vessels called the intervillous spaces, where they come in close contact with the fetal blood vessels within the villi (finger-like projections) of the placenta. The intervillous spaces are filled with maternal blood that flows around the villi, allowing for the exchange of gases and nutrients between the two circulations.

On the fetal side, the umbilical cord contains two umbilical arteries that carry oxygen-depleted blood from the fetus to the placenta, and one umbilical vein that returns oxygenated blood back to the fetus. The umbilical arteries branch into smaller vessels within the villi, where they exchange gases and nutrients with the maternal blood in the intervillous spaces.

Overall, the placental circulation is a crucial component of fetal development, allowing for the growing fetus to receive the necessary oxygen and nutrients to support its growth and development.

Gestational age is the length of time that has passed since the first day of the last menstrual period (LMP) in pregnant women. It is the standard unit used to estimate the age of a pregnancy and is typically expressed in weeks. This measure is used because the exact date of conception is often not known, but the start of the last menstrual period is usually easier to recall.

It's important to note that since ovulation typically occurs around two weeks after the start of the LMP, gestational age is approximately two weeks longer than fetal age, which is the actual time elapsed since conception. Medical professionals use both gestational and fetal age to track the development and growth of the fetus during pregnancy.

Trophoblasts are specialized cells that make up the outer layer of a blastocyst, which is a hollow ball of cells that forms in the earliest stages of embryonic development. In humans, this process occurs about 5-6 days after fertilization. The blastocyst consists of an inner cell mass (which will eventually become the embryo) and an outer layer of trophoblasts.

Trophoblasts play a crucial role in implantation, which is the process by which the blastocyst attaches to and invades the lining of the uterus. Once implanted, the trophoblasts differentiate into two main layers: the cytotrophoblasts (which are closer to the inner cell mass) and the syncytiotrophoblasts (which form a multinucleated layer that is in direct contact with the maternal tissues).

The cytotrophoblasts proliferate and fuse to form the syncytiotrophoblasts, which have several important functions. They secrete enzymes that help to degrade and remodel the extracellular matrix of the uterine lining, allowing the blastocyst to implant more deeply. They also form a barrier between the maternal and fetal tissues, helping to protect the developing embryo from the mother's immune system.

Additionally, trophoblasts are responsible for the formation of the placenta, which provides nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus and removes waste products. The syncytiotrophoblasts in particular play a key role in this process by secreting hormones such as human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which helps to maintain pregnancy, and by forming blood vessels that allow for the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and fetus.

Abnormalities in trophoblast development or function can lead to a variety of pregnancy-related complications, including preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, and gestational trophoblastic diseases such as hydatidiform moles and choriocarcinomas.

Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that occurs during pregnancy. It is characterized by an increase in blood sugar levels that begins or is first recognized during pregnancy. The condition usually develops around the 24th week of gestation and is caused by the body's inability to produce enough insulin to meet the increased demands of pregnancy.

Gestational diabetes typically resolves after delivery, but women who have had gestational diabetes are at an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life. It is important for women with gestational diabetes to manage their blood sugar levels during pregnancy to reduce the risk of complications for both the mother and the baby.

Management of gestational diabetes may include lifestyle modifications such as dietary changes and exercise, as well as monitoring blood sugar levels and potentially using insulin or other medications to control blood sugar levels. Regular prenatal care is essential for women with gestational diabetes to ensure that their blood sugar levels are properly managed and to monitor the growth and development of the fetus.

Congenital abnormalities, also known as birth defects, are structural or functional anomalies that are present at birth. These abnormalities can develop at any point during fetal development, and they can affect any part of the body. They can be caused by genetic factors, environmental influences, or a combination of both.

Congenital abnormalities can range from mild to severe and may include structural defects such as heart defects, neural tube defects, and cleft lip and palate, as well as functional defects such as intellectual disabilities and sensory impairments. Some congenital abnormalities may be visible at birth, while others may not become apparent until later in life.

In some cases, congenital abnormalities may be detected through prenatal testing, such as ultrasound or amniocentesis. In other cases, they may not be diagnosed until after the baby is born. Treatment for congenital abnormalities varies depending on the type and severity of the defect, and may include surgery, therapy, medication, or a combination of these approaches.

Fetal death, also known as stillbirth or intrauterine fetal demise, is defined as the death of a fetus at 20 weeks of gestation or later. The criteria for defining fetal death may vary slightly by country and jurisdiction, but in general, it refers to the loss of a pregnancy after the point at which the fetus is considered viable outside the womb.

Fetal death can occur for a variety of reasons, including chromosomal abnormalities, placental problems, maternal health conditions, infections, and umbilical cord accidents. In some cases, the cause of fetal death may remain unknown.

The diagnosis of fetal death is typically made through ultrasound or other imaging tests, which can confirm the absence of a heartbeat or movement in the fetus. Once fetal death has been diagnosed, medical professionals will work with the parents to determine the best course of action for managing the pregnancy and delivering the fetus. This may involve waiting for labor to begin naturally, inducing labor, or performing a cesarean delivery.

Experiencing a fetal death can be a very difficult and emotional experience for parents, and it is important for them to receive supportive care from their healthcare providers, family members, and friends. Grief counseling and support groups may also be helpful in coping with the loss.

Preconception care (PCC) refers to a set of interventions that aim to identify and modify biomedical, behavioral, and social risks to a woman's health or pregnancy outcome through prevention and management, before conception. PCC is designed to optimize the health status of women of reproductive age, and includes counseling and education about lifestyle modifications such as improving nutrition, achieving a healthy weight, stopping smoking and alcohol consumption, controlling chronic diseases, and avoiding teratogenic exposures. The goal of PCC is to reduce risks and improve the chances of a healthy pregnancy and baby.

High-risk pregnancy is a term used to describe a situation where the mother or the fetus has an increased risk of developing complications during pregnancy, labor, delivery, or in the postpartum period. These risks may be due to pre-existing medical conditions in the mother, such as diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, kidney disease, autoimmune disorders, or infectious diseases like HIV/AIDS. Other factors that can contribute to a high-risk pregnancy include advanced maternal age (35 years and older), obesity, multiple gestations (twins, triplets, etc.), fetal growth restriction, placental issues, and a history of previous pregnancy complications or preterm labor.

High-risk pregnancies require specialized care and monitoring by healthcare professionals, often involving maternal-fetal medicine specialists, obstetricians, perinatologists, and neonatologists. Regular prenatal care, frequent checkups, ultrasound monitoring, and sometimes additional testing and interventions may be necessary to ensure the best possible outcomes for both the mother and the baby.

Multiple pregnancy is a type of gestation where more than one fetus is carried simultaneously in the uterus. The most common forms of multiple pregnancies are twins (two fetuses), triplets (three fetuses), and quadruplets (four fetuses). Multiple pregnancies can occur when a single fertilized egg splits into two or more embryos (monozygotic) or when more than one egg is released and gets fertilized during ovulation (dizygotic). The risk of multiple pregnancies increases with the use of assisted reproductive technologies, such as in vitro fertilization. Multiple pregnancies are associated with higher risks for both the mother and the fetuses, including preterm labor, low birth weight, and other complications.

A Cesarean section, often referred to as a C-section, is a surgical procedure used to deliver a baby. It involves making an incision through the mother's abdomen and uterus to remove the baby. This procedure may be necessary when a vaginal delivery would put the mother or the baby at risk.

There are several reasons why a C-section might be recommended, including:

* The baby is in a breech position (feet first) or a transverse position (sideways) and cannot be turned to a normal head-down position.
* The baby is too large to safely pass through the mother's birth canal.
* The mother has a medical condition, such as heart disease or high blood pressure, that could make vaginal delivery risky.
* The mother has an infection, such as HIV or herpes, that could be passed to the baby during a vaginal delivery.
* The labor is not progressing and there are concerns about the health of the mother or the baby.

C-sections are generally safe for both the mother and the baby, but like any surgery, they do carry some risks. These can include infection, bleeding, blood clots, and injury to nearby organs. In addition, women who have a C-section are more likely to experience complications in future pregnancies, such as placenta previa or uterine rupture.

If you have questions about whether a C-section is necessary for your delivery, it's important to discuss your options with your healthcare provider.

Obstetric labor complications refer to any physical or physiological difficulties that arise during the process of childbirth (labor) and can pose risks to the health of the mother, baby, or both. These complications may result from various factors such as pre-existing medical conditions, fetal distress, prolonged labor, abnormal positioning of the fetus, or issues related to the size or weight of the baby.

Some examples of obstetric labor complications include:

1. Fetal distress: This occurs when the fetus is not receiving adequate oxygen supply or is in danger during labor. It can be caused by various factors such as umbilical cord compression, placental abruption, or maternal anemia.
2. Prolonged labor: When labor lasts for more than 20 hours in first-time mothers or more than 14 hours in subsequent pregnancies, it is considered prolonged labor. This can lead to fatigue, infection, and other complications for both the mother and baby.
3. Abnormal positioning of the fetus: Normally, the fetus should be positioned head-down (vertex) before delivery. However, if the fetus is in a breech or transverse position, it can lead to difficult labor and increased risk of complications during delivery.
4. Shoulder dystocia: This occurs when the baby's shoulders get stuck behind the mother's pubic bone during delivery, making it challenging to deliver the baby. It can cause injuries to both the mother and the baby.
5. Placental abruption: This is a serious complication where the placenta separates from the uterus before delivery, leading to bleeding and potential oxygen deprivation for the fetus.
6. Uterine rupture: A rare but life-threatening complication where the uterus tears during labor, causing severe bleeding and potentially endangering both the mother and baby's lives.
7. Preeclampsia/eclampsia: This is a pregnancy-related hypertensive disorder that can lead to complications such as seizures, organ failure, or even maternal death if left untreated.
8. Postpartum hemorrhage: Excessive bleeding after delivery can be life-threatening and requires immediate medical attention.
9. Infections: Maternal infections during pregnancy or childbirth can lead to complications for both the mother and baby, including preterm labor, low birth weight, and even fetal death.
10. Anesthesia complications: Adverse reactions to anesthesia during delivery can cause respiratory depression, allergic reactions, or other complications that may endanger the mother's life.

A stillbirth is defined as the delivery of a baby who has died in the womb after 20 weeks of pregnancy. The baby may die at any time during the pregnancy, but death must occur after 20 weeks to be classified as a stillbirth. Stillbirths can have many different causes, including problems with the placenta or umbilical cord, chromosomal abnormalities, infections, and birth defects. In some cases, the cause of a stillbirth may not be able to be determined.

Stillbirth is a tragic event that can have significant emotional and psychological impacts on the parents and other family members. It is important for healthcare providers to offer support and resources to help families cope with their loss. This may include counseling, support groups, and information about memorializing their baby.

Prenatal care is a type of preventive healthcare that focuses on providing regular check-ups and medical care to pregnant women, with the aim of ensuring the best possible health outcomes for both the mother and the developing fetus. It involves routine prenatal screenings and tests, such as blood pressure monitoring, urine analysis, weight checks, and ultrasounds, to assess the progress of the pregnancy and identify any potential health issues or complications early on.

Prenatal care also includes education and counseling on topics such as nutrition, exercise, and lifestyle choices that can affect pregnancy outcomes. It may involve referrals to specialists, such as obstetricians, perinatologists, or maternal-fetal medicine specialists, for high-risk pregnancies.

Overall, prenatal care is an essential component of ensuring a healthy pregnancy and reducing the risk of complications during childbirth and beyond.

Small for Gestational Age (SGA) is a term used in pediatrics to describe newborn infants who are smaller in size than expected for the number of weeks they have been in the womb. It is typically defined as a baby whose weight is below the 10th percentile for its gestational age. SGA can be further classified into two categories: constitutionally small (also known as physiologically small) and pathologically small. Constitutionally small infants are those who are genetically predisposed to being smaller, while pathologically small infants have a growth restriction due to factors such as placental insufficiency, maternal hypertension, or chromosomal abnormalities.

It is important to note that SGA is not the same as premature birth. Premature babies are those born before 37 weeks of gestation, regardless of their size. However, a baby can be both premature and SGA.

The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ located in the female pelvic cavity, between the bladder and the rectum. It has a thick, middle layer called the myometrium, which is composed of smooth muscle tissue, and an inner lining called the endometrium, which provides a nurturing environment for the fertilized egg to develop into a fetus during pregnancy.

The uterus is where the baby grows and develops until it is ready for birth through the cervix, which is the lower, narrow part of the uterus that opens into the vagina. The uterus plays a critical role in the menstrual cycle as well, by shedding its lining each month if pregnancy does not occur.

The medical definition of "Habitual Abortion" refers to a woman who has three or more consecutive pregnancies that end in spontaneous miscarriages before 20 weeks of gestation. The cause of habitual abortions can be difficult to determine and may involve genetic, anatomical, hormonal, or immune system factors. Treatment is often aimed at addressing any underlying issues that may be contributing to the recurrent miscarriages. It's important to note that the terminology has changed over time and the term "recurrent pregnancy loss" is now more commonly used in place of "habitual abortion".

Prenatal ultrasonography, also known as obstetric ultrasound, is a medical diagnostic procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to create images of the developing fetus, placenta, and amniotic fluid inside the uterus. It is a non-invasive and painless test that is widely used during pregnancy to monitor the growth and development of the fetus, detect any potential abnormalities or complications, and determine the due date.

During the procedure, a transducer (a small handheld device) is placed on the mother's abdomen and moved around to capture images from different angles. The sound waves travel through the mother's body and bounce back off the fetus, producing echoes that are then converted into electrical signals and displayed as images on a screen.

Prenatal ultrasonography can be performed at various stages of pregnancy, including early pregnancy to confirm the pregnancy and detect the number of fetuses, mid-pregnancy to assess the growth and development of the fetus, and late pregnancy to evaluate the position of the fetus and determine if it is head down or breech. It can also be used to guide invasive procedures such as amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling.

Overall, prenatal ultrasonography is a valuable tool in modern obstetrics that helps ensure the health and well-being of both the mother and the developing fetus.

"Pregnancy proteins" is not a standard medical term, but it may refer to specific proteins that are produced or have increased levels during pregnancy. Two common pregnancy-related proteins are:

1. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): A hormone produced by the placenta shortly after fertilization. It is often detected in urine or blood tests to confirm pregnancy. Its primary function is to maintain the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and estrogen during early pregnancy until the placenta takes over these functions.

2. Pregnancy-Specific beta-1 Glycoprotein (SP1): A protein produced by the placental trophoblasts during pregnancy. Its function is not well understood, but it may play a role in implantation, placentation, and protection against the mother's immune system. SP1 levels increase throughout pregnancy and are used as a marker for fetal growth and well-being.

These proteins have clinical significance in monitoring pregnancy progression, detecting potential complications, and diagnosing certain pregnancy-related conditions.

Birth weight refers to the first weight of a newborn infant, usually taken immediately after birth. It is a critical vital sign that indicates the baby's health status and is used as a predictor for various short-term and long-term health outcomes.

Typically, a full-term newborn's weight ranges from 5.5 to 8.8 pounds (2.5 to 4 kg), although normal birth weights can vary significantly based on factors such as gestational age, genetics, maternal health, and nutrition. Low birth weight is defined as less than 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg), while high birth weight is greater than 8.8 pounds (4 kg).

Low birth weight babies are at a higher risk for various medical complications, including respiratory distress syndrome, jaundice, infections, and developmental delays. High birth weight babies may face challenges with delivery, increased risk of obesity, and potential metabolic issues later in life. Regular prenatal care is essential to monitor fetal growth and ensure a healthy pregnancy and optimal birth weight for the baby.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

The pregnancy rate is a measure used in reproductive medicine to determine the frequency or efficiency of conception following certain treatments, interventions, or under specific conditions. It is typically defined as the number of pregnancies per 100 women exposed to the condition being studied over a specified period of time. A pregnancy is confirmed when a woman has a positive result on a pregnancy test or through the detection of a gestational sac on an ultrasound exam.

In clinical trials and research, the pregnancy rate helps healthcare professionals evaluate the effectiveness of various fertility treatments such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), intrauterine insemination (IUI), or ovulation induction medications. The pregnancy rate can also be used to assess the impact of lifestyle factors, environmental exposures, or medical conditions on fertility and conception.

It is important to note that pregnancy rates may vary depending on several factors, including age, the cause of infertility, the type and quality of treatment provided, and individual patient characteristics. Therefore, comparing pregnancy rates between different studies should be done cautiously, considering these potential confounding variables.

Maternal age is a term used to describe the age of a woman at the time she becomes pregnant or gives birth. It is often used in medical and epidemiological contexts to discuss the potential risks, complications, and outcomes associated with pregnancy and childbirth at different stages of a woman's reproductive years.

Advanced maternal age typically refers to women who become pregnant or give birth at 35 years of age or older. This group faces an increased risk for certain chromosomal abnormalities, such as Down syndrome, and other pregnancy-related complications, including gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, and cesarean delivery.

On the other end of the spectrum, adolescent pregnancies (those that occur in women under 20 years old) also come with their own set of potential risks and complications, such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and anemia.

It's important to note that while maternal age can influence pregnancy outcomes, many other factors – including genetics, lifestyle choices, and access to quality healthcare – can also play a significant role in determining the health of both mother and baby during pregnancy and childbirth.

In medical terms, parity refers to the number of times a woman has given birth to a viable fetus, usually defined as a pregnancy that reaches at least 20 weeks' gestation. It is often used in obstetrics and gynecology to describe a woman's childbearing history and to assess potential risks associated with childbirth.

Parity is typically categorized as follows:

* Nulliparous: A woman who has never given birth to a viable fetus.
* Primiparous: A woman who has given birth to one viable fetus.
* Multiparous: A woman who has given birth to more than one viable fetus.

In some cases, parity may also consider the number of pregnancies that resulted in stillbirths or miscarriages, although this is not always the case. It's important to note that parity does not necessarily reflect the total number of pregnancies a woman has had, only those that resulted in viable births.

Antiphospholipid antibodies are a type of autoantibody that targets and binds to certain proteins found in the blood that attach to phospholipids (a type of fat molecule). These antibodies are associated with an increased risk of developing antiphospholipid syndrome, a disorder characterized by abnormal blood clotting.

There are several types of antiphospholipid antibodies, including:

1. Lupus anticoagulant: This type of antiphospholipid antibody can interfere with blood clotting tests and may increase the risk of thrombosis (blood clots) in both arteries and veins.
2. Anticardiolipin antibodies: These antibodies target a specific phospholipid called cardiolipin, which is found in the inner membrane of mitochondria. High levels of anticardiolipin antibodies are associated with an increased risk of thrombosis and pregnancy complications such as recurrent miscarriage.
3. Anti-β2 glycoprotein I antibodies: These antibodies target a protein called β2 glycoprotein I, which binds to negatively charged phospholipids on the surface of cells. High levels of anti-β2 glycoprotein I antibodies are associated with an increased risk of thrombosis and pregnancy complications.

The exact mechanism by which antiphospholipid antibodies cause blood clotting is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve the activation of platelets, the inhibition of natural anticoagulants, and the promotion of inflammation. Antiphospholipid syndrome can be treated with medications that thin the blood or prevent clots from forming, such as aspirin, warfarin, or heparin.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Placental insufficiency is a condition in which the placenta does not provide adequate nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus. This can occur due to various reasons, such as poor placental development, damage to the placenta, or problems with the blood flow to the placenta. As a result, the fetus may receive less oxygen and nutrients than it needs for proper growth and development, which can lead to a range of complications, including low birth weight, preterm birth, and developmental delays.

The medical definition of placental insufficiency is: "a condition in which the placenta fails to provide adequate support to the developing fetus, resulting in impaired fetal growth and development." This condition can be diagnosed through various tests, such as ultrasound, fetal monitoring, and blood tests, and may require close monitoring and management throughout pregnancy to ensure the best possible outcomes for both the mother and the baby.

Pregnancy trimesters are a way to divide the duration of pregnancy into three 3-month (or approximately 13-week) segments. This division can help healthcare providers monitor and discuss specific developmental stages, symptoms, and care needs during each phase of the pregnancy. Here's a brief overview of what typically occurs in each trimester:

1. First Trimester (Week 1 - Week 12): During this period, major organs and structures begin to form in the developing fetus. Common symptoms experienced by the pregnant individual may include morning sickness, fatigue, breast tenderness, and frequent urination. Regular prenatal care should start during these early weeks to monitor both the mother's and baby's health.

2. Second Trimester (Week 13 - Week 26): This phase is often considered more comfortable for many pregnant individuals as some symptoms from the first trimester improve. The fetus continues to grow, and movement can be felt. Organs and systems continue to develop, and the fetus becomes more active. Common symptoms during this time include back pain, stretch marks, and swelling of the ankles and feet.

3. Third Trimester (Week 27 - Birth): The final trimester is marked by significant growth and weight gain for both the mother and baby. The fetus will turn into a head-down position in preparation for birth. Common symptoms during this time include shortness of breath, heartburn, difficulty sleeping, and contractions (which can indicate early labor). Regular prenatal care remains crucial to monitor the health of both the mother and baby as delivery approaches.

Placentation is the process by which the placenta, an organ that provides nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus and removes waste products, is formed and develops during pregnancy. It involves the attachment of the fertilized egg (embryo) to the uterine wall and the development of specialized structures that facilitate the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste between the mother and the fetus.

In humans, placentation begins when the embryo implants into the endometrium, or the lining of the uterus, about 6-10 days after fertilization. The outer layer of the embryo, called the trophoblast, invades the endometrial tissue and forms a structure called the placenta.

The placenta consists of both maternal and fetal tissues. The fetal portion of the placenta is derived from the chorionic villi, which are finger-like projections that develop on the surface of the embryo and increase the surface area for exchange. The maternal portion of the placenta is made up of modified endometrial tissue called decidua.

The placenta grows and develops throughout pregnancy, providing a vital connection between the mother and fetus. Proper placentation is essential for a healthy pregnancy and fetal development. Abnormalities in placentation can lead to complications such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and intrauterine growth restriction.

Medical definitions of "Multiple Birth Offspring" refer to two or more children born to the same mother during one single pregnancy and childbirth. The most common forms of multiple birth offspring are twins (two babies), triplets (three babies), quadruplets (four babies), and so on.

The occurrence of multiple birth offspring is influenced by several factors, including genetics, maternal age, the use of fertility treatments, and other medical conditions. Multiple birth offspring may be identical (monozygotic) or fraternal (dizygotic), depending on whether they developed from a single fertilized egg or from separate eggs.

