A disease endemic among people and animals in Central Africa. It is caused by various species of trypanosomes, particularly T. gambiense and T. rhodesiense. Its second host is the TSETSE FLY. Involvement of the central nervous system produces "African sleeping sickness." Nagana is a rapidly fatal trypanosomiasis of horses and other animals.
Infection with protozoa of the genus TRYPANOSOMA.
Infection in cattle caused by various species of trypanosomes.
A hemoflagellate subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes Gambian or West African sleeping sickness in humans. The vector host is usually the tsetse fly (Glossina).
Arsenical used in trypanosomiases. It may cause fatal encephalopathy and other undesirable side effects.
Agents destructive to the protozoal organisms belonging to the suborder TRYPANOSOMATINA.
A hemoflagellate subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes Rhodesian sleeping sickness in humans. It is carried by Glossina pallidipes, G. morsitans and occasionally other species of game-attacking tsetse flies.
A hemoflagellate subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes nagana in domestic and game animals in Africa. It apparently does not infect humans. It is transmitted by bites of tsetse flies (Glossina).
A genus of flagellate protozoans found in the blood and lymph of vertebrates and invertebrates, both hosts being required to complete the life cycle.
Bloodsucking flies of the genus Glossina, found primarily in equatorial Africa. Several species are intermediate hosts of trypanosomes.
A species of Trypanosome hemoflagellates that is carried by tsetse flies and causes severe anemia in cattle. These parasites are also found in horses, sheep, goats, and camels.
An active blood parasite that is present in practically all domestic animals in Africa, the West Indies, and parts of Central and South America. In Africa, the insect vector is the tsetse fly. In other countries, infection is by mechanical means indicating that the parasites have been introduced to these countries and have been able to maintain themselves in spite of the lack of a suitable intermediate host. It is a cause of nagana, the severity of which depends on the species affected.
A republic in southern Africa, southwest of DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO and west of ZAMBIA. Its capital is Luanda.
A republic in central Africa, east of the REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, south of the CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC and north of ANGOLA and ZAMBIA. The capital is Kinshasa.
Antiprotozoal agent effective in trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and some fungal infections; used in treatment of PNEUMOCYSTIS pneumonia in HIV-infected patients. It may cause diabetes mellitus, central nervous system damage, and other toxic effects.
A republic in central Africa lying between GABON and DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO and south of Cameroon. Its capital is Brazzaville.
Infections of the brain, spinal cord, or meninges by single celled organisms of the former subkingdom known as protozoa. The central nervous system may be the primary or secondary site of protozoal infection. These diseases may occur as OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS or arise in immunocompetent hosts.
A nitrofuran thiazine that has been used against TRYPANOSOMIASIS.
An inhibitor of ORNITHINE DECARBOXYLASE, the rate limiting enzyme of the polyamine biosynthetic pathway.
Substances that are destructive to protozoans.
A country in northeastern Africa. The capital is Khartoum.
The reduction or regulation of the population of noxious, destructive, or dangerous insects through chemical, biological, or other means.
Infection with the protozoan parasite TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI, a form of TRYPANOSOMIASIS endemic in Central and South America. It is named after the Brazilian physician Carlos Chagas, who discovered the parasite. Infection by the parasite (positive serologic result only) is distinguished from the clinical manifestations that develop years later, such as destruction of PARASYMPATHETIC GANGLIA; CHAGAS CARDIOMYOPATHY; and dysfunction of the ESOPHAGUS or COLON.
A republic in central Africa south of CHAD and SUDAN, north of DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, and east of CAMEROON. The capital is Bangui.
A polyanionic compound with an unknown mechanism of action. It is used parenterally in the treatment of African trypanosomiasis and it has been used clinically with diethylcarbamazine to kill the adult Onchocerca. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1992, p1643) It has also been shown to have potent antineoplastic properties.
The agent of South American trypanosomiasis or CHAGAS DISEASE. Its vertebrate hosts are man and various domestic and wild animals. Insects of several species are vectors.
An effective trypanocidal agent.
Amidines substituted with a benzene group. Benzamidine and its derivatives are known as peptidase inhibitors.
Diseases that are underfunded and have low name recognition but are major burdens in less developed countries. The World Health Organization has designated six tropical infectious diseases as being neglected in industrialized countries that are endemic in many developing countries (HELMINTHIASIS; LEPROSY; LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS; ONCHOCERCIASIS; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; and TRACHOMA).
Diseases of domestic cattle of the genus Bos. It includes diseases of cows, yaks, and zebus.
A republic in eastern Africa, south of SUDAN and west of KENYA. Its capital is Kampala.
The geographical area of Africa comprising CAMEROON; CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC; CHAD; CONGO; EQUATORIAL GUINEA; GABON; and DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO.
Tests that are dependent on the clumping of cells, microorganisms, or particles when mixed with specific antiserum. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Tests that demonstrate the relative effectiveness of chemotherapeutic agents against specific parasites.
Glycoproteins attached to the surface coat of the trypanosome. Many of these glycoproteins show amino acid sequence diversity expressed as antigenic variations. This continuous development of antigenically distinct variants in the course of infection ensures that some trypanosomes always survive the development of immune response to propagate the infection.
The study of parasites and PARASITIC DISEASES.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to PROTOZOAN ANTIGENS.
Insects that transmit infective organisms from one host to another or from an inanimate reservoir to an animate host.
A republic in western Africa, south of MALI and BURKINA FASO, bordered by GHANA on the east. Its administrative capital is Abidjan and Yamoussoukro has been the official capital since 1983. The country was formerly called Ivory Coast.
Serum albumin from cows, commonly used in in vitro biological studies. (From Stedman, 25th ed)
The branch of medicine concerned with diseases, mainly of parasitic origin, common in tropical and subtropical regions.
A species of VARICELLOVIRUS that causes INFECTIOUS BOVINE RHINOTRACHEITIS and other associated syndromes in CATTLE.
A watery fluid that is continuously produced in the CHOROID PLEXUS and circulates around the surface of the BRAIN; SPINAL CORD; and in the CEREBRAL VENTRICLES.
A republic in southern Africa, south of DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO and TANZANIA, and north of ZIMBABWE. Its capital is Lusaka. It was formerly called Northern Rhodesia.
A disease caused by any of a number of species of protozoa in the genus LEISHMANIA. There are four major clinical types of this infection: cutaneous (Old and New World) (LEISHMANIASIS, CUTANEOUS), diffuse cutaneous (LEISHMANIASIS, DIFFUSE CUTANEOUS), mucocutaneous (LEISHMANIASIS, MUCOCUTANEOUS), and visceral (LEISHMANIASIS, VISCERAL).
Precipitin tests which occur over a narrow range of antigen-antibody ratio, due chiefly to peculiarities of the antibody (precipitin). (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of protozoa.
Invertebrates or non-human vertebrates which transmit infective organisms from one host to another.
Nitroimidazoles are a class of antibacterial and antiprotozoal drugs, which, upon reduction, interact with bacterial or protozoal DNA leading to inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis and ultimately cell death, used primarily in the treatment of anaerobic infections and certain parasitic diseases.
Infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges caused by parasites.
Domesticated farm animals raised for home use or profit but excluding POULTRY. Typically livestock includes CATTLE; SHEEP; HORSES; SWINE; GOATS; and others.
I'm afraid there seems to be a misunderstanding - "Africa" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, consisting of 54 countries with diverse cultures, peoples, languages, and landscapes. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help answer those for you!
Proteins found in any species of protozoan.
A republic in west equatorial Africa, south of CAMEROON and west of the CONGO. Its capital is Libreville.
The constant presence of diseases or infectious agents within a given geographic area or population group. It may also refer to the usual prevalence of a given disease with such area or group. It includes holoendemic and hyperendemic diseases. A holoendemic disease is one for which a high prevalent level of infection begins early in life and affects most of the child population, leading to a state of equilibrium such that the adult population shows evidence of the disease much less commonly than do children (malaria in many communities is a holoendemic disease). A hyperendemic disease is one that is constantly present at a high incidence and/or prevalence rate and affects all groups equally. (Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 3d ed, p53, 78, 80)
A republic in central Africa, east of NIGER, west of SUDAN and south of LIBYA. Its capital is N'Djamena.
Infections with unicellular organisms formerly members of the subkingdom Protozoa.
The type species of DELTARETROVIRUS that causes a form of bovine lymphosarcoma (ENZOOTIC BOVINE LEUKOSIS) or persistent lymphocytosis.
Infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure.
A republic in western Africa, south of SENEGAL and MALI, east of GUINEA-BISSAU. Its capital is Conakry.
The body fluid that circulates in the vascular system (BLOOD VESSELS). Whole blood includes PLASMA and BLOOD CELLS.
Amidines are organic compounds containing the functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom connected to two carbon atoms by double bonds, with the remaining two bonds attached to hydrogen and any other organic substituent.
The primary sore of syphilis, a painless indurated, eroded papule, occurring at the site of entry of the infection.
The presence of parasites (especially malarial parasites) in the blood. (Dorland, 27th ed)
Animate or inanimate sources which normally harbor disease-causing organisms and thus serve as potential sources of disease outbreaks. Reservoirs are distinguished from vectors (DISEASE VECTORS) and carriers, which are agents of disease transmission rather than continuing sources of potential disease outbreaks.
An inflammatory process involving the brain (ENCEPHALITIS) and meninges (MENINGITIS), most often produced by pathogenic organisms which invade the central nervous system, and occasionally by toxins, autoimmune disorders, and other conditions.
Aspects of health and disease related to travel.
A group of viruses in the genus PESTIVIRUS, causing diarrhea, fever, oral ulcerations, hemorrhagic syndrome, and various necrotic lesions among cattle and other domestic animals. The two species (genotypes), BVDV-1 and BVDV-2 , exhibit antigenic and pathological differences. The historical designation, BVDV, consisted of both (then unrecognized) genotypes.
INFLAMMATION of the UDDER in cows.
Drugs used to treat or prevent parasitic infections.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A species of DELTAPAPILLOMAVIRUS infecting cattle.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
A republic in eastern Africa, south of ETHIOPIA, west of SOMALIA with TANZANIA to its south, and coastline on the Indian Ocean. Its capital is Nairobi.
A republic in eastern Africa, south of UGANDA and north of MOZAMBIQUE. Its capital is Dar es Salaam. It was formed in 1964 by a merger of the countries of TANGANYIKA and ZANZIBAR.
Diseases of any component of the brain (including the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum) or the spinal cord.
Preclinical testing of drugs in experimental animals or in vitro for their biological and toxic effects and potential clinical applications.
Enzymes which reduce nitro groups (NITRO COMPOUNDS) and other nitrogenous compounds.
Infectious diseases that are novel in their outbreak ranges (geographic and host) or transmission mode.
The intergenic DNA segments that are between the ribosomal RNA genes (internal transcribed spacers) and between the tandemly repeated units of rDNA (external transcribed spacers and nontranscribed spacers).
Passive agglutination tests in which antigen is adsorbed onto latex particles which then clump in the presence of antibody specific for the adsorbed antigen. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
All of Africa except Northern Africa (AFRICA, NORTHERN).
Any part or derivative of any protozoan that elicits immunity; malaria (Plasmodium) and trypanosome antigens are presently the most frequently encountered.
An infection of cattle caused by MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS. It is transmissible to man and other animals.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
Diseases of non-human animals that may be transmitted to HUMANS or may be transmitted from humans to non-human animals.
Acute disease of cattle caused by the bovine viral diarrhea viruses (DIARRHEA VIRUSES, BOVINE VIRAL). Often mouth ulcerations are the only sign but fever, diarrhea, drop in milk yield, and loss of appetite are also seen. Severity of clinical disease varies and is strain dependent. Outbreaks are characterized by low morbidity and high mortality.

Infection-associated decline of cape buffalo blood catalase augments serum trypanocidal activity. (1/68)

Clearance of trypanosomes from the blood of infected Cape buffalo was associated with the development of two responses: (i) complement-dependent and clone-specific lytic activity and (ii) complement-independent trypanocidal activity that was not restricted by trypanosome clone or species. This latter activity was mediated by H2O2 and required the presence of xanthine oxidase in serum but not the addition of purine substrates. Expression of the xanthine oxidase-dependent trypanocidal activity in Cape buffalo serum was coincident with, and required, a decline in its H2O2 catabolic activity. The H2O2 catabolic activity of Cape buffalo serum was due solely to catalase and declined by eightfold around the time that trypanosomes were cleared from the blood, accompanied by a fivefold drop in erythrocyte-associated catalase activity. The Cape buffalo did not develop subsequent parasitemic waves. Clearance of parasitemia in similarly infected cattle was also associated with development of trypanosome clone-specific lytic activity, but not with the acquisition of H2O2-dependent trypanocidal activity in serum, and the cattle supported recurring parasitemia. The lack of trypanocidal activity in pre- and postinfection cattle sera was due to their low content of xanthine oxidase and sustained catalase activity. These data strongly suggest that an infection-induced serum oxidative response, the efficacy of which is amplified by a decline in blood catalase, contributes to suppression of recurring parasitemia in Cape buffalo.  (+info)

Minisatellite marker analysis of Trypanosoma brucei: reconciliation of clonal, panmictic, and epidemic population genetic structures. (2/68)

The African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, has been shown to undergo genetic exchange in the laboratory, but controversy exists as to the role of genetic exchange in natural populations. Much of the analysis to date has been derived from isoenzyme or randomly amplified polymorphic DNA data with parasite material from a range of hosts and geographical locations. These markers fail to distinguish between the human infective (T. b. rhodesiense) and nonhuman infective (T. b. brucei) "subspecies" so that parasites derived from hosts other than humans potentially contain both subspecies. To overcome some of the inherent problems with the use of such markers and diverse populations, we have analyzed a well-defined population from a discrete geographical location (Busoga, Uganda) using three recently described minisatellite markers. The parasites were primarily isolated from humans and cattle with the latter isolates further characterized by their ability to resist lysis by human serum (equivalent to human infectivity). The minisatellite markers show high levels of polymorphism, and from the data obtained we conclude that T. b. rhodesiense is genetically isolated from T. b. brucei and can be unambiguously identified by its multilocus genotype. Analysis of the genotype frequencies in the separated T. b. brucei and T. b. rhodesiense populations shows the former has an epidemic population structure whereas the latter is clonal. This finding suggests that the strong linkage disequilibrium observed in previous analyses, where human and nonhuman infective trypanosomes were not distinguished, results from the treatment of two genetically isolated populations as a single population.  (+info)

