A disease endemic among people and animals in Central Africa. It is caused by various species of trypanosomes, particularly T. gambiense and T. rhodesiense. Its second host is the TSETSE FLY. Involvement of the central nervous system produces "African sleeping sickness." Nagana is a rapidly fatal trypanosomiasis of horses and other animals.
Infection with protozoa of the genus TRYPANOSOMA.
Infection in cattle caused by various species of trypanosomes.
A hemoflagellate subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes Gambian or West African sleeping sickness in humans. The vector host is usually the tsetse fly (Glossina).
Arsenical used in trypanosomiases. It may cause fatal encephalopathy and other undesirable side effects.
Agents destructive to the protozoal organisms belonging to the suborder TRYPANOSOMATINA.
A hemoflagellate subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes Rhodesian sleeping sickness in humans. It is carried by Glossina pallidipes, G. morsitans and occasionally other species of game-attacking tsetse flies.
A hemoflagellate subspecies of parasitic protozoa that causes nagana in domestic and game animals in Africa. It apparently does not infect humans. It is transmitted by bites of tsetse flies (Glossina).
A genus of flagellate protozoans found in the blood and lymph of vertebrates and invertebrates, both hosts being required to complete the life cycle.
Bloodsucking flies of the genus Glossina, found primarily in equatorial Africa. Several species are intermediate hosts of trypanosomes.
A species of Trypanosome hemoflagellates that is carried by tsetse flies and causes severe anemia in cattle. These parasites are also found in horses, sheep, goats, and camels.
An active blood parasite that is present in practically all domestic animals in Africa, the West Indies, and parts of Central and South America. In Africa, the insect vector is the tsetse fly. In other countries, infection is by mechanical means indicating that the parasites have been introduced to these countries and have been able to maintain themselves in spite of the lack of a suitable intermediate host. It is a cause of nagana, the severity of which depends on the species affected.
A republic in southern Africa, southwest of DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO and west of ZAMBIA. Its capital is Luanda.
A republic in central Africa, east of the REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, south of the CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC and north of ANGOLA and ZAMBIA. The capital is Kinshasa.
Antiprotozoal agent effective in trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and some fungal infections; used in treatment of PNEUMOCYSTIS pneumonia in HIV-infected patients. It may cause diabetes mellitus, central nervous system damage, and other toxic effects.
A republic in central Africa lying between GABON and DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO and south of Cameroon. Its capital is Brazzaville.
Infections of the brain, spinal cord, or meninges by single celled organisms of the former subkingdom known as protozoa. The central nervous system may be the primary or secondary site of protozoal infection. These diseases may occur as OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS or arise in immunocompetent hosts.
A nitrofuran thiazine that has been used against TRYPANOSOMIASIS.
An inhibitor of ORNITHINE DECARBOXYLASE, the rate limiting enzyme of the polyamine biosynthetic pathway.
Substances that are destructive to protozoans.
A country in northeastern Africa. The capital is Khartoum.
The reduction or regulation of the population of noxious, destructive, or dangerous insects through chemical, biological, or other means.
Infection with the protozoan parasite TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI, a form of TRYPANOSOMIASIS endemic in Central and South America. It is named after the Brazilian physician Carlos Chagas, who discovered the parasite. Infection by the parasite (positive serologic result only) is distinguished from the clinical manifestations that develop years later, such as destruction of PARASYMPATHETIC GANGLIA; CHAGAS CARDIOMYOPATHY; and dysfunction of the ESOPHAGUS or COLON.
A republic in central Africa south of CHAD and SUDAN, north of DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO, and east of CAMEROON. The capital is Bangui.
The agent of South American trypanosomiasis or CHAGAS DISEASE. Its vertebrate hosts are man and various domestic and wild animals. Insects of several species are vectors.
A polyanionic compound with an unknown mechanism of action. It is used parenterally in the treatment of African trypanosomiasis and it has been used clinically with diethylcarbamazine to kill the adult Onchocerca. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1992, p1643) It has also been shown to have potent antineoplastic properties.
An effective trypanocidal agent.
Amidines substituted with a benzene group. Benzamidine and its derivatives are known as peptidase inhibitors.
Diseases that are underfunded and have low name recognition but are major burdens in less developed countries. The World Health Organization has designated six tropical infectious diseases as being neglected in industrialized countries that are endemic in many developing countries (HELMINTHIASIS; LEPROSY; LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS; ONCHOCERCIASIS; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; and TRACHOMA).
A republic in eastern Africa, south of SUDAN and west of KENYA. Its capital is Kampala.
The geographical area of Africa comprising CAMEROON; CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC; CHAD; CONGO; EQUATORIAL GUINEA; GABON; and DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO.
Tests that demonstrate the relative effectiveness of chemotherapeutic agents against specific parasites.
Glycoproteins attached to the surface coat of the trypanosome. Many of these glycoproteins show amino acid sequence diversity expressed as antigenic variations. This continuous development of antigenically distinct variants in the course of infection ensures that some trypanosomes always survive the development of immune response to propagate the infection.
Tests that are dependent on the clumping of cells, microorganisms, or particles when mixed with specific antiserum. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