Multiple birth offspring often face unique health challenges, such as preterm birth, low birth weight, and developmental delays, due to the limited space and resources available in the womb. As a result, they may require specialized medical care and attention both during and after pregnancy.

A pregnancy test is a medical diagnostic tool used to determine whether or not a woman is pregnant. These tests detect the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone produced by the placenta after fertilization. Pregnancy tests can be performed using a variety of methods, including urine tests and blood tests.

Urine pregnancy tests are typically performed at home and involve either dipping a test strip into a sample of urine or holding the strip under a stream of urine for several seconds. The test strip contains antibodies that react with hCG, producing a visual signal such as a line or plus sign if hCG is present.

Blood pregnancy tests are performed by a healthcare provider and can detect lower levels of hCG than urine tests. There are two types of blood pregnancy tests: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative tests simply detect the presence or absence of hCG, while quantitative tests measure the exact amount of hCG present in the blood.

Pregnancy tests are generally very accurate when used correctly, but false positives and false negatives can occur. False positives may occur due to certain medical conditions or medications that contain hCG. False negatives may occur if the test is taken too early or if it is not performed correctly. It is important to follow the instructions carefully and consult with a healthcare provider if there is any uncertainty about the results.

"Delivery, Obstetric" is a medical term that refers to the process of giving birth to a baby. It involves the passage of the fetus through the mother's vagina or via Caesarean section (C-section), which is a surgical procedure.

The obstetric delivery process typically includes three stages:

1. The first stage begins with the onset of labor and ends when the cervix is fully dilated.
2. The second stage starts with full dilation of the cervix and ends with the birth of the baby.
3. The third stage involves the delivery of the placenta, which is the organ that provides oxygen and nutrients to the developing fetus during pregnancy.

Obstetric delivery requires careful monitoring and management by healthcare professionals to ensure the safety and well-being of both the mother and the baby. Various interventions and techniques may be used during the delivery process to facilitate a safe and successful outcome, including the use of medications, assisted delivery with forceps or vacuum extraction, and C-section.

Maternal-fetal exchange, also known as maternal-fetal transport or placental transfer, refers to the physiological process by which various substances are exchanged between the mother and fetus through the placenta. This exchange includes the transfer of oxygen and nutrients from the mother's bloodstream to the fetal bloodstream, as well as the removal of waste products and carbon dioxide from the fetal bloodstream to the mother's bloodstream.

The process occurs via passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport mechanisms across the placental barrier, which is composed of fetal capillary endothelial cells, the extracellular matrix, and the syncytiotrophoblast layer of the placenta. The maternal-fetal exchange is crucial for the growth, development, and survival of the fetus throughout pregnancy.

'Pregnancy in Diabetics' refers to the condition where an individual with pre-existing diabetes mellitus becomes pregnant. This can be further categorized into two types:

1. Pre-gestational diabetes: This is when a woman is diagnosed with diabetes before she becomes pregnant. It includes both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Proper control of blood sugar levels prior to conception and during pregnancy is crucial to reduce the risk of complications for both the mother and the baby.

2. Gestational diabetes: This is when a woman develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy, typically in the second or third trimester. While it usually resolves after delivery, women with gestational diabetes have a higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes later in life. Proper management of gestational diabetes is essential to ensure a healthy pregnancy and reduce the risk of complications for both the mother and the baby.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Tubal pregnancy, also known as an ectopic pregnancy, is a type of pregnancy that occurs outside the uterus, usually in the fallopian tube. The fertilized egg implants and starts to develop in the tube instead of the uterine lining. This condition is not viable and can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

The symptoms of a tubal pregnancy may include abdominal pain, vaginal bleeding, shoulder pain, dizziness or fainting, and pelvic discomfort or tenderness. If you suspect that you have a tubal pregnancy, it is important to seek medical attention immediately. Treatment options for tubal pregnancies include medication or surgery to remove the embryo and repair or remove the affected fallopian tube.

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies in the blood. These antibodies are directed against phospholipids, a type of fat molecule found in cell membranes and plasma lipoproteins. The presence of these antibodies can lead to abnormal blood clotting, which can cause serious complications such as stroke, heart attack, deep vein thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism.

APS can occur either on its own (primary APS) or in conjunction with other autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (secondary APS). The exact cause of APS is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Symptoms of APS can vary widely depending on the location and severity of the blood clots. They may include:

* Recurrent miscarriages or stillbirths
* Blood clots in the legs, lungs, or other parts of the body
* Skin ulcers or lesions
* Headaches, seizures, or stroke-like symptoms
* Kidney problems
* Heart valve abnormalities

Diagnosis of APS typically involves blood tests to detect the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies. Treatment may include medications to prevent blood clots, such as anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents, as well as management of any underlying autoimmune disorders.

Maternal welfare is not a term that has a specific medical definition. However, in a general sense, it refers to the physical, mental, and social well-being of a woman during pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period. It encompasses various factors such as access to quality healthcare services, nutrition, emotional support, and a safe and healthy environment.

Maternal welfare is an essential component of maternal health, which aims to ensure that women have a positive and safe pregnancy and childbirth experience, free from complications and harm. It involves addressing issues related to maternal mortality and morbidity, prenatal care, family planning, and reproductive rights.

Promoting maternal welfare requires a multidisciplinary approach that includes healthcare providers, policymakers, community leaders, and families working together to ensure that women have access to the resources and support they need to maintain their health and well-being during pregnancy and beyond.

Assisted reproductive techniques (ART) are medical procedures that involve the handling of human sperm and ova to establish a pregnancy. These techniques are used when other methods of achieving pregnancy have failed or are not available. Examples of ART include in vitro fertilization (IVF), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), and zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT). These procedures may be used to treat infertility, prevent genetic disorders, or to help same-sex couples or single people have children. It is important to note that the use of ART can involve significant physical, emotional, and financial costs, and it may not always result in a successful pregnancy.

Fetal development is the process in which a fertilized egg grows and develops into a fetus, which is a developing human being from the end of the eighth week after conception until birth. This complex process involves many different stages, including:

1. Fertilization: The union of a sperm and an egg to form a zygote.
2. Implantation: The movement of the zygote into the lining of the uterus, where it will begin to grow and develop.
3. Formation of the embryo: The development of the basic structures of the body, including the neural tube (which becomes the brain and spinal cord), heart, gastrointestinal tract, and sensory organs.
4. Differentiation of tissues and organs: The process by which different cells and tissues become specialized to perform specific functions.
5. Growth and maturation: The continued growth and development of the fetus, including the formation of bones, muscles, and other tissues.

Fetal development is a complex and highly regulated process that involves the interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Proper nutrition, prenatal care, and avoidance of harmful substances such as tobacco, alcohol, and drugs are important for ensuring healthy fetal development.

Low birth weight is a term used to describe babies who are born weighing less than 5 pounds, 8 ounces (2,500 grams). It's often defined as a birth weight of 2,499 grams or less. This can be further categorized into very low birth weight (less than 1,500 grams) and extremely low birth weight (less than 1,000 grams). Low birth weight is most commonly caused by premature birth, but it can also be caused by growth restriction in the womb. These babies are at risk for numerous health complications, both in the short and long term.

Premature rupture of fetal membranes (PROM) is a medical condition that occurs when the amniotic sac, which surrounds and protects the developing fetus, breaks or ruptures prematurely before labor begins. The amniotic sac is made up of two layers of fetal membranes - the inner amnion and the outer chorion.

In a normal pregnancy, the fetal membranes rupture spontaneously during labor as a sign that the delivery process has begun. However, if the membranes rupture before 37 weeks of gestation, it is considered premature rupture of membranes. PROM can lead to complications such as preterm labor, infection, and fetal distress.

PROM can be classified into two types based on the timing of membrane rupture:

1. Preterm Premature Rupture of Membranes (PPROM): When the membranes rupture before 37 weeks of gestation, it is called preterm premature rupture of membranes. PPROM increases the risk of preterm labor and delivery, which can lead to various complications for the newborn, such as respiratory distress syndrome, brain bleeding, and developmental delays.
2. Term Premature Rupture of Membranes (TPROM): When the membranes rupture at or after 37 weeks of gestation, it is called term premature rupture of membranes. TPROM may not necessarily lead to complications if labor begins soon after the membrane rupture and there are no signs of infection. However, if labor does not start within 24 hours of membrane rupture, the risk of infection increases, and the healthcare provider may consider inducing labor or performing a cesarean delivery.

The exact cause of premature rupture of fetal membranes is not always known, but several factors can increase the risk, including previous PROM, bacterial infections, smoking, substance abuse, and trauma to the uterus. Healthcare providers monitor women with PROM closely for signs of infection and preterm labor and may recommend treatments such as antibiotics, corticosteroids, or hospitalization to reduce the risk of complications.

Fertilization in vitro, also known as in-vitro fertilization (IVF), is a medical procedure where an egg (oocyte) and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish to facilitate fertilization. The fertilized egg (embryo) is then transferred to a uterus with the hope of establishing a successful pregnancy. This procedure is often used when other assisted reproductive technologies have been unsuccessful or are not applicable, such as in cases of blocked fallopian tubes, severe male factor infertility, and unexplained infertility. The process involves ovarian stimulation, egg retrieval, fertilization, embryo culture, and embryo transfer. In some cases, additional techniques such as intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) or preimplantation genetic testing (PGT) may be used to increase the chances of success.

Pregnancy in adolescence, also known as teenage pregnancy, refers to a pregnancy that occurs in females under the age of 20. This can be further categorized into early adolescent pregnancy (occurring between ages 10-14), middle adolescent pregnancy (occurring between ages 15-17), and late adolescent pregnancy (occurring between ages 18-19). Teenage pregnancy is associated with higher risks of complications for both the mother and the baby, including preterm birth, low birth weight, and increased risk of neonatal mortality. Additionally, teenage mothers are more likely to drop out of school and face socioeconomic challenges.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

The decidua is a specialized type of tissue that lines the uterus during pregnancy. It forms after the implantation of a fertilized egg (embryo) into the uterine lining, and it plays an important role in supporting the growth and development of the embryo and fetus.

The decidua is composed of several layers, including the decidual capsularis, which surrounds the embryo, and the decidual parietalis, which lines the rest of the uterus. The tissue is rich in blood vessels and contains a variety of immune cells that help to protect the developing fetus from infection.

During pregnancy, the decidua produces various hormones and growth factors that support the growth of the placenta, which provides nutrients and oxygen to the fetus. After the birth of the baby, the decidua is shed along with the placenta in a process called childbirth or parturition.

It's worth noting that abnormalities in the decidua can contribute to pregnancy complications such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and miscarriage.

The odds ratio (OR) is a statistical measure used in epidemiology and research to estimate the association between an exposure and an outcome. It represents the odds that an event will occur in one group versus the odds that it will occur in another group, assuming that all other factors are held constant.

In medical research, the odds ratio is often used to quantify the strength of the relationship between a risk factor (exposure) and a disease outcome. An OR of 1 indicates no association between the exposure and the outcome, while an OR greater than 1 suggests that there is a positive association between the two. Conversely, an OR less than 1 implies a negative association.

It's important to note that the odds ratio is not the same as the relative risk (RR), which compares the incidence rates of an outcome in two groups. While the OR can approximate the RR when the outcome is rare, they are not interchangeable and can lead to different conclusions about the association between an exposure and an outcome.

Thrombophilia is a medical condition characterized by an increased tendency to form blood clots (thrombi) due to various genetic or acquired abnormalities in the coagulation system. These abnormalities can lead to a hypercoagulable state, which can cause thrombosis in both veins and arteries. Commonly identified thrombophilias include factor V Leiden mutation, prothrombin G20210A mutation, antithrombin deficiency, protein C deficiency, and protein S deficiency.

Acquired thrombophilias can be caused by various factors such as antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS), malignancies, pregnancy, oral contraceptive use, hormone replacement therapy, and certain medical conditions like inflammatory bowel disease or nephrotic syndrome.

It is essential to diagnose thrombophilia accurately, as it may influence the management of venous thromboembolism (VTE) events and guide decisions regarding prophylactic anticoagulation in high-risk situations.

Logistic models, specifically logistic regression models, are a type of statistical analysis used in medical and epidemiological research to identify the relationship between the risk of a certain health outcome or disease (dependent variable) and one or more independent variables, such as demographic factors, exposure variables, or other clinical measurements.

In contrast to linear regression models, logistic regression models are used when the dependent variable is binary or dichotomous in nature, meaning it can only take on two values, such as "disease present" or "disease absent." The model uses a logistic function to estimate the probability of the outcome based on the independent variables.

Logistic regression models are useful for identifying risk factors and estimating the strength of associations between exposures and health outcomes, adjusting for potential confounders, and predicting the probability of an outcome given certain values of the independent variables. They can also be used to develop clinical prediction rules or scores that can aid in decision-making and patient care.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Unplanned pregnancy is a pregnancy that is not intended or expected by the woman or couple. It is also sometimes referred to as an "unintended" or "unwanted" pregnancy. This can occur when contraceptive methods fail or are not used, or when there is a lack of knowledge about or access to effective family planning resources. Unplanned pregnancies can present various physical, emotional, and social challenges for the individuals involved, and may also have implications for public health and societal well-being. It's important to note that unplanned pregnancies can still result in wanted and loved children, but the circumstances surrounding their conception may bring additional stressors and considerations.

Risk assessment in the medical context refers to the process of identifying, evaluating, and prioritizing risks to patients, healthcare workers, or the community related to healthcare delivery. It involves determining the likelihood and potential impact of adverse events or hazards, such as infectious diseases, medication errors, or medical devices failures, and implementing measures to mitigate or manage those risks. The goal of risk assessment is to promote safe and high-quality care by identifying areas for improvement and taking action to minimize harm.

Unwanted pregnancy is a situation where a person becomes pregnant despite not planning or desiring to conceive at that time. This can occur due to various reasons such as lack of access to effective contraception, failure of contraceptive methods, sexual assault, or a change in circumstances that makes the pregnancy untimely or inconvenient. Unwanted pregnancies can have significant physical, emotional, and socioeconomic impacts on individuals and families. It is important to address unwanted pregnancies through comprehensive sexuality education, access to affordable and effective contraception, and supportive services for those who experience unintended pregnancies.

Intraoperative complications refer to any unforeseen problems or events that occur during the course of a surgical procedure, once it has begun and before it is completed. These complications can range from minor issues, such as bleeding or an adverse reaction to anesthesia, to major complications that can significantly impact the patient's health and prognosis.

Examples of intraoperative complications include:

1. Bleeding (hemorrhage) - This can occur due to various reasons such as injury to blood vessels or organs during surgery.
2. Infection - Surgical site infections can develop if the surgical area becomes contaminated during the procedure.
3. Anesthesia-related complications - These include adverse reactions to anesthesia, difficulty maintaining the patient's airway, or cardiovascular instability.
4. Organ injury - Accidental damage to surrounding organs can occur during surgery, leading to potential long-term consequences.
5. Equipment failure - Malfunctioning surgical equipment can lead to complications and compromise the safety of the procedure.
6. Allergic reactions - Patients may have allergies to certain medications or materials used during surgery, causing an adverse reaction.
7. Prolonged operative time - Complications may arise if a surgical procedure takes longer than expected, leading to increased risk of infection and other issues.

Intraoperative complications require prompt identification and management by the surgical team to minimize their impact on the patient's health and recovery.

Homocysteine is an amino acid that is formed in the body during the metabolism of another amino acid called methionine. It's an important intermediate in various biochemical reactions, including the synthesis of proteins, neurotransmitters, and other molecules. However, elevated levels of homocysteine in the blood (a condition known as hyperhomocysteinemia) have been linked to several health issues, such as cardiovascular disease, stroke, and cognitive decline.

Homocysteine can be converted back to methionine with the help of vitamin B12 and a cofactor called betaine, or it can be converted to another amino acid called cystathionine with the help of vitamin B6 and folate (vitamin B9). Imbalances in these vitamins and other factors can lead to an increase in homocysteine levels.

It is crucial to maintain normal homocysteine levels for overall health, as high levels may contribute to the development of various diseases. Regular monitoring and maintaining a balanced diet rich in folate, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 can help regulate homocysteine levels and reduce the risk of related health issues.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Norway" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country in Northern Europe, known officially as the Kingdom of Norway. If you have any questions about medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help!

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Parasitic pregnancy complications refer to a rare condition where a parasitic twin takes over the development of the dominant twin's reproductive system and becomes pregnant. This condition is also known as fetus in fetu or vanishing twin syndrome with a parasitic twin. The parasitic twin may have some organs developed, but it is not fully formed and relies on the dominant twin for survival. The pregnancy can pose risks to the dominant twin, such as abnormal growth patterns, organ damage, and complications during childbirth. This condition is usually detected during prenatal ultrasound examinations.

A premature infant is a baby born before 37 weeks of gestation. They may face various health challenges because their organs are not fully developed. The earlier a baby is born, the higher the risk of complications. Prematurity can lead to short-term and long-term health issues, such as respiratory distress syndrome, jaundice, anemia, infections, hearing problems, vision problems, developmental delays, and cerebral palsy. Intensive medical care and support are often necessary for premature infants to ensure their survival and optimal growth and development.

Prolonged pregnancy, also known as post-term pregnancy, is a medical condition defined as a pregnancy that continues beyond 42 weeks (294 days) of gestation from the first day of the last menstrual period. It is important to note that this definition is based on the estimated date of delivery and not the actual conception date. Prolonged pregnancies are associated with increased risks for both the mother and the fetus, including stillbirth, meconium aspiration, fetal distress, and difficulty during labor and delivery. Therefore, healthcare providers closely monitor pregnant women who reach 41 weeks of gestation to ensure timely delivery if necessary.

Induced abortion is a medical procedure that intentionally terminates a pregnancy before the fetus can survive outside the womb. It can be performed either surgically or medically through the use of medications. The timing of an induced abortion is typically based on the gestational age of the pregnancy, with different methods used at different stages.

The most common surgical procedure for induced abortion is vacuum aspiration, which is usually performed during the first trimester (up to 12-13 weeks of gestation). This procedure involves dilating the cervix and using a vacuum device to remove the pregnancy tissue from the uterus. Other surgical procedures, such as dilation and evacuation (D&E), may be used in later stages of pregnancy.

Medical abortion involves the use of medications to induce the termination of a pregnancy. The most common regimen involves the use of two drugs: mifepristone and misoprostol. Mifepristone works by blocking the action of progesterone, a hormone necessary for maintaining pregnancy. Misoprostol causes the uterus to contract and expel the pregnancy tissue. This method is typically used during the first 10 weeks of gestation.

Induced abortion is a safe and common medical procedure, with low rates of complications when performed by trained healthcare providers in appropriate settings. Access to induced abortion varies widely around the world, with some countries restricting or prohibiting the practice entirely.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

A questionnaire in the medical context is a standardized, systematic, and structured tool used to gather information from individuals regarding their symptoms, medical history, lifestyle, or other health-related factors. It typically consists of a series of written questions that can be either self-administered or administered by an interviewer. Questionnaires are widely used in various areas of healthcare, including clinical research, epidemiological studies, patient care, and health services evaluation to collect data that can inform diagnosis, treatment planning, and population health management. They provide a consistent and organized method for obtaining information from large groups or individual patients, helping to ensure accurate and comprehensive data collection while minimizing bias and variability in the information gathered.

A confidence interval (CI) is a range of values that is likely to contain the true value of a population parameter with a certain level of confidence. It is commonly used in statistical analysis to express the uncertainty associated with estimates derived from sample data.

For example, if we calculate a 95% confidence interval for the mean height of a population based on a sample of individuals, we can say that we are 95% confident that the true population mean height falls within the calculated range. The width of the confidence interval gives us an idea of how precise our estimate is - narrower intervals indicate more precise estimates, while wider intervals suggest greater uncertainty.

Confidence intervals are typically calculated using statistical formulas that take into account the sample size, standard deviation, and level of confidence desired. They can be used to compare different groups or to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions in medical research.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

"Abdominal pregnancy" is a type of ectopic pregnancy, which is a rare and potentially life-threatening condition in which a fertilized egg implants outside the uterus. In an abdominal pregnancy, the embryo implants and grows in the abdominal cavity, rather than in the fallopian tube or uterus.

Abdominal pregnancies can be caused by various factors, including previous abdominal surgeries, pelvic inflammatory disease, or a history of ectopic pregnancies. They are often difficult to diagnose and can pose significant risks to both the mother and the fetus, as they can lead to internal bleeding, infection, and other complications.

Treatment for abdominal pregnancy typically involves surgery to remove the embryo and repair any damage to surrounding organs. In some cases, it may be possible to preserve the fallopian tube and uterus, but in others, removal of one or both may be necessary. It is important for women who have had an ectopic pregnancy to receive appropriate follow-up care and counseling to reduce their risk of future ectopic pregnancies.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Pregnancy maintenance refers to the ongoing process and care required to support and sustain a healthy pregnancy until childbirth. This includes regular prenatal check-ups to monitor the health of both the mother and the developing fetus, proper nutrition, regular exercise, and avoiding harmful behaviors such as smoking or consuming alcohol. In some cases, pregnancy maintenance may also include medical interventions such as hormone treatments or bed rest. The goal of pregnancy maintenance is to ensure the best possible outcome for both the mother and the baby.

Embryo implantation is the process by which a fertilized egg, or embryo, becomes attached to the wall of the uterus (endometrium) and begins to receive nutrients from the mother's blood supply. This process typically occurs about 6-10 days after fertilization and is a critical step in the establishment of a successful pregnancy.

During implantation, the embryo secretes enzymes that help it to burrow into the endometrium, while the endometrium responds by producing receptors for the embryo's enzymes and increasing blood flow to the area. The embryo then begins to grow and develop, eventually forming the placenta, which will provide nutrients and oxygen to the developing fetus throughout pregnancy.

Implantation is a complex process that requires precise timing and coordination between the embryo and the mother's body. Factors such as age, hormonal imbalances, and uterine abnormalities can affect implantation and increase the risk of miscarriage or difficulty becoming pregnant.

Embryo transfer is a medical procedure that involves the transfer of an embryo, which is typically created through in vitro fertilization (IVF), into the uterus of a woman with the aim of establishing a pregnancy. The embryo may be created using the intended parent's own sperm and eggs or those from donors. After fertilization and early cell division, the resulting embryo is transferred into the uterus of the recipient mother through a thin catheter that is inserted through the cervix. This procedure is typically performed under ultrasound guidance to ensure proper placement of the embryo. Embryo transfer is a key step in assisted reproductive technology (ART) and is often used as a treatment for infertility.