Bovine leukosis. IV. Trypanosomiasis, lymphocytosis and DNA synthesis. (3/68)

The possible influence of natural trypanosome infection on lymphocytosis and DNA synthesizing lymphocyte counts in peripheral blood was determined on 220 cows from two leukosis herds and 25 cows from leukosis free control herd. Trypanosome incidences were determined during summers of 1969 and 1970 by inoculating whole blood onto blood agar slants and incubating at room temperature. Incidence of trypanosomiasis in cattle was found to be variable, possibly due to factors affecting the primary isolation of Trypanosoma theileri. A small trypanosome resembling Trypanosoma uniforme was found occasionally as a concomitant infection with T. theileri. Trypanosomiasis occurred with equal frequency in the animals of the leukosis and the control herds. No correlations were noted between trypanosomiasis, lymphocytosis and DNA synthesizing lymphocytes in peripheral circulation.  (+info)

Suppression of antibody response to Leptospira biflexa and Brucella abortus and recovery from immunosuppression after Berenil treatment. (4/68)

Zebu cattle infected with either Trypanosoma congolense EATRO 1800 or Trypanosoma vivax EATRO 1721 had suppressed humoral immune responses to Leptospira biflexa injected intravenously and to attenuated Brucella abortus injected subcutaneously. T. congolense infections were more suppressive than T. vivax infections. In cattle infected with T. vivax, the suppression of immune responses to both bacterial immunogens was abrogated when the animals were treated with Berenil at the time of antigen administration. In cattle infected with T. congolense, simultaneous Berenil treatment at the time of vaccination abolished the suppression of immune response to L. biflexa, and lessened but did not abrogate the suppression of immune response to B. abortus.  (+info)

Serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) in bovine trypanotolerance: preliminary results. (5/68)

In Africa, trypanosomosis is a tsetse-transmitted disease which represents the most important constraint to livestock production. Several indigenous West African taurine Bos taurus) breeds, such as the Longhorn (N'Dama) cattle are well known to control trypanosome infections. This genetic ability named "trypanotolerance" results from various biological mechanisms under multigenic control. The methodologies used so far have not succeeded in identifying the complete pool of genes involved in trypanotolerance. New post genomic biotechnologies such as transcriptome analyses are efficient in characterising the pool of genes involved in the expression of specific biological functions. We used the serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) technique to construct, from Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells of an N'Dama cow, 2 total mRNA transcript libraries, at day 0 of a Trypanosoma congolense experimental infection and at day 10 post-infection, corresponding to the peak of parasitaemia. Bioinformatic comparisons in the bovine genomic databases allowed the identification of 187 up- and down- regulated genes, EST and unknown functional genes. Identification of the genes involved in trypanotolerance will allow to set up specific microarray sets for further metabolic and pharmacological studies and to design field marker-assisted selection by introgression programmes.  (+info)

A light and electron microscopic study of changes in blood and bone marrow in acute hemorrhagic Trypanosoma vivax infection in calves. (6/68)

Eleven 6-month-old calves were tsetse fly challenged with a stock of Trypanosoma vivax (IL 2337) that causes hemorrhagic infection. The calves were randomly euthanatized every 4 to 6 days; two other calves served as controls. Peripheral blood changes included anemia, thrombocytopenia, and an initial leukopenia. Later in the course of infection, leukocytosis associated with lymphocytosis and neutropenia developed. Moderate reticulocytosis (highest mean count 3.6 +/- 3.7%, maximum count 9.4%) accompanied the first wave of parasitemia, but poor response (highest mean 0.4 +/- 0.0%) occurred during the second wave, despite the persistence of severe anemia. Light microscopic examination of bone marrow samples showed a drop in the myeloid: erythroid ratio with a decrease in granulocytes, particularly metamyelocytes, bands, and segmenters. Increase in lymphocyte counts corresponded with the appearance of lymphoid nodules within the marrow. Megakaryocytic volume increased significantly in infected animals, and some megakaryocytes showed emperipolesis of red cells, neutrophils, and lymphocytes. Transmission electron microscopic examination of the bone marrow revealed that trypanosomes had crossed the sinusoidal endothelium into the hematopoietic compartment as early as the second day of parasitemia. Macrophages proliferated in the bone marrow; and from the second day of parasitemia until the end of the experimental infection, on day 46, the macrophages had phagocytosed normoblasts, eosinophil and neutrophil myelocytes, metamyelocytes, bands, and segmenters, as well as reticulocytes, erythrocytes, and thrombocytes. Therefore, dyserythropoiesis and dysgranulocytopoiesis were responsible, in part, for the observed anemia and granulocytopenia, respectively.  (+info)

Parasite-specific T-cell responses of trypanotolerant and trypanosusceptible cattle during infection with Trypanosoma congolense. (7/68)

During primary tsetse-transmitted challenge of Boran (Bos indicus) cattle with Trypanosoma congolense ILNat 3.1, a transient parasite antigen-specific T-cell proliferative response was observed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and splenic mononuclear cells stimulated in vitro. A response was also observed with cells of N'Dama (Bos taurus) cattle, but in this case higher stimulation indices were observed and the response was maintained until the termination of the experiment at 40 days post-infection (p.i.). The highest parasite antigen-specific proliferative responses were observed at 20 days post-infection. At this time N'Dama cattle not only responded to the antigens derived from the infecting clone (ILNat 3.1), but also to antigens from a clone of a different serodeme (ILNaR 2), whereas Boran cattle only recognized antigens from the infecting clone of parasites. To determine the molecular mass of the antigenic trypanosome proteins, whole trypanosome lysates made from T. congolense ILNat 3.1 were fractionated by SDS-PAGE and transferred onto nitrocellulose membranes. The major protein bands were isolated and used directly in T-cell proliferation assays. In this instance, no differences in the antigen recognition profiles of Boran and N'Dama cattle were observed. The variable surface glycoprotein did not induce T-cell proliferation in infected cattle despite the presence of serum antibodies to this variable antigenic type.  (+info)

Cytokine mRNA profiling of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from trypanotolerant and trypanosusceptible cattle infected with Trypanosoma congolense. (8/68)

To examine differences in cytokine profiles that may confer tolerance/susceptibility to bovine African trypanosomiasis, N'Dama (trypanotolerant, n = 8) and Boran (trypanosusceptible, n = 8) cattle were experimentally challenged with Trypanosoma congolense. Blood samples were collected over a 34-day period, and RNA was extracted from peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The expression levels of a panel of 14 cytokines were profiled over the time course of infection and between breeds. Messenger RNA (mRNA) transcript levels for the IL2, IL8, and IL1RN genes were significantly downregulated across the time course of infection in both breeds. There was an early increase in transcripts for genes encoding proinflammatory mediators (IFNG, IL1A, TNF, and IL12) in N'Dama by 14 days postinfection (dpi) compared with preinfection levels that was not detected in the susceptible Boran breed. By the time of peak parasitemia, a type 2 helper T cells (T(H)2)-like cytokine environment was prevalent that was particularly evident in the Boran. Increases in transcripts for the IL6 (29 and 34 dpi) and IL10 (21, 25, and 29 dpi) genes were detected that were higher in the Boran compared with N'Dama. These findings highlight the implications for using murine models to study the bovine immune response to trypanosomiasis, where in some cases cytokine expression patterns differ. Overall, these data suggest that the trypanotolerant N'Dama are more capable of responding very early in infection with proinflammatory and T(H)1 type cytokines than the trypanosusceptible Boran and may explain why N'Dama control parasitemia more efficiently than Boran during the early stages of infection.  (+info)

African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is a vector-borne parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). The disease has two stages: an early hemolymphatic stage characterized by fever, swollen lymph nodes, and skin rashes; and a late neurological stage characterized by sleep disturbances, personality changes, and motor abnormalities. If left untreated, it can be fatal. The disease is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, where an estimated 65 million people are at risk of infection.

Trypanosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by various species of the protozoan genus Trypanosoma. It is transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (in African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness) or reduviid bug (in American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease). The parasites enter the bloodstream and lymphatic system, causing symptoms such as fever, swollen lymph nodes, skin lesions, and muscle pain. Untreated, it can lead to severe neurological complications and death in both forms of the disease. Prevention measures include avoiding insect bites, using insect repellents, and sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets.

Bovine trypanosomiasis, also known as Nagana, is a parasitic disease that affects cattle and other animals. It is caused by various species of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma, which are transmitted through the bite of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.).

The disease is characterized by fever, anemia, weight loss, decreased milk production, abortion in pregnant animals, and eventually death if left untreated. The parasites invade the bloodstream and lymphatic system, causing damage to various organs and tissues.

Bovine trypanosomiasis is a major constraint to livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa, where it affects millions of animals and causes significant economic losses to farmers and pastoralists. Control measures include the use of trypanocidal drugs, insecticide-treated cattle, and the reduction or elimination of tsetse fly populations through various methods such as trapping and habitat modification.

Trypanosoma brucei gambiense is a species of protozoan flagellate parasite that causes Human African Trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). The parasite multiplies in various body fluids, including blood and cerebrospinal fluid, leading to a range of symptoms such as fever, headache, joint pain, and eventually severe neurological disorders if left untreated. T. b. gambiense is responsible for the majority of reported cases in West and Central Africa and is considered to be an anthroponosis, meaning it primarily infects humans.

Melarsoprol is an arsenic-based medication that is primarily used to treat the later stages of African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness. It works by inhibiting the enzyme involved in energy metabolism of the parasite causing the disease, leading to its death. However, melarsoprol has a significant risk of serious side effects, including encephalopathy, which can be fatal. Therefore, it is typically used as a last resort when other treatments have failed or are not available. It is administered by intravenous injection in a hospital setting under close medical supervision.

Trypanocidal agents are a type of medication specifically used for the treatment and prevention of trypanosomiasis, which is a group of diseases caused by various species of protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Trypanosoma. These agents work by killing or inhibiting the growth of the parasites in the human body.

There are two main types of human trypanosomiasis: African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, which is caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense; and American trypanosomiasis, also known as Chagas disease, which is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi.

Trypanocidal agents can be divided into two categories:

1. Drugs used to treat African trypanosomiasis: These include pentamidine, suramin, melarsoprol, and eflornithine. Pentamidine and suramin are used for the early stages of the disease, while melarsoprol and eflornithine are used for the later stages.
2. Drugs used to treat American trypanosomiasis: The main drug used for Chagas disease is benznidazole, which is effective in killing the parasites during the acute phase of the infection. Another drug, nifurtimox, can also be used, although it has more side effects than benznidazole.

It's important to note that trypanocidal agents have limited availability and are often associated with significant toxicity, making their use challenging in some settings. Therefore, prevention measures such as avoiding insect vectors and using vector control methods remain crucial in controlling the spread of these diseases.

Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is a species of protozoan parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, in humans. It is transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly and is endemic to certain regions of East and Southern Africa.

The life cycle of T. b. rhodesiense involves two hosts: the tsetse fly and a mammalian host (such as a human). In the tsetse fly, the parasite undergoes development and multiplication in the midgut, then migrates to the salivary glands where it transforms into the metacyclic trypomastigote stage. When the infected tsetse fly bites a mammalian host, the metacyclic trypomastigotes are injected into the skin and enter the lymphatic system and bloodstream, where they multiply by binary fission as bloodstream trypomastigotes.

The symptoms of African trypanosomiasis caused by T. b. rhodesiense include fever, headache, joint pain, and itching, which may progress to more severe symptoms such as sleep disturbances, confusion, and neurological disorders if left untreated. The disease can be fatal if not diagnosed and treated promptly.

It is important to note that T. b. rhodesiense is distinct from another subspecies of Trypanosoma brucei called T. b. gambiense, which causes a different form of African trypanosomiasis that is endemic to West and Central Africa.

Trypanosoma brucei brucei is a species of protozoan flagellate parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in animals. This parasite is transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). The life cycle of T. b. brucei involves two main stages: the insect-dwelling procyclic trypomastigote stage and the mammalian-dwelling bloodstream trypomastigote stage.

The distinguishing feature of T. b. brucei is its ability to change its surface coat, which helps it evade the host's immune system. This allows the parasite to establish a long-term infection in the mammalian host. However, T. b. brucei is not infectious to humans; instead, two other subspecies, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, are responsible for human African trypanosomiasis.

In summary, Trypanosoma brucei brucei is a non-human-infective subspecies of the parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis in animals and serves as an essential model organism for understanding the biology and pathogenesis of related human-infective trypanosomes.

Trypanosoma is a genus of flagellated protozoan parasites belonging to the family Trypanosomatidae. These microscopic single-celled organisms are known to cause various tropical diseases in humans and animals, including Chagas disease (caused by Trypanosoma cruzi) and African sleeping sickness (caused by Trypanosoma brucei).

The life cycle of Trypanosoma involves alternating between an insect vector (like a tsetse fly or kissing bug) and a mammalian host. The parasites undergo complex morphological changes as they move through the different hosts and developmental stages, often exhibiting distinct forms in the insect vector compared to the mammalian host.

Trypanosoma species have an undulating membrane and a single flagellum that helps them move through their environment. They can be transmitted through various routes, including insect vectors, contaminated food or water, or congenital transmission from mother to offspring. The diseases caused by these parasites can lead to severe health complications and may even be fatal if left untreated.

Tsetse flies are not a medical condition but rather insects that can transmit diseases. Here is their medical relevance:

Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) are large, biting flies found primarily in tropical Africa. They are vectors for African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in animals. The fly ingests the parasite when it takes a blood meal from an infected host, then transmits the disease to another host through its saliva during subsequent feedings. This makes tsetse flies medically relevant due to their role in spreading these diseases.