The study of parasites and PARASITIC DISEASES.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to PROTOZOAN ANTIGENS.
Insects that transmit infective organisms from one host to another or from an inanimate reservoir to an animate host.
A republic in western Africa, south of MALI and BURKINA FASO, bordered by GHANA on the east. Its administrative capital is Abidjan and Yamoussoukro has been the official capital since 1983. The country was formerly called Ivory Coast.
The branch of medicine concerned with diseases, mainly of parasitic origin, common in tropical and subtropical regions.
A watery fluid that is continuously produced in the CHOROID PLEXUS and circulates around the surface of the BRAIN; SPINAL CORD; and in the CEREBRAL VENTRICLES.
A republic in southern Africa, south of DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO and TANZANIA, and north of ZIMBABWE. Its capital is Lusaka. It was formerly called Northern Rhodesia.
A disease caused by any of a number of species of protozoa in the genus LEISHMANIA. There are four major clinical types of this infection: cutaneous (Old and New World) (LEISHMANIASIS, CUTANEOUS), diffuse cutaneous (LEISHMANIASIS, DIFFUSE CUTANEOUS), mucocutaneous (LEISHMANIASIS, MUCOCUTANEOUS), and visceral (LEISHMANIASIS, VISCERAL).
Precipitin tests which occur over a narrow range of antigen-antibody ratio, due chiefly to peculiarities of the antibody (precipitin). (From Stedman, 26th ed)
Nitroimidazoles are a class of antibacterial and antiprotozoal drugs, which, upon reduction, interact with bacterial or protozoal DNA leading to inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis and ultimately cell death, used primarily in the treatment of anaerobic infections and certain parasitic diseases.
Invertebrates or non-human vertebrates which transmit infective organisms from one host to another.
Infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges caused by parasites.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of protozoa.
I'm afraid there seems to be a misunderstanding - "Africa" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition. Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, consisting of 54 countries with diverse cultures, peoples, languages, and landscapes. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help answer those for you!
Domesticated farm animals raised for home use or profit but excluding POULTRY. Typically livestock includes CATTLE; SHEEP; HORSES; SWINE; GOATS; and others.
A republic in west equatorial Africa, south of CAMEROON and west of the CONGO. Its capital is Libreville.
Proteins found in any species of protozoan.
A republic in central Africa, east of NIGER, west of SUDAN and south of LIBYA. Its capital is N'Djamena.
The constant presence of diseases or infectious agents within a given geographic area or population group. It may also refer to the usual prevalence of a given disease with such area or group. It includes holoendemic and hyperendemic diseases. A holoendemic disease is one for which a high prevalent level of infection begins early in life and affects most of the child population, leading to a state of equilibrium such that the adult population shows evidence of the disease much less commonly than do children (malaria in many communities is a holoendemic disease). A hyperendemic disease is one that is constantly present at a high incidence and/or prevalence rate and affects all groups equally. (Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 3d ed, p53, 78, 80)
Infections or infestations with parasitic organisms. They are often contracted through contact with an intermediate vector, but may occur as the result of direct exposure.
Infections with unicellular organisms formerly members of the subkingdom Protozoa.
A republic in western Africa, south of SENEGAL and MALI, east of GUINEA-BISSAU. Its capital is Conakry.
The primary sore of syphilis, a painless indurated, eroded papule, occurring at the site of entry of the infection.
Amidines are organic compounds containing the functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom connected to two carbon atoms by double bonds, with the remaining two bonds attached to hydrogen and any other organic substituent.
The presence of parasites (especially malarial parasites) in the blood. (Dorland, 27th ed)
The body fluid that circulates in the vascular system (BLOOD VESSELS). Whole blood includes PLASMA and BLOOD CELLS.
Aspects of health and disease related to travel.
An inflammatory process involving the brain (ENCEPHALITIS) and meninges (MENINGITIS), most often produced by pathogenic organisms which invade the central nervous system, and occasionally by toxins, autoimmune disorders, and other conditions.
Animate or inanimate sources which normally harbor disease-causing organisms and thus serve as potential sources of disease outbreaks. Reservoirs are distinguished from vectors (DISEASE VECTORS) and carriers, which are agents of disease transmission rather than continuing sources of potential disease outbreaks.
Drugs used to treat or prevent parasitic infections.
Diseases of domestic cattle of the genus Bos. It includes diseases of cows, yaks, and zebus.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
A republic in eastern Africa, south of UGANDA and north of MOZAMBIQUE. Its capital is Dar es Salaam. It was formed in 1964 by a merger of the countries of TANGANYIKA and ZANZIBAR.
A republic in eastern Africa, south of ETHIOPIA, west of SOMALIA with TANZANIA to its south, and coastline on the Indian Ocean. Its capital is Nairobi.
Diseases of any component of the brain (including the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum) or the spinal cord.
Preclinical testing of drugs in experimental animals or in vitro for their biological and toxic effects and potential clinical applications.
Enzymes which reduce nitro groups (NITRO COMPOUNDS) and other nitrogenous compounds.
Infectious diseases that are novel in their outbreak ranges (geographic and host) or transmission mode.
The intergenic DNA segments that are between the ribosomal RNA genes (internal transcribed spacers) and between the tandemly repeated units of rDNA (external transcribed spacers and nontranscribed spacers).
All of Africa except Northern Africa (AFRICA, NORTHERN).
Passive agglutination tests in which antigen is adsorbed onto latex particles which then clump in the presence of antibody specific for the adsorbed antigen. (From Stedman, 26th ed)