Diabetes complications refer to a range of health issues that can develop as a result of poorly managed diabetes over time. These complications can affect various parts of the body and can be classified into two main categories: macrovascular and microvascular.

Macrovascular complications include:

* Cardiovascular disease (CVD): People with diabetes are at an increased risk of developing CVD, including coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and stroke.
* Peripheral arterial disease (PAD): This condition affects the blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the limbs, particularly the legs. PAD can cause pain, numbness, or weakness in the legs and may increase the risk of amputation.

Microvascular complications include:

* Diabetic neuropathy: This is a type of nerve damage that can occur due to prolonged high blood sugar levels. It commonly affects the feet and legs, causing symptoms such as numbness, tingling, or pain.
* Diabetic retinopathy: This condition affects the blood vessels in the eye and can cause vision loss or blindness if left untreated.
* Diabetic nephropathy: This is a type of kidney damage that can occur due to diabetes. It can lead to kidney failure if not managed properly.

Other complications of diabetes include:

* Increased risk of infections, particularly skin and urinary tract infections.
* Slow healing of wounds, which can increase the risk of infection and amputation.
* Gum disease and other oral health problems.
* Hearing impairment.
* Sexual dysfunction.

Preventing or managing diabetes complications involves maintaining good blood sugar control, regular monitoring of blood glucose levels, following a healthy lifestyle, and receiving routine medical care.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

"Prenatal exposure delayed effects" refer to the adverse health outcomes or symptoms that become apparent in an individual during their development or later in life, which are caused by exposure to certain environmental factors or substances while they were still in the womb. These effects may not be immediately observable at birth and can take weeks, months, years, or even decades to manifest. They can result from maternal exposure to various agents such as infectious diseases, medications, illicit drugs, tobacco smoke, alcohol, or environmental pollutants during pregnancy. The delayed effects can impact multiple organ systems and may include physical, cognitive, behavioral, and developmental abnormalities. It is important to note that the risk and severity of these effects can depend on several factors, including the timing, duration, and intensity of the exposure, as well as the individual's genetic susceptibility.

Pregnancy reduction, multifetal refers to the medical procedure used to decrease the number of fetuses in a multiple pregnancy, such as twins or higher-order multiples (triplets, quadruplets, etc.). This is also known as selective reduction or selective termination. The goal of this procedure is to reduce the risk of complications associated with multifetal pregnancies, including preterm labor, low birth weight, and pregnancy loss.

The procedure typically involves an ultrasound-guided injection of a medication that stops the development of one or more fetuses. This is usually performed during the first trimester of pregnancy. The decision to undergo pregnancy reduction is often based on a variety of factors, including maternal age, medical history, and personal preferences. It's important to note that this procedure carries its own risks, such as infection, bleeding, and loss of the remaining fetuses, so it should be carefully considered and discussed with healthcare providers.

Female infertility is a condition characterized by the inability to conceive after 12 months or more of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse or the inability to carry a pregnancy to a live birth. The causes of female infertility can be multifactorial and may include issues with ovulation, damage to the fallopian tubes or uterus, endometriosis, hormonal imbalances, age-related factors, and other medical conditions.

Some common causes of female infertility include:

1. Ovulation disorders: Conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), thyroid disorders, premature ovarian failure, and hyperprolactinemia can affect ovulation and lead to infertility.
2. Damage to the fallopian tubes: Pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis, or previous surgeries can cause scarring and blockages in the fallopian tubes, preventing the egg and sperm from meeting.
3. Uterine abnormalities: Structural issues with the uterus, such as fibroids, polyps, or congenital defects, can interfere with implantation and pregnancy.
4. Age-related factors: As women age, their fertility declines due to a decrease in the number and quality of eggs.
5. Other medical conditions: Certain medical conditions, such as diabetes, celiac disease, and autoimmune disorders, can contribute to infertility.

In some cases, female infertility can be treated with medications, surgery, or assisted reproductive technologies (ART) like in vitro fertilization (IVF). A thorough evaluation by a healthcare professional is necessary to determine the underlying cause and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

Progesterone is a steroid hormone that is primarily produced in the ovaries during the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy. It plays an essential role in preparing the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and maintaining the early stages of pregnancy. Progesterone works to thicken the lining of the uterus, creating a nurturing environment for the developing embryo.

During the menstrual cycle, progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, a temporary structure formed in the ovary after an egg has been released from a follicle during ovulation. If pregnancy does not occur, the levels of progesterone will decrease, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining and menstruation.

In addition to its reproductive functions, progesterone also has various other effects on the body, such as helping to regulate the immune system, supporting bone health, and potentially influencing mood and cognition. Progesterone can be administered medically in the form of oral pills, intramuscular injections, or vaginal suppositories for various purposes, including hormone replacement therapy, contraception, and managing certain gynecological conditions.

"Drug-induced abnormalities" refer to physical or physiological changes that occur as a result of taking medication or drugs. These abnormalities can affect various organs and systems in the body and can range from minor symptoms, such as nausea or dizziness, to more serious conditions, such as liver damage or heart rhythm disturbances.

Drug-induced abnormalities can occur for several reasons, including:

1. Direct toxicity: Some drugs can directly damage cells and tissues in the body, leading to abnormalities.
2. Altered metabolism: Drugs can interfere with normal metabolic processes in the body, leading to the accumulation of harmful substances or the depletion of essential nutrients.
3. Hormonal imbalances: Some drugs can affect hormone levels in the body, leading to abnormalities.
4. Allergic reactions: Some people may have allergic reactions to certain drugs, which can cause a range of symptoms, including rashes, swelling, and difficulty breathing.
5. Interactions with other drugs: Taking multiple medications or drugs at the same time can increase the risk of drug-induced abnormalities.

It is important for healthcare providers to monitor patients closely for signs of drug-induced abnormalities and to adjust medication dosages or switch to alternative treatments as necessary. Patients should also inform their healthcare providers of any symptoms they experience while taking medication, as these may be related to drug-induced abnormalities.

'Labor, Obstetric' refers to the physiological process that occurs during childbirth, leading to the expulsion of the fetus from the uterus. It is divided into three stages:

1. The first stage begins with the onset of regular contractions and cervical dilation and effacement (thinning and shortening) until full dilation is reached (approximately 10 cm). This stage can last from hours to days, particularly in nulliparous women (those who have not given birth before).
2. The second stage starts with complete cervical dilation and ends with the delivery of the baby. During this stage, the mother experiences strong contractions that help push the fetus down the birth canal. This stage typically lasts from 20 minutes to two hours but can take longer in some cases.
3. The third stage involves the delivery of the placenta (afterbirth) and membranes, which usually occurs within 15-30 minutes after the baby's birth. However, it can sometimes take up to an hour for the placenta to be expelled completely.

Obstetric labor is a complex process that requires careful monitoring and management by healthcare professionals to ensure the safety and well-being of both the mother and the baby.

A reoperation is a surgical procedure that is performed again on a patient who has already undergone a previous operation for the same or related condition. Reoperations may be required due to various reasons, such as inadequate initial treatment, disease recurrence, infection, or complications from the first surgery. The nature and complexity of a reoperation can vary widely depending on the specific circumstances, but it often carries higher risks and potential complications compared to the original operation.

Puerperal disorders are a group of medical conditions that can affect women during the period following childbirth, also known as the puerperium. The puerperium typically lasts for six to eight weeks after delivery. These disorders can be complications of childbirth or postpartum infections and include:

1. Puerperal fever: This is a febrile illness that occurs during the puerperium, usually caused by a bacterial infection. The most common causative organisms are group A streptococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli.

2. Puerperal sepsis: This is a severe form of puerperal fever characterized by the presence of bacteria in the blood (bacteremia) and widespread inflammation throughout the body. It can lead to organ failure and even death if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

3. Puerperal endometritis: This is an infection of the lining of the uterus (endometrium) that occurs during the puerperium. Symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and foul-smelling vaginal discharge.

4. Puerperal mastitis: This is an inflammation of the breast tissue that can occur during lactation, often caused by a bacterial infection. It is more common in women who are breastfeeding but can also occur in non-lactating women.

5. Puerperal psychosis: This is a rare but serious mental health disorder that can occur after childbirth. It is characterized by symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.

6. Puerperal thromboembolism: This is a blood clot that forms during the puerperium, usually in the deep veins of the legs (deep vein thrombosis) or in the lungs (pulmonary embolism). It can be a serious complication of childbirth and requires prompt medical attention.

Overall, puerperal disorders are a significant cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide, particularly in low-income countries where access to healthcare is limited. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are essential for improving outcomes and reducing the risk of long-term complications.

A fetus is the developing offspring in a mammal, from the end of the embryonic period (approximately 8 weeks after fertilization in humans) until birth. In humans, the fetal stage of development starts from the eleventh week of pregnancy and continues until childbirth, which is termed as full-term pregnancy at around 37 to 40 weeks of gestation. During this time, the organ systems become fully developed and the body grows in size. The fetus is surrounded by the amniotic fluid within the amniotic sac and is connected to the placenta via the umbilical cord, through which it receives nutrients and oxygen from the mother. Regular prenatal care is essential during this period to monitor the growth and development of the fetus and ensure a healthy pregnancy and delivery.

Laparoscopy is a surgical procedure that involves the insertion of a laparoscope, which is a thin tube with a light and camera attached to it, through small incisions in the abdomen. This allows the surgeon to view the internal organs without making large incisions. It's commonly used to diagnose and treat various conditions such as endometriosis, ovarian cysts, infertility, and appendicitis. The advantages of laparoscopy over traditional open surgery include smaller incisions, less pain, shorter hospital stays, and quicker recovery times.

In the field of medicine, twins are defined as two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. They can be either monozygotic (identical) or dizygotic (fraternal). Monozygotic twins develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two separate embryos, resulting in individuals who share identical genetic material. Dizygotic twins, on the other hand, result from the fertilization of two separate eggs by two different sperm cells, leading to siblings who share about 50% of their genetic material, similar to non-twin siblings.

Lactation is the process by which milk is produced and secreted from the mammary glands of female mammals, including humans, for the nourishment of their young. This physiological function is initiated during pregnancy and continues until it is deliberately stopped or weaned off. The primary purpose of lactation is to provide essential nutrients, antibodies, and other bioactive components that support the growth, development, and immune system of newborns and infants.

The process of lactation involves several hormonal and physiological changes in a woman's body. During pregnancy, the hormones estrogen and progesterone stimulate the growth and development of the mammary glands. After childbirth, the levels of these hormones drop significantly, allowing another hormone called prolactin to take over. Prolactin is responsible for triggering the production of milk in the alveoli, which are tiny sacs within the breast tissue.

Another hormone, oxytocin, plays a crucial role in the release or "let-down" of milk from the alveoli to the nipple during lactation. This reflex is initiated by suckling or thinking about the baby, which sends signals to the brain to release oxytocin. The released oxytocin then binds to receptors in the mammary glands, causing the smooth muscles around the alveoli to contract and push out the milk through the ducts and into the nipple.

Lactation is a complex and highly regulated process that ensures the optimal growth and development of newborns and infants. It provides not only essential nutrients but also various bioactive components, such as immunoglobulins, enzymes, and growth factors, which protect the infant from infections and support their immune system.

In summary, lactation is the physiological process by which milk is produced and secreted from the mammary glands of female mammals for the nourishment of their young. It involves hormonal changes, including the actions of prolactin, oxytocin, estrogen, and progesterone, to regulate the production, storage, and release of milk.

Prenatal diagnosis is the medical testing of fetuses, embryos, or pregnant women to detect the presence or absence of certain genetic disorders or birth defects. These tests can be performed through various methods such as chorionic villus sampling (CVS), amniocentesis, or ultrasound. The goal of prenatal diagnosis is to provide early information about the health of the fetus so that parents and healthcare providers can make informed decisions about pregnancy management and newborn care. It allows for early intervention, treatment, or planning for the child's needs after birth.

A therapeutic abortion is the deliberate termination of a pregnancy before viability (the ability of the fetus to survive outside the womb), which is generally considered to be around 24 weeks of gestation. The term "therapeutic" is used to describe abortions that are performed for medical reasons, such as to protect the life or health of the pregnant individual, or in cases where the fetus has a severe abnormality and cannot survive outside the womb.

Therapeutic abortions may be recommended in situations where continuing the pregnancy poses a significant risk to the health or life of the pregnant individual. For example, if a pregnant person has a serious medical condition such as heart disease, cancer, or severe pre-eclampsia, continuing the pregnancy could worsen their condition and put them at risk of serious complications or even death. In these cases, a therapeutic abortion may be necessary to protect the health or life of the pregnant individual.

Therapeutic abortions may also be recommended in cases where the fetus has a severe abnormality that is not compatible with life outside the womb. For example, if the fetus has a condition such as anencephaly (a neural tube defect where the brain and skull do not form properly), or a chromosomal abnormality such as Trisomy 13 or 18, continuing the pregnancy may result in a stillbirth or a short, painful life for the infant after birth. In these cases, a therapeutic abortion may be considered a compassionate option to prevent unnecessary suffering.

It's important to note that the decision to undergo a therapeutic abortion is a deeply personal one, and should be made in consultation with medical professionals and trusted family members or support networks. Ultimately, the decision should be based on what is best for the physical and emotional health of the pregnant individual, taking into account their values, beliefs, and circumstances.

Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone that is produced during pregnancy. It is produced by the placenta after implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus. The main function of hCG is to prevent the disintegration of the corpus luteum, which is a temporary endocrine structure that forms in the ovary after ovulation and produces progesterone during early pregnancy. Progesterone is essential for maintaining the lining of the uterus and supporting the pregnancy.

hCG can be detected in the blood or urine as early as 10 days after conception, and its levels continue to rise throughout the first trimester of pregnancy. In addition to its role in maintaining pregnancy, hCG is also used as a clinical marker for pregnancy and to monitor certain medical conditions such as gestational trophoblastic diseases.

Fetal diseases are medical conditions or abnormalities that affect a fetus during pregnancy. These diseases can be caused by genetic factors, environmental influences, or a combination of both. They can range from mild to severe and may impact various organ systems in the developing fetus. Examples of fetal diseases include congenital heart defects, neural tube defects, chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome, and infectious diseases such as toxoplasmosis or rubella. Fetal diseases can be diagnosed through prenatal testing, including ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling. Treatment options may include medication, surgery, or delivery of the fetus, depending on the nature and severity of the disease.

"Maternal exposure" is a medical term that refers to the contact or interaction of a pregnant woman with various environmental factors, such as chemicals, radiation, infectious agents, or physical environments, which could potentially have an impact on the developing fetus. This exposure can occur through different routes, including inhalation, ingestion, dermal contact, or even transplacentally. The effects of maternal exposure on the fetus can vary widely depending on the type, duration, and intensity of the exposure, as well as the stage of pregnancy at which it occurs. It is important to monitor and minimize maternal exposure to potentially harmful substances or environments during pregnancy to ensure the best possible outcomes for both the mother and developing fetus.

Non-steroidal abortifacient agents are medications or substances that can cause abortion by interfering with the normal functioning of the hormones in the reproductive system. These agents do not contain steroids and work primarily by preventing the implantation of a fertilized egg in the uterus or by causing the shedding of the uterine lining, leading to the termination of an early pregnancy.

Examples of non-steroidal abortifacient agents include:

1. Mifepristone (RU-486): This medication works by blocking the action of progesterone, a hormone necessary for maintaining pregnancy. When used in combination with another medication called misoprostol, it can cause an abortion during the early stages of pregnancy.
2. Misoprostol: This medication is primarily used to prevent and treat stomach ulcers but can also be used as an abortifacient agent. It causes uterine contractions and cervical dilation, leading to the expulsion of the contents of the uterus.
3. High-dose estrogen and progestin: These hormones can interfere with the normal functioning of the reproductive system and cause an early abortion when taken in high doses.
4. Herbal remedies: Certain herbs, such as pennyroyal, tansy, and savin, have been used traditionally as abortifacient agents. However, their effectiveness and safety are not well-established, and they can cause serious side effects or even death when taken in large quantities.

It is important to note that the use of non-steroidal abortifacient agents for the purpose of inducing an abortion should only be done under the supervision of a licensed healthcare provider, as there are potential risks and complications associated with their use. Additionally, some of these agents may be restricted or illegal in certain jurisdictions, so it is essential to comply with local laws and regulations regarding their use.

"Length of Stay" (LOS) is a term commonly used in healthcare to refer to the amount of time a patient spends receiving care in a hospital, clinic, or other healthcare facility. It is typically measured in hours, days, or weeks and can be used as a metric for various purposes such as resource planning, quality assessment, and reimbursement. The length of stay can vary depending on the type of illness or injury, the severity of the condition, the patient's response to treatment, and other factors. It is an important consideration in healthcare management and can have significant implications for both patients and providers.

Artificial insemination (AI) is a medical procedure that involves the introduction of sperm into a female's cervix or uterus for the purpose of achieving pregnancy. This procedure can be performed using sperm from a partner or a donor. It is often used when there are issues with male fertility, such as low sperm count or poor sperm motility, or in cases where natural conception is not possible due to various medical reasons.

There are two types of artificial insemination: intracervical insemination (ICI) and intrauterine insemination (IUI). ICI involves placing the sperm directly into the cervix, while IUI involves placing the sperm directly into the uterus using a catheter. The choice of procedure depends on various factors, including the cause of infertility and the preferences of the individuals involved.

Artificial insemination is a relatively simple and low-risk procedure that can be performed in a doctor's office or clinic. It may be combined with fertility drugs to increase the chances of pregnancy. The success rate of artificial insemination varies depending on several factors, including the age and fertility of the individuals involved, the cause of infertility, and the type of procedure used.

Amniotic fluid is a clear, slightly yellowish liquid that surrounds and protects the developing baby in the uterus. It is enclosed within the amniotic sac, which is a thin-walled sac that forms around the embryo during early pregnancy. The fluid is composed of fetal urine, lung secretions, and fluids that cross over from the mother's bloodstream through the placenta.

Amniotic fluid plays several important roles in pregnancy:

1. It provides a shock-absorbing cushion for the developing baby, protecting it from injury caused by movement or external forces.
2. It helps to maintain a constant temperature around the fetus, keeping it warm and comfortable.
3. It allows the developing baby to move freely within the uterus, promoting normal growth and development of the muscles and bones.
4. It provides a source of nutrients and hydration for the fetus, helping to support its growth and development.
5. It helps to prevent infection by providing a barrier between the fetus and the outside world.

Throughout pregnancy, the volume of amniotic fluid increases as the fetus grows. The amount of fluid typically peaks around 34-36 weeks of gestation, after which it begins to gradually decrease. Abnormalities in the volume of amniotic fluid can indicate problems with the developing baby or the pregnancy itself, and may require medical intervention.

The endometrium is the innermost layer of the uterus, which lines the uterine cavity and has a critical role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. It is composed of glands and blood vessels that undergo cyclic changes under the influence of hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone. During the menstrual cycle, the endometrium thickens in preparation for a potential pregnancy. If fertilization does not occur, it will break down and be shed, resulting in menstruation. In contrast, if implantation takes place, the endometrium provides essential nutrients to support the developing embryo and placenta throughout pregnancy.

Infertility is a reproductive health disorder defined as the failure to achieve a clinical pregnancy after 12 months or more of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse or due to an impairment of a person's capacity to reproduce either as an individual or with their partner. It can be caused by various factors in both men and women, including hormonal imbalances, structural abnormalities, genetic issues, infections, age, lifestyle factors, and others. Infertility can have significant emotional and psychological impacts on individuals and couples experiencing it, and medical intervention may be necessary to help them conceive.

Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) is a specialized form of assisted reproductive technology (ART), specifically used in the context of in vitro fertilization (IVF). It involves the direct injection of a single sperm into the cytoplasm of a mature egg (oocyte) to facilitate fertilization. This technique is often used when there are issues with male infertility, such as low sperm count or poor sperm motility, to increase the chances of successful fertilization. The resulting embryos can then be transferred to the uterus in hopes of achieving a pregnancy.

'Pregnant women' refers to female individuals who have conceived and are in the process of carrying a developing fetus inside their womb (uterus) until childbirth. This state is typically marked by various physiological changes, including hormonal fluctuations, weight gain, and growth of the uterus and breasts, among others. Pregnancy usually lasts for about 40 weeks, starting from the first day of the woman's last menstrual period (LMP) and is divided into three trimesters. Each trimester is characterized by different developmental milestones in the fetus. Regular prenatal care is essential to monitor the health and wellbeing of both the mother and the developing fetus, and to address any potential complications that may arise during pregnancy.

Gravidity is a medical term that refers to the number of times a woman has been pregnant, regardless of the outcome of the pregnancies. It's a way to quantify a woman's childbearing experience and is often used in obstetrics and gynecology to assess potential risks and complications during pregnancy and childbirth.

For example, a woman who has been pregnant once before would have a gravidity of 1, while a woman who has been pregnant twice would have a gravidity of 2. This term is distinct from parity, which refers to the number of pregnancies that have reached a viable gestational age and resulted in a live birth.

Fertility is the natural ability to conceive or to cause conception of offspring. In humans, it is the capacity of a woman and a man to reproduce through sexual reproduction. For women, fertility usually takes place during their reproductive years, which is from adolescence until menopause. A woman's fertility depends on various factors including her age, overall health, and the health of her reproductive system.

For men, fertility can be affected by a variety of factors such as age, genetics, general health, sexual function, and environmental factors that may affect sperm production or quality. Factors that can negatively impact male fertility include exposure to certain chemicals, radiation, smoking, alcohol consumption, drug use, and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

Infertility is a common medical condition affecting about 10-15% of couples trying to conceive. Infertility can be primary or secondary. Primary infertility refers to the inability to conceive after one year of unprotected sexual intercourse, while secondary infertility refers to the inability to conceive following a previous pregnancy.

Infertility can be treated with various medical and surgical interventions depending on the underlying cause. These may include medications to stimulate ovulation, intrauterine insemination (IUI), in vitro fertilization (IVF), or surgery to correct anatomical abnormalities.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

Hemorrhage is defined in the medical context as an excessive loss of blood from the circulatory system, which can occur due to various reasons such as injury, surgery, or underlying health conditions that affect blood clotting or the integrity of blood vessels. The bleeding may be internal, external, visible, or concealed, and it can vary in severity from minor to life-threatening, depending on the location and extent of the bleeding. Hemorrhage is a serious medical emergency that requires immediate attention and treatment to prevent further blood loss, organ damage, and potential death.