Trypanosoma congolense is a species of protozoan parasite that belongs to the genus Trypanosoma. It is the primary causative agent of African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT), also known as Nagana, which affects both wild and domestic animals in sub-Saharan Africa.

The life cycle of T. congolense involves two main hosts: the tsetse fly (Glossina spp.) and a mammalian host, such as cattle, sheep, goats, or wild animals. The parasite is transmitted to the mammalian host through the bite of an infected tsetse fly. Once inside the host's body, T. congolense multiplies in various bodily fluids, including blood, lymph, and cerebrospinal fluid, causing a range of symptoms such as fever, anemia, weight loss, and weakness.

In severe cases, AAT can lead to death, particularly in young or debilitated animals. The disease has significant economic impacts on agriculture and livestock production in affected regions, making it a major public health concern.

Trypanosoma vivax is a species of protozoan parasite that causes the disease surra in horses, mules, and donkeys, as well as other animals such as camels, dogs, and cats. It belongs to the family Trypanosomatidae and the order Kinetoplastida.

The parasite is transmitted through the bite of infected tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) and occurs in parts of Africa and Asia. The parasites multiply in the bloodstream and lymphatic system of the host, causing symptoms such as fever, anemia, weakness, and edema.

In advanced stages, surra can lead to severe neurological signs, coma, and death if left untreated. Diagnosis is typically made through microscopic examination of blood or tissue samples, and treatment involves the use of drugs such as diminazene accurate or suramin. Prevention measures include avoiding exposure to tsetse flies and using insect repellents or protective clothing.

I'm not aware of any medical definitions associated with the term "Angola." Angola is a country located in Southern Africa, known officially as the Republic of Angola. It does not have any specific relevance to medical terminology or healthcare. If you have more context or information about why you are looking for a medical definition of Angola, I may be able to provide a more helpful response.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a country located in Central Africa. It is named after the Congo River, which flows through the country. The DRC is the second-largest country in Africa by area and the eleventh-largest in the world. It is home to a diverse population of more than 80 million people, making it one of the most populous countries on the continent.

The DRC is a democratic republic, which means that it is a form of government in which the people have the power to choose their leaders through free and fair elections. The country has a presidential system of government, in which the president serves as both the head of state and the head of government. The current president of the DRC is Félix Tshisekedi, who took office in January 2019.

The DRC is a federal republic, meaning that it is divided into several provinces, each with its own elected government. The country has a total of 26 provinces, which are further divided into districts and sectors.

The DRC is a member of various international organizations, including the United Nations, the African Union, and the Southern African Development Community. It is also a party to several international treaties and agreements, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Paris Agreement on climate change.

The DRC has a mixed economy, with both private and public sectors playing important roles. The country is rich in natural resources, including minerals such as copper, diamonds, gold, and tin. It also has large areas of fertile land that are suitable for agriculture. However, the DRC faces significant challenges, including poverty, corruption, and conflict. Despite these challenges, the country has made progress in recent years in terms of economic growth and development.

Pentamidine is an antimicrobial drug that is primarily used to treat and prevent certain types of pneumonia caused by the parasitic organisms Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly known as P. carinii) and Leishmania donovani. It can also be used for the treatment of some fungal infections caused by Histoplasma capsulatum and Cryptococcus neoformans.

Pentamidine works by interfering with the DNA replication and protein synthesis of these microorganisms, which ultimately leads to their death. It is available as an injection or inhaled powder for medical use. Common side effects of pentamidine include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and changes in blood sugar levels. More serious side effects can include kidney damage, hearing loss, and heart rhythm disturbances.

It is important to note that the use of pentamidine should be under the supervision of a healthcare professional due to its potential for serious side effects and drug interactions.

I'm not aware of any medical definitions associated with the term "Congo." The term "Congo" is most commonly used to refer to:

1. The Congo River, which is the second longest river in Africa, flowing through the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo.
2. The two countries located in Central Africa that share the name "Congo": the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly known as Zaire) and the Republic of the Congo (formerly known as French Congo or Middle Congo).
3. In historical contexts, "Congo" may also refer to the Congo Free State (1885-1908), a private colony of King Leopold II of Belgium, which later became the Belgian Congo (1908-1960) and then Zaire (1971-1997).

If you are looking for medical information or definitions related to tropical diseases, healthcare in Africa, or similar topics, I would recommend using more specific terms.

Central nervous system (CNS) protozoal infections refer to diseases caused by protozoa that invade and infect the brain and spinal cord. These infections can lead to serious neurological symptoms and complications.

There are several types of protozoa that can cause CNS infections, including:

1. Toxoplasma gondii: This parasite is commonly found in cats and can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected cat feces or consumption of undercooked meat. In people with weakened immune systems, T. gondii can cause severe CNS symptoms such as seizures, confusion, and coma.
2. Naegleria fowleri: Also known as the "brain-eating amoeba," N. fowleri is a free-living protozoan found in warm freshwater environments. When people swim or dive in infected water, the amoeba can enter the body through the nose and travel to the brain, causing primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a rare but often fatal CNS infection.
3. Acanthamoeba: Like N. fowleri, Acanthamoeba is a free-living protozoan found in freshwater and soil. It can cause a range of CNS infections, including granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), which typically affects people with weakened immune systems.
4. Trypanosoma brucei: This parasite is transmitted through the bite of infected tsetse flies and causes African sleeping sickness, a CNS infection that can lead to coma and death if left untreated.
5. Plasmodium falciparum: While not strictly a protozoan, P. falciparum is a parasite that causes malaria, a mosquito-borne disease that can cause severe CNS symptoms such as seizures, coma, and cerebral malaria.

Treatment for CNS protozoal infections depends on the specific type of infection and may include antiprotozoal medications, antibiotics, or supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention measures include avoiding contact with infected animals or insects, practicing good hygiene, and using appropriate protective measures such as insect repellent or bed nets in areas where these infections are common.

Nifurtimox is an antiprotozoal medication used in the treatment of acute and chronic stages of American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. It works by inhibiting the parasite's energy metabolism, ultimately leading to its death. Nifurtimox is often given orally in the form of tablets and its use is typically accompanied by close medical supervision due to potential side effects such as anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and neurological symptoms.

Eflornithine is a antiprotozoal medication, which is used to treat sleeping sickness (human African trypanosomiasis) caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in adults and children. It works by inhibiting the enzyme ornithine decarboxylase, which is needed for the growth of the parasite. By doing so, it helps to control the infection and prevent further complications.

Eflornithine is also used as a topical cream to slow down excessive hair growth in women due to a condition called hirsutism. It works by interfering with the growth of hair follicles.

It's important to note that Eflornithine should be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional, and it may have side effects or interactions with other medications.

Antiprotozoal agents are a type of medication used to treat protozoal infections, which are infections caused by microscopic single-celled organisms called protozoa. These agents work by either killing the protozoa or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. They can be administered through various routes, including oral, topical, and intravenous, depending on the type of infection and the severity of the illness.

Examples of antiprotozoal agents include:

* Metronidazole, tinidazole, and nitazoxanide for treating infections caused by Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica.
* Atovaquone, clindamycin, and pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine for treating malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum or other Plasmodium species.
* Pentamidine and suramin for treating African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense or T. b. rhodesiense.
* Nitroimidazoles, such as benznidazole and nifurtimox, for treating Chagas disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi.
* Sodium stibogluconate and paromomycin for treating leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania species.

Antiprotozoal agents can have side effects, ranging from mild to severe, depending on the drug and the individual patient's response. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking these medications and report any adverse reactions promptly.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Sudan" is not a medical term. It is a country located in Northeast Africa, known as the Sudan or Sudan proper, and the southern region that seceded to become South Sudan in 2011. If you have any medical terms you would like me to define, please let me know!

'Insect control' is not a term typically used in medical definitions. However, it generally refers to the methods and practices used to manage or reduce the population of insects that can be harmful or disruptive to human health, food supply, or property. This can include various strategies such as chemical pesticides, biological control agents, habitat modification, and other integrated pest management techniques.

In medical terms, 'vector control' is a more relevant concept, which refers to the specific practices used to reduce or prevent the transmission of infectious diseases by insects and other arthropods that act as disease vectors (such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas). Vector control measures may include the use of insecticides, larvicides, biological control agents, environmental management, personal protection methods, and other integrated vector management strategies.

Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the protozoan *Trypanosoma cruzi*. It is primarily transmitted to humans through the feces of triatomine bugs (also called "kissing bugs"), which defecate on the skin of people while they are sleeping. The disease can also be spread through contaminated food or drink, during blood transfusions, from mother to baby during pregnancy or childbirth, and through organ transplantation.

The acute phase of Chagas disease can cause symptoms such as fever, fatigue, body aches, headache, rash, loss of appetite, diarrhea, and vomiting. However, many people do not experience any symptoms during the acute phase. After several weeks or months, most people enter the chronic phase of the disease, which can last for decades or even a lifetime. During this phase, many people do not have any symptoms, but about 20-30% of infected individuals will develop serious cardiac or digestive complications, such as heart failure, arrhythmias, or difficulty swallowing.

Chagas disease is primarily found in Latin America, where it is estimated that around 6-7 million people are infected with the parasite. However, due to increased travel and migration, cases of Chagas disease have been reported in other parts of the world, including North America, Europe, and Asia. There is no vaccine for Chagas disease, but medications are available to treat the infection during the acute phase and to manage symptoms during the chronic phase.

The Central African Republic (CAR) is a country located in the central region of Africa. It is not a medical term, but a geographical and political designation for a nation that has its own government, healthcare system, and public health challenges.

The CAR faces significant health issues, including a high burden of infectious diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and neglected tropical diseases. Access to healthcare services is limited, particularly in rural areas, and the country has one of the lowest life expectancies in the world. Political instability and conflict have further exacerbated the health challenges in the CAR, leading to displacement, malnutrition, and reduced access to healthcare for many of its citizens.

Suramin is a medication that has been used for the treatment of African sleeping sickness, which is caused by trypanosomes. It works as a reverse-specific protein kinase CK inhibitor and also blocks the attachment of the parasite to the host cells. Suramin is not absorbed well from the gastrointestinal tract and is administered intravenously.

It should be noted that Suramin is an experimental treatment for other conditions such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, viral infections and autoimmune diseases, but it's still under investigation and has not been approved by FDA for those uses.

Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis. It's transmitted to humans and other mammals through the feces of triatomine bugs, often called "kissing bugs." The parasite can also be spread through contaminated food, drink, or from mother to baby during pregnancy or birth.

The life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi involves two main forms: the infective metacyclic trypomastigote that is found in the bug's feces and the replicative intracellular amastigote that resides within host cells. The metacyclic trypomastigotes enter the host through mucous membranes or skin lesions, where they invade various types of cells and differentiate into amastigotes. These amastigotes multiply by binary fission and then differentiate back into trypomastigotes, which are released into the bloodstream when the host cell ruptures. The circulating trypomastigotes can then infect other cells or be taken up by another triatomine bug during a blood meal, continuing the life cycle.

Clinical manifestations of Chagas disease range from an acute phase with non-specific symptoms like fever, swelling, and fatigue to a chronic phase characterized by cardiac and gastrointestinal complications, which can develop decades after the initial infection. Early detection and treatment of Chagas disease are crucial for preventing long-term health consequences.

Diminazene is an antiparasitic drug, primarily used in veterinary medicine to treat and prevent infections caused by trypanosomes, which are protozoan parasites that can affect both animals and humans. The drug works by inhibiting the protein synthesis of the parasite, leading to its death.

In human medicine, diminazene is used as an alternative treatment for acute African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in areas where other treatments are not available or have failed. It is usually given by intramuscular injection and is often used in combination with suramin.

It's important to note that the use of diminazene in human medicine is limited due to its potential toxicity, and it should only be administered under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Benzamidines are a group of organic compounds that contain a benzene ring linked to an amidine functional group. They are commonly used as antimicrobial agents, particularly in the treatment of various gram-negative bacterial infections. Benzamidines work by inhibiting the enzyme bacterial dehydrogenases, which are essential for the bacteria's survival.

Some examples of benzamidine derivatives include:

* Tempanamine hydrochloride (Tembaglanil): used to treat urinary tract infections caused by susceptible strains of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
* Chlorhexidine: a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent used as a disinfectant and preservative in various medical and dental applications.
* Prothiobenzamide: an anti-inflammatory and analgesic drug used to treat gout and rheumatoid arthritis.

It is important to note that benzamidines have a narrow therapeutic index, which means that the difference between an effective dose and a toxic dose is small. Therefore, they should be used with caution and under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) are a group of infectious diseases that primarily affect people living in poverty, in tropical and subtropical areas. These diseases are called "neglected" because they have been largely ignored by medical research and drug development, as well as by global health agencies and pharmaceutical companies.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified 20 diseases as NTDs, including:

1. Buruli ulcer
2. Chagas disease
3. Dengue and chikungunya
4. Dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease)
5. Echinococcosis
6. Endemic treponematoses
7. Foodborne trematodiases
8. Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
9. Leishmaniasis
10. Leprosy (Hansen's disease)
11. Lymphatic filariasis
12. Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
13. Rabies
14. Schistosomiasis
15. Soil-transmitted helminthiases
16. Snakebite envenoming
17. Taeniasis/Cysticercosis
18. Trachoma
19. Mycetoma, chromoblastomycosis and other deep mycoses
20. Yaws (Endemic treponematoses)

These diseases can lead to severe disfigurement, disability, and even death if left untreated. They affect more than 1 billion people worldwide, mainly in low-income countries in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. NTDs also have significant social and economic impacts, contributing to poverty, stigma, discrimination, and exclusion.

Efforts are underway to raise awareness and increase funding for research, prevention, and treatment of NTDs. The WHO has set targets for controlling or eliminating several NTDs by 2030, including dracunculiasis, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, trachoma, and human African trypanosomiasis.