A cardiomyocyte mannose receptor system is involved in Trypanosoma cruzi invasion and is down-modulated after infection. (1/251)

Mannosyl binding sites were detected "in vitro" on cardiomyocytes (CM) surface using horseradish peroxidase (HRP) as the ligand. Binding assays revealed a specific recognition system, which was time- and concentration-dependent. The binding required physiological pH and was inhibited by EDTA and trypsin treatments. HRP binding was reduced by pre-incubations with low concentrations of D-mannose. Ultrastructural analysis of the endocytic process was followed using HRP coupled to colloidal gold particles (HRP-Au). The tracer was found within caveolae characterizing early steps of the receptor-mediated endocytosis. The addition of 10 mM D-mannose to the interaction medium blocked Trypanosoma cruzi uptake by CM. The labeling of CM with a subsaturating concentration of HRP-Au before their infection showed, by ultrastructural studies, that its association with trypomastigote forms occurred frequently near to HRP-gold particles that could also be seen to comprise the parasitophorous vacuole. After infection of CM with T. cruzi, a considerable reduction on HRP binding was noticed. Binding was almost completely restored by treating the infected cultures with the trypanocidal drug Nifurtimox. Our "in vitro" findings suggest that cardiomyocyte's mannose receptors localized at the sarcolemma mediates T. cruzi recognition and can be down-modulated by parasite infection.  (+info)

Evaluation of antigen detection and antibody detection tests for Trypanosoma evansi infections of buffaloes in Indonesia. (2/251)