A surgical wound infection, also known as a surgical site infection (SSI), is defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as an infection that occurs within 30 days after surgery (or within one year if an implant is left in place) and involves either:

1. Purulent drainage from the incision;
2. Organisms isolated from an aseptically obtained culture of fluid or tissue from the incision;
3. At least one of the following signs or symptoms of infection: pain or tenderness, localized swelling, redness, or heat; and
4. Diagnosis of surgical site infection by the surgeon or attending physician.

SSIs can be classified as superficial incisional, deep incisional, or organ/space infections, depending on the depth and extent of tissue involvement. They are a common healthcare-associated infection and can lead to increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs.

A legal abortion is the deliberate termination of a pregnancy through medical or surgical means, carried out in accordance with the laws and regulations of a particular jurisdiction. In countries where abortion is legal, it is typically restricted to certain circumstances, such as:

* To protect the life or health of the pregnant person
* In cases of fetal anomalies that are incompatible with life outside the womb
* When the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest
* When the continuation of the pregnancy would pose a significant risk to the physical or mental health of the pregnant person

The specific circumstances under which abortion is legal, as well as the procedures and regulations that govern it, vary widely from one country to another. In some places, such as the United States, abortion is protected as a fundamental right under certain conditions; while in other countries, such as those with highly restrictive abortion laws, it may only be allowed in very limited circumstances or not at all.

Parturition is the process of giving birth, or the act of delivering newborn offspring. In medical terms, it refers to the expulsion of the products of conception (such as the fetus, placenta, and membranes) from the uterus of a pregnant woman during childbirth. This process is regulated by hormonal changes and involves complex interactions between the mother's body and the developing fetus. Parturition typically occurs after a full-term pregnancy, which is approximately 40 weeks in humans.

Chorionic Gonadotropin, beta Subunit, Human (β-hCG) is a protein that is produced by the placenta during pregnancy. It is a component of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is a hormone that is composed of two subunits: alpha and beta. The β-hCG subunit is specific to hCG and is not found in other hormones, making it a useful marker for pregnancy and certain medical conditions.

During early pregnancy, the levels of β-hCG increase rapidly and can be detected in the blood and urine. This has led to the development of pregnancy tests that detect the presence of β-hCG to confirm pregnancy. In addition to its role in pregnancy, β-hCG is also used as a tumor marker for certain types of cancer, such as germ cell tumors and choriocarcinoma.

Elevated levels of β-hCG may indicate the presence of a molar pregnancy, a condition in which a fertilized egg implants in the uterus but does not develop properly. In some cases, a molar pregnancy can become cancerous and require treatment. Therefore, monitoring β-hCG levels during pregnancy is important for detecting any potential complications.

Equipment failure is a term used in the medical field to describe the malfunction or breakdown of medical equipment, devices, or systems that are essential for patient care. This can include simple devices like syringes and thermometers, as well as complex machines such as ventilators, infusion pumps, and imaging equipment.

Equipment failure can have serious consequences for patients, including delayed or inappropriate treatment, injury, or even death. It is therefore essential that medical equipment is properly maintained, tested, and repaired to ensure its safe and effective operation.

There are many potential causes of equipment failure, including:

* Wear and tear from frequent use
* Inadequate cleaning or disinfection
* Improper handling or storage
* Power supply issues
* Software glitches or bugs
* Mechanical failures or defects
* Human error or misuse

To prevent equipment failure, healthcare facilities should have established policies and procedures for the acquisition, maintenance, and disposal of medical equipment. Staff should be trained in the proper use and handling of equipment, and regular inspections and testing should be performed to identify and address any potential issues before they lead to failure.

Uterine hemorrhage, also known as uterine bleeding or gynecological bleeding, is an abnormal loss of blood from the uterus. It can occur in various clinical settings such as menstruation (known as menorrhagia), postpartum period (postpartum hemorrhage), or in non-pregnant women (dysfunctional uterine bleeding). The bleeding may be light to heavy, intermittent or continuous, and can be accompanied by symptoms such as pain, dizziness, or fainting. Uterine hemorrhage is a common gynecological problem that can have various underlying causes, including hormonal imbalances, structural abnormalities, coagulopathies, and malignancies. It is important to seek medical attention if experiencing heavy or prolonged uterine bleeding to determine the cause and receive appropriate treatment.

Ovulation induction is a medical procedure that involves the stimulation of ovulation (the release of an egg from the ovaries) in women who have difficulties conceiving due to ovulatory disorders. This is typically achieved through the use of medications such as clomiphene citrate or gonadotropins, which promote the development and maturation of follicles in the ovaries containing eggs. The process is closely monitored through regular ultrasounds and hormone tests to ensure appropriate response and minimize the risk of complications like multiple pregnancies. Ovulation induction may be used as a standalone treatment or in conjunction with other assisted reproductive technologies (ART), such as intrauterine insemination (IUI) or in vitro fertilization (IVF).

A live birth is the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of a product of human conception, irrespective of the duration of the pregnancy, that, after such separation, breathes or shows any other evidence of life - such as beating of the heart, pulsation of the umbilical cord, or definite movement of voluntary muscles - whether or not the umbilical cord has been cut or the placenta is attached.

This definition is used by the World Health Organization (WHO) and most national statistical agencies to distinguish live births from stillbirths. It's important to note that in some medical contexts, a different definition of live birth may be used.

"Device Removal" in a medical context generally refers to the surgical or nonsurgical removal of a medical device that has been previously implanted in a patient's body. The purpose of removing the device may vary, depending on the individual case. Some common reasons for device removal include infection, malfunction, rejection, or when the device is no longer needed.

Examples of medical devices that may require removal include pacemakers, implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs), artificial joints, orthopedic hardware, breast implants, cochlear implants, and intrauterine devices (IUDs). The procedure for device removal will depend on the type of device, its location in the body, and the reason for its removal.

It is important to note that device removal carries certain risks, such as bleeding, infection, damage to surrounding tissues, or complications related to anesthesia. Therefore, the decision to remove a medical device should be made carefully, considering both the potential benefits and risks of the procedure.

Maternal nutritional physiological phenomena refer to the various changes and processes that occur in a woman's body during pregnancy, lactation, and postpartum periods to meet the increased nutritional demands and support the growth and development of the fetus or infant. These phenomena involve complex interactions between maternal nutrition, hormonal regulation, metabolism, and physiological functions to ensure optimal pregnancy outcomes and offspring health.

Examples of maternal nutritional physiological phenomena include:

1. Adaptations in maternal nutrient metabolism: During pregnancy, the mother's body undergoes various adaptations to increase the availability of essential nutrients for fetal growth and development. For instance, there are increased absorption and utilization of glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids, as well as enhanced storage of glycogen and lipids in maternal tissues.
2. Placental transfer of nutrients: The placenta plays a crucial role in facilitating the exchange of nutrients between the mother and fetus. It selectively transports essential nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals from the maternal circulation to the fetal compartment while removing waste products.
3. Maternal weight gain: Pregnant women typically experience an increase in body weight due to the growth of the fetus, placenta, amniotic fluid, and maternal tissues such as the uterus and breasts. Adequate gestational weight gain is essential for ensuring optimal pregnancy outcomes and reducing the risk of adverse perinatal complications.
4. Changes in maternal hormonal regulation: Pregnancy is associated with significant changes in hormonal profiles, including increased levels of estrogen, progesterone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and other hormones that regulate various physiological functions such as glucose metabolism, appetite regulation, and maternal-fetal immune tolerance.
5. Lactation: Following childbirth, the mother's body undergoes further adaptations to support lactation and breastfeeding. This involves the production and secretion of milk, which contains essential nutrients and bioactive components that promote infant growth, development, and immunity.
6. Nutrient requirements: Pregnancy and lactation increase women's nutritional demands for various micronutrients such as iron, calcium, folate, vitamin D, and omega-3 fatty acids. Meeting these increased nutritional needs is crucial for ensuring optimal pregnancy outcomes and supporting maternal health during the postpartum period.

Understanding these physiological adaptations and their implications for maternal and fetal health is essential for developing evidence-based interventions to promote positive pregnancy outcomes, reduce the risk of adverse perinatal complications, and support women's health throughout the reproductive lifespan.

Recurrence, in a medical context, refers to the return of symptoms or signs of a disease after a period of improvement or remission. It indicates that the condition has not been fully eradicated and may require further treatment. Recurrence is often used to describe situations where a disease such as cancer comes back after initial treatment, but it can also apply to other medical conditions. The likelihood of recurrence varies depending on the type of disease and individual patient factors.

Drainage, in medical terms, refers to the removal of excess fluid or accumulated collections of fluids from various body parts or spaces. This is typically accomplished through the use of medical devices such as catheters, tubes, or drains. The purpose of drainage can be to prevent the buildup of fluids that may cause discomfort, infection, or other complications, or to treat existing collections of fluid such as abscesses, hematomas, or pleural effusions. Drainage may also be used as a diagnostic tool to analyze the type and composition of the fluid being removed.

A "threatened abortion" is a medical term used to describe a situation in which there are symptoms that suggest an impending miscarriage, such as vaginal bleeding and/or cramping during early pregnancy, but the cervix remains closed and the fetal heartbeat is still present. This condition is estimated to occur in up to 20-30% of all pregnancies, and while it can be a source of anxiety for pregnant individuals, it does not necessarily mean that a miscarriage will definitely occur.

It's important to note that if you are experiencing any symptoms of a threatened abortion, you should contact your healthcare provider right away for evaluation and guidance on how to manage the situation. They may recommend bed rest, pelvic rest, or other treatments to help support the pregnancy and reduce the risk of miscarriage.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

Contraception is the use of various devices, methods, or medications to prevent pregnancy. The term is derived from the Latin words "contra" meaning "against" and "conceptio" meaning "conception." Contraceptive methods can be broadly categorized into temporary and permanent methods. Temporary methods include barriers such as condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps, and sponges; hormonal methods like the pill, patch, ring, injection, and emergency contraception; and fertility awareness-based methods that involve tracking ovulation and avoiding intercourse during fertile periods. Permanent methods include surgical procedures such as tubal ligation for women and vasectomy for men.

The primary goal of contraception is to prevent the sperm from reaching and fertilizing the egg, thereby preventing pregnancy. However, some contraceptive methods also offer additional benefits such as reducing the risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and regulating menstrual cycles. It's important to note that while contraception can prevent pregnancy, it does not protect against STIs, so using condoms is still recommended for individuals who are at risk of contracting STIs.

When choosing a contraceptive method, it's essential to consider factors such as effectiveness, safety, ease of use, cost, and personal preferences. It's also important to consult with a healthcare provider to determine the most appropriate method based on individual health history and needs.

The myometrium is the middle and thickest layer of the uterine wall, composed mainly of smooth muscle cells. It is responsible for the strong contractions during labor and can also contribute to bleeding during menstruation or childbirth. The myometrium is able to stretch and expand to accommodate a growing fetus and then contract during labor to help push the baby out. It also plays a role in maintaining the structure and shape of the uterus, and in protecting the internal organs within the pelvic cavity.

Immunologic pregnancy tests are a type of diagnostic test used to determine the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in a patient's urine or blood. hCG is a hormone produced by the placenta during pregnancy, and its levels increase rapidly in early pregnancy. Immunologic pregnancy tests use antibodies to detect the presence of hCG and produce a positive or negative result based on the amount of hCG detected. These tests are widely used as an initial screening tool for pregnancy and can provide accurate results within a few days of missed menstrual period.

A hydatidiform mole, also known as a molar pregnancy, is a type of gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD), which is a group of rare disorders that involve abnormal growth of the placental tissue.

In a hydatidiform mole, there is an abnormal fertilization event leading to the growth of a mass of grapelike cysts in the uterus instead of a normal pregnancy. The chromosomes from the sperm and egg do not combine properly, resulting in an extra set of chromosomes, which leads to the development of the mole.

Hydatidiform moles can be complete or partial:

* Complete hydatidiform mole (CHM): This type arises when an egg without a nucleus is fertilized by one or two sperm, leading to the growth of abnormal placental tissue with no embryo. The chromosomes come from the father only, and there are typically 46 chromosomes, all of paternal origin.
* Partial hydatidiform mole (PHM): This type occurs when an egg is fertilized by two sperm or a single sperm that duplicates itself, resulting in an abnormal placenta with some fetal tissue. The chromosomes are of both maternal and paternal origin, and the placental tissue has a mix of normal and abnormal cells.

Hydatidiform moles can cause vaginal bleeding, rapid uterine enlargement, and high levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) hormone in the blood. They are usually detected during an ultrasound exam and require medical treatment to prevent complications such as gestational trophoblastic neoplasia, a malignant form of GTD that can spread to other organs.

Foreign-body migration is a medical condition that occurs when a foreign object, such as a surgical implant, tissue graft, or trauma-induced fragment, moves from its original position within the body to a different location. This displacement can cause various complications and symptoms depending on the type of foreign body, the location it migrated to, and the individual's specific physiological response.

Foreign-body migration may result from insufficient fixation or anchoring of the object during implantation, inadequate wound healing, infection, or an inflammatory reaction. Symptoms can include pain, swelling, redness, or infection at the new location, as well as potential damage to surrounding tissues and organs. Diagnosis typically involves imaging techniques like X-rays, CT scans, or MRIs to locate the foreign body, followed by a surgical procedure to remove it and address any resulting complications.

In medical terms, triplets are a type of multiple pregnancy, where three offsprings (fetuses) develop simultaneously in the uterus of a single pregnant woman. This occurs when a woman releases more than one egg during ovulation, and all three eggs get fertilized by separate sperm cells. Triplets can also occur through the use of assisted reproductive technologies such as in vitro fertilization (IVF) where multiple embryos are transferred into the uterus.

Triplet pregnancies carry a higher risk of complications for both the mother and the offsprings compared to singleton or twin pregnancies, including preterm labor, low birth weight, and developmental issues. As such, they often require close monitoring and specialized care throughout the pregnancy.

Catheterization is a medical procedure in which a catheter (a flexible tube) is inserted into the body to treat various medical conditions or for diagnostic purposes. The specific definition can vary depending on the area of medicine and the particular procedure being discussed. Here are some common types of catheterization:

1. Urinary catheterization: This involves inserting a catheter through the urethra into the bladder to drain urine. It is often performed to manage urinary retention, monitor urine output in critically ill patients, or assist with surgical procedures.
2. Cardiac catheterization: A procedure where a catheter is inserted into a blood vessel, usually in the groin or arm, and guided to the heart. This allows for various diagnostic tests and treatments, such as measuring pressures within the heart chambers, assessing blood flow, or performing angioplasty and stenting of narrowed coronary arteries.
3. Central venous catheterization: A catheter is inserted into a large vein, typically in the neck, chest, or groin, to administer medications, fluids, or nutrition, or to monitor central venous pressure.
4. Peritoneal dialysis catheterization: A catheter is placed into the abdominal cavity for individuals undergoing peritoneal dialysis, a type of kidney replacement therapy.
5. Neurological catheterization: In some cases, a catheter may be inserted into the cerebrospinal fluid space (lumbar puncture) or the brain's ventricular system (ventriculostomy) to diagnose or treat various neurological conditions.

These are just a few examples of catheterization procedures in medicine. The specific definition and purpose will depend on the medical context and the particular organ or body system involved.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Prenatal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena" is not a standard or widely recognized medical term. It seems to be a rather broad and vague phrase that combines several concepts: prenatal (occurring before birth), nutritional (relating to nutrition), physiological (relating to the functioning of living organisms and their parts), and phenomena (observable events or occurrences).

If you're interested in a specific aspect of maternal and fetal nutrition, physiology, or related processes during pregnancy, I would be happy to help further if you could provide a more precise term or question. For example, prenatal nutritional physiological phenomena could refer to the process of how certain nutrients are transported across the placenta, how maternal nutrition affects fetal growth and development, or how various hormonal and metabolic changes occur during pregnancy.

An abortifacient agent is a substance or drug that causes abortion by inducing the uterus to contract and expel a fetus. These agents can be chemical or herbal substances, and they work by interfering with the implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterine lining or by stimulating uterine contractions to expel the developing embryo or fetus.

Examples of abortifacient agents include misoprostol, mifepristone, and certain herbs such as pennyroyal, tansy, and black cohosh. It is important to note that the use of abortifacient agents can have serious health consequences, including infection, bleeding, and damage to the reproductive system. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare provider before using any abortifacient agent.

A hematoma is defined as a localized accumulation of blood in a tissue, organ, or body space caused by a break in the wall of a blood vessel. This can result from various causes such as trauma, surgery, or certain medical conditions that affect coagulation. The severity and size of a hematoma may vary depending on the location and extent of the bleeding. Symptoms can include swelling, pain, bruising, and decreased mobility in the affected area. Treatment options depend on the size and location of the hematoma but may include observation, compression, ice, elevation, or in some cases, surgical intervention.

Surgical wound dehiscence is a medical condition that refers to the partial or complete separation of layers of a surgical incision after a surgical procedure, leading to the disruption of the wound closure. This can occur due to various factors such as infection, poor nutrition, increased tension on the sutures, hematoma or seroma formation, and patient's underlying health conditions like diabetes or immunodeficiency. Dehiscence may result in the exposure of internal tissues and organs, potentially causing severe complications such as infection, bleeding, or organ dysfunction. Immediate medical attention is required to manage this condition and prevent further complications.

The Chi-square distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is often used in statistical hypothesis testing. It is the distribution of a sum of squares of k independent standard normal random variables. The resulting quantity follows a chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom, denoted as χ²(k).

The probability density function (pdf) of the Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom is given by:

f(x; k) = (1/ (2^(k/2) * Γ(k/2))) \* x^((k/2)-1) \* e^(-x/2), for x > 0 and 0, otherwise.

Where Γ(k/2) is the gamma function evaluated at k/2. The mean and variance of a Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom are k and 2k, respectively.

The Chi-square distribution has various applications in statistical inference, including testing goodness-of-fit, homogeneity of variances, and independence in contingency tables.

Postoperative hemorrhage is a medical term that refers to bleeding that occurs after a surgical procedure. This condition can range from minor oozing to severe, life-threatening bleeding. Postoperative hemorrhage can occur soon after surgery or even several days later, as the surgical site begins to heal.

The causes of postoperative hemorrhage can vary, but some common factors include:

1. Inadequate hemostasis during surgery: This means that all bleeding was not properly controlled during the procedure, leading to bleeding after surgery.
2. Blood vessel injury: During surgery, blood vessels may be accidentally cut or damaged, causing bleeding after the procedure.
3. Coagulopathy: This is a condition in which the body has difficulty forming blood clots, increasing the risk of postoperative hemorrhage.
4. Use of anticoagulant medications: Medications that prevent blood clots can increase the risk of bleeding after surgery.
5. Infection: An infection at the surgical site can cause inflammation and bleeding.

Symptoms of postoperative hemorrhage may include swelling, pain, warmth, or discoloration around the surgical site, as well as signs of shock such as rapid heartbeat, low blood pressure, and confusion. Treatment for postoperative hemorrhage depends on the severity of the bleeding and may include medications to control bleeding, transfusions of blood products, or additional surgery to stop the bleeding.

HELLP syndrome is a serious complication in pregnancy, characterized by Hemolysis (the breakdown of red blood cells), Elevated Liver enzymes, and Low Platelet count. It is often considered a variant of severe preeclampsia or eclampsia, although it can also occur without these conditions.

The symptoms of HELLP syndrome include headache, nausea and vomiting, upper right abdominal pain, and visual disturbances. It can lead to serious complications for both the mother and the baby, such as liver failure, placental abruption, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), and even death if not promptly diagnosed and treated.

The exact cause of HELLP syndrome is not known, but it is thought to be related to problems with the blood vessels that supply the placenta. Treatment typically involves delivering the baby as soon as possible, even if the baby is premature. Women who have had HELLP syndrome are at increased risk for complications in future pregnancies.

Iatrogenic disease refers to any condition or illness that is caused, directly or indirectly, by medical treatment or intervention. This can include adverse reactions to medications, infections acquired during hospitalization, complications from surgical procedures, or injuries caused by medical equipment. It's important to note that iatrogenic diseases are unintended and often preventable with proper care and precautions.

I believe there may be a misunderstanding in your question. "Mothers" is a term that refers to individuals who have given birth to and raised children. It is not a medical term with a specific definition. If you are referring to a different word or term, please clarify so I can provide a more accurate response.

Surgical anastomosis is a medical procedure that involves the connection of two tubular structures, such as blood vessels or intestines, to create a continuous passage. This technique is commonly used in various types of surgeries, including vascular, gastrointestinal, and orthopedic procedures.

During a surgical anastomosis, the ends of the two tubular structures are carefully prepared by removing any damaged or diseased tissue. The ends are then aligned and joined together using sutures, staples, or other devices. The connection must be secure and leak-free to ensure proper function and healing.

The success of a surgical anastomosis depends on several factors, including the patient's overall health, the location and condition of the structures being joined, and the skill and experience of the surgeon. Complications such as infection, bleeding, or leakage can occur, which may require additional medical intervention or surgery.

Proper postoperative care is also essential to ensure the success of a surgical anastomosis. This may include monitoring for signs of complications, administering medications to prevent infection and promote healing, and providing adequate nutrition and hydration.

Indwelling catheters, also known as Foley catheters, are medical devices that are inserted into the bladder to drain urine. They have a small balloon at the tip that is inflated with water once the catheter is in the correct position in the bladder, allowing it to remain in place and continuously drain urine. Indwelling catheters are typically used for patients who are unable to empty their bladders on their own, such as those who are bedridden or have nerve damage that affects bladder function. They are also used during and after certain surgical procedures. Prolonged use of indwelling catheters can increase the risk of urinary tract infections and other complications.

The Predictive Value of Tests, specifically the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), are measures used in diagnostic tests to determine the probability that a positive or negative test result is correct.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the proportion of patients with a positive test result who actually have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true positives divided by the total number of positive results (true positives + false positives). A higher PPV indicates that a positive test result is more likely to be a true positive, and therefore the disease is more likely to be present.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the proportion of patients with a negative test result who do not have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true negatives divided by the total number of negative results (true negatives + false negatives). A higher NPV indicates that a negative test result is more likely to be a true negative, and therefore the disease is less likely to be present.

The predictive value of tests depends on the prevalence of the disease in the population being tested, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the test. A test with high sensitivity and specificity will generally have higher predictive values than a test with low sensitivity and specificity. However, even a highly sensitive and specific test can have low predictive values if the prevalence of the disease is low in the population being tested.

Biliary tract diseases refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the biliary system, which includes the gallbladder, bile ducts, and liver. Bile is a digestive juice produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine through the bile ducts to help digest fats.