Cattle diseases are a range of health conditions that affect cattle, which include but are not limited to:

1. Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD): Also known as "shipping fever," BRD is a common respiratory illness in feedlot cattle that can be caused by several viruses and bacteria.
2. Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD): A viral disease that can cause a variety of symptoms, including diarrhea, fever, and reproductive issues.
3. Johne's Disease: A chronic wasting disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. It primarily affects the intestines and can cause severe diarrhea and weight loss.
4. Digital Dermatitis: Also known as "hairy heel warts," this is a highly contagious skin disease that affects the feet of cattle, causing lameness and decreased productivity.
5. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis (IBK): Also known as "pinkeye," IBK is a common and contagious eye infection in cattle that can cause blindness if left untreated.
6. Salmonella: A group of bacteria that can cause severe gastrointestinal illness in cattle, including diarrhea, dehydration, and septicemia.
7. Leptospirosis: A bacterial disease that can cause a wide range of symptoms in cattle, including abortion, stillbirths, and kidney damage.
8. Blackleg: A highly fatal bacterial disease that causes rapid death in young cattle. It is caused by Clostridium chauvoei and vaccination is recommended for prevention.
9. Anthrax: A serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Cattle can become infected by ingesting spores found in contaminated soil, feed or water.
10. Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD): A highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hooved animals, including cattle. It is characterized by fever and blisters on the feet, mouth, and teats. FMD is not a threat to human health but can have serious economic consequences for the livestock industry.

It's important to note that many of these diseases can be prevented or controlled through good management practices, such as vaccination, biosecurity measures, and proper nutrition. Regular veterinary care and monitoring are also crucial for early detection and treatment of any potential health issues in your herd.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Uganda" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country located in East Africa, known officially as the Republic of Uganda. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help with those!

Central Africa is a geographical region that broadly includes the countries that lie near the equator and are found in the interior of the African continent. The United Nations defines Central Africa as consisting of the following countries: Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Rwanda, and Sao Tome and Principe.

The region is characterized by diverse cultures, languages, and landscapes, ranging from dense rainforests to vast savannas. Central Africa is home to many important rivers, including the Congo River, which is the second longest river in Africa and the deepest river in the world. The region also contains numerous national parks and wildlife reserves that protect a diverse array of plant and animal species, including several endangered species such as mountain gorillas, chimpanzees, and forest elephants.

Central Africa faces many challenges, including political instability, poverty, and environmental degradation. The region has been plagued by conflicts and civil wars, which have resulted in significant loss of life, displacement of people, and destruction of infrastructure. Climate change and deforestation are also major concerns, as they threaten the region's biodiversity and contribute to global warming.

In terms of healthcare, Central Africa faces many challenges, including a high burden of infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and Ebola. Access to healthcare is limited in many areas, particularly in rural communities, and there is a shortage of healthcare workers and medical facilities. In addition, the region has been affected by conflicts and humanitarian crises, which have further strained healthcare systems and made it difficult to provide adequate care to those in need.

Agglutination tests are laboratory diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of antibodies or antigens in a sample, such as blood or serum. These tests work by observing the clumping (agglutination) of particles, like red blood cells or bacteriophages, coated with specific antigens or antibodies when mixed with a patient's sample.

In an agglutination test, the sample is typically combined with a reagent containing known antigens or antibodies on the surface of particles, such as latex beads, red blood cells, or bacteriophages. If the sample contains the corresponding antibodies or antigens, they will bind to the particles, forming visible clumps or agglutinates. The presence and strength of agglutination are then assessed visually or with automated equipment to determine the presence and quantity of the target antigen or antibody in the sample.

Agglutination tests are widely used in medical diagnostics for various applications, including:

1. Bacterial and viral infections: To identify specific bacterial or viral antigens in a patient's sample, such as group A Streptococcus, Legionella pneumophila, or HIV.
2. Blood typing: To determine the ABO blood group and Rh type of a donor or recipient before a blood transfusion or organ transplantation.
3. Autoimmune diseases: To detect autoantibodies in patients with suspected autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, or Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
4. Allergies: To identify specific IgE antibodies in a patient's sample to determine allergic reactions to various substances, such as pollen, food, or venom.
5. Drug monitoring: To detect and quantify the presence of drug-induced antibodies, such as those developed in response to penicillin or hydralazine therapy.

Agglutination tests are simple, rapid, and cost-effective diagnostic tools that provide valuable information for clinical decision-making and patient management. However, they may have limitations, including potential cross-reactivity with other antigens, false-positive results due to rheumatoid factors or heterophile antibodies, and false-negative results due to the prozone effect or insufficient sensitivity. Therefore, it is essential to interpret agglutination test results in conjunction with clinical findings and other laboratory data.

Parasitic sensitivity tests, also known as parasite drug susceptibility tests, refer to laboratory methods used to determine the effectiveness of specific antiparasitic medications against a particular parasitic infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which drugs are most likely to be effective in treating an individual's infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance or increased risk of side effects.

There are several types of parasitic sensitivity tests, including:

1. In vitro susceptibility testing: This involves culturing the parasite in a laboratory setting and exposing it to different concentrations of antiparasitic drugs. The growth or survival of the parasite is then observed and compared to a control group that was not exposed to the drug. This helps identify the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the drug, which is the lowest concentration required to prevent the growth of the parasite.
2. Molecular testing: This involves analyzing the genetic material of the parasite to detect specific mutations or gene variations that are associated with resistance to certain antiparasitic drugs. This type of testing can be performed using a variety of methods, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing.
3. Phenotypic testing: This involves observing the effects of antiparasitic drugs on the growth or survival of the parasite in a laboratory setting. For example, a parasite may be grown in a culture medium and then exposed to different concentrations of a drug. The growth of the parasite is then monitored over time to determine the drug's effectiveness.

Parasitic sensitivity tests are important for guiding the treatment of many parasitic infections, including malaria, tuberculosis, and leishmaniasis. These tests can help healthcare providers choose the most effective antiparasitic drugs for their patients, reduce the risk of drug resistance, and improve treatment outcomes.

Variants surface glycoproteins (VSGs) in Trypanosoma are a group of molecules found on the surface of the parasitic protozoan that causes African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness. These proteins play a crucial role in the survival of the parasite within the host's body by allowing it to evade the host's immune system.

Trypanosoma parasites have a single VSG gene that is actively expressed at any given time, while thousands of other VSG genes remain silent. The expressed VSG protein is located on the surface of the parasite and serves as a target for the host's immune response. However, when the host's immune system produces antibodies against the VSG protein, the parasite undergoes a process called "antigenic variation" where it switches to expressing a different VSG gene, allowing it to evade the immune response.

This continuous switching of VSG genes allows the parasite to avoid clearance by the host's immune system and establish a chronic infection. Understanding the mechanisms of antigenic variation and VSG gene regulation is important for developing new strategies for treating African trypanosomiasis.

Parasitology is a branch of biology that deals with the study of parasites, their life cycles, the relationship between parasites and their hosts, the transmission of parasitic diseases, and the development of methods for their control and elimination. It involves understanding various types of parasites including protozoa, helminths, and arthropods that can infect humans, animals, and plants. Parasitologists also study the evolution, genetics, biochemistry, and ecology of parasites to develop effective strategies for their diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

Antibodies, protozoan, refer to the immune system's response to an infection caused by a protozoan organism. Protozoa are single-celled microorganisms that can cause various diseases in humans, such as malaria, giardiasis, and toxoplasmosis.

When the body is infected with a protozoan, the immune system responds by producing specific proteins called antibodies. Antibodies are produced by a type of white blood cell called a B-cell, and they recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the protozoan organism.

There are five main types of antibodies: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each type of antibody has a different role in the immune response. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody and provides long-term immunity to previously encountered pathogens. IgM is the first antibody produced in response to an infection and is important for activating the complement system, which helps to destroy the protozoan organism.

Overall, the production of antibodies against protozoan organisms is a critical part of the immune response and helps to protect the body from further infection.

Insect vectors are insects that transmit disease-causing pathogens (such as viruses, bacteria, parasites) from one host to another. They do this while feeding on the host's blood or tissues. The insects themselves are not infected by the pathogen but act as mechanical carriers that pass it on during their bite. Examples of diseases spread by insect vectors include malaria (transmitted by mosquitoes), Lyme disease (transmitted by ticks), and plague (transmitted by fleas). Proper prevention measures, such as using insect repellent and reducing standing water where mosquitoes breed, can help reduce the risk of contracting these diseases.

To the best of my knowledge, "Côte d'Ivoire" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country, which is officially known as the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire. The country is located in West Africa and is bordered by countries such as Ghana, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Liberia.

Côte d'Ivoire was once a French colony and gained its independence in 1960. The country has a diverse population and a developing economy, with agriculture being a major contributor to its GDP. The capital city of Côte d'Ivoire is Yamoussoukro, while the largest city is Abidjan.

It's important to note that medical terminology and concepts are typically related to anatomy, physiology, diseases, treatments, and other health-related topics. Therefore, it's unlikely that a country name like Côte d'Ivoire would have a direct medical definition or application.

Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) is not a medical term per se, but a biochemical term. It is widely used in medical and biological research. Here's the definition:

Bovine Serum Albumin is a serum albumin protein derived from cows. It is often used as a stabilizer, an emulsifier, or a protein source in various laboratory and industrial applications, including biochemical experiments, cell culture media, and diagnostic kits. BSA has a high solubility in water and can bind to many different types of molecules, making it useful for preventing unwanted interactions between components in a solution. It also has a consistent composition and is relatively inexpensive compared to human serum albumin, which are factors that contribute to its widespread use.

Tropical medicine is a branch of medicine that deals with health problems that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions. These regions are typically characterized by hot and humid climates, and often have distinct ecological systems that can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases.

The field of tropical medicine encompasses a wide range of health issues, including:

1. Infectious diseases: Many tropical diseases are caused by infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. Some of the most common infectious diseases in the tropics include malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, chikungunya, Zika virus, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, and Chagas disease.
2. Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs): A group of chronic infectious diseases that primarily affect poor and marginalized populations in the tropics. NTDs include diseases such as human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), leprosy, Buruli ulcer, and dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease).
3. Zoonotic diseases: Diseases that are transmitted between animals and humans, often through insect vectors or contaminated food and water. Examples of zoonotic diseases in the tropics include rabies, leptospirosis, and Rift Valley fever.
4. Environmental health issues: The tropical environment can pose unique health challenges, such as exposure to toxic chemicals, heat stress, and poor air quality. Tropical medicine also addresses these environmental health issues.
5. Travel medicine: As global travel increases, there is a growing need for medical professionals who are knowledgeable about the health risks associated with traveling to tropical destinations. Tropical medicine physicians often provide pre-travel consultations and post-travel evaluations for international travelers.

Overall, tropical medicine is an essential field that addresses the unique health challenges faced by populations living in or traveling to tropical and subtropical regions.

Bovine Herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) is a species-specific virus that belongs to the family Herpesviridae, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae, and genus Varicellovirus. This virus is the causative agent of Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR), which is a significant respiratory disease in cattle. The infection can also lead to reproductive issues, including abortions, stillbirths, and inflammation of the genital tract (infectious pustular vulvovaginitis) in cows and infertility in bulls.

The virus is primarily transmitted through direct contact with infected animals, their respiratory secretions, or contaminated objects. Once an animal is infected, BoHV-1 establishes a lifelong latency in the nervous system, from where it can periodically reactivate and shed the virus, even without showing any clinical signs. This makes eradication of the virus challenging in cattle populations.

Vaccines are available to control IBR, but they may not prevent infection or shedding entirely. Therefore, ongoing management practices, such as biosecurity measures and surveillance programs, are essential to minimize the impact of this disease on cattle health and productivity.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a shock absorber for the central nervous system and provides nutrients to the brain while removing waste products. CSF is produced by specialized cells called ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of the ventricles (fluid-filled spaces) inside the brain. From there, it circulates through the ventricular system and around the outside of the brain and spinal cord before being absorbed back into the bloodstream. CSF analysis is an important diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, including infections, inflammation, and cancer.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Zambia" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in southern Africa, known officially as the Republic of Zambia. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help with those!

Leishmaniasis is a complex of diseases caused by the protozoan parasites of the Leishmania species, which are transmitted to humans through the bite of infected female phlebotomine sandflies. The disease presents with a variety of clinical manifestations, depending upon the Leishmania species involved and the host's immune response.

There are three main forms of leishmaniasis: cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL), and visceral leishmaniasis (VL), also known as kala-azar. CL typically presents with skin ulcers, while MCL is characterized by the destruction of mucous membranes in the nose, mouth, and throat. VL, the most severe form, affects internal organs such as the spleen, liver, and bone marrow, causing symptoms like fever, weight loss, anemia, and enlarged liver and spleen.

Leishmaniasis is prevalent in many tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of Asia, Africa, South America, and southern Europe. The prevention strategies include using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and improving housing conditions to minimize exposure to sandflies. Effective treatment options are available for leishmaniasis, depending on the form and severity of the disease, geographical location, and the Leishmania species involved.

Flocculation tests are diagnostic procedures used in medical laboratories to detect and measure the presence of certain substances, such as proteins or bacteria, in a sample. These tests work by adding a reagent to the sample that causes any targeted substances to clump together (flocculate) and become visible or easily measurable.

For example, in a coagulation or flocculation test for proteinuria (protein in urine), a reagent such as sulfosalicylic acid is added to a urine sample. If proteins are present in the sample, they will react with the reagent and form a white precipitate that can be seen with the naked eye or measured with a spectrophotometer.

Flocculation tests are commonly used in clinical chemistry and microbiology to diagnose various medical conditions, monitor treatment progress, and assess overall health status.

There doesn't seem to be a specific medical definition for "DNA, protozoan" as it is simply a reference to the DNA found in protozoa. Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic organisms that can be found in various environments such as soil, water, and the digestive tracts of animals.

Protozoan DNA refers to the genetic material present in these organisms. It is composed of nucleic acids, including deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which contain the instructions for the development, growth, and reproduction of the protozoan.

The DNA in protozoa, like in other organisms, is made up of two strands of nucleotides that coil together to form a double helix. The four nucleotide bases that make up protozoan DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). These bases pair with each other to form the rungs of the DNA ladder, with A always pairing with T and G always pairing with C.

The genetic information stored in protozoan DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nucleotide bases. This information is used to synthesize proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of the organism's cells. Protozoan DNA also contains other types of genetic material, such as regulatory sequences that control gene expression and repetitive elements with no known function.