Two Ag-ELISAs, an IgG-specific antibody detection ELISA (IgG ELISA) and a card agglutination test (CATT) for the detection of Trypanasoma evansi infections in buffaloes in Indonesia, were compared. Diagnostic sensitivity estimates were obtained by testing sera from 139 Indonesian buffaloes which had been found to be infected by parasitological tests. Diagnostic specificity was estimated by testing sera from 263 buffaloes living in Australia. Response-operating characteristic curves were constructed, and optimal ELISA cut-off values, which minimized the number of false-negative and false-positive results, were chosen. The IgG ELISA had the highest sensitivity (89%) and the CATT had the highest specificity (100%). There was a significant difference between the sensitivities (71 and 81%), but not between the specificities (75 and 78%), of the two Ag-ELISAs. The four tests were further compared by calculation of post-test probabilities of infection for positive and negative test results using a range of prevalence values, and likelihood ratios. The results suggested that the CATT was the best test to 'rule-in' infection (i.e. the highest probability of infection in test-positive animals) and the IgG ELISA was the best test to 'rule-out' infection (i.e. the lowest probability of infection in test-negative animals).  (+info)

Characterization of a vacuolar pyrophosphatase in Trypanosoma brucei and its localization to acidocalcisomes. (3/251)

Inorganic pyrophosphate promoted the acidification of an intracellular compartment in permeabilized procyclic trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma brucei, as measured by acridine orange uptake. The proton gradient generated by pyrophosphate was collapsed by addition of nigericin or NH(4)Cl. Pyrophosphate-driven proton translocation was stimulated by potassium ions and inhibited by KF, by the pyrophosphate analogs imidodiphosphate and aminomethylenediphosphonate (AMDP), and by the thiol reagent p-hydroxymercuribenzoate at concentrations similar to those that inhibit the plant vacuolar H(+)-pyrophosphatase (PPase). The proton translocation activity had a pH optimum around 7.5 and was partially inhibited by 7-chloro-4-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazole (10 microM) and unaffected by bafilomycin A(1) (40 nM), concanamycin A (5 nM), sodium o-vanadate (500 microM), oligomycin (1 microM), N-ethylmaleimide (100 microM), and KNO(3). AMDP-sensitive pyrophosphate hydrolysis was detected in both procyclic and bloodstream trypomastigotes. Measurements of acridine orange uptake in permeabilized procyclic trypomastigotes in the presence of different substrates and inhibitors suggested the presence of H(+)-ATPase, H(+)-PPase, and (ADP-dependent) H(+)/Na(+) antiport activity in the same compartment. Separation of bloodstream and procyclic trypomastigote extracts on Percoll gradients yielded fractions that contained H(+)-PPase (both stages) and H(+)/Na(+) exchanger (procyclics) activities but lacked markers for mitochondria, glycosomes, and lysosomes. The organelles in these fractions were identified by electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis as acidocalcisomes (electron-dense vacuoles). These results provide further evidence for the unique nature of acidocalcisomes in comparison with other, previously described, organelles.  (+info)

Metalloproteases in Trypanosoma rangeli-infected Rhodnius prolixus. (4/251)

Protease activities in the haemolymph and fat body in a bloodsucking insect, Rhodnius prolixus, infected with Trypanosoma rangeli, were investigated. After SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis containing gelatin as substrate, analysis of zymograms performed on samples of different tissues of controls and insects inoculated or orally infected with short or long epimastigotes of T. rangeli, demonstrated distinct patterns of protease activities: (i) proteases were detected in the haemolymph of insects which were fed on, or inoculated with, short epimastigotes of T. rangeli (39 kDa and 33 kDa, respectively), but they were not observed in the fat body taken from these insects; (ii) protease was also presented in the fat bodies derived from naive insects or controls inoculated with sterile phosphate-saline buffer (49 kDa), but it was not detected in the haemolymph of these insects; (iii) no protease activity was observed in both haemolymph and fat bodies taken from insects inoculated with, or fed on, long epimastigotes of T. rangeli. Furthermore, in short epimastigotes of T. rangeli extracts, three bands of the protease activities with apparent molecular weights of 297, 198 and 95 kDa were detected while long epimastigotes preparation presented only two bands of protease activities with molecular weights of 297 and 198 kDa. The proteases from the insect infected with T. rangeli and controls belong to the class of either metalloproteases or metal-activated enzymes since they are inhibited by 1,10-phenanthroline. The significance of these proteases in the insects infected with short epimastigotes of T. rangeli is discussed in relation to the success of the establishment of infection of these parasites in its vector, R. prolixus.  (+info)