Biliary tract diseases can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, jaundice, fever, nausea, vomiting, and changes in stool color. Some of the common biliary tract diseases include:

1. Gallstones: Small, hard deposits that form in the gallbladder or bile ducts made up of cholesterol or bilirubin.
2. Cholecystitis: Inflammation of the gallbladder, often caused by gallstones.
3. Cholangitis: Infection or inflammation of the bile ducts.
4. Biliary dyskinesia: A motility disorder that affects the contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the biliary system.
5. Primary sclerosing cholangitis: A chronic autoimmune disease that causes scarring and narrowing of the bile ducts.
6. Biliary tract cancer: Rare cancers that affect the gallbladder, bile ducts, or liver.

Treatment for biliary tract diseases varies depending on the specific condition and severity but may include medications, surgery, or a combination of both.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

Reproductive techniques refer to various methods and procedures used to assist individuals or couples in achieving pregnancy, carrying a pregnancy to term, or preserving fertility. These techniques can be broadly categorized into assisted reproductive technology (ART) and fertility preservation.

Assisted reproductive technology (ART) includes procedures such as:

1. In vitro fertilization (IVF): A process where an egg is fertilized by sperm outside the body in a laboratory dish, and then the resulting embryo is transferred to a woman's uterus.
2. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI): A procedure where a single sperm is directly injected into an egg to facilitate fertilization.
3. Embryo culture and cryopreservation: The process of growing embryos in a laboratory for a few days before freezing them for later use.
4. Donor gametes: Using eggs, sperm, or embryos from a known or anonymous donor to achieve pregnancy.
5. Gestational surrogacy: A method where a woman carries and gives birth to a baby for another individual or couple who cannot carry a pregnancy themselves.

Fertility preservation techniques include:

1. Sperm banking: The process of freezing and storing sperm for future use in artificial reproduction.
2. Egg (oocyte) freezing: A procedure where a woman's eggs are extracted, frozen, and stored for later use in fertility treatments.
3. Embryo freezing: The cryopreservation of embryos created through IVF for future use.
4. Ovarian tissue cryopreservation: The freezing and storage of ovarian tissue to restore fertility after cancer treatment or other conditions that may affect fertility.
5. Testicular tissue cryopreservation: The collection and storage of testicular tissue in prepubertal boys undergoing cancer treatment to preserve their future fertility potential.

In the context of medicine, risk is the probability or likelihood of an adverse health effect or the occurrence of a negative event related to treatment or exposure to certain hazards. It is usually expressed as a ratio or percentage and can be influenced by various factors such as age, gender, lifestyle, genetics, and environmental conditions. Risk assessment involves identifying, quantifying, and prioritizing risks to make informed decisions about prevention, mitigation, or treatment strategies.

Oocyte donation is a medical procedure in which mature oocytes (or immature oocytes that are matured in the lab) are donated by one woman to another woman for the purpose of assisted reproduction. The recipient woman typically receives hormonal treatments to prepare her uterus for embryo implantation. The donated oocytes are then fertilized with sperm from the recipient's partner or a sperm donor in a laboratory, and the resulting embryos are transferred into the recipient's uterus.

Oocyte donation is often recommended for women who have poor ovarian function or who have a high risk of passing on genetic disorders to their offspring. It is also used in cases where previous attempts at in vitro fertilization (IVF) using the woman's own eggs have been unsuccessful.

The process of oocyte donation involves rigorous screening and evaluation of both the donor and recipient, including medical, psychological, and genetic evaluations, to ensure the safety and success of the procedure. The donor's ovaries are stimulated with hormonal medications to produce multiple mature oocytes, which are then retrieved through a minor surgical procedure.

Overall, oocyte donation is a complex and emotionally charged process that requires careful consideration and counseling for both the donor and recipient. It offers hope for many women who would otherwise be unable to conceive a biological child.

A stent is a small mesh tube that's used to treat narrow or weak arteries. Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from your heart to other parts of your body. A stent is placed in an artery as part of a procedure called angioplasty. Angioplasty restores blood flow through narrowed or blocked arteries by inflating a tiny balloon inside the blocked artery to widen it.

The stent is then inserted into the widened artery to keep it open. The stent is usually made of metal, but some are coated with medication that is slowly and continuously released to help prevent the formation of scar tissue in the artery. This can reduce the chance of the artery narrowing again.

Stents are also used in other parts of the body, such as the neck (carotid artery) and kidneys (renal artery), to help maintain blood flow and prevent blockages. They can also be used in the urinary system to treat conditions like ureteropelvic junction obstruction or narrowing of the urethra.

Diabetic angiopathies refer to a group of vascular complications that occur due to diabetes mellitus. Prolonged exposure to high blood sugar levels can damage the blood vessels, leading to various types of angiopathies such as:

1. Diabetic retinopathy: This is a condition where the small blood vessels in the retina get damaged due to diabetes, leading to vision loss or blindness if left untreated.
2. Diabetic nephropathy: In this condition, the kidneys' glomeruli (the filtering units) become damaged due to diabetes, leading to protein leakage and eventually kidney failure if not managed properly.
3. Diabetic neuropathy: This is a type of nerve damage caused by diabetes that can affect various parts of the body, including the legs, feet, and hands, causing numbness, tingling, or pain.
4. Diabetic cardiomyopathy: This is a condition where the heart muscle becomes damaged due to diabetes, leading to heart failure.
5. Diabetic peripheral arterial disease (PAD): In this condition, the blood vessels that supply the legs and feet become narrowed or blocked due to diabetes, leading to pain, cramping, or even gangrene in severe cases.

Overall, diabetic angiopathies are serious complications of diabetes that can significantly impact a person's quality of life and overall health. Therefore, it is crucial for individuals with diabetes to manage their blood sugar levels effectively and undergo regular check-ups to detect any early signs of these complications.

Anticoagulants are a class of medications that work to prevent the formation of blood clots in the body. They do this by inhibiting the coagulation cascade, which is a series of chemical reactions that lead to the formation of a clot. Anticoagulants can be given orally, intravenously, or subcutaneously, depending on the specific drug and the individual patient's needs.

There are several different types of anticoagulants, including:

1. Heparin: This is a naturally occurring anticoagulant that is often used in hospitalized patients who require immediate anticoagulation. It works by activating an enzyme called antithrombin III, which inhibits the formation of clots.
2. Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH): LMWH is a form of heparin that has been broken down into smaller molecules. It has a longer half-life than standard heparin and can be given once or twice daily by subcutaneous injection.
3. Direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs): These are newer oral anticoagulants that work by directly inhibiting specific clotting factors in the coagulation cascade. Examples include apixaban, rivaroxaban, and dabigatran.
4. Vitamin K antagonists: These are older oral anticoagulants that work by inhibiting the action of vitamin K, which is necessary for the formation of clotting factors. Warfarin is an example of a vitamin K antagonist.

Anticoagulants are used to prevent and treat a variety of conditions, including deep vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism (PE), atrial fibrillation, and prosthetic heart valve thrombosis. It is important to note that anticoagulants can increase the risk of bleeding, so they must be used with caution and regular monitoring of blood clotting times may be required.

Endoscopy is a medical procedure that involves the use of an endoscope, which is a flexible tube with a light and camera at the end, to examine the interior of a body cavity or organ. The endoscope is inserted through a natural opening in the body, such as the mouth or anus, or through a small incision. The images captured by the camera are transmitted to a monitor, allowing the physician to visualize the internal structures and detect any abnormalities, such as inflammation, ulcers, or tumors. Endoscopy can also be used for diagnostic purposes, such as taking tissue samples for biopsy, or for therapeutic purposes, such as removing polyps or performing minimally invasive surgeries.

Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a clot forms in an artery, it can cut off the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues served by that artery, leading to damage or tissue death. If a thrombus forms in the heart, it can cause a heart attack. If a thrombus breaks off and travels through the bloodstream, it can lodge in a smaller vessel, causing blockage and potentially leading to damage in the organ that the vessel supplies. This is known as an embolism.

Thrombosis can occur due to various factors such as injury to the blood vessel wall, abnormalities in blood flow, or changes in the composition of the blood. Certain medical conditions, medications, and lifestyle factors can increase the risk of thrombosis. Treatment typically involves anticoagulant or thrombolytic therapy to dissolve or prevent further growth of the clot, as well as addressing any underlying causes.

Suture techniques refer to the various methods used by surgeons to sew or stitch together tissues in the body after an injury, trauma, or surgical incision. The main goal of suturing is to approximate and hold the edges of the wound together, allowing for proper healing and minimizing scar formation.

There are several types of suture techniques, including:

1. Simple Interrupted Suture: This is one of the most basic suture techniques where the needle is passed through the tissue at a right angle, creating a loop that is then tightened to approximate the wound edges. Multiple stitches are placed along the length of the incision or wound.
2. Continuous Locking Suture: In this technique, the needle is passed continuously through the tissue in a zigzag pattern, with each stitch locking into the previous one. This creates a continuous line of sutures that provides strong tension and support to the wound edges.
3. Running Suture: Similar to the continuous locking suture, this technique involves passing the needle continuously through the tissue in a straight line. However, instead of locking each stitch, the needle is simply passed through the previous loop before being tightened. This creates a smooth and uninterrupted line of sutures that can be easily removed after healing.
4. Horizontal Mattress Suture: In this technique, two parallel stitches are placed horizontally across the wound edges, creating a "mattress" effect that provides additional support and tension to the wound. This is particularly useful in deep or irregularly shaped wounds.
5. Vertical Mattress Suture: Similar to the horizontal mattress suture, this technique involves placing two parallel stitches vertically across the wound edges. This creates a more pronounced "mattress" effect that can help reduce tension and minimize scarring.
6. Subcuticular Suture: In this technique, the needle is passed just below the surface of the skin, creating a smooth and barely visible line of sutures. This is particularly useful in cosmetic surgery or areas where minimizing scarring is important.

The choice of suture technique depends on various factors such as the location and size of the wound, the type of tissue involved, and the patient's individual needs and preferences. Proper suture placement and tension are crucial for optimal healing and aesthetic outcomes.

Fetal resorption, also known as fetal demise or intrauterine fetal death, is a medical term that refers to the absorption of a nonviable fetus by the mother's body after its death in utero. This process typically occurs before the 20th week of gestation and may go unnoticed if it happens early in pregnancy.

During fetal resorption, the fetal tissue is broken down and absorbed by the mother's body, leaving no visible remains of the fetus. The placenta and other surrounding tissues may still be present, but they often undergo changes as well. In some cases, a small amount of fetal tissue may be expelled from the uterus during the resorption process.

The causes of fetal resorption can vary, including chromosomal abnormalities, maternal health conditions, infections, and environmental factors. It is essential to seek medical attention if a woman suspects fetal resorption or experiences any unusual symptoms during pregnancy, such as vaginal bleeding or decreased fetal movement, to ensure proper diagnosis and management.

Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to an absolute deficiency of insulin. This results in an inability to regulate blood glucose levels, causing hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). Type 1 diabetes typically presents in childhood or early adulthood, although it can develop at any age. It is usually managed with regular insulin injections or the use of an insulin pump, along with monitoring of blood glucose levels and adjustments to diet and physical activity. Uncontrolled type 1 diabetes can lead to serious complications such as kidney damage, nerve damage, blindness, and cardiovascular disease.

Multivariate analysis is a statistical method used to examine the relationship between multiple independent variables and a dependent variable. It allows for the simultaneous examination of the effects of two or more independent variables on an outcome, while controlling for the effects of other variables in the model. This technique can be used to identify patterns, associations, and interactions among multiple variables, and is commonly used in medical research to understand complex health outcomes and disease processes. Examples of multivariate analysis methods include multiple regression, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and discriminant analysis.

Fetal macrosomia is a medical condition where the fetus in the womb is significantly larger than normal. While there is no consensus on an exact weight that defines macrosomia, it is generally defined as a fetus with an estimated weight of 4,000 grams (8 pounds 13 ounces) or more at birth.

Fetal macrosomia can be caused by several factors, including maternal diabetes, post-term pregnancy, excessive weight gain during pregnancy, and prior history of macrosomic infants. Macrosomic infants are at an increased risk for complications during labor and delivery, such as shoulder dystocia, birth injuries, and hypoglycemia.

It is important for healthcare providers to monitor fetal growth carefully during pregnancy, particularly in women who have risk factors for macrosomia. Regular prenatal care, including ultrasound measurements of the fetus, can help identify cases of fetal macrosomia and allow for appropriate management and delivery planning.

Contraception behavior refers to the actions and decisions made by individuals or couples to prevent pregnancy. This can include the use of various contraceptive methods, such as hormonal birth control (e.g., pills, patches, rings), barrier methods (e.g., condoms, diaphragms), intrauterine devices (IUDs), and natural family planning techniques (e.g., fertility awareness-based methods).

Contraception behavior can be influenced by various factors, including personal beliefs, cultural norms, relationship dynamics, access to healthcare services, and knowledge about contraceptive options. It is an important aspect of sexual and reproductive health, as it allows individuals and couples to plan their families and make informed choices about whether and when to have children.

It's worth noting that while the term "contraception behavior" typically refers to actions taken specifically to prevent pregnancy, some contraceptive methods may also provide protection against sexually transmitted infections (STIs). For example, condoms are effective at preventing both pregnancy and STIs when used consistently and correctly.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

Chorionic villi are finger-like projections of the chorion, which is the outermost extraembryonic membrane in a developing embryo. These structures are composed of both fetal and maternal tissues and play a crucial role in the early stages of pregnancy by providing a site for exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and the developing fetus.

Chorionic villi contain fetal blood vessels that are surrounded by stromal cells, trophoblasts, and connective tissue. They are formed during the process of implantation, when the fertilized egg attaches to the uterine wall. The chorionic villi continue to grow and multiply as the placenta develops, eventually forming a highly vascular and specialized organ that supports fetal growth and development throughout pregnancy.

One important function of chorionic villi is to serve as the site for the production of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone that can be detected in the mother's blood and urine during early pregnancy. This hormone plays a critical role in maintaining pregnancy by signaling the corpus luteum to continue producing progesterone, which helps to prevent menstruation and support fetal growth.

Abnormalities in chorionic villi can lead to various pregnancy complications, such as miscarriage, stillbirth, or intrauterine growth restriction. For this reason, chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is a diagnostic procedure that may be performed during early pregnancy to obtain fetal cells for genetic testing and diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities or other genetic disorders.

Hyperemesis Gravidarum is a severe form of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy that is more extreme than the typical morning sickness. It's characterized by persistent vomiting, dehydration, weight loss, and electrolyte imbalance. If left untreated, it can lead to serious complications for both the mother and the baby. The exact cause is not known, but it may be related to high levels of hormones or other substances in the pregnant woman's body. Treatment often involves hospitalization for rehydration, medication to control vomiting, and nutritional support.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

Therapeutic embolization is a medical procedure that involves intentionally blocking or obstructing blood vessels to stop excessive bleeding or block the flow of blood to a tumor or abnormal tissue. This is typically accomplished by injecting small particles, such as microspheres or coils, into the targeted blood vessel through a catheter, which is inserted into a larger blood vessel and guided to the desired location using imaging techniques like X-ray or CT scanning. The goal of therapeutic embolization is to reduce the size of a tumor, control bleeding, or block off abnormal blood vessels that are causing problems.

Postoperative care refers to the comprehensive medical treatment and nursing attention provided to a patient following a surgical procedure. The goal of postoperative care is to facilitate the patient's recovery, prevent complications, manage pain, ensure proper healing of the incision site, and maintain overall health and well-being until the patient can resume their normal activities.

This type of care includes monitoring vital signs, managing pain through medication or other techniques, ensuring adequate hydration and nutrition, helping the patient with breathing exercises to prevent lung complications, encouraging mobility to prevent blood clots, monitoring for signs of infection or other complications, administering prescribed medications, providing wound care, and educating the patient about postoperative care instructions.

The duration of postoperative care can vary depending on the type and complexity of the surgical procedure, as well as the individual patient's needs and overall health status. It may be provided in a hospital setting, an outpatient surgery center, or in the patient's home, depending on the level of care required.

Estradiol is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It is the most potent and dominant form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and regulation of the menstrual cycle. It also helps maintain bone density, protect the lining of the uterus, and is involved in cognition and mood regulation.

Estradiol is produced primarily by the ovaries, but it can also be synthesized in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estradiol is produced from testosterone through a process called aromatization. Abnormal levels of estradiol can contribute to various health issues, such as hormonal imbalances, infertility, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer.

Maternal mortality is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes."

This definition highlights that maternal mortality is a preventable death that occurs during pregnancy, childbirth, or in the postpartum period, and it can be caused by various factors related to or worsened by the pregnancy or its management. The WHO also collects data on maternal deaths due to direct obstetric causes (such as hemorrhage, hypertensive disorders, sepsis, and unsafe abortion) and indirect causes (such as malaria, anemia, and HIV/AIDS).

Maternal mortality is a significant public health issue worldwide, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Reducing maternal mortality is one of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) set by the United Nations, with a target to reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births by 2030.

Fetal weight is the calculated weight of a fetus during pregnancy, typically estimated through ultrasound measurements. It is a crucial indicator of fetal growth and development throughout pregnancy. The weight is determined by measuring various parameters such as the head circumference, abdominal circumference, and femur length, which are then used in conjunction with specific formulas to estimate the fetal weight. Regular monitoring of fetal weight helps healthcare providers assess fetal health, identify potential growth restrictions or abnormalities, and determine appropriate delivery timing. Low fetal weight can indicate intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), while high fetal weight might suggest macrosomia, both of which may require specialized care and management.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

Amniocentesis is a medical procedure in which a small amount of amniotic fluid, which contains fetal cells, is withdrawn from the uterus through a hollow needle inserted into the abdomen of a pregnant woman. This procedure is typically performed between the 16th and 20th weeks of pregnancy.

The main purpose of amniocentesis is to diagnose genetic disorders and chromosomal abnormalities in the developing fetus, such as Down syndrome, Edwards syndrome, and neural tube defects. The fetal cells obtained from the amniotic fluid can be cultured and analyzed for various genetic characteristics, including chromosomal structure and number, as well as specific gene mutations.

Amniocentesis carries a small risk of complications, such as miscarriage, infection, or injury to the fetus. Therefore, it is generally offered to women who have an increased risk of having a baby with a genetic disorder or chromosomal abnormality, such as those over the age of 35, those with a family history of genetic disorders, or those who have had a previous pregnancy affected by a genetic condition.

It's important to note that while amniocentesis can provide valuable information about the health of the fetus, it does not guarantee a completely normal baby, and there are some risks associated with the procedure. Therefore, the decision to undergo amniocentesis should be made carefully, in consultation with a healthcare provider, taking into account the individual circumstances and preferences of each woman.

The corpus luteum is a temporary endocrine structure that forms in the ovary after an oocyte (egg) has been released from a follicle during ovulation. It's formed by the remaining cells of the ruptured follicle, which transform into large, hormone-secreting cells.

The primary function of the corpus luteum is to produce progesterone and, to a lesser extent, estrogen during the menstrual cycle or pregnancy. Progesterone plays a crucial role in preparing the uterus for potential implantation of a fertilized egg and maintaining the early stages of pregnancy. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum will typically degenerate and stop producing hormones after approximately 10-14 days, leading to menstruation.

However, if pregnancy occurs, the developing embryo starts to produce human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which signals the corpus luteum to continue secreting progesterone and estrogen until the placenta takes over hormonal production, usually around the end of the first trimester.

Embryonic and fetal development is the process of growth and development that occurs from fertilization of the egg (conception) to birth. The terms "embryo" and "fetus" are used to describe different stages of this development:

* Embryonic development: This stage begins at fertilization and continues until the end of the 8th week of pregnancy. During this time, the fertilized egg (zygote) divides and forms a blastocyst, which implants in the uterus and begins to develop into a complex structure called an embryo. The embryo consists of three layers of cells that will eventually form all of the organs and tissues of the body. During this stage, the basic structures of the body, including the nervous system, heart, and gastrointestinal tract, begin to form.
* Fetal development: This stage begins at the end of the 8th week of pregnancy and continues until birth. During this time, the embryo is called a fetus, and it grows and develops rapidly. The organs and tissues that were formed during the embryonic stage continue to mature and become more complex. The fetus also begins to move and kick, and it can hear and respond to sounds from outside the womb.

Overall, embryonic and fetal development is a complex and highly regulated process that involves the coordinated growth and differentiation of cells and tissues. It is a critical period of development that lays the foundation for the health and well-being of the individual throughout their life.

Minimally invasive surgical procedures are a type of surgery that is performed with the assistance of specialized equipment and techniques to minimize trauma to the patient's body. This approach aims to reduce blood loss, pain, and recovery time as compared to traditional open surgeries. The most common minimally invasive surgical procedure is laparoscopy, which involves making small incisions (usually 0.5-1 cm) in the abdomen or chest and inserting a thin tube with a camera (laparoscope) to visualize the internal organs.

The surgeon then uses long, slender instruments inserted through separate incisions to perform the necessary surgical procedures, such as cutting, coagulation, or suturing. Other types of minimally invasive surgical procedures include arthroscopy (for joint surgery), thoracoscopy (for chest surgery), and hysteroscopy (for uterine surgery). The benefits of minimally invasive surgical procedures include reduced postoperative pain, shorter hospital stays, quicker return to normal activities, and improved cosmetic results. However, not all surgeries can be performed using minimally invasive techniques, and the suitability of a particular procedure depends on various factors, including the patient's overall health, the nature and extent of the surgical problem, and the surgeon's expertise.

A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.

In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.

Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.

A laparotomy is a surgical procedure that involves making an incision in the abdominal wall to gain access to the abdominal cavity. This procedure is typically performed to diagnose and treat various conditions such as abdominal trauma, tumors, infections, or inflammatory diseases. The size of the incision can vary depending on the reason for the surgery and the extent of the condition being treated. Once the procedure is complete, the incision is closed with sutures or staples.

The term "laparotomy" comes from the Greek words "lapara," which means "flank" or "side," and "tome," which means "to cut." Together, they describe the surgical procedure that involves cutting into the abdomen to examine its contents.

Liver transplantation is a surgical procedure in which a diseased or failing liver is replaced with a healthy one from a deceased donor or, less commonly, a portion of a liver from a living donor. The goal of the procedure is to restore normal liver function and improve the patient's overall health and quality of life.

Liver transplantation may be recommended for individuals with end-stage liver disease, acute liver failure, certain genetic liver disorders, or liver cancers that cannot be treated effectively with other therapies. The procedure involves complex surgery to remove the diseased liver and implant the new one, followed by a period of recovery and close medical monitoring to ensure proper function and minimize the risk of complications.