Understanding the DNA of protozoa is important for studying their biology, evolution, and pathogenicity. It can help researchers develop new treatments for protozoan diseases and gain insights into the fundamental principles of genetics and cellular function.

A disease vector is a living organism that transmits infectious pathogens from one host to another. These vectors can include mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, and other arthropods that carry viruses, bacteria, parasites, or other disease-causing agents. The vector becomes infected with the pathogen after biting an infected host, and then transmits the infection to another host through its saliva or feces during a subsequent blood meal.

Disease vectors are of particular concern in public health because they can spread diseases rapidly and efficiently, often over large geographic areas. Controlling vector-borne diseases requires a multifaceted approach that includes reducing vector populations, preventing bites, and developing vaccines or treatments for the associated diseases.

Nitroimidazoles are a class of antibiotic drugs that contain a nitro group (-NO2) attached to an imidazole ring. These medications have both antiprotozoal and antibacterial properties, making them effective against a range of anaerobic organisms, including bacteria and parasites. They work by being reduced within the organism, which leads to the formation of toxic radicals that interfere with DNA function and ultimately kill the microorganism.

Some common examples of nitroimidazoles include:

* Metronidazole: used for treating infections caused by anaerobic bacteria and protozoa, such as bacterial vaginosis, amebiasis, giardiasis, and pseudomembranous colitis.
* Tinidazole: similar to metronidazole, it is used to treat various infections caused by anaerobic bacteria and protozoa, including trichomoniasis, giardiasis, and amebiasis.
* Secnidazole: another medication in this class, used for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, and amebiasis.

Nitroimidazoles are generally well-tolerated, but side effects can include gastrointestinal symptoms like nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea. Rare but serious side effects may include peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage) and central nervous system toxicity, particularly with high doses or long-term use. It is essential to follow the prescribed dosage and duration closely to minimize potential risks while ensuring effective treatment.

Central nervous system (CNS) parasitic infections refer to the invasion and infection of the brain and/or spinal cord by parasites. These infections can cause a range of symptoms depending on the type of parasite, the location of the infection within the CNS, and the severity of the infection.

Parasites that can infect the CNS include protozoa (such as Toxoplasma gondii, Naegleria fowleri, and Plasmodium falciparum), helminths (such as cysticercosis caused by Taenia solium tapeworm larvae), and arthropods (such as ticks that can transmit Lyme disease).

Symptoms of CNS parasitic infections can include headache, fever, seizures, confusion, weakness, numbness, loss of coordination, and changes in behavior or personality. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT scans), and laboratory tests (such as CSF analysis or PCR).

Treatment for CNS parasitic infections depends on the specific type of parasite involved and may include medications such as antiparasitics, antibiotics, or corticosteroids. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove parasites or cysts from the CNS. Prevention measures include avoiding contaminated food and water, practicing good hygiene, using insect repellent, and seeking prompt medical attention for any suspected infectious symptoms.

I apologize for any confusion, but "livestock" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is an agricultural term that refers to animals that are kept or raised on a farm or ranch for commercial purposes, such as the production of food, fiber, or labor. Examples of livestock include cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, and horses. I hope this clarifies any confusion. If you have any questions related to medical terminology, I would be happy to help.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Africa" actually refers to a continent, not a medical condition or concept. Africa is the second-largest continent in the world, consisting of 54 countries and a wide range of diverse ethnic groups, cultures, languages, and landscapes. It is home to a vast array of wildlife, including many species that are not found anywhere else in the world. If you have any questions about Africa's geography, history, or culture, I would be happy to try to help answer them!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Protozoan Proteins" is not a specific medical or scientific term. Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic organisms, and proteins are large biological molecules consisting of one or more chains of amino acid residues. Therefore, "Protozoan Proteins" generally refers to the various types of proteins found in protozoa.

However, if you're looking for information about proteins specific to certain protozoan parasites with medical relevance (such as Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria), I would be happy to help! Please provide more context or specify the particular protozoan of interest.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Gabon" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in Central Africa, known officially as the Gabonese Republic. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help with those!

An endemic disease is a type of disease that is regularly found among particular people or in a certain population, and is spread easily from person to person. The rate of infection is consistently high in these populations, but it is relatively stable and does not change dramatically over time. Endemic diseases are contrasted with epidemic diseases, which suddenly increase in incidence and spread rapidly through a large population.

Endemic diseases are often associated with poverty, poor sanitation, and limited access to healthcare. They can also be influenced by environmental factors such as climate, water quality, and exposure to vectors like mosquitoes or ticks. Examples of endemic diseases include malaria in some tropical countries, tuberculosis (TB) in many parts of the world, and HIV/AIDS in certain populations.

Effective prevention and control measures for endemic diseases typically involve improving access to healthcare, promoting good hygiene and sanitation practices, providing vaccinations when available, and implementing vector control strategies. By addressing the underlying social and environmental factors that contribute to the spread of these diseases, it is possible to reduce their impact on affected populations and improve overall health outcomes.

I apologize, but "Chad" is not a medical term or condition. It is a given name and also a slang term that has been used in popular culture to refer to an attractive man or a stereotypical fraternity member in some English-speaking countries. If you have any questions about medical terminology, I would be happy to help answer those for you.

Protozoan infections are diseases caused by microscopic, single-celled organisms known as protozoa. These parasites can enter the human body through contaminated food, water, or contact with an infected person or animal. Once inside the body, they can multiply and cause a range of symptoms depending on the type of protozoan and where it infects in the body. Some common protozoan infections include malaria, giardiasis, amoebiasis, and toxoplasmosis. Symptoms can vary widely but may include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, fatigue, and skin rashes. Treatment typically involves the use of antiprotozoal medications to kill the parasites and alleviate symptoms.

Bovine Leukemia Virus (BLV) is a retrovirus that infects cattle and causes enzootic bovine leukosis, a neoplastic disease characterized by the proliferation of malignant B-lymphocytes. The virus primarily targets the animal's immune system, leading to a decrease in the number of white blood cells (leukopenia) and an increased susceptibility to other infections.

The virus is transmitted horizontally through close contact with infected animals or vertically from mother to offspring via infected milk or colostrum. The majority of BLV-infected cattle remain asymptomatic carriers, but a small percentage develop clinical signs such as lymphoma, weight loss, and decreased milk production.

BLV is closely related to human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV), and both viruses belong to the Retroviridae family, genus Deltaretrovirus. However, it's important to note that BLV does not cause leukemia or any other neoplastic diseases in humans.

Parasitic diseases are infections or illnesses caused by parasites, which are organisms that live and feed on host organisms, often causing harm. Parasites can be protozoans (single-celled organisms), helminths (worms), or ectoparasites (ticks, mites, fleas). These diseases can affect various body systems and cause a range of symptoms, depending on the type of parasite and the location of infection. They are typically spread through contaminated food or water, insect vectors, or direct contact with an infected host or contaminated environment. Examples of parasitic diseases include malaria, giardiasis, toxoplasmosis, ascariasis, and leishmaniasis.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Guinea" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term referring to a region on the west coast of Africa, as well as the country of Equatorial Guinea and its neighboring countries. Additionally, "Guinea" can also refer to a unit of currency in Liberia.

If you have any medical concerns or questions, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you.

Blood is the fluid that circulates in the body of living organisms, carrying oxygen and nutrients to the cells and removing carbon dioxide and other waste products. It is composed of red and white blood cells suspended in a liquid called plasma. The main function of blood is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. It also transports nutrients, hormones, and other substances to the cells and removes waste products from them. Additionally, blood plays a crucial role in the body's immune system by helping to fight infection and disease.

Amidines are organic compounds that contain a functional group with the structure R-C=N-R, where R can be an alkyl or aromatic group. This functional group consists of a carbonyl (C=O) group and a nitrogen atom (N) connected to two organic groups (R).

In medical terminology, amidines are not commonly used. However, some amidine derivatives have been investigated for their potential therapeutic properties. For example, certain amidine compounds have shown antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral activities. Some of these compounds have also been studied as potential drugs for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders.

It is important to note that while some amidines may have therapeutic potential, they can also be toxic at high concentrations and should be handled with care.

A chancre is a medical term that refers to a hard, painless skin ulcer that is typically the first stage of certain bacterial infections, most commonly syphilis. It is usually round or oval in shape and can appear as a sore or lesion on the skin or mucous membranes, such as the genitals, anus, or mouth. The chancre is caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum and is typically accompanied by swollen lymph nodes in the nearby area.

The chancre usually develops about 3 weeks after exposure to the bacteria and can last for several weeks. While it may heal on its own, it's important to seek medical attention if you suspect you have a chancre, as syphilis is a serious infection that can cause long-term health problems if left untreated. Treatment with antibiotics, such as penicillin, can cure syphilis and prevent further complications.

Parasitemia is a medical term that refers to the presence of parasites, particularly malaria-causing Plasmodium species, in the bloodstream. It is the condition where red blood cells are infected by these parasites, which can lead to various symptoms such as fever, chills, anemia, and organ damage in severe cases. The level of parasitemia is often used to assess the severity of malaria infection and to guide treatment decisions.

A disease reservoir refers to a population or group of living organisms, including humans, animals, and even plants, that can naturally carry and transmit a particular pathogen (disease-causing agent) without necessarily showing symptoms of the disease themselves. These hosts serve as a source of infection for other susceptible individuals, allowing the pathogen to persist and circulate within a community or environment.

Disease reservoirs can be further classified into:

1. **Primary (or Main) Reservoir**: This refers to the species that primarily harbors and transmits the pathogen, contributing significantly to its natural ecology and maintaining its transmission cycle. For example, mosquitoes are the primary reservoirs for many arboviruses like dengue, Zika, and chikungunya viruses.

2. **Amplifying Hosts**: These hosts can become infected with the pathogen and experience a high rate of replication, leading to an increased concentration of the pathogen in their bodies. This allows for efficient transmission to other susceptible hosts or vectors. For instance, birds are amplifying hosts for West Nile virus, as they can become viremic (have high levels of virus in their blood) and infect feeding mosquitoes that then transmit the virus to other animals and humans.

3. **Dead-end Hosts**: These hosts may become infected with the pathogen but do not contribute significantly to its transmission cycle, as they either do not develop sufficient quantities of the pathogen to transmit it or do not come into contact with potential vectors or susceptible hosts. For example, humans are dead-end hosts for many zoonotic diseases like rabies, as they cannot transmit the virus to other humans.

Understanding disease reservoirs is crucial in developing effective strategies for controlling and preventing infectious diseases, as it helps identify key species and environments that contribute to their persistence and transmission.

Meningoencephalitis is a medical term that refers to an inflammation of both the brain (encephalitis) and the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges), known as the meninges. It is often caused by an infection, such as bacterial or viral infections, that spreads to the meninges and brain. In some cases, it can also be caused by other factors like autoimmune disorders or certain medications.

The symptoms of meningoencephalitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, and changes in mental status. If left untreated, this condition can lead to serious complications, such as brain damage, hearing loss, learning disabilities, or even death. Treatment typically involves antibiotics for bacterial infections or antiviral medications for viral infections, along with supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "travel" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. In general, travel refers to the act of moving or journeying from one place to another, often over long distances. However, in a medical context, it might refer to the recommendation that individuals with certain medical conditions or those who are immunocompromised avoid traveling to areas where they may be at increased risk of exposure to infectious diseases. It's always best to check with a healthcare professional for advice related to specific medical situations and travel.

Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) is a viral disease that primarily affects cattle, but can also infect other ruminants such as sheep and goats. The disease is caused by the bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), which belongs to the family Flaviviridae and genus Pestivirus.

There are two biotypes of BVDV, type 1 and type 2, which can be further divided into various subtypes based on their genetic makeup. The virus can cause a range of clinical signs in infected animals, depending on the age and immune status of the animal, as well as the strain of the virus.

Acute infection with BVDV can cause fever, lethargy, loss of appetite, nasal discharge, and diarrhea, which can be severe and life-threatening in young calves. In addition, BVDV can cause reproductive problems such as abortion, stillbirth, and the birth of persistently infected (PI) calves. PI animals are those that were infected with BVDV in utero and have the virus continuously present in their bloodstream and other tissues throughout their lives. These animals serve as a source of infection for other cattle and can spread the virus to naive herds.

BVDV is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their bodily fluids, such as saliva, nasal secretions, and feces. The virus can also be spread indirectly through contaminated feed, water, and equipment. Prevention and control measures for BVDV include biosecurity practices, vaccination, and testing to identify and remove PI animals from herds.

Bovine mastitis is a common inflammatory condition that affects the mammary gland (udder) of dairy cows. It's primarily caused by bacterial infections, with Escherichia coli (E. coli), Streptococcus spp., and Staphylococcus aureus being some of the most common pathogens involved. The infection can lead to varying degrees of inflammation, which might result in decreased milk production, changes in milk composition, and, if left untreated, potentially severe systemic illness in the cow.

The clinical signs of bovine mastitis may include:
- Redness and heat in the affected quarter (or quarters) of the udder
- Swelling and pain upon palpation
- Decreased milk production or changes in milk appearance (such as flakes, clots, or watery consistency)
- Systemic signs like fever, loss of appetite, and depression in severe cases

Mastitis can be classified into two main types: clinical mastitis, which is characterized by visible signs of inflammation, and subclinical mastitis, where the infection might not present with obvious external symptoms but could still lead to decreased milk quality and production.

Prevention and control measures for bovine mastitis include good milking practices, maintaining a clean and dry environment for the cows, practicing proper udder hygiene, administering antibiotics or other treatments as necessary, and regularly monitoring milk for signs of infection through somatic cell count testing.

Antiparasitic agents are a type of medication used to treat parasitic infections. These agents include a wide range of drugs that work to destroy, inhibit the growth of, or otherwise eliminate parasites from the body. Parasites are organisms that live on or inside a host and derive nutrients at the host's expense.