Procedurally similar competitive immunoassay systems for the serodiagnosis of Babesia equi, Babesia caballi, Trypanosoma equiperdum, and Burkholderia mallei infection in horses. (5/251)

Procedurally similar competitive enzyme-linked immunoassay (cELISA) methods were developed for the serodiagnosis of Babesia equi and Babesia caballi (piroplasmosis), Trypanosoma equiperdum (dourine), and Burkholderia mallei (glanders) infections in horses. Apparent test specificities for the B. equi, B. caballi, T. equiperdum, and B. mallei cELISAs were 99.2%, 99.5%, 98.9%, and 98.9%, respectively. Concordances and kappa values between the complement fixation (CF) and the cELISA procedures for the serodiagnosis of B. equi, B. caballi, T. equiperdum, and B. mallei infections in experimentally exposed horses were 76% and 0.55, 89% and 0.78, 97% and 0.95, and 70% and 0.44, respectively. The cELISA method may be a technically more reproducible, objective, and convenient approach for piroplasmosis, dourine, and glanders serodiagnosis in qualifying animals for international movement and disease eradication programs than the CF systems currently in use. Use of the cELISA method also obviated the problems associated with testing hemolyzed or anticomplementary sera.  (+info)

The occurrence of Trypanosoma evansi in buffaloes in Indonesia, estimated using various diagnostic tests. (6/251)

The prevalence and incidence of Trypanosoma evansi infections in village buffaloes in Central Java were estimated using parasitological tests, two antigen-detection ELISAs (2G6 Ag-ELISA and Tr7 Ag-ELISA), an antibody-detection ELISA (IgG ELISA) and a card agglutination test (CATT). Of 2387 village buffaloes tested in five districts, 4 % (95 % confidence interval [CI]: 3 %, 5 %) were positive with the microhaematocrit test (MHCT), 58 % (95 % CI: 56 %, 60 %) were positive with the 2G6 Ag-ELISA and 70 % (95 % CI: 68 %, 72 %) were positive with the Tr7 Ag-ELISA. An increasing prevalence with age was found and the proportion of positive buffaloes was highest in the over 84 months-old age-group (68 %) with the 2G6 Ag-ELISA and in the 37-60 months-old age-group (78 %) with the Tr7 Ag-ELISA. Parasitaemic buffaloes were found in more than half of the villages visited. Corrected village-specific prevalence values obtained with the two Ag-ELISAs ranged from 0% to over 100%, and prevalence differed significantly (P < or = 0.0001) between villages in four of the five districts. Overall, 10% of buffaloes tested in markets were found to be parasitaemic and 39, 56 and 47 % were found positive with the 2G6 Ag-ELISA, IgG ELISA and CATT, respectively. Incidence rates varied according to the test used and ranged from 0.22 (95 % CI: 0.09, 0.44) to 0.44 (95 % CI: 0.24, 0.76), per animal-year at risk, in two villages. The results highlight the importance of using validated diagnostic tests to obtain accurate estimates of prevalence and incidence. These parameters are needed, for example in mathematical models, for the development and evaluation of different control strategies for T. evansi infections in buffaloes.  (+info)

Trypanosomes of non-human primates from the National Centre of Primates, Ananindeua, State of Para, brazil. (7/251)

Trypanosome infections were sought in 46 non-human primates captured principally in Amazonian Brazil. Twenty-two (47.8%) were infected with four Trypanosoma species: T. cruzi, T. minasense, T. devei and T. rangeli. These preliminary results confirmed the high prevalence and diversity of natural infections with trypanosomes in primates from Brazilian Amazon and were the first formal record of simian infections with trypanosomes in the State of Acre. The presence of T. cruzi-like and T. rangeli-like parasites are recorded in four new hosts.  (+info)