The success of liver transplantation has improved significantly in recent years due to advances in surgical techniques, immunosuppressive medications, and post-transplant care. However, it remains a major operation with significant risks and challenges, including the need for lifelong immunosuppression to prevent rejection of the new liver, as well as potential complications such as infection, bleeding, and organ failure.

Family planning services refer to comprehensive healthcare programs and interventions that aim to help individuals and couples prevent or achieve pregnancies, according to their desired number and spacing of children. These services typically include:

1. Counseling and education: Providing information about various contraceptive methods, their effectiveness, side effects, and appropriate use. This may also include counseling on reproductive health, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and preconception care.
2. Contraceptive services: Making a wide range of contraceptive options available to clients, including barrier methods (condoms, diaphragms), hormonal methods (pills, patches, injectables, implants), intrauterine devices (IUDs), and permanent methods (tubal ligation, vasectomy).
3. Screening and testing: Offering STI screening and testing, as well as cervical cancer screening for eligible clients.
4. Preconception care: Providing counseling and interventions to help women achieve optimal health before becoming pregnant, including folic acid supplementation, management of chronic conditions, and avoidance of harmful substances (tobacco, alcohol, drugs).
5. Fertility services: Addressing infertility issues through diagnostic testing, counseling, and medical or surgical treatments when appropriate.
6. Menstrual regulation: Providing manual vacuum aspiration or medication to safely and effectively manage incomplete miscarriages or unwanted pregnancies within the first trimester.
7. Pregnancy options counseling: Offering unbiased information and support to help individuals make informed decisions about their pregnancy, including parenting, adoption, or abortion.
8. Community outreach and education: Engaging in community-based initiatives to increase awareness of family planning services and promote reproductive health.
9. Advocacy: Working to remove barriers to accessing family planning services, such as policy changes, reducing stigma, and increasing funding for programs.

Family planning services are an essential component of sexual and reproductive healthcare and contribute significantly to improving maternal and child health outcomes, reducing unintended pregnancies, and empowering individuals to make informed choices about their reproductive lives.

Fetal blood refers to the blood circulating in a fetus during pregnancy. It is essential for the growth and development of the fetus, as it carries oxygen and nutrients from the placenta to the developing tissues and organs. Fetal blood also removes waste products, such as carbon dioxide, from the fetal tissues and transports them to the placenta for elimination.

Fetal blood has several unique characteristics that distinguish it from adult blood. For example, fetal hemoglobin (HbF) is the primary type of hemoglobin found in fetal blood, whereas adults primarily have adult hemoglobin (HbA). Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin, which allows it to more efficiently extract oxygen from the maternal blood in the placenta.

Additionally, fetal blood contains a higher proportion of reticulocytes (immature red blood cells) and nucleated red blood cells compared to adult blood. These differences reflect the high turnover rate of red blood cells in the developing fetus and the need for rapid growth and development.

Examination of fetal blood can provide important information about the health and well-being of the fetus during pregnancy. For example, fetal blood sampling (also known as cordocentesis or percutaneous umbilical blood sampling) can be used to diagnose genetic disorders, infections, and other conditions that may affect fetal development. However, this procedure carries risks, including preterm labor, infection, and fetal loss, and is typically only performed when there is a significant risk of fetal compromise or when other diagnostic tests have been inconclusive.

A fistula is an abnormal connection or passage between two organs, vessels, or body parts that usually do not connect. It can form as a result of injury, infection, surgery, or disease. A fistula can occur anywhere in the body but commonly forms in the digestive system, genital area, or urinary system. The symptoms and treatment options for a fistula depend on its location and underlying cause.

Cryopreservation is a medical procedure that involves the preservation of cells, tissues, or organs by cooling them to very low temperatures, typically below -150°C. This is usually achieved using liquid nitrogen. The low temperature slows down or stops biological activity, including chemical reactions and cellular metabolism, which helps to prevent damage and decay.

The cells, tissues, or organs that are being cryopreserved must be treated with a cryoprotectant solution before cooling to prevent the formation of ice crystals, which can cause significant damage. Once cooled, the samples are stored in specialized containers or tanks until they are needed for use.

Cryopreservation is commonly used in assisted reproductive technologies, such as the preservation of sperm, eggs, and embryos for fertility treatments. It is also used in research, including the storage of cell lines and stem cells, and in clinical settings, such as the preservation of skin grafts and corneas for transplantation.

Smoking is not a medical condition, but it's a significant health risk behavior. Here is the definition from a public health perspective:

Smoking is the act of inhaling and exhaling the smoke of burning tobacco that is commonly consumed through cigarettes, pipes, and cigars. The smoke contains over 7,000 chemicals, including nicotine, tar, carbon monoxide, and numerous toxic and carcinogenic substances. These toxins contribute to a wide range of diseases and health conditions, such as lung cancer, heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and various other cancers, as well as adverse reproductive outcomes and negative impacts on the developing fetus during pregnancy. Smoking is highly addictive due to the nicotine content, which makes quitting smoking a significant challenge for many individuals.

A feasibility study is a preliminary investigation or analysis conducted to determine the viability of a proposed project, program, or product. In the medical field, feasibility studies are often conducted before implementing new treatments, procedures, equipment, or facilities. These studies help to assess the practicality and effectiveness of the proposed intervention, as well as its potential benefits and risks.

Feasibility studies in healthcare typically involve several steps:

1. Problem identification: Clearly define the problem that the proposed project, program, or product aims to address.
2. Objectives setting: Establish specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) objectives for the study.
3. Literature review: Conduct a thorough review of existing research and best practices related to the proposed intervention.
4. Methodology development: Design a methodology for data collection and analysis that will help answer the research questions and achieve the study's objectives.
5. Resource assessment: Evaluate the availability and adequacy of resources, including personnel, time, and finances, required to carry out the proposed intervention.
6. Risk assessment: Identify potential risks and challenges associated with the implementation of the proposed intervention and develop strategies to mitigate them.
7. Cost-benefit analysis: Estimate the costs and benefits of the proposed intervention, including direct and indirect costs, as well as short-term and long-term benefits.
8. Stakeholder engagement: Engage relevant stakeholders, such as patients, healthcare providers, administrators, and policymakers, to gather their input and support for the proposed intervention.
9. Decision-making: Based on the findings of the feasibility study, make an informed decision about whether or not to proceed with the proposed project, program, or product.

Feasibility studies are essential in healthcare as they help ensure that resources are allocated efficiently and effectively, and that interventions are evidence-based, safe, and beneficial for patients.

Estrus is a term used in veterinary medicine to describe the physiological and behavioral state of female mammals that are ready to mate and conceive. It refers to the period of time when the female's reproductive system is most receptive to fertilization.

During estrus, the female's ovaries release one or more mature eggs (ovulation) into the fallopian tubes, where they can be fertilized by sperm from a male. This phase of the estrous cycle is often accompanied by changes in behavior and physical appearance, such as increased vocalization, restlessness, and swelling of the genital area.

The duration and frequency of estrus vary widely among different species of mammals. In some animals, such as dogs and cats, estrus occurs regularly at intervals of several weeks or months, while in others, such as cows and mares, it may only occur once or twice a year.

It's important to note that the term "estrus" is not used to describe human reproductive physiology. In humans, the equivalent phase of the menstrual cycle is called ovulation.

The Fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes or oviducts, are a pair of slender tubular structures in the female reproductive system. They play a crucial role in human reproduction by providing a passageway for the egg (ovum) from the ovary to the uterus (womb).

Each Fallopian tube is typically around 7.6 to 10 centimeters long and consists of four parts: the interstitial part, the isthmus, the ampulla, and the infundibulum. The fimbriated end of the infundibulum, which resembles a fringe or frill, surrounds and captures the released egg from the ovary during ovulation.

Fertilization usually occurs in the ampulla when sperm meets the egg after sexual intercourse. Once fertilized, the zygote (fertilized egg) travels through the Fallopian tube toward the uterus for implantation and further development. The cilia lining the inner surface of the Fallopian tubes help propel the egg and the zygote along their journey.

In some cases, abnormalities or blockages in the Fallopian tubes can lead to infertility or ectopic pregnancies, which are pregnancies that develop outside the uterus, typically within the Fallopian tube itself.

Fetal monitoring is a procedure used during labor and delivery to assess the well-being of the fetus. It involves the use of electronic devices to measure and record the fetal heart rate and uterine contractions. The information obtained from fetal monitoring can help healthcare providers identify any signs of fetal distress, such as a decreased fetal heart rate, which may indicate the need for interventions or an emergency cesarean delivery.

There are two main types of fetal monitoring: external and internal. External fetal monitoring involves placing sensors on the mother's abdomen to detect the fetal heart rate and uterine contractions. Internal fetal monitoring, which is typically used during high-risk deliveries, involves inserting an electrode into the fetus' scalp to measure the fetal heart rate more accurately.

Fetal monitoring can provide valuable information about the fetus's well-being during labor and delivery, but it is important to note that it has limitations and may not always detect fetal distress in a timely manner. Therefore, healthcare providers must use their clinical judgment and other assessment tools, such as fetal movement counting and visual examination of the fetus, to ensure the safe delivery of the baby.

The birth rate is the number of live births that occur in a population during a specific period, usually calculated as the number of live births per 1,000 people per year. It is an important demographic indicator used to measure the growth or decline of a population over time. A higher birth rate indicates a younger population and faster population growth, while a lower birth rate suggests an older population and slower growth.

The birth rate can be affected by various factors, including socioeconomic conditions, cultural attitudes towards childbearing, access to healthcare services, and government policies related to family planning and reproductive health. It is also influenced by the age structure of the population, as women in their reproductive years (typically ages 15-49) are more likely to give birth.

It's worth noting that while the birth rate is an important indicator of population growth, it does not provide a complete picture of fertility rates or demographic trends. Other measures, such as the total fertility rate (TFR), which estimates the average number of children a woman would have during her reproductive years, are also used to analyze fertility patterns and population dynamics.

Thromboembolism is a medical condition that refers to the obstruction of a blood vessel by a thrombus (blood clot) that has formed elsewhere in the body and then been transported by the bloodstream to a narrower vessel, where it becomes lodged. This process can occur in various parts of the body, leading to different types of thromboembolisms:

1. Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT): A thrombus forms in the deep veins, usually in the legs or pelvis, and then breaks off and travels to the lungs, causing a pulmonary embolism.
2. Pulmonary Embolism (PE): A thrombus formed elsewhere, often in the deep veins of the legs, dislodges and travels to the lungs, blocking one or more pulmonary arteries. This can lead to shortness of breath, chest pain, and potentially life-threatening complications if not treated promptly.
3. Cerebral Embolism: A thrombus formed in another part of the body, such as the heart or carotid artery, dislodges and travels to the brain, causing a stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA).
4. Arterial Thromboembolism: A thrombus forms in an artery and breaks off, traveling to another part of the body and blocking blood flow to an organ or tissue, leading to potential damage or loss of function. Examples include mesenteric ischemia (intestinal damage due to blocked blood flow) and retinal artery occlusion (vision loss due to blocked blood flow in the eye).

Prevention, early detection, and appropriate treatment are crucial for managing thromboembolism and reducing the risk of severe complications.

Vertical transmission of infectious diseases refers to the spread of an infection from an infected mother to her offspring during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. This mode of transmission can occur through several pathways:

1. Transplacental transmission: The infection crosses the placenta and reaches the fetus while it is still in the womb. Examples include HIV, syphilis, and toxoplasmosis.
2. Intrauterine infection: The mother's infection causes direct damage to the developing fetus or its surrounding tissues, leading to complications such as congenital defects. Examples include rubella and cytomegalovirus (CMV).
3. Perinatal transmission: This occurs during childbirth when the infant comes into contact with the mother's infected genital tract or bodily fluids. Examples include group B streptococcus, herpes simplex virus (HSV), and hepatitis B.
4. Postnatal transmission: This occurs after birth, often through breastfeeding, when the infant ingests infected milk or comes into contact with the mother's contaminated bodily fluids. Examples include HIV and HTLV-I (human T-lymphotropic virus type I).

Vertical transmission is a significant concern in public health, as it can lead to severe complications, congenital disabilities, or even death in newborns. Preventive measures, such as prenatal screening, vaccination, and antimicrobial treatment, are crucial for reducing the risk of vertical transmission and ensuring better outcomes for both mothers and their offspring.

Crown-rump length (CRL) is a medical measurement used in obstetrics to estimate the age of a developing fetus. It refers to the length from the top of the head (crown) to the bottom of the buttocks (rump). This measurement is typically taken during an ultrasound examination in the first trimester of pregnancy, between 8 and 13 weeks of gestation.

The CRL is used to calculate the estimated due date and to monitor fetal growth and development. It can also help identify potential issues or abnormalities in fetal development. As the pregnancy progresses, other measurements such as head circumference, abdominal circumference, and femur length are used to assess fetal growth and development.

Reconstructive surgical procedures are a type of surgery aimed at restoring the form and function of body parts that are defective or damaged due to various reasons such as congenital abnormalities, trauma, infection, tumors, or disease. These procedures can involve the transfer of tissue from one part of the body to another, manipulation of bones, muscles, and tendons, or use of prosthetic materials to reconstruct the affected area. The goal is to improve both the physical appearance and functionality of the body part, thereby enhancing the patient's quality of life. Examples include breast reconstruction after mastectomy, cleft lip and palate repair, and treatment of severe burns.

Misoprostol is a synthetic prostaglandin E1 analog used in obstetrics and gynecology to prevent and treat ulcers caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), reduce the risk of gastric ulcers in patients taking NSAIDs long term, induce labor, manage postpartum hemorrhage, and cause abortion. It is also used off-label for cervical ripening before gynecologic surgery and to treat miscarriage.

In addition, Misoprostol has been found to be effective in reducing the risk of gastric ulcers and NSAID-induced dyspepsia (upper abdominal pain or discomfort) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory conditions who require long-term NSAID therapy.

It is important to note that Misoprostol should not be used during pregnancy unless under the supervision of a healthcare provider for specific medical indications, such as preventing or treating stomach ulcers in pregnant women taking NSAIDs or inducing labor. It can cause miscarriage and birth defects if taken during early pregnancy.

Infant Mortality is the death of a baby before their first birthday. The infant mortality rate is typically expressed as the number of deaths per 1,000 live births. This is a key indicator of the overall health of a population and is often used to measure the well-being of children in a society.

Infant mortality can be further categorized into neonatal mortality (death within the first 28 days of life) and postneonatal mortality (death after 28 days of life but before one year). The main causes of infant mortality vary by country and region, but generally include premature birth, low birth weight, congenital anomalies, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), and infectious diseases.

Reducing infant mortality is a major public health goal for many countries, and efforts to improve maternal and child health, access to quality healthcare, and socioeconomic conditions are crucial in achieving this goal.

A "missed abortion" is a medical term used to describe a pregnancy in which the fetus has died or failed to develop, but the products of conception (i.e., the placenta and gestational sac) remain in the uterus. This condition is also sometimes referred to as a "silent miscarriage" or "delayed miscarriage." In a missed abortion, there may be no symptoms or only very mild ones, such as vaginal bleeding or the passing of tissue. The diagnosis is typically made through an ultrasound exam that shows an empty gestational sac or a non-viable fetus. Treatment options include waiting for the body to expel the products of conception naturally, taking medication to induce expulsion, or undergoing a surgical procedure to remove the products of conception.