Antiparasitic agents can be divided into several categories based on the type of parasite they target. Some examples include:

* Antimalarial agents: These drugs are used to treat and prevent malaria, which is caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bites of infected mosquitoes.
* Antiprotozoal agents: These drugs are used to treat infections caused by protozoa, which are single-celled organisms that can cause diseases such as giardiasis, amoebic dysentery, and sleeping sickness.
* Antihelminthic agents: These drugs are used to treat infections caused by helminths, which are parasitic worms that can infect various organs of the body, including the intestines, lungs, and skin. Examples include roundworms, tapeworms, and flukes.

Antiparasitic agents work in different ways to target parasites. Some disrupt the parasite's metabolism or interfere with its ability to reproduce. Others damage the parasite's membrane or exoskeleton, leading to its death. The specific mechanism of action depends on the type of antiparasitic agent and the parasite it is targeting.

It is important to note that while antiparasitic agents can be effective in treating parasitic infections, they can also have side effects and potential risks. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any antiparasitic medication to ensure safe and appropriate use.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Bovine papillomavirus 1 (BPV-1) is a species of papillomavirus that primarily infects cattle, causing benign warts or papillomas in the skin and mucous membranes. It is not known to infect humans or cause disease in humans. BPV-1 is closely related to other papillomaviruses that can cause cancer in animals, but its role in human cancer is unclear.

BPV-1 is a double-stranded DNA virus that replicates in the nucleus of infected cells. It encodes several early and late proteins that are involved in viral replication and the transformation of host cells. BPV-1 has been extensively studied as a model system for understanding the molecular mechanisms of papillomavirus infection and oncogenesis.

In addition to its role in animal health, BPV-1 has also been used as a tool in biomedical research. For example, it can be used to transform cells in culture, providing a valuable resource for studying the properties of cancer cells and testing potential therapies. However, it is important to note that BPV-1 is not known to cause human disease and should not be used in any therapeutic context involving humans.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Kenya" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in East Africa, known for its diverse wildlife and geography, including savannas, lakelands, the dramatic Great Rift Valley, and mountain highlands. It is also where you can find the Maasai Mara Reserve, known for its annual wildebeest migrations, and vast Nairobi National Park. The capital city of Kenya is Nairobi. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help with those!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Tanzania" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in East Africa. If you have any questions about medical terms or conditions, I would be happy to help clarify those for you.

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases refer to medical conditions that primarily affect the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is responsible for controlling various functions in the body, including movement, sensation, cognition, and behavior. Therefore, diseases of the CNS can have significant impacts on a person's quality of life and overall health.

There are many different types of CNS diseases, including:

1. Infectious diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites that infect the brain or spinal cord. Examples include meningitis, encephalitis, and polio.
2. Neurodegenerative diseases: These are characterized by progressive loss of nerve cells in the brain or spinal cord. Examples include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.
3. Structural diseases: These involve damage to the physical structure of the brain or spinal cord, such as from trauma, tumors, or stroke.
4. Functional diseases: These affect the function of the nervous system without obvious structural damage, such as multiple sclerosis and epilepsy.
5. Genetic disorders: Some CNS diseases are caused by genetic mutations, such as spinal muscular atrophy and Friedreich's ataxia.

Symptoms of CNS diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the area of the brain or spinal cord that is affected. They may include muscle weakness, paralysis, seizures, loss of sensation, difficulty with coordination and balance, confusion, memory loss, changes in behavior or mood, and pain. Treatment for CNS diseases depends on the specific condition and may involve medications, surgery, rehabilitation therapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Preclinical drug evaluation refers to a series of laboratory tests and studies conducted to determine the safety and effectiveness of a new drug before it is tested in humans. These studies typically involve experiments on cells and animals to evaluate the pharmacological properties, toxicity, and potential interactions with other substances. The goal of preclinical evaluation is to establish a reasonable level of safety and understanding of how the drug works, which helps inform the design and conduct of subsequent clinical trials in humans. It's important to note that while preclinical studies provide valuable information, they may not always predict how a drug will behave in human subjects.

Nitroreductases are a group of enzymes that can reduce nitro groups (-NO2) to nitroso groups (-NHOH) or amino groups (-NH2) in various organic compounds. These enzymes are widely distributed in nature and found in many different types of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals.

In medicine, nitroreductases have been studied for their potential role in the activation of certain drugs or prodrugs. For example, some anticancer agents such as CB1954 (also known as 5-(aziridin-1-yl)-2,4-dinitrobenzamide) are relatively inert until they are reduced by nitroreductases to more reactive metabolites that can interact with DNA and other cellular components. This property has been exploited in the development of targeted cancer therapies that selectively deliver prodrugs to tumor cells, where they can be activated by endogenous nitroreductases to kill the cancer cells while minimizing toxicity to normal tissues.

Nitroreductases have also been implicated in the development of bacterial resistance to certain antibiotics, such as metronidazole and nitrofurantoin. These drugs are activated by nitroreductases in bacteria, but overexpression or mutation of the enzyme can lead to reduced drug activation and increased resistance.

Emerging communicable diseases are infections whose incidence has increased in the past two decades or threatens to increase in the near future. These diseases can be caused by new microbial agents, or by previously known agents that have newly acquired the ability to cause disease in humans. They may also result from changes in human demographics, behavior, or travel patterns, or from technological or environmental changes. Examples of emerging communicable diseases include COVID-19, Ebola virus disease, Zika virus infection, and West Nile fever.

The ribosomal spacer in DNA refers to the non-coding sequences of DNA that are located between the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These spacer regions are present in the DNA of organisms that have a nuclear genome, including humans and other animals, plants, and fungi.

In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, there are two ribosomal RNA genes, 16S and 23S, separated by a spacer region known as the intergenic spacer (IGS). In eukaryotic cells, there are multiple copies of ribosomal RNA genes arranged in clusters called nucleolar organizer regions (NORs), which are located on the short arms of several acrocentric chromosomes. Each cluster contains hundreds to thousands of copies of the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNA genes, separated by non-transcribed spacer regions known as internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and external transcribed spacers (ETS).

The ribosomal spacer regions in DNA are often used as molecular markers for studying evolutionary relationships among organisms because they evolve more rapidly than the rRNA genes themselves. The sequences of these spacer regions can be compared among different species to infer their phylogenetic relationships and to estimate the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Additionally, the length and composition of ribosomal spacers can vary between individuals within a species, making them useful for studying genetic diversity and population structure.

Latex fixation tests are diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of certain antigens or antibodies in a patient's sample, such as blood or serum. These tests use latex particles that are coated with specific antigens or antibodies that can bind to complementary antigens or antibodies present in the sample. When the sample is added to the latex reagent, if the specific antigen or antibody is present, they will bind to the latex particles, forming an agglutination reaction that can be seen as a visible clumping or agglutination of the latex particles.

Latex fixation tests are commonly used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and genetic disorders. For example, a latex fixation test may be used to detect the presence of Streptococcus pneumoniae antigens in a patient's sputum sample or to identify the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF) antibodies in a patient's blood sample. These tests are known for their simplicity, speed, and sensitivity, making them a valuable tool in clinical laboratories.

"Africa South of the Sahara" is a term commonly used in medical and scientific literature to refer to the region of the African continent that lies south of the Sahara Desert. This region includes 48 countries, with a population of over 1 billion people, and is characterized by its tropical or subtropical climate, diverse cultures, and unique health challenges.

The term "South of the Sahara" is used to distinguish this region from North Africa, which is predominantly Arab and Berber in culture and has closer ties to the Middle East than to Sub-Saharan Africa. The Sahara Desert serves as a natural geographical boundary between these two regions.

In medical terms, "Africa South of the Sahara" encompasses a wide range of health issues, including infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and Ebola, which are prevalent in many parts of the region. The area also faces challenges related to maternal and child health, nutrition, water and sanitation, and non-communicable diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Medical research and interventions focused on "Africa South of the Sahara" aim to address these unique health challenges and improve the overall health outcomes of the population in this region.

Antigens are substances (usually proteins) found on the surface of cells, or viruses, that can be recognized by the immune system and stimulate an immune response. In the context of protozoa, antigens refer to the specific proteins or other molecules found on the surface of these single-celled organisms that can trigger an immune response in a host organism.

Protozoa are a group of microscopic eukaryotic organisms that include a diverse range of species, some of which can cause diseases in humans and animals. When a protozoan infects a host, the host's immune system recognizes the protozoan antigens as foreign and mounts an immune response to eliminate the infection. This response involves the activation of various types of immune cells, such as T-cells and B-cells, which recognize and target the protozoan antigens.

Understanding the nature of protozoan antigens is important for developing vaccines and other immunotherapies to prevent or treat protozoan infections. For example, researchers have identified specific antigens on the surface of the malaria parasite that are recognized by the human immune system and have used this information to develop vaccine candidates. However, many protozoan infections remain difficult to prevent or treat, and further research is needed to identify new targets for vaccines and therapies.

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium bovis. It primarily affects cattle but can also spread to other mammals including humans, causing a similar disease known as zoonotic tuberculosis. The infection in animals typically occurs through inhalation of infectious droplets or ingestion of contaminated feed and water.

In cattle, the disease often affects the respiratory system, leading to symptoms such as chronic coughing, weight loss, and difficulty breathing. However, it can also affect other organs, including the intestines, lymph nodes, and mammary glands. Diagnosis of BTB typically involves a combination of clinical signs, laboratory tests, and epidemiological data.

Control measures for BTB include regular testing and culling of infected animals, movement restrictions, and vaccination of susceptible populations. In many countries, BTB is a notifiable disease, meaning that cases must be reported to the authorities. Proper cooking and pasteurization of dairy products can help prevent transmission to humans.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Zoonoses are infectious diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. They are caused by pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, or fungi that naturally infect non-human animals and can sometimes infect and cause disease in humans through various transmission routes like direct contact with infected animals, consumption of contaminated food or water, or vectors like insects. Some well-known zoonotic diseases include rabies, Lyme disease, salmonellosis, and COVID-19 (which is believed to have originated from bats). Public health officials work to prevent and control zoonoses through various measures such as surveillance, education, vaccination, and management of animal populations.

Bovine Virus Diarrhea-Mucosal Disease (BVD-MD) is a complex of diseases caused by the Bovine Virus Diarrhea virus (BVDV) and is a significant problem in the global cattle industry. The disease can manifest in various forms, from mild respiratory or reproductive issues to severe, life-threatening conditions such as mucosal disease.

Mucosal disease is the most acute form of BVD-MD and occurs when an animal that has been persistently infected (PI) with a specific strain of BVDV develops a secondary infection with a cytopathic biotype of the virus. PI animals are those that were infected in utero with BVDV before they developed immune competence, resulting in them shedding large amounts of the virus throughout their lives.

The secondary infection with the cytopathic biotype of BVDV causes extensive damage to the animal's lymphoid tissues and gastrointestinal tract, leading to severe clinical signs such as:

1. Profuse diarrhea
2. High fever (up to 41°C or 105.8°F)
3. Ulcerative lesions in the mouth, esophagus, and intestines
4. Severe dehydration
5. Depression and loss of appetite
6. Weight loss
7. Weakness
8. Increased respiratory rate
9. Swelling of the head, neck, and brisket
10. Death within 2-3 weeks after the onset of clinical signs

Morbidity and mortality rates in BVD-MD outbreaks can be high, causing significant economic losses for farmers due to decreased production, increased veterinary costs, and animal deaths. Prevention strategies include vaccination programs, biosecurity measures, and testing for PI animals to remove them from the herd.