Hypotension in rabbits infected with Trypanosoma brucei. (8/251)

1 Blood pressures and heart rates of 12 anaesthetized rabbits chronically infected with T.brucei were measured (average infection time 39 days (range 25-67). The systolic BP was 31.4 +/- 5.7 mmHg, the diastolic BP 25.0 +/- 7.2 mmHg, and the heart rate 120.5 +/- 24.2 beats/minute. Two rabbits were already hypotensive 10 days after infection. In 12 anaesthetized control rabbits, the systolic BP was 66.2 +/- 7.3 mmHg (mean +/- s.e.), the diastolic BP 60.2 +/- 7.3 mmHg, and the heart rate 116.3 +/- 15.9 beats/minute. 2 The intravenous injection of 3 X 10(8) disintegrated trypanosomes into infected rabbits lowered the blood pressure by 41.4 +/- 22.0%. Pretreatment of two rabbits with aprotinin prior to administration of parasites prevented the fall in blood pressure. 3 Injection of 3 X 10(8) live trypanosomes complexed with hyperimmune sera produced a fall of 68.3 +/- 38.4% in the systolic BP of normal rabbits. Disintegrated or live trypanosomes, or hyperimmune sera alone had no effect. Pretreatment of animals with aprotinin prior to administration of the immune complex abolished the fall in BP. 4 The results suggest that the profound hypotension in chronic trypanosomiasis is caused by complex formation of trypanosomes with antibody. Since it can be prevented by pretreatment with aprotinin, it is likely that activation of plasma kallikrein with a subsequent release of plasma kinins contributes to this effect.  (+info)

African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is a vector-borne parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). The disease has two stages: an early hemolymphatic stage characterized by fever, swollen lymph nodes, and skin rashes; and a late neurological stage characterized by sleep disturbances, personality changes, and motor abnormalities. If left untreated, it can be fatal. The disease is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, where an estimated 65 million people are at risk of infection.

Trypanosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by various species of the protozoan genus Trypanosoma. It is transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (in African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness) or reduviid bug (in American trypanosomiasis or Chagas disease). The parasites enter the bloodstream and lymphatic system, causing symptoms such as fever, swollen lymph nodes, skin lesions, and muscle pain. Untreated, it can lead to severe neurological complications and death in both forms of the disease. Prevention measures include avoiding insect bites, using insect repellents, and sleeping under insecticide-treated bed nets.

Bovine trypanosomiasis, also known as Nagana, is a parasitic disease that affects cattle and other animals. It is caused by various species of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma, which are transmitted through the bite of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.).

The disease is characterized by fever, anemia, weight loss, decreased milk production, abortion in pregnant animals, and eventually death if left untreated. The parasites invade the bloodstream and lymphatic system, causing damage to various organs and tissues.

Bovine trypanosomiasis is a major constraint to livestock production in sub-Saharan Africa, where it affects millions of animals and causes significant economic losses to farmers and pastoralists. Control measures include the use of trypanocidal drugs, insecticide-treated cattle, and the reduction or elimination of tsetse fly populations through various methods such as trapping and habitat modification.

Trypanosoma brucei gambiense is a species of protozoan flagellate parasite that causes Human African Trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). The parasite multiplies in various body fluids, including blood and cerebrospinal fluid, leading to a range of symptoms such as fever, headache, joint pain, and eventually severe neurological disorders if left untreated. T. b. gambiense is responsible for the majority of reported cases in West and Central Africa and is considered to be an anthroponosis, meaning it primarily infects humans.

Melarsoprol is an arsenic-based medication that is primarily used to treat the later stages of African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness. It works by inhibiting the enzyme involved in energy metabolism of the parasite causing the disease, leading to its death. However, melarsoprol has a significant risk of serious side effects, including encephalopathy, which can be fatal. Therefore, it is typically used as a last resort when other treatments have failed or are not available. It is administered by intravenous injection in a hospital setting under close medical supervision.