Huppertz, Berthold (2018). "Pregnancy Complications (FGR, Preeclampsia)". Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences - ... doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.64927-9. ISBN 978-0-12-815145-7. "7 - Cardiovascular Diseases". Pathology Illustrated (7th ed ... It helps to drain blood from the uterus, and removes waste from blood in the placenta during pregnancy. The uterine vein is ... This is also important for the removal of waste from blood in the placenta during pregnancy. Measurements of the partial ...
Extreme heat is also linked to low quality sleep, acute kidney injury and complications with pregnancy. Furthermore, it may ... cause the deterioration of pre-existing cardiovascular and respiratory disease.: 1624 Adverse pregnancy outcomes due to high ... Health experts warn that "exposure to extreme heat increases the risk of death from cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and ... Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, 10 (11), doi:10.1161/CIRCOUTCOMES.117.004233, PMID 29122837{{citation}}: CS1 maint: ...
Extreme heat is also linked to low quality sleep, acute kidney injury and complications with pregnancy. Furthermore, it may ... cause the deterioration of pre-existing cardiovascular and respiratory disease.: 1624 Adverse pregnancy outcomes due to high ... Health experts warn that "exposure to extreme heat increases the risk of death from cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and ... People with diabetes and those who are overweight, have sleep deprivation, or have cardiovascular/cerebrovascular conditions ...
"Pregnancy complications and cardiovascular disease death: 50-year follow-up of the Child Health and Development Studies ... led the team that uncovered several pregnancy complications that can increase the long-term risk of death from cardiovascular ... While previous studies have linked different complications to subsequent cardiovascular disease risk, this work was unique in ... Pascual, Katrina (2015-09-24). "Pregnancy Complications Linked With Increased Death Risks From Heart Disease Later In Life". ...
Meher S, Duley L (April 2006). Meher S (ed.). "Rest during pregnancy for preventing pre-eclampsia and its complications in ... The goal of treatment of severe hypertension in pregnancy is to prevent cardiovascular, kidney, and cerebrovascular ... Davis JA, Gallup GG (2006). "Preeclampsia and other pregnancy complications as an adaptive response to unfamiliar semen)". In ... Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (which include pre-eclampsia) are one of the most common causes of death due to pregnancy. ...
... may be indicated in pregnancy because of pregnancy complications, a pre-existing disease or an acquired disease ... Comley RA, Kallend D (February 2013). "Imaging in the cardiovascular and metabolic disease area". Drug Discovery Today. 18 (3-4 ... MPI has been used in medical research to image cardiovascular performance, neuroperfusion, and cell tracking. ... "Guidelines for Diagnostic Imaging During Pregnancy and Lactation". American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ...
... vascular complications due to sickle cell anemia; other cardiovascular diseases including heart attack, stroke, and peripheral ... TP has also been proposed to be involved in human: blood pressure and organ blood flow regulation; essential and pregnancy- ... TP thereby has wide-ranging functions that tend to be detrimental to the cardiovascular network in animals and, most likely, ... However, TP functions are not uniformly injurious to the cardiovascular system: TP receptor-depleted mice show an increase in ...
Black women have 3.4 times the risk of maternal death from pregnancy complications compared to white women. Black women over 40 ... "Cardiovascular severe maternal morbidity in pregnant and postpartum women: development and internal validation of risk ... American Indian and Native Alaskan women also have a disparate risk of death from pregnancy-related complications that is 2.3 ... Race affects maternal health throughout the pregnancy continuum, beginning prior to conception and continuing through pregnancy ...
Elevated homocysteine levels are associated with birth defects in addition to pregnancy complications, cardiovascular disease, ... Muthuswamy S, Agarwal S (2016). "Do the MTHFR gene polymorphism and Down syndrome pregnancy association stands true? A case- ... Elevated homocysteine is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease and inversely correlated to consumed vitamin B12 ... Journal of Cardiovascular Risk. 7 (3): 197-200. doi:10.1177/204748730000700306. PMID 11006889. S2CID 32898984. Shaw GM, Lu W, ...
Oftentimes, fetal hypoxic-ischemic brain injuries occur as a result of a pregnancy complications such as placental abruption, ... cord accident, or cardiovascular stress due to a difficult delivery. A lack of oxygen to the brain contributes to the formation ...
Maternal mortality ratio Number of women who die due to pregnancy or birth complications per 100,000 births in a year. ... Mortality from cardiovascular diseases Cancer incidence Diabetes incidence Depression incidence Disability adjusted life years ...
Obesity has also been shown to increase the prevalence of complications during pregnancy and childbirth. Babies born to obese ... It is one of the biggest factors for type II diabetes and cardiovascular disease. It is also associated with cancer (e.g. ... There has been an increase in obesity-related medical problems, including type II diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular ... and cardiovascular disease, as well as significant increases in early mortality and economic costs. The CDC defines an adult (a ...
... increased risk for complications of pregnancy other complications of pregnancy, arterial and venous thrombosis, and ... cardiovascular disease. 677TT individuals are at a decreased risk for acute lymphoblastic leukemia and colon cancer. Mutations ... The C677T genotype used to be associated with increased risk of recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) in non Caucasians, however this ... Subgroup and sensitivity analysis results showed that this polymorphism is a risk factor for Down syndrome pregnancy in Asian ...
"Prolonged Standing During Pregnancy May Result In Stunted Fetal Growth". MedicalNewsToday.com. 29 June 2012. Retrieved 23 ... Standing for prolonged periods can lead to certain cardiovascular disorders. In a study by Krause et al. (2000) the authors ... Many of the complications come from prolonged standing (more than 60% of a work day) that is repeated several times a week. ... The complications of prolonged standing are conditions that may arise after standing, walking, or running for prolonged periods ...
... female genital diseases and pregnancy complications C14 - cardiovascular diseases C15 - hemic and lymphatic diseases C16 - ... cardiovascular system A08 - nervous system A09 - sense organs A10 - tissues A11 - cells A12 - fluids and secretions A13 - ...
... such as complications of pregnancy, cardiovascular diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, and psychiatric disorders, among ...
... disorders complicating pregnancy childbirth or the puerperium 648.5 Congenital cardiovascular disorders complicating pregnancy ... of delivery 645 Prolonged pregnancy 645.1 Post term pregnancy 645.2 Prolonged pregnancy 646 Other complications of pregnancy, ... This is a shortened version of the eleventh chapter of the ICD-9: Complications of Pregnancy, Childbirth, and the Puerperium. ... 670 Major puerperal infection 670.04 Endometritis, postpartum 671 Venous complications in pregnancy and the puerperium 671.44 ...
... more complications during pregnancy, and more functional disability and pain associated with rheumatoid arthritis, among many ... Cardiovascular system: Social support has been found to lower cardiovascular reactivity to stressors. It has been found to ... "Social support during pregnancy: effects on maternal depressive symptoms, smoking, and pregnancy outcome". Human Reproduction. ... People with low social support are at a much higher risk of death from a variety of diseases (e.g., cancer or cardiovascular ...
... with an incidence of cardiovascular complications of 33.3%. A lower dosage of 1 mg/day DES has been associated with a rate of ... The study showed no benefit of taking DES during pregnancy; adverse pregnancy outcomes were not reduced in the women who were ... A recent article summarizes the effects of maternal exposure to DES during pregnancy and its adverse effects on pregnancy and ... the medication was given to pregnant women in the incorrect belief that it would reduce the risk of pregnancy complications and ...
Although, smoking during the pregnancy period increased risk for complication pregnancy, increased risk for tuberculosis, eye ... The effect of using tobacco, like cardiovascular diseases (heart attack and stroke), cancers, chronic respiratory diseases and ... The pregnancy related mortality has also dropped over the last three surveys and this could be attributed to the improvement on ... The maternal mortality (if it could be used interchangeably with pregnancy related disease (with all the limitations)) is more ...
"FDA Warns that Using a Type of Pain and Fever Medication in Second Half of Pregnancy Could Lead to Complications". U.S. Food ... Cardiovascular events: NSAIDs are associated with an increased risk of serious (and potentially fatal) adverse cardiovascular ... Risk may be increased with duration of use or pre-existing cardiovascular risk factors or disease. Individual cardiovascular ... Long-term cardiovascular risk in children has not been evaluated. Use the lowest effective dose for the shortest duration of ...
Women with PTSD are thought to be at a higher risk of prenatal loss, perinatal loss, pregnancy complications, ectopic pregnancy ... PTSD in a mother is suspected to increase the risk of autism, hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, and type 2 diabetes in a ... "The impact of pregnancy loss on men's health and wellbeing: a systematic review". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 17 (1): 380. ... This psychological trauma can develop as a response to early pregnancy loss. Anxiety can also develop as a result of a ...
... and ectopic pregnancy. The following are some examples of pregnancy complications: Pregnancy induced hypertension Anemia ... During pregnancy, a woman undergoes many normal physiological changes, including behavioral, cardiovascular, hematologic, ... Couvade syndrome Cryptic pregnancy False pregnancy Simulated pregnancy Pregnancy-related anxiety "What are some common signs of ... A woman can be labeled as high risk for different reasons including previous complications in pregnancy, complications in the ...
Potential complications of ECT during pregnancy can be minimized by modifications in technique. The use of ECT during pregnancy ... If death does occur, cardiovascular complications are considered as causal in about 30% of individuals. The placement of ... A rare but serious complication of unmodified ECT was fracture or dislocation of the long bones. In the 1940s, psychiatrists ... In many instances of active mood disorder during pregnancy, the risks of untreated symptoms may outweigh the risks of ECT. ...
Contraindications include long QT syndrome, hypokalaemia, hypomagnesaemia, pregnancy, planned pregnancy, lactation and ... Less typical side effects are those of the cardiovascular system, such as high blood pressure, various types of arrhythmia, and ... Nilotinib carries a black box warning in the United States for possible heart complications. ... It is not safe for use during pregnancy. Nilotinib is a Bcr-Abl tyrosine kinase inhibitor and works by interfering with ...
... is a Canadian scientist whose research explores pregnancy complications. She is a Distinguished University ... in Maternal and Perinatal Cardiovascular Health for two terms, and was the President of the Society for Reproductive ... Hypoxia or nutrient restriction during pregnancy in rats leads to progressive cardiac remodeling and impairs postischemic ...
"FDA Warns that Using a Type of Pain and Fever Medication in Second Half of Pregnancy Could Lead to Complications". U.S. Food ... Aspirin may reduce cardiovascular risk in those without established cardiovascular disease in people with moderate CKD, without ... Funk CD, FitzGerald GA (November 2007). "COX-2 inhibitors and cardiovascular risk". Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology. 50 ... One exception to the recommendation is the use of low-dose 81 mg aspirin at any point in pregnancy under the direction of a ...
"4 Common Pregnancy Complications". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. 2021-08-08. Retrieved 2022-04-28. Healthdirect Australia (2022-02- ... Page 264 in: Gresele P (2008). Platelets in haematologic and cardiovascular disorders: a clinical handbook. Cambridge, UK: ... Prenatal care is important in screening for various complications of pregnancy. This includes routine office visits with ... Hyperemesis gravidarum in pregnancy occurs due to extreme, persistent nausea and vomiting during pregnancy. If untreated, can ...
Pregnancy has historically been discouraged due to high rates of miscarriage, cardiovascular compromise, or increased mortality ... These complications may occur in the immediate post-operative period as well as in the medium and long term. New interventional ... "Pregnancy in Women With a Fontan Circulation: A Systematic Review of the Literature". Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and ... Renal complications may occur. This is attributed to the circulatory changes in blood flow as well as possible exposure to ...
Direct obstetric deaths are due to complications of pregnancy, birth, termination or complications arising from their ... Indirect causes include malaria, anemia, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular disease, all of which may complicate pregnancy or be ... "Pregnancy Mortality Surveillance System - Pregnancy - Reproductive Health". CDC. 25 November 2020. "Pregnancy-Related Deaths , ... or other birth or pregnancy related complication. UNFPA estimated that 303,000 women died of pregnancy or childbirth related ...
... pregnancy complications** (15 [9%]); other infectious symptoms (10 [6%]); gastrointestinal (eight [5%]); cardiovascular (six [3 ... Guillain-Barré syndrome or pregnancy outcomes) and to estimate background rates for selected medical conditions, conduct case- ... and antiviral medications in pregnancy and subsequent maternal and fetal outcomes. ... programs and can address concerns that the current H1N1 vaccines might increase the risk for neurologic complications such as ...
... of pregnancies. Hypertensive disorders during pregnancy are classified into 4 categories, as recommended by the National High ... Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group on High Blood Pressure in Pregnancy: Chronic hypertension Preeclampsia-ecla... ... Hypertension is the most common medical problem encountered during pregnancy, complicating 2-3% ... Prospective Evaluation of Cardiovascular Risk 10 Years After a Hypertensive Disorder of Pregnancy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022 Jun ...
"Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular" by people in this website by year, and whether "Pregnancy Complications, ... "Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus ... Racial Disparities in Cardiovascular Complications With Pregnancy-Induced Hypertension in the United States. Hypertension. 2021 ... Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular*Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular. *Complications, Cardiovascular Pregnancy. * ...
Cardiovascular. On-line free medical diagnosis assistant. Ranked list of possible diseases from either several symptoms or a ... compared with 17h at pregnancy week 37. The implications of an elevated anti-FXa activity during pregnancy, especially during ... A case of pregnancy with a history of paradoxical brain embolism. brain embolisms in younger persons are rare but are often ... Anticoagulation during pregnancy. Anticoagulation of a pregnant woman is a complex issue for both the treating physician and ...
Pregnancy complications in last pregnancy and mothers long-term cardiovascular mortality: does the relation differ from that ... Women who experience complications in first pregnancy are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) later in life. ... Little corresponding knowledge is available for complications in later pregnancies. Therefore, we assessed complications ( ... for women with four births and any complications only in the last pregnancy was 2.85 (95% CI, 1.93-4.20). If a complication ...
An increased prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) has been found in women of childbearing age, with the presence of CVD ... Up to 4% of pregnancies may have cardiovascular complications despite no known prior disease. ... encoded search term (Cardiovascular Disease and Pregnancy) and Cardiovascular Disease and Pregnancy What to Read Next on ... Multiple studies have reported successful pregnancies in these patients. [82, 83, 84, 85] Complications during pregnancy ...
Aortic stenosis is uncommon during pregnancy. Five cases are described in which clinical management was facilitated by the use ... Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular / diagnosis* * Pregnancy Complications, Cardiovascular / pathology * Pregnancy ... Aortic stenosis is uncommon during pregnancy. Five cases are described in which clinical management was facilitated by the use ... Regional anesthesia was used without complication. In patients with severe stenosis, significant morbidity and mortality were ...
Maternal exposure to exogenous nitrogen compounds and complications of pregnancy. Arch Environ Health 52(5):341-7. ... Cardiovascular mortality among munitions workers exposed to nitroglycerine and dinitrotoluene. Scand J Work Environ Health 18(1 ... Nitrosatable drug exposure during early pregnancy and neural tube defects in offspring. Am J Epidemiol 174(11):1286-1295. ... Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies. 6th ed. Philadelphia PA: Saunders Elsevier. Chapter 3, Pages 51-53. ...
... haul symptoms that may be difficult to distinguish from other cardiac complications of pregnancy and require the cardiovascular ... Advances from the American College of Cardiology Cardiovascular Disease in Women Committee. Cardiovascular complications ... "Recognition of cardiovascular complication is hampered by failure to include pregnant women in clinical trials despite calls ... According to the authors, a reason for increased risk of cardiovascular complications is the low vaccination rate in pregnant ...
Pregnancy is a "window" to the future health of women, and their families. Well-recognised pregnancy complications or ... occurrences - including gestational diabetes, hypertension and obesity - predict long-term risk of cardiovascular disease. ...
All the latest news about risk of cardiovascular disease from Medical Xpress ... High blood pressure, pregnancy complications may greatly raise moms future heart risks. Women who have high blood pressure ... Researchers use artificial intelligence to predict cardiovascular disease. Researchers may be able to predict cardiovascular ... Climbing five flights of stairs can help reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by 20% according to a recent study published ...
Huppertz, Berthold (2018). "Pregnancy Complications (FGR, Preeclampsia)". Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences - ... doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.64927-9. ISBN 978-0-12-815145-7. "7 - Cardiovascular Diseases". Pathology Illustrated (7th ed ... It helps to drain blood from the uterus, and removes waste from blood in the placenta during pregnancy. The uterine vein is ... This is also important for the removal of waste from blood in the placenta during pregnancy. Measurements of the partial ...
... and neonatal complications were collected from the medical records. In the first and third trimester of pregnancy, the ... Furthermore, obese women with twin pregnancies should follow-up with a specialist nutritionist, to help them control their ... No significant differences were detected in the rate of maternal, fetal, obstetrical, and neonatal complications between the ... We included 20 twin pregnancies as the lean group (BMI = 18.5-24.9 kg/m2), homogeneous in the maternal age and ethnicity, and ...
... are linked to a higher risk of heart disease and pregnancy complications, including preterm births, a new study found. ... "According to the current study, 1 in 5 women enter pregnancy with a history of cardiovascular risk factors," Klipstein said, ... be aware that new research found women may be at increased risk for vascular and pregnancy-related complications, especially if ... that increase the risk of pregnancy complications," said study author Dr. Pensée Wu, senior lecturer and honorary consultant ...
Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of complications during pregnancy. Congenital heart disease is the most common type. ... Heart Disease & Pregnancy. Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of pregnancy complications. Congenital heart disease is ... But cardiovascular disease during pregnancy sometimes leads to serious complications. In fact, its the leading cause of death ... What preexisting heart diseases could affect pregnancy?. Some heart conditions can raise your risk of pregnancy complications. ...
Vaso-protective properties of maternal high density lipoprotein (HDL) in metabolic complications of pregnancy. NHS Greater ... Morgan, H., Small, H.Y., Beattie, E., McBride, M.W. and Graham, D. (2016) [OP.5D.02] Transcriptomic changes in early pregnancy- ... Morgan, H., Small, H.Y., Beattie, E., McBride, M.W. and Graham, D. (2016) [OP.5D.02] Transcriptomic changes in early pregnancy- ... Cardiovascular genomics and oxidative stress. Hypertension, 45(4), pp. 636-642. (doi: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000154253.53134.09) ...
Summary Simon Thom is emeritus professor of cardiovascular medicine & clinical pharmacology at Imperial College London ... cardiovascular disease prevention and hypertensive complications of pregnancy. Research interests include vascular pharmacology ... He has led clinical trials of cardiovascular treatments; latterly the multi-centered UMPIRE trial evaluating a cardiovascular ... Emeritus professor of cardiovascular medicine & clinical pharmacology. National Heart & Lung Institute (NHLI), Imperial College ...
The patient should undergo a complete physical examination, including funduscopic, cardiovascular, skin, and full neurologic ... What are the possible complications of multiple sclerosis on pregnancy?. How does pregnancy affect the course of multiple ... Effects of multiple sclerosis on pregnancy. Complications of pregnancy are generally thought to affect women with multiple ... How is myasthenia gravis (MG) treated during pregnancy?. What are the possible complications of myasthenia gravis (MG) in ...
Is Migraine Tied to Complications in Pregnancy?. Feb. 25, 2022 Women with migraine may have a higher risk of pregnancy ... Increase in leptin levels in preeclampsia prompts cardiovascular cascade that puts mother and baby at risk. Date:. June 23, ... June 15, 2020 Transmission of COVID-19 from mother to baby during pregnancy is uncommon, and the rate of infection is no ... Its known that about 20 weeks into a pregnancy, women with preeclampsia experience an increase in the production of leptin by ...
Researchers found that certain pregnancy complications emerged as stronger indicators versus drivers of cardiovascular disease ... Cardiovascular-related deaths due to heat are uncommon, but are expected to increase within the next 20-40 years as more summer ... Heat-related cardiovascular deaths expected to follow a projected rise in extreme temperatures ... Data from wearable devices link changes in typical sleep and activity patterns during pregnancy to a risk of premature delivery ...
Pregnancy, High-Risk, Pregnancy Complications, Sex Chromosome Aberrations, Genetics, Medical, Genetic Diseases, Inborn, ... Cardiovascular Diseases, Ductus Arteriosus, Intensive Care Units, Neonatal, Enteral Nutrition, Parenteral Nutrition, Pulmonary ... Diabetes Complications, Diabetes, Gestational, Pregnancy in Diabetics, Diagnostic Techniques, Endocrine, Endocrinology, ... Pregnancy Complications, Diagnostic Techniques, Obstetrical and Gynecological, Obstetrics, Delivery, Obstetric, Congenital ...
Vis forfatter(e) (2022). Long-term cardiovascular mortality in women by pregnancy complications in sisters and brothers ... Vis forfatter(e) (2022). Association between specific pregnancy complications in the elder sister and later cardiovascular ... Vis forfatter(e) (2022). Long-term cardiovascular mortality in women with twin pregnancies by lifetime reproductive history. ... Vis forfatter(e) (2023). Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in twin- and singleton-born women: An inter-generational cohort ...
Promoting Prevention During Pregnancy and the Postpartum and Childbearing Years These slides cover pregnancy complications ... recommendations for postpartum follow up and risk reduction in women with histories of these pregnancy-related complications. ... Join us to learn more about the Cardio Connections of cardiovascular patients, highlighting heart failure and cardio-oncology. ... Womens Cardiovascular Care Across the Life Course. ... Institutional Award for Excellence in Promoting Cardiovascular ...
1) Cardiovascular Disease. 2) Respiratory Infections. 3) Pregnancy Complications. You can keep your gums and teeth healthy by: ... Failure to exercise regularly can lead to serious health complications such as obesity. Typically, people with a lower Body ... Gum disease has also been linked to more serious health problems such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. ...
Smith says pregnancy complications, like preeclampsia is one way to identify which women could develop cardiovascular disease ... Stat: A simple screening question could help millions of women prevent cardiovascular disease. Why arent we using it?. Dr. ...
Womens Cardiovascular Programs & Services: Preventing, Diagnosing, and Treating Heart Disease in Women • February 1-3, 2017 ... Crossing the Chasm of Cardiovascular Care and Womens Health. *Pregnancy Related Complications & Increased Cardiovascular Risk ... The prevalence of cardiovascular complications in women means that designing and managing an efficient Womens Cardiac ... The Cardiovascular Disease and Pregnancy Program: Understanding Need and Enhancing Multidisciplinary Care ...
The value of pregnancy complication history for 10‐year cardiovascular disease risk prediction in middle‐aged women. Eur J ... Does pregnancy complication history improve cardiovascular disease risk prediction? Findings from the HUNT study in Norway. Eur ... Long‐term cardiovascular risks associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019; 73:2106-2116. doi: 10.1016/ ... Second‐ and third‐trimester placental hemodynamics and the risks of pregnancy complications. Am J Epidemiol. 2013; 177:743-754 ...
... and pregnancy complications.. Another consideration is the expectations of staff. Employees want, and more and more have come ... Studies have indicated relationships between periodontal diseases and systemic illnesses, such as cardiovascular disease, ...
"Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of heart disease or heart complications during pregnancy. Its important ... Prior to the pregnancy, Panah says that anyone with a history of heart problems should see a cardiologist and an internal fetal ... A few of the signs of Panah refers to are shortness of breath during pregnancy, swelling in the legs, and chest pain. ... "A lot of the end stage of pregnancy symptoms can mimic cardiac symptoms. I think thats when its important to alert your ...
  • The Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists of Canada (SOGC) released revised guidelines that simplified the classification of hypertension in pregnancy into four categories, pre-existing hypertension, gestational hypertension, preeclampsia, or "other hypertensive effects" on the basis of different diagnostic considerations. (medscape.com)
  • Preeclampsia occurs in 3-6% of all pregnancies and the incidence is 1.5 to 2 times higher in first time pregnancies. (medscape.com)
  • Therefore, we assessed complications (preeclampsia, preterm birth, and offspring small for gestational age) in first and last pregnancies and the risk of long-term maternal CVD death, taking women´s complete reproduction into account. (ntnu.no)
  • It's known that about 20 weeks into a pregnancy, women with preeclampsia experience an increase in the production of leptin by the placenta but the consequences have been unknown. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Dr. Smith says pregnancy complications, like preeclampsia is one way to identify which women could develop cardiovascular disease later in life. (queensu.ca)
  • Compared to people who did not receive medication to lower their blood pressure below 140/90 mm Hg, those who did were less likely to experience certain complications, such as preeclampsia or a preterm birth. (nih.gov)
  • Having coverage in the early stages of pregnancy is particularly important so chronic conditions like diabetes can be better managed to reduce complications like preeclampsia. (msmagazine.com)
  • Hypertension in Pregnancy Recommendations regarding classification, diagnosis, and management of hypertensive disorders (including preeclampsia) are available from the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. (msdmanuals.com)
  • These investigators chronicled significantly increased incidences of a number of disorders including chronic hypertension, gestational diabetes , preeclampsia, fetal macrosomia, as well as higher rates of cesarean delivery and postpartum complications. (health.am)
  • Acute Pulmonary Embolism During Pregnancy and Puerperium: National Trends and In-Hospital Outcomes. (jefferson.edu)
  • Temporal Trends in Pregnancy-Associated Stroke and Its Outcomes Among Women With Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy. (jefferson.edu)
  • COVID-19 infection in pregnant women is associated with increased risk of adverse outcomes compared to women who are not pregnant, according to a review published in JACC: Advances from the American College of Cardiology Cardiovascular Disease in Women Committee. (eurekalert.org)
  • The American College of Cardiology envisions a world where innovation and knowledge optimize cardiovascular care and outcomes. (eurekalert.org)
  • In women with high pre-gestational BMI and twin pregnancy, our aims were to explore the biochemical and hematological parameters and to study the rate of obstetric adverse outcomes. (mdpi.com)
  • Risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes in twin- and singleton-born women: An inter-generational cohort study. (uib.no)
  • DALLAS, May 31, 2023 - Heart health risks emerge early in life in American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) women and are increased by social factors - like high levels of experiencing violence and traumatic life events - and disproportionately high rates of Type 2 diabetes, smoking and obesity, according to a new scientific statement published today in Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes , a peer-reviewed American Heart Association journal. (heart.org)
  • We hope to bring to the forefront the disproportionate burden of CVD, adverse pregnancy outcomes and poor maternal health in American Indian and Alaska Native women as maternal mortality in the United States continues to increase. (heart.org)
  • These types of complications, also referred to as adverse pregnancy outcomes, are now considered independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease. (nih.gov)
  • Studies continue to show that American Indian, Asian, Black, Hispanic, and Pacific Islander women are more likely to experience a variety of adverse pregnancy outcomes. (nih.gov)
  • Rates of obesity , diabetes / prediabetes and cardiovascular conditions-such as high blood pressure -trend higher in the lower-performing maternal outcomes states compared to higher-performing states. (msmagazine.com)