Sivajothi, S.; Rayulu, V. C.; Malakondaiah, P.; Sreenivasulu, D. (2016-03-01). "Diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in bovines by ... Animal trypanosomiasis, also known as nagana and nagana pest, or sleeping sickness, is a disease of vertebrates. The disease is ... "Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)". Fact sheet. World Health Organization (WHO). 10 January 2022. Courtin D, ... Some drugs can prevent trypanosomiasis, and are called prophylactic drugs. These are very effective in protecting animals ...
Cherenet T, Sani RA, Panandam JM, Nadzr S, Speybroeck N, van den Bossche P (December 2004). "Seasonal prevalence of bovine ... "East African Trypanosomiasis FAQs". Parasites - African Trypanosomiasis (also known as Sleeping Sickness). Centers for Disease ... "West African Trypanosomiasis FAQs". Parasites - African Trypanosomiasis (also known as Sleeping Sickness). Centers for Disease ... "CDC - African Trypanosomiasis - General Information - East African Trypanosomiasis FAQs". www.cdc.gov. 22 April 2019. Retrieved ...
Animal trypanosomiasis, also called nagana when it occurs in bovine cattle or horses or sura when it occurs in domestic pigs, ... The tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases affect various vertebrate species including humans, antelopes, bovine cattle, camels, ... Economics of African trypanosomiasis. In The Trypanosomiases (eds. I. Maudlin, P.H. Holmes & M.A. Miles) CABI Publishing, 2004 ... In humans, tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is called sleeping sickness. In animals, tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases include ...
"Trypanosomiasis, human African (Sleeping sickness)". "WHO; World Health Organization". apps.who.int. Mehlitz, D.; Molyneux, D.H ... Andrews AH, Blowey RW, Boyd H, Eddy RG (2008). "Rabies". Bovine Medicine: Diseases and Husbandry of Cattle. John Wiley & Sons. ... Brun R, Blum J, Chappuis F, Burri C (January 2010). "Human African trypanosomiasis". Lancet. 375 (9709): 148-59. doi:10.1016/ ... The Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC) works to eradicate the tsetse fly vector population ...
... cause the infectious disease trypanosomiasis. In humans, G. fuscipes trypanosomiasis is also known as sleeping sickness. In ... bovine cattle, camels, horses, sheep, goats, and pigs. The parasites are transmitted to humans via bites from G. fuscipes, ... Mulligan, H. W. (Hugh Waddell) (1970). The African trypanosomiases. Potts, W. H. (William Herbert). London: Allen and Unwin. ... Shaw, A. P. M.; Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United; Organization, Food and Agriculture; Trypanosomiasis, ...
... and trypanosomiasis. As of June 2017, it was estimated that Uganda had approximately 73 million head of cattle. Uganda's dairy ... of Veterinary Services and Animal Industry tried to save existing cattle stock by containing diseases such as contagious bovine ...
... bovine MeSH C22.196.831 - theileriasis MeSH C22.196.888 - trypanosomiasis, bovine MeSH C22.196.927 - tuberculosis, bovine MeSH ... bovine MeSH C22.196.250 - encephalopathy, bovine spongiform MeSH C22.196.260 - enzootic bovine leukosis MeSH C22.196.274 - ... trypanosomiasis, bovine MeSH C22.735.050 - ape diseases MeSH C22.735.500 - monkey diseases MeSH C22.735.500.500 - marburg virus ... MeSH C22.021.322 - brucellosis, bovine MeSH C22.131.094 - avian leukosis MeSH C22.131.321 - fowlpox MeSH C22.131.450 - ...
African trypanosomiasis MeSH C03.752.700.500.935.802 - trypanosomiasis, bovine MeSH C03.752.700.700 - sarcodina infections MeSH ... trypanosomiasis, bovine MeSH C03.752.700.500 - mastigophora infections MeSH C03.752.700.500.275 - dientamoebiasis MeSH C03.752. ... trypanosomiasis, bovine MeSH C03.752.200.146 - balantidiasis MeSH C03.752.250.269 - cryptosporidiosis MeSH C03.752.250.280 - ... trypanosomiasis MeSH C03.752.700.500.935.200 - chagas disease MeSH C03.752.700.500.935.200.190 - chagas cardiomyopathy MeSH ...
... and trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). It is impossible, though, to tell if coming into contact with cattle caused epidemics ... which may have been due to threats of livestock diseases such as Bovine Malignant Catarrhal Fever (MCF), which is almost 100% ...
It causes deadly vector-borne diseases: African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness in humans, and animal trypanosomiasis or ... which was found in 1938 to have trypanocidal activity against the bovine parasite, T. congolense. Among its products, dimidium ... Animal trypanosomiasis is transmitted by a dozen species of Glossina. In later stages of a T. brucei infection of a mammalian ... Animal trypanosomiasis is treated with six drugs: diminazene aceturate, homidium (homidium bromide and homidium chloride), ...
In 1915 there were 1,10,397 bovines and 1,232 sheep reported killed by rinderpest. Lingard was initially located at Poona near ... Surra was a form of trypanosomiasis and among Lingard's experiments were (unsuccessful) trials of Fowler's solution ( ...
The breeds of sheep and goats are hardy, able to survive the rigorous environment and are resistant to the trypanosomiasis ... Most cattle are of the trypanotolerant N'Dama breed and problem diseases include contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. Cattle are ...
September 2005). "Human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in India: the first case report". The American Journal of ... Diminazene aceturate is often ineffective for bovine, equine, porcine, and elephant use in Thailand. Quinapyramine is not ... The World Health Organization (February 2005). "A new form of human trypanosomiasis in India. Description of the first human ... The parasite was then established as the first trypanosome that caused disease (trypanosomiasis). The first human case was ...
It is reported to be resistant to trypanosomiasis, the "sleeping-sickness" transmitted by tsetse flies. The Aubrac has a ... Étude de la race bovine: Aubrac (in French). Bureau des Ressources Génétiques. Archived 6 July 2015. Breed data sheet: Aubrac/ ...
Naessens, J. (2006). "Bovine trypanotolerance: A natural ability to prevent severe anaemia and haemophagocytic syndrome?". ... Localization of genes controlling resistance to trypanosomiasis in mice (Q58843113). -Popularly cited including by Soller, ... Womack, James E. (2012). Bovine genomics. Ames, Iowa: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. xi+271. ISBN 978-0-8138-2122-1. OCLC 780445244. ISBN ... "Localization of genes controlling resistance to trypanosomiasis in mice". Nature Genetics. Springer Science and Business Media ...
... bovine piroplasmosis and Aleppo button, et al. In Constantinople he also worked on improving methods for preparation of ... dyes supplied by Bayer Pharmaceutical as trypanocidal agents for destruction of the parasite associated with trypanosomiasis. ...
... s are resistant to trypanosomiasis, a protozoan infection that has the tsetse fly as a vector, but not to the ... but none for Mycobacterium paratuberculosis or various types of pneumonia like contagious bovine pneumonia and contagious ...
Human trypanosomiasis Hydroid dermatitis Irukandji syndrome Jellyfish dermatitis Ked itch Larva currens Latrodectism (widow ... B virus infection Boston exanthem disease Bovine papular stomatitis Bowenoid papulosis Buffalopox Butcher's wart Chikungunya ...
... unspecified 059.11 Bovine stomatitis 059.12 Sealpox 059.19 Other parapoxvirus infections 059.2 Yatapoxvirus infections 059.20 ... 083.8 Other specified rickettsioses 083.9 Rickettsiosis unspecified 084 Malaria 085 Leishmaniasis 086 Trypanosomiasis 087 ...
There are eight different diseases that affect mammals that are caused by prions such as scrapie, bovine spongiform ... African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), Acanthamoeba keratitis, and primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (naegleriasis). ...
Leak, S.G.A. (1999) Tsetse Biology and Ecology: their Role in the Epidemiology and Control of Trypanosomiasis. Wallingford, ... They also transmit Onchocerca nematode worms to cattle causing bovine onchocerciasis. The former suborder Cyclorrhapha is now ... ISBN 0-19-570506-8. Maudlin, I. (2004) The Trypanosomiases. Wallingford, CABI Publishing, ISBN 0-85199-475-X. Harley, J.M.B. & ... Tsetse-flies are also notorious as transmitters of the Trypanosoma species causing African trypanosomiasis (= sleeping sickness ...
p. 1. Naessens, J. (2006). "Bovine trypanotolerance: A natural ability to prevent severe anaemia and haemophagocytic syndrome ... it is possible that this is the result of selection against trypanosomiasis challenge. Hanotte, O.; Ronin, Y.; Agaba, M.; ...
The project is exploring the potential efficacy of a vaccine to combat contagious bovine pleuropneumonia which is a major ... Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (AU-PATTEC),the Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR ... "HVRI to lead the Bill & Melinda Gates project on Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia BEN-1 Vaccine Evaluation". GALVmed. "About ... The 12 diseases are: Cattle diseases: East Coast fever (Theileriosis) Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia Trypanosomosis Lumpy ...
Trypanosomiasis. In: A Textbook of Medicine, 2d ed., ed. R. L. Cecil, pp. 377-80. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. 1928 With W. H ... Amino acid incorporation into precipitin at different stages in the secondary response to bovine serum albumin. J. Infect. Dis ... Complement fixation, precipitin, adhesion, mercuric chloride and Wassermann tests in equine trypanosomiasis of Panama (murrina ...
Animal transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSEs) involving prions include bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow ... African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), Acanthamoeba keratitis, and primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (naegleriasis). ...
"African trypanosomiasis: sensitive and rapid detection of the sub-genus Trypanozoon by loop-mediated isothermal amplification ( ... method for the simultaneous detection of bovine Babesia parasites". Journal of Microbiological Methods. 71 (3): 281-7. doi: ...
The fight against African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) has been an area of investment since the beginning of the 20th ... Cotton cultivation in northern Cameroon has always relied on animal traction: bovine traction from 1950 onwards, asinine ... According to ethnologist Christian Seignobos, the use of a pony resistant to African trypanosomiasis may have declined as early ... Parasites are also common, in particular ascariasis, strongylosis, habronemosis, oxyurosis, ticks, mange, trypanosomiasis and ...
Other diseases from which these animals suffer are foot-and-mouth disease, sindbis fever, yellow fever, bluetongue, bovine ... "The potential economic benefits of controlling trypanosomiasis using waterbuck repellent blend in sub-Saharan Africa". PLoS ONE ...
A study found bovine calf rennet could be used to coagulate dromedary milk. A special factory has been set up in Nouakchott to ... The dromedary is prone to trypanosomiasis, a disease caused by a parasite transmitted by the tsetse fly. The main symptoms are ... Ramet, J.P. (1987). "Saudi Arabia: use of bovine calf rennet to coagulate raw camel milk". World Animal Review (FAO). 61: 11-16 ...
Sub-Saharan Africa also has yellow fever, while trypanosomiasis or "sleeping sickness" is making a comeback in the DROC and ... linked to the bovine spongiform encephalopathy or "mad cow disease" outbreak in the United Kingdom in 1995 that has since ebbed ...
Sivajothi, S.; Rayulu, V. C.; Malakondaiah, P.; Sreenivasulu, D. (2016-03-01). "Diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in bovines by ... Animal trypanosomiasis, also known as nagana and nagana pest, or sleeping sickness, is a disease of vertebrates. The disease is ... "Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)". Fact sheet. World Health Organization (WHO). 10 January 2022. Courtin D, ... Some drugs can prevent trypanosomiasis, and are called prophylactic drugs. These are very effective in protecting animals ...
Bovine trypanosomiasis in the Upper West Region of Ghana: parasitological, serological and entomological cross-sectional ... Assessing the greenhouse gas mitigation effect of removing bovine trypanosomiasis in Eastern Africa. MacLeod M. et al., ... Human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: disease distribution and risk. Lumbala et al. ... Human African trypanosomiasis in non-endemic countries (2000-2010). Simarro et al. Journal of Travel Medicine, 2012, 19(1):44- ...
The objective of this review is to synthesize information on ethnoveterinary practices to treat bovine trypanosomiasis in... ... Medicinal plants of the African traditional pharmacopoeia in the management of bovine trypanosomosis: A review ...
Bovine and small ruminant African animal trypanosomiasis in Nigeria - A review. Odeniran, P., ADEMOLA1, I. O., MacLeod, E. & ... Bovine trypanosome species prevalence and farmers trypanosomiasis control methods in south-western Uganda.. MacLeod, E., 28 ... Social factors affecting seasonal variation in bovine trypanosomiasis on the Jos Plateau, Nigeria. Majekodunmi, A., Fajinmi, A. ... A Case Study on Trypanosomiasis in Eastern Province, Zambia. Alderton, S., Macleod, E. T., Anderson, N. E., Schaten, K., ...
In order to identify the vectors of bovine trypanosomiasis in the locality of Logone Birni, inventories were carried out from ... The purpose of this work is to contribute to the evaluation of the seroprevalence of bovine trypanosomiasis, to identify ... Entomological inventory of bovine trypanosome vectors in the locality of Logone Birni, Far North Cameroon ...
... bovine ephemeral fever, rotaviral infection, and bovine viral diarrhea), protozoal (trypanosomiasis, neosporosis, and ... Leptospirosis, brucellosis, Bovine Tb, BVDV and fasciolosis have projected economic impact to water buffalo industry as well as ...
keywords = "B780-tropical-medicine, Animal diseases, Bovine, Trypanosomiasis, Trypanosoma congolense, Vectors, Tsetse flies, ...
Prevalence of bovine trypanosomiasis in Côte dIvoire: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Ekra, Jean-Yves; NGoran, Edouard K ... An assessment of bovine herpes virus 4 as a causative agent in abortions and neonatal.... Dağalp, Seval B.; Babaoglu, Ali R.; ... Challenges for controlling bovine tuberculosis in South Africa. Arnot, Luke F.; Michel, Anita. Onderstepoort Journal of ... First-time detection of bovine viral diarrhoea virus, BVDV-1, in cattle in Botswana. Lysholm, Sara; Ramabu, Solomon S.; Berg, ...
Bovine trypanosomiasis: the red cell kinetics of NDama and Zebu cattle infected with Trypanosoma congolense. Parasitology, 78 ... Is the anemia in bovine trypanosomiasis caused by immunologic mechanisms? Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Nairobi, Kenya, 20- ... Trypanosomiasis: A Veterinary Perspective. Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, 551.. *Swallow, B. M., 2000. Impacts of Trypanosomiasis ... 1978). In bovine trypanosomosis anaemia is occurred mainly due to haemolytic factors like hemolysis and free fatty acids, ...
Influence of trypanosomiasis on blood biochemical indices of camel (Camelus dromedarius). Ruminant Science 4(2):205-206. ... Influence of trypanosomiasis on blood biochemical indices of camel (Camelus dromedarius)Authors: A Moolchandani and M ... Singh Veer and Tewari AK (2012). Bovine surra in India: An update. Ruminant Science 1(1):1-7. ... How to cite this manuscript: Moolchandani A and Sareen M (2015). Influence of trypanosomiasis on blood biochemical indices of ...
Trypanosomiasis in cattle -- Africa : Drug Management and Parasite Resistance in Bovine Trypanosomiasis in Africa 1998 1 ... Trypanosomiasis in cattle. : Drug Management and Parasite Resistance in Bovine Trypanosomiasis in Africa 1998 1 ... Trypanosomiasis -- Periodicals : Annals of tropical medicine & parasitology 2011 1 Trypanosomiasis, South American -- See ... Trypanosomiasis in cattle -- Genetic aspects -- Congresses. : Bovine genome : mapping and trypanotolerance : proceedings of a ...
Trypanosomiasis precludes cattle-based agriculture from much of this area and threatens up to 60 million people, of whom about ... 2002). Partial cDNA sequences of bovine CD72 and CD166/ALCAM, ligands for SRCR-family accessory molecules CD5 and CD6. ... 2001). Innate and acquired resistance to African trypanosomiasis. The Journal of parasitology, 87(1), 1-9. presented at the ... These trypanosomiasis-resistant bovids co-evolved with African trypanosomes and efficiently suppress trypanosome parasitemia to ...