Trypanocidal agents are a type of medication specifically used for the treatment and prevention of trypanosomiasis, which is a group of diseases caused by various species of protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Trypanosoma. These agents work by killing or inhibiting the growth of the parasites in the human body.

There are two main types of human trypanosomiasis: African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, which is caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense; and American trypanosomiasis, also known as Chagas disease, which is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi.

Trypanocidal agents can be divided into two categories:

1. Drugs used to treat African trypanosomiasis: These include pentamidine, suramin, melarsoprol, and eflornithine. Pentamidine and suramin are used for the early stages of the disease, while melarsoprol and eflornithine are used for the later stages.
2. Drugs used to treat American trypanosomiasis: The main drug used for Chagas disease is benznidazole, which is effective in killing the parasites during the acute phase of the infection. Another drug, nifurtimox, can also be used, although it has more side effects than benznidazole.

It's important to note that trypanocidal agents have limited availability and are often associated with significant toxicity, making their use challenging in some settings. Therefore, prevention measures such as avoiding insect vectors and using vector control methods remain crucial in controlling the spread of these diseases.

Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is a species of protozoan parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, in humans. It is transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly and is endemic to certain regions of East and Southern Africa.

The life cycle of T. b. rhodesiense involves two hosts: the tsetse fly and a mammalian host (such as a human). In the tsetse fly, the parasite undergoes development and multiplication in the midgut, then migrates to the salivary glands where it transforms into the metacyclic trypomastigote stage. When the infected tsetse fly bites a mammalian host, the metacyclic trypomastigotes are injected into the skin and enter the lymphatic system and bloodstream, where they multiply by binary fission as bloodstream trypomastigotes.

The symptoms of African trypanosomiasis caused by T. b. rhodesiense include fever, headache, joint pain, and itching, which may progress to more severe symptoms such as sleep disturbances, confusion, and neurological disorders if left untreated. The disease can be fatal if not diagnosed and treated promptly.

It is important to note that T. b. rhodesiense is distinct from another subspecies of Trypanosoma brucei called T. b. gambiense, which causes a different form of African trypanosomiasis that is endemic to West and Central Africa.

Trypanosoma brucei brucei is a species of protozoan flagellate parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in animals. This parasite is transmitted through the bite of an infected tsetse fly (Glossina spp.). The life cycle of T. b. brucei involves two main stages: the insect-dwelling procyclic trypomastigote stage and the mammalian-dwelling bloodstream trypomastigote stage.

The distinguishing feature of T. b. brucei is its ability to change its surface coat, which helps it evade the host's immune system. This allows the parasite to establish a long-term infection in the mammalian host. However, T. b. brucei is not infectious to humans; instead, two other subspecies, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, are responsible for human African trypanosomiasis.

In summary, Trypanosoma brucei brucei is a non-human-infective subspecies of the parasite that causes African trypanosomiasis in animals and serves as an essential model organism for understanding the biology and pathogenesis of related human-infective trypanosomes.

Trypanosoma is a genus of flagellated protozoan parasites belonging to the family Trypanosomatidae. These microscopic single-celled organisms are known to cause various tropical diseases in humans and animals, including Chagas disease (caused by Trypanosoma cruzi) and African sleeping sickness (caused by Trypanosoma brucei).

The life cycle of Trypanosoma involves alternating between an insect vector (like a tsetse fly or kissing bug) and a mammalian host. The parasites undergo complex morphological changes as they move through the different hosts and developmental stages, often exhibiting distinct forms in the insect vector compared to the mammalian host.

Trypanosoma species have an undulating membrane and a single flagellum that helps them move through their environment. They can be transmitted through various routes, including insect vectors, contaminated food or water, or congenital transmission from mother to offspring. The diseases caused by these parasites can lead to severe health complications and may even be fatal if left untreated.

Tsetse flies are not a medical condition but rather insects that can transmit diseases. Here is their medical relevance:

Tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) are large, biting flies found primarily