  • There is limited evidence on how the classification of maternal metabolic syndrome during pregnancy affects children's developmental outcomes and the possible mediators of this association. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The results support the hypothesis that maternal metabolic syndrome classification during pregnancy is associated with some child developmental outcomes at age 5. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Previous approaches haven't been enough to improve health outcomes for First Nations people with diabetes and cardiovascular disease. (health.gov.au)
  • In the many overweight and obese women who achieve pregnancy, there are a number of increased and interrelated adverse perinatal outcomes. (health.am)
  • In addition, there are reports of increased adverse pregnancy outcomes in overweight women with a BMI of 25 to 29.9 kg/m 2 . (health.am)
  • The gap between health outcomes for African American and white women is evidence that there is more work to be done to understand, reduce, and prevent pregnancy related deaths. (pa.gov)
  • Being aware of common conditions like high blood pressure and other cardiovascular conditions helps to ensure healthy outcomes for women and newborns. (pa.gov)
  • These are cardiovascular diseases that you had before becoming pregnant. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • What preexisting heart diseases could affect pregnancy? (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Studies have indicated relationships between periodontal diseases and systemic illnesses, such as cardiovascular disease, respiratory illness, diabetes, and pregnancy complications. (avma.org)
  • Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death in the United States, responsible for killing 1 in 5 women . (americashealthrankings.org)
  • Maintaining a healthy lifestyle and managing risk factors can help prevent and treat cardiovascular diseases. (americashealthrankings.org)
  • Disruptions in routine and none- mergent medical care were reported with substantial decreases in Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, but patient visits and restricted hours of operation (6). (cdc.gov)
  • Surgical repairs may deteriorate over time and patients with congenital heart disease may develop acquired cardiovascular diseases and - the combination of these two requires specialized care. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Are those diagnosed with ACHD susceptible to other cardiovascular diseases? (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Patients with congenital heart problems can develop acquired heart disease and other cardiovascular diseases as they age, which can be more complicated to treat than for adults without a congenital heart disease (CHD). (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • The lack of such data and the facing of competing demands for illnesses with better-defined estimates (such as diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disease and cancer) have prevented health policymakers from delivering effective health systems responses to NCDs outside the '5×5' approach, such as, thyroid and kidney diseases. (politico.eu)
  • Homelessness increases morbidity associated with cardiovascular, respiratory, and infectious diseases and all-cause mortality. (aafp.org)
  • Well-recognised pregnancy complications or occurrences - including gestational diabetes, hypertension and obesity - predict long-term risk of cardiovascular disease. (who.int)
  • Risk factors for pregnancy-related death include having high blood pressure, obesity and being over age 40. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • High aldosterone levels are an obesity hallmark and a leading cause of metabolic and cardiovascular problems. (sciencedaily.com)
  • They have connected similar physiological dots in young females in whom obesity often robs the early years of protection from cardiovascular disease that being female typically provides until menopause. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Failure to exercise regularly can lead to serious health complications such as obesity. (englewooddental.com)
  • Risk factors for cardiovascular disease include high blood pressure, high cholesterol, obesity, physical inactivity, unhealthy diet, diabetes, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, high levels of stress and a family history of heart disease or stroke. (americashealthrankings.org)
  • Because the overall prevalence of obesity has increased over the past several decades, the prevalence of obesity complicating pregnancy has also increased. (health.am)
  • Before adoption of the BMI, investigators used a variety of definitions of obesity to assess risks during pregnancy. (health.am)
  • In obese, nonpregnant individuals, at least some of the long-term cardiovascular morbidity was thought to be due to obesity-mediated systemic inflammation and endothelial dysfunction (Brook and associates, 2001). (health.am)
  • [ 7 ] Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy may cause maternal and fetal morbidity, and they remain a leading source of maternal mortality. (medscape.com)
  • Clinical interests include general medicine, hypertension, cardiovascular disease prevention and hypertensive complications of pregnancy. (imperial.ac.uk)
  • In these cases, hypertension and diabetes have been diagnosed a decade earlier in women who have experienced hypertensive-related pregnancy complications , compared to people who have not. (nih.gov)
  • Gestational hypertension (transient hypertension of pregnancy or chronic hypertension identified in the latter half of pregnancy). (medscape.com)
  • The management of cardiac complications and diagnosis in pregnant COVID-19 patients can be challenging given the overlap of COVID-19 symptoms, cardiovascular disease and pregnancy. (eurekalert.org)
  • The Government is providing nearly $6 million for researchers to find new ways to improve prevention, diagnosis, treatment and management of diabetes and cardiovascular disease in Indigenous communities. (health.gov.au)
  • Health complications can be easily avoided by timely diagnosis and appropriate treatment with levothyroxine. (politico.eu)
  • These health complications can be easily avoided by timely diagnosis and appropriate treatment with levothyroxine. (politico.eu)
  • Port Z, Ammari Z, Babapoor-Farrokhran S, Bozorgnia B. Assessing the future risks of subsequent pregnancies in peripartum cardiomyopathy. (jefferson.edu)
  • Pregnancy was associated with a 2.4 times risk of death in Hispanic women with COVID-19 and pregnant Asian and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islanders were among the highest risks of ICU admissions. (eurekalert.org)
  • According to the current study, 1 in 5 women enter pregnancy with a history of cardiovascular risk factors," Klipstein said, which can raise health risks for the woman as she carries and delivers her child. (cnn.com)
  • They will evaluate your pregnancy risks. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • A specialist can also help identify and manage risks for an unplanned pregnancy. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • During this consultation, the patient can be advised about the possible risks associated with her condition during pregnancy and about the possible teratogenic effects of her medications. (medscape.com)
  • A 12-month workplace wellness program that introduced flexible scheduling for employees led to cardiovascular improvements for workers ages 45 and older and for those with increased cardiovascular risks. (nih.gov)
  • People considering pregnancy should talk to their doctor about their overall health and possible risks for pregnancy complications. (nih.gov)
  • Women diagnosed with congenital heart disease may face more risks during their pregnancy than others. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Women diagnosed with congenital heart disease planning to have children are encouraged to see a physician specialized in adult congenital heart disease to evaluate the risks and potential complications of pregnancy. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Although pregnancy is an exciting time, there are stresses and risks that come with pregnancy and the postpartum period. (pa.gov)
  • Death rates decreased in 2022 , due to what the U.S. Government Accountability Office attributes to a decrease in COVID-19 complications. (msmagazine.com)
  • NTNU Open: Pregnancy complications in last pregnancy and mothers' long-term cardiovascular mortality: does the relation differ from that of complications in first pregnancy? (ntnu.no)
  • Long-term cardiovascular mortality in women with twin pregnancies by lifetime reproductive history. (uib.no)
  • Long-term cardiovascular mortality in women by pregnancy complications in sisters and brothers' partner: a population-based cohort study. (uib.no)
  • Despite stunning improvements in w omen's cardiovascular cardiovascular mortality in the past two decades, heart disease remains understudied, under diagnosed and undertreated in women. (wplgroup.com)
  • [ 1 ] beginning with a summary of key general considerations, proceeding to a review of the main neurologic complications that may arise in pregnant people who were previously free of neurologic disease, and concluding with a discussion of individual neurologic disorders in the context of pregnancy. (medscape.com)
  • See also Seizure Disorders in Pregnancy , Women's Health and Epilepsy , Antiepileptic Drugs , and Neural Tube Defects . (medscape.com)
  • Congenital heart disease is the most common form of cardiovascular disease during pregnancy in the U.S. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • According to the American Heart Association, although overall cardiovascular death rates have declined since 2001, one in three women still suffers from some form of cardiovascular disease. (wplgroup.com)
  • In the United States, CVD is the leading cause of death during pregnancy and the postpartum period. (medscape.com)
  • Learn to apply evidence-based interventions and clinical recommendations for postpartum follow up and risk reduction in women with histories of these pregnancy-related complications. (pcna.net)
  • In addition, whereas many low-income women in non-expansion states who are eligible for Medicaid by virtue of their pregnancy risk losing Medicaid coverage 60 days postpartum, low-income women in Medicaid expansion states maintain their coverage regardless of pregnancy status. (amchp.org)
  • Hormonal changes and the stress of pregnancy may trigger symptoms of mental health conditions like postpartum depression. (pa.gov)
  • Resources are available to help women during pregnancy and the postpartum period. (pa.gov)
  • Climbing five flights of stairs can help reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease by 20% according to a recent study published in Atherosclerosis Journal. (medicalxpress.com)
  • In December, the Food and Drug Administration approved the use of icosapent ethyl , a prescription form of the omega-3 fatty acid EPA, as an add-on therapy to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events among adults with elevated triglyceride levels. (heart.org)
  • Researchers found that certain pregnancy complications emerged as stronger indicators versus drivers of cardiovascular disease risk after pregnancy. (nih.gov)
  • Multiple studies have found that women with a history of certain pregnancy complications are at an increased risk of cardiovascular disease. (americashealthrankings.org)
  • This may include coming up with a plan to support cardiovascular health before, during, and after pregnancy. (nih.gov)
  • During Black Maternal Health Week, April 11-17, and in preparation for Women's Health Month in May, researchers are raising awareness about pregnancy-related complications that disproportionately affect Black people. (nih.gov)
  • When hypertension is first identified during a woman's pregnancy and she is at less than 20 weeks' gestation, blood pressure elevations usually represent chronic hypertension. (medscape.com)
  • If neural tube defects occurred in a woman's previous pregnancy, increased antepartum fetal surveillance is required for the current pregnancy. (medscape.com)
  • During pregnancy, a woman's cardiovascular system changes, which may cause more complications for the mother and her unborn child. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Pregnant people need to know that they are increased risk of a severe COVID-19 infection, including ICU admissions, cardiac complications, need for critical care and death for the patient or fetus. (eurekalert.org)
  • For example, research has shown that people who experience a severe pregnancy complication related to high blood pressure have an increased risk for developing hypertension 2-7 years after giving birth, as well as for developing heart disease later in life. (nih.gov)
  • And in papers published in JAMA and Circulation Research , researchers describe best care practices for severe pregnancy complications. (nih.gov)
  • Each year, up to 60,000 U.S. women experience severe complications from pregnancy and childbirth. (msmagazine.com)
  • And if you drop the ball on managing your condition, you can end up with short or long-term complications that can significantly impact your life. (jdrf.org.au)
  • Living with type 1 diabetes can lead to long-term complications that add up over time - especially if BGLs aren't controlled well. (jdrf.org.au)
  • Common long-term complications include venous insufficiency with or without the postphlebitic syndrome. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Women who have high blood pressure before they become pregnant may be twice as likely as those who don't to develop cardiovascular disease within a decade of giving birth, new research finds. (medicalxpress.com)
  • Pregnancy complications as a risk factor for metabolic and cardiovascular disease in later life]. (bvsalud.org)
  • After adjusting for maternal, child, and environmental covariates, maternal metabolic syndrome classification during pregnancy was associated with children's LIT domain through direct effects of maternal metabolic health and indirect effects of cord blood markers (total effects), and COM and PSE domains via changes only in a child's cord blood markers (total indirect effects). (biomedcentral.com)
  • As the professional home for the entire cardiovascular care team, the mission of the College and its more than 56,000 members is to transform cardiovascular care and to improve heart health. (eurekalert.org)
  • Pregnancy is a "window" to the future health of women, and their families. (who.int)
  • We were surprised that assisted reproductive technology was independently associated with these complications, as opposed to being associated with only the existence of pre-existing health conditions or only among older women undergoing infertility treatment," Wu said. (cnn.com)
  • Gum disease has also been linked to more serious health problems such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes. (englewooddental.com)
  • Dr. Jack Tu, a cardiologist and senior scientist at Sunnybrook Research Institute in Toronto, looked at the cardiovascular health of people who had recently arrived to Canada. (yahoo.com)
  • The most frequent health problems of newly arrived refugees include accidental injuries, hypothermia, burns, cardiovascular events, pregnancy and delivery-related complications, diabetes and hypertension. (yahoo.com)
  • In its first scientific statement addressing cardiovascular health in American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) women of childbearing age, the American Heart Association reports that more than 60% of AI/AN women already have suboptimal heart health when they enter pregnancy, which is strongly related to the development of heart disease later in life. (heart.org)
  • Cardiovascular disease rates are particularly high in AI/AN women of reproductive age, for whom early detection and management of CVD remain paramount for improving cardiovascular health and reducing premature death," said Garima Sharma, M.D., FAHA, chair of the writing committee for this scientific statement. (heart.org)
  • Sharma is the director of women's cardiovascular health and cardio-obstetrics at Inova Health System in Falls Church, VA, and adjunct associate professor at the Ciccarone Center for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore. (heart.org)
  • This is the first time maternal cardiovascular health in AI/AN individuals has been addressed in an American Heart Association scientific statement. (heart.org)
  • The writing group reported on cardiovascular health status among AI/AN women based on the Association's optimal heart health metrics called Life's Essential 8 . (heart.org)
  • In 2017-2018, the total costs of cardiovascular disease among women, including health care costs and lost productivity, exceeded $138 billion . (americashealthrankings.org)
  • Optimal heart health is important at every stage of life, but especially during pregnancy and can provide a protective effect against pregnancy complications and for developing heart disease later in life. (nih.gov)
  • Researchers from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), are available to discuss trends in maternal health research and programs created to support people before, during, and after pregnancy. (nih.gov)
  • These trends help explain why researchers refer to pregnancy as a window into future cardiovascular health. (nih.gov)
  • Underlying serious health con- manage cardiovascular disease, including hypertension. (cdc.gov)
  • Unfortunately, if left untreated a variety of health complications can develop especially in the later stages of infection as listed on the Mayo Clinic site. (kwikmed.com)
  • There is limited evidence from human studies on how maternal cardiometabolic health during pregnancy affects a child's cognitive and behavioural development. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Additionally, mental health conditions and accidental poisonings due to substance use also contribute to the number of pregnancy related deaths. (pa.gov)
  • To ensure that all women in Pennsylvania have healthy pregnancies, the Pennsylvania Department of Health has made maternal and child health a priority. (pa.gov)
  • There are health conditions that can affect women during and after pregnancy. (pa.gov)
  • Mental health conditions like depression and anxiety are very common during and after pregnancy. (pa.gov)
  • Substance use during and after pregnancy can affect the health of both women and newborns. (pa.gov)
  • Get answers to questions about health insurance coverage during pregnancy. (pa.gov)
  • Systematically, person-centered approach to health services should be adopted that ensures the early identification of people at risk of, or living with, NCDs, including endocrine-related conditions , and supports them to effectively manage and monitor risk factors, complications and multimorbidity. (politico.eu)
  • One way to ensure a healthy pregnancy is to know about potential complications and ways to manage any problems that come up during and after pregnancy. (pa.gov)
  • In-Hospital Complications in Pregnant Women With Current or Historical Cancer Diagnoses. (jefferson.edu)
  • We encountered 16 cases of venous thromboembolism (VTE) in women during pregnancy and/or puerperium over the past 15 years at our perinatal center, representing 0.14% of all patients who delivered babies. (lookfordiagnosis.com)
  • Women who experience complications in first pregnancy are at increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) later in life. (ntnu.no)
  • Women with any complications in their last or first pregnancy were at higher risk of CVD death than mothers with two-lifetime births and no pregnancy complications (reference). (ntnu.no)
  • For example, the adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) for women with four births and any complications only in the last pregnancy was 2.85 (95% CI, 1.93-4.20). (ntnu.no)
  • The risk for CVD death was higher among mothers with complications only in their last pregnancy compared to women with no complications, and also higher compared to mothers with a complication only in their first pregnancy. (ntnu.no)
  • The 2011 update to the American Heart Association guideline for the prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in women recommends that risk assessment at any stage of life include a detailed history of pregnancy complications. (medscape.com)
  • Cardiovascular complications include heart attack, arrythmias, heart failure and long-haul symptoms that may be difficult to distinguish from other cardiac complications of pregnancy and require the cardiovascular care team to be vigilant when assessing pregnant women with COVID-19. (eurekalert.org)
  • While non-Hispanic Black women accounted for 14.1% of the study cohort, they represented 26.5% of pregnancy-associated deaths. (eurekalert.org)
  • According to the authors, a reason for increased risk of cardiovascular complications is the low vaccination rate in pregnant women compared to other groups. (eurekalert.org)
  • Recognition of cardiovascular complication is hampered by failure to include pregnant women in clinical trials despite calls for inclusion of pregnant populations," Briller said. (eurekalert.org)
  • Consequently, women may be undertreated or inadequately treated due to lack studies addressing safety and efficacy of therapies during pregnancy or conversely be exposed to therapies where safety is not known. (eurekalert.org)
  • If you are one of the millions of women who plan to use infertility treatments to have a baby, be aware that new research found women may be at increased risk for vascular and pregnancy-related complications, especially if they are 35 or older. (cnn.com)
  • Women planning to become pregnant should avoid all alcohol consumption, smoking, and use of illegal drugs (eg, cocaine) before and during the pregnancy, because these activities may have serious deleterious effects on the fetus. (medscape.com)
  • The prevalence of cardiovascular complications in women means that designing and managing an efficient Women's Cardiac Department is more crucial than ever. (wplgroup.com)
  • Is There Still a Need to Promote Women in Cardiovascular Medicine Fields? (wplgroup.com)
  • A simple screening question could help millions of women prevent cardiovascular disease. (queensu.ca)
  • Type 2 diabetes is the predominant, traditional cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor in AI/AN women, with a prevalence of up to 72% among women in some AI/AN communities. (heart.org)
  • Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of pregnancy-related death in the U.S. and the second leading cause of death in AI/AN women in the U.S. Overall, AI/AN individuals are 50% more likely to be diagnosed with premature cardiovascular (CVD) disease than their white counterparts. (heart.org)
  • Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death for Black and white women, and the second-leading cause of death for women of all other races and ethnicities. (americashealthrankings.org)
  • More than 1,200 U.S. women died during pregnancy or shortly after childhood birth in 2021. (msmagazine.com)
  • Underlying our poor record is an unacceptable racial disparity: Black women and American Indian/Alaska Native women are approximately three times as likely as white women to die of pregnancy-related causes. (amchp.org)
  • Pregnancy may not be recommended for women with some forms of congenital heart disease. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • Reducing the risk of diabetes and cardiovascular complications in pregnancy for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women in SA - drawing on their personal and professional knowledge to improve management and support, and design a care model to be built into existing services and systems. (health.gov.au)
  • Because maternal catabolism is, intuitively, not good for fetal growth and development, the Institute of Medicine (1992) recommends that even women who are obese (BMI of 30 kg/m2 or higher) should not attempt weight loss during pregnancy. (health.am)
  • Approximately 700 women in the United States die every year as a result of a pregnancy or pregnancy-related complication. (pa.gov)
  • In Pennsylvania specifically, African American women are three times more likely to die during or after pregnancy than white women. (pa.gov)
  • Women are at a higher risk for depression progression, especially during pregnancy. (biomedcentral.com)
  • For example, recent research published in the New England Journal of Medicine found that people treated for chronic hypertension in pregnancy, which affects about 2% of the population, benefitted from early treatment. (nih.gov)
  • For example, adults should receive cardiology screenings three months after giving birth and then annually if they experienced an adverse pregnancy outcome. (nih.gov)
  • The authors suggest management of cardiac complications in pregnant COVID-19 patients requires the creation of a "Pregnancy Heart Team" to optimize care, which may include providers comfortable with high-risk pregnancy, obstetric anesthesia, cardiology, critical care and neonatal care, depending on the nature of the complication, stage of pregnancy and severity of infection. (eurekalert.org)
  • The European Society of Cardiology has published guidelines on the management of cardiovascular disease during pregnancy. (medscape.com)
  • Using this approach, California's Medicaid program (Medi-Cal) was able to reduce rates of low-risk first-birth C-sections and lower rates of other major complications since having a C-section increases risk of other major complications such as hysterectomy and uterine rupture in subsequent pregnancies. (msmagazine.com)
  • Cardiac (heart) disease in pregnancy refers to problems with your heart that occur while you're pregnant. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • If you're pregnant or planning a pregnancy, it's important to learn how heart disease could affect you. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • For every 10 people who are pregnant, about 1-2 experience a complication. (nih.gov)
  • Massive pulmonary embolism in pregnancy treated with catheter-directed tissue plasminogen activator. (jefferson.edu)
  • pulmonary embolism is an immediate complication. (merckmanuals.com)
  • The CDC, American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology and Society of Maternal Fetal Medicine among others recommend vaccination in pregnancy. (eurekalert.org)
  • Advancing maternal age - specifically being age 35 and older - increases the risk of having or developing conditions, such as chronic high blood pressure, that increase the risk of pregnancy complications," said study author Dr. Pensée Wu, senior lecturer and honorary consultant obstetrician and subspecialist in maternal fetal medicine at Keele University School of Medicine in Staffordshire, UK, in a statement. (cnn.com)
  • Prior to the pregnancy, Panah says that anyone with a history of heart problems should see a cardiologist and an internal fetal medicine doctor to "make sure we're on the same page entering a pregnancy. (wishtv.com)
  • Congenital heart disease is the most common heart disease affecting pregnancies in the U.S. But cardiomyopathy causes the most serious complications. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Many patients diagnosed with congenital heart disease require specialized care, and even patients who had their condition repaired in childhood require follow-up care because they are prone to unique complications that require treatment. (hopkinsmedicine.org)
  • These slides cover pregnancy complications associated with future cardiometabolic and cardiovascular risk. (pcna.net)
  • A lot of the end stage of pregnancy symptoms can mimic cardiac symptoms. (wishtv.com)
  • As hypertension is the most com- mon modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular events, it is imperative that, Introduction even during disruptions in care, hypertension control remains a priority. (cdc.gov)
  • What is cardiac disease in pregnancy? (clevelandclinic.org)
  • ACI's Women's Cardiovascular Programs & Services will provide participants with the expert knowledge and tools to reduce costs, enhance revenue, and increase the overall market share of their Women's Cardiac Departments. (wplgroup.com)
  • Many of the normal symptoms of pregnancy, such as dyspnea on exertion, orthopnea, ankle edema, and palpitations, are also symptoms of cardiac decompensation. (medscape.com)
  • Join us to learn more about the Cardio Connections of cardiovascular patients, highlighting heart failure and cardio-oncology. (pcna.net)
  • It's important for patients to know that heart disease can happen during pregnancy and they should be aware of the signs. (wishtv.com)
  • He was consultant physician at St Mary's & Hammersmith hospitals and co-director of the Peart-Rose hypertension & cardiovascular disease prevention clinic. (imperial.ac.uk)
  • As COVID-19 cases increased globally, awareness of cardiovascular complications also increased, especially in certain high-risk populations. (eurekalert.org)
  • It is responsible for 26.5% of all pregnancy-related deaths. (medscape.com)
  • About 1 in 3 pregnancy-related deaths in the U.S. are due to cardiovascular problems. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Cardiovascular-related deaths due to heat are uncommon, but are expected to increase within the next 20-40 years as more summer days reach the maximum heat index, according to a modeling study in Circulation. (nih.gov)
  • A significant proportion of pregnancy-related deaths are associated with cardiovascular conditions. (americashealthrankings.org)
  • Cardiovascular conditions are the leading cause of pregnancy-related complications and are responsible for over one-third of maternal deaths. (msmagazine.com)
  • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth in northern Australia have the highest rate of type 2 diabetes in the world, while remote communities in East Arnhem have the highest rate of avoidable deaths in Australia, mainly due to cardiovascular disease. (health.gov.au)
  • According to the CDC, from 2011-2015 more than one-third of pregnancy related deaths were caused by cardiovascular conditions, such as cardiomyopathy. (pa.gov)
  • These same players likely are factors in what increases the mother's lifetime risk of cardiovascular problems, Faulkner says. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Preventing and managing cardiovascular disease risk factors is always important, but especially during pregnancy. (nih.gov)
  • Tests may be done to determine cause, assess organ damage, and identify other cardiovascular risk factors. (msdmanuals.com)
  • But first, it's helpful to take a step back and learn how pregnancy affects your heart and blood vessels . (clevelandclinic.org)
  • It's normal for your heart rate to increase by 10 to 20 beats per minute during pregnancy. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • That's why heart disease during pregnancy can be dangerous. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • If you have preexisting heart disease, you may face a higher risk of heart-related complications during pregnancy. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Some heart conditions can raise your risk of pregnancy complications. (clevelandclinic.org)
  • Florida Hospital Pepin Heart Institute, located at Florida Hospital Tampa, is a free-standing cardiovascular institute providing comprehensive cardiovascular care. (wplgroup.com)
  • Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of heart disease or heart complications during pregnancy. (wishtv.com)
  • Cardiovascular disease refers to several heart conditions , including heart disease, heart attack and stroke, often resulting from plaque build-up in artery walls. (americashealthrankings.org)
  • Recent research has shown that about half of people have at least one risk factor for heart disease, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, or being overweight, before pregnancy. (nih.gov)
  • It found reducing sedentary time by an hour a day equated to a 26% lower risk of heart disease and a 12% lower risk of cardiovascular disease overall. (heart.org)
  • People who did so had a 45% lower risk of having or dying from a heart attack, stroke or other cardiovascular problem. (heart.org)
  • Sebire and collaborators (2001) studied 287,213 singleton pregnancies delivered in the North West Thames Region of London. (health.am)