... trypanosomiasis in a sentence with 18 example sentences on YourDictionary. ... Impact The project made good progress in helping to identify the fly species that are probable bovine trypanosomiasis vectors ... Traditionally, trypanosomiasis control has been achieved using a variety of methods, often used in combination to increase ... In the few cases of trypanosomiasis confirmed by us using wet preps we found that each had a low PCV (about 19 ). ...
Clinico‐haematological Features of Bovine Trypanosomiasis, Theileriosis, Anaplasmosis, Eperythrozoonosis and Helminthiasis."" ... Abdulkadir O, Hamid M, Alemayehu A, Tintagu T. Study on the Prevalence of GIT Nematodes on Bovine in and around Kombolcha and ... Etsehiwot W. A Study on Bovine GIT Helminthes in Dairy Cows in and Around Holleta, DVM thesis, FVM, AAU, Debrezeit, Ethiopia. ... 2. Abdihakim A. prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitism of bovines attending veterinary teaching hospital of Mekele. DVM ...
Trypanosomiasis (African). Tuberculosis, Mammalian See: Bovine Tuberculosis. Tularemia. Typhus Fever. Valley Fever See: ...
Bovine trypanosomiasis susceptibility of East African cattle to African trypanosomiasis / by Monirei, Joseph Meeli. by Monirei ... Results of search for su:{Trypanosomiasis, African} Refine your search. *. Availability. * Limit to currently available items ... Trypanosomiasis control manual. by World Health Organization.. Material type: Text; Format: print Publication details: Geneva : ... Trypanosomiases and Leishmaniases Control Unit.. Material type: Text; Format: print Publication details: Genève : Organisation ...
Bovine trypanosomiasis is a significant health concern for livestock intensification in Côte dIvoire. This study aimed to ...
Drug management and parasite resistance in bovine trypanosomiasis in Africa / S. Geerts, P. H. Holmes. - Rome : FAO, 1998. - ... Drug management and parasite resistance in bovine trypanosomiasis in Africa / S. Geerts, P. H. Holmes. - Rome : FAO, 1998. - ...
The control of bovine and human African trypanosomiasis and the role tsetse endosymbionts play in disease transmission in ... An evaluation of surveillance and control measures of African trypanosomiasis in remote areas of Eastern Zambia (2023, PhD , ... Policy and linkages in the application of a one health system for reporting and controlling African trypanosomiasis and other ... Challenges in the diagnostic performance of parasitological and molecular tests in the surveillance of African Trypanosomiasis ...
Bovine TB, Lassa Fever, Rabies. Breakthrough Action Liberia: Baseline Report for Women and Men ... Trypanosomiasis. Testing. ... Anthrax, Rabies, Bovine TB, Ebola Virus Disease, HPAI/Avian ... Anthrax, Bovine TB, Brucellosis, Ebola Virus Disease, HPAI/Avian influenza, Lassa Fever, Marburg, Mpox, Rabies, Salmonella, ... Anthrax, Bovine TB, Brucellosis, Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever, Dengue, Ebola Virus Disease, HPAI/Avian influenza, Lassa ...
... an area prone to periodic flooding and endemic for bovine trypanosomiasis. Blood samples from 400 cattle were collected and ... Moreover, the RLB method here described enabled the detection of veterinary agents not only pertaining to bovine health, ...
Parasitic infection like fascioliasis, theleriosis, schistosomiasis, and trypanosomiasis infection in animals cause anemia and ... Tags: anestrous, bovine problems, carus laboratories. Post navigation. Fertility, Subfertility and Infertility in Female ... A visual and tactile evaluation of body fat reserves in bovines using a 5-point scale with 0.25 point increments. Body ... ANESTROUS: A severe problem of bovines of the Indian subcontinent and curative measures. September 29, 2023 ...
Tsetse flies are vectors of the disease Trypanosomiasis, which afflicts not only human but also bovine populations, and ... Insect and Pest Control project aimed at eradicating the population of tsetse flies in Senegal carrying the Trypanosomiasis ...
Bovine Tuberculosis is a serious infectious disease, incurring huge costs on both the individuals affected, and on the ... New partnership working on solutions to combat African animal trypanosomiasis Equipment and Innovation Research Knowledge ... A Blueprint for Eradicating Bovine TB in England Bovine Tuberculosis is a serious infectious disease, incurring huge costs on ... The report says that the plan will need to stop the spread of Bovine TB from existing endemic areas, and also Stamp out the ...
Brown M H, Brightman A H, Fenwick B W and Rider M A 1998 Infectious bovine keratoconjuctivitis: a review. Journal of Veterinary ... Paper presented at the 32nd International Scientific Council for Trypanosomiasis Reserach and Control (ISCTRC) Conference, ... On the other hand, in Morogoro region at Kambala village it was shown that flies were associated with infectious bovine ... McConnel C S, Shum L and House J K 2007 Infectious bovine keratoconjuctivitis antimicrobial therapy. Australian Veterinary ...
... pastoralists as a result of suspected bovine trypanosomiasis among other unknown causes. It was concluded that management ...
... bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, trypanosomiasis, anthrax and echinococcus. Key objectives have been to (a) to explore ...
  • He also of bovine tuberculosis were the practical outcomes of studied cholera in India. (cdc.gov)
  • Bovine Tuberculosis is a serious infectious disease, incurring huge costs on both the individuals affected, and on the governments attempting to control it. (thebeefsite.com)
  • Over the course of the year 2008, bovine tuberculosis infected over 500 new herds in the UK and led to the slaughter of over four and a half thousand cattle. (thebeefsite.com)
  • Released April 8 2009, the report - Bovine Tuberculosis in England: Towards Eradication - April 2009 - is a conclusion of almost three years work in which the Group says it played a key role in obtaining stakeholder buy-in to TB control policies, independently challenged Government and considered issues of concern to stakeholders whilst advising on practical implementation of control policies. (thebeefsite.com)
  • The Serengeti Health Program is working on several major diseases at the human-wildlife-domestic animal interface, including rabies, canine distemper, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, trypanosomiasis, anthrax and echinococcus. (nihrcrsu.org)
  • The Lion Coalition, an alliance of several animal welfare and conservation groups, including Blood Lions, says that bovine tuberculosis , documented in both captive and wild lions, could also transfer between lions and humans. (mongabay.com)
  • This has led to the development of collars that store and gradually release these chemicals, reducing tsetse attack and thus trypanosomiasis incidence for cattle wearing these collars. (wikipedia.org)
  • Unfortunately, to avoid cattle trypanosomiasis , farmers are often forced away from these more productive grazing lands to marginal areas. (yourdictionary.com)
  • Objectives The project aimed to reduce the burden of both cattle and human trypanosomiasis through cost-effective and sustainable management of the former. (yourdictionary.com)
  • Trypanosomiasis precludes cattle-based agriculture from much of this area and threatens up to 60 million people, of whom about a half million are presently infected. (umass.edu)
  • Bovine trypanosomiasis susceptibility of East African cattle to African trypanosomiasis / by Monirei, Joseph Meeli. (who.int)
  • An Ephemerovirus infection of cattle caused by bovine ephemeral fever virus (EPHEMERAL FEVER VIRUS, BOVINE). (wakehealth.edu)
  • In many countries of the world, Black Flies transmit diseases to animals including bovine onchocerciasis in cattle and horses, and leucocytozoonosis in wild birds. (najeya.com)
  • Some cattle breeds indigenous to Western Africa (like the Ndama) are fairly resistant to trypanosomiasis, whereas the Western breeds, from the Zebu background are highly susceptible particularly. (rawveronica.com)
  • Finally, Professor Diana Williams and Dr Jane Hodgkinson (University of Liverpool, UK) presented data that show fluke ( Fasciola ) infections can result in failure to accurately diagnose bovine TB in cattle. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Infection with the protozoan parasite TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI, a form of TRYPANOSOMIASIS endemic in Central and South America. (edu.au)
  • One of the most serious diseases to these animals is trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi. (yourdictionary.com)
  • For treatment of Trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma vivax, T. congolense, T. brucei, treatment of piroplasmosis caused by Babesia bovis, B. bigemina, B. ovis, B. motasi, B canis, as well as infections caused by Nattalia equi and Theileria annulata. (cphi-online.com)
  • Prevalence of bovine trypanosomiasis of up to 40% has been reported. (yourdictionary.com)
  • 2. Abdihakim A. prevalence of gastrointestinal parasitism of bovines attending veterinary teaching hospital of Mekele. (stmjournals.com)
  • Animal trypanosomiasis, also known as nagana and nagana pest, or sleeping sickness, is a disease of vertebrates. (wikipedia.org)
  • African sleeping sickness is the common name for human African trypanosomiasis . (yourdictionary.com)
  • Sleeping sickness is parasitic disease also known as Human African Trypanosomiasis , or sometimes the African Sleeping Sickness. (yourdictionary.com)
  • Since 2010, the United States has donated over $5 million to the IAEA's Insect and Pest Control project aimed at eradicating the population of tsetse flies in Senegal carrying the Trypanosomiasis disease (African sleeping sickness) using a nuclear technology called the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT). (usmission.gov)
  • The last disease, African sleeping sickness, also known as trypanosomiasis, is transmitted through tsetse flies. (mongabay.com)
  • Intro Tse-Tse-transmitted trypanosomiasis can be a complicated disease in both human beings and BIRT-377 animals due to several varieties of the protozoan parasite and trigger disease in human beings (sleeping sickness) while trypanosomiasis in pets (Nagana) is due to and may be the most significant disease for livestock [2]. (rawveronica.com)
  • Impact The project made good progress in helping to identify the fly species that are probable bovine trypanosomiasis vectors in the area. (yourdictionary.com)
  • Tsetse flies are vectors of the disease Trypanosomiasis, which afflicts not only human but also bovine populations, and presence of the tsetse fly has inhibited herd improvement and productivity in Senegal and across West Africa. (usmission.gov)
  • They also revealed that there is worrying evidence of bovine and human schistosome hybridisation and consequentially infection of new vectors and hosts. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Leptospirosis, brucellosis, Bovine Tb, BVDV and fasciolosis have projected economic impact to water buffalo industry as well as its effect as zoonoses. (intechopen.com)
  • Human African trypanosomiasis cases diagnosed in non-endemic countries (2011-2020). (fao.org)
  • The aim is to halt transmission of human and animal trypanosomiasis by progressively eliminating tsetse populations throughout the endemic regions of Africa. (yourdictionary.com)
  • The report says that the plan will need to 'stop the spread of Bovine TB from existing endemic areas', and also 'Stamp out the disease where it occurs in new areas. (thebeefsite.com)
  • Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of bovine neosporosis in the Khomas region. (aosis.co.za)
  • Summary Collectively, our outcomes display that regulatory T cells donate to susceptibility in experimental murine trypanosomiasis in both highly vulnerable BALB/c and fairly resistant C57BL/6 mice. (rawveronica.com)
  • These trypanosomiasis-resistant bovids co-evolved with African trypanosomes and efficiently suppress trypanosome parasitemia to a cryptic level upon infection. (umass.edu)
  • An Atlas of tsetse and bovine trypanosomosis in Sudan. (fao.org)
  • Mapping the benefit-cost ratios of interventions against bovine trypanosomosis in Eastern Africa. (fao.org)
  • This implies that farmers need only treat older and larger animals within their herds with insecticide to control trypanosomiasis , thus saving them money. (yourdictionary.com)
  • Although the loss of direct livestock products (meat, milk, and blood) is problematic, the greatest impact of livestock trypanosomiasis is the loss of crop productivity due to loss of the animals' draught power in the field. (wikipedia.org)
  • Use of drugs (chemotherapy ), livestock resistant breeds or insecticides helps protect livestock and control animal trypanosomiasis . (yourdictionary.com)
  • In order to transmit trypanosomiasis infected tsetse flies must land on and bite the animal. (yourdictionary.com)
  • The elimination of human African trypanosomiasis: Achievements in relation to WHO road map targets for 2020. (fao.org)
  • Human African trypanosomiasis in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: disease distribution and risk. (fao.org)
  • Current movement schemes follow control measures designed to prevent the spread of Foot and Mouth Disease, but the advisory group deemed these to be ineffective against Bovine TB. (thebeefsite.com)
  • My work aims to identify key host-parasite interactions that determine disease outcome, further our understanding of bovine immunobiology, and identify targets for interventions (e.g. drug & vaccine development). (ed.ac.uk)
  • Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) associated with Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, and Haemophilus somnus. (cphi-online.com)
  • Echantillonnage des populations de glossines en secteur guinéen de Côte d' Ivoire : essais de pièges, contribution à la lutte / par Dagnogo Mamadou. (who.int)
  • African Animal Trypanosomiasis" (PDF). (wikipedia.org)
  • Monitoring the progress towards the elimination of gambiense human African trypanosomiasis. (fao.org)
  • It contributed to the fight against African trypanosomiasis in two ways. (yourdictionary.com)
  • Despite being mentioned on an episode of House, no recorded cases of African trypanosomiasis have been reportedly transmitted via sexual contact. (yourdictionary.com)
  • The African trypanosomiases / edited by H. W. Mulligan, with the help, for part II, of W. H. Potts. (who.int)
  • Development of multiplex serological assay for the detection of human African trypanosomiasis. (rockland.com)
  • Comparative sensitivity and specificity of the 7SL sRNA diagnostic test for Animal Trypanosomiasis. (ed.ac.uk)
  • Trypanosomiasis is a significant animal and human health problem worldwide. (123dok.net)
  • Reaffirming that WHO is committed to mobilizing and streamlining its activities to combat trypanosomiasis, particularly in support of surveillance and control, in cooperation with organizations of the United Nations system and other partners, including the private sector, 1. (who.int)
  • Traditionally, trypanosomiasis control has been achieved using a variety of methods, often used in combination to increase their efficacy. (yourdictionary.com)
  • Impact This research used the most up to date DNA profiling techniques to identify practical strategies to help farmers control trypanosomiasis . (yourdictionary.com)
  • Trypanosomiases and Leishmaniases Control Unit. (who.int)
  • Economic and Social Council on 25 July 2001 acknowledged the problem of trypanosomiasis and 1 Document A56/9. (who.int)
  • This graph shows the total number of publications written about "Mastitis, Bovine" by people in this website by year, and whether "Mastitis, Bovine" was a major or minor topic of these publications. (musc.edu)
  • No reaction was observed against anti-Pepsin, anti-Goat IgG F(c), Mouse IgG F(ab) or Bovine, Horse or Human Serum Proteins. (rockland.com)
  • Any mediation relating to disputes arising under the licence shall be conducted in accordance with the mediation rules of the World Intellectual Property Organization (http://www.wipo.int/amc/en/mediation/rules). (who.int)
  • test (card agglutination test for Trypanosomiasis - CATT/T. evansi). (123dok.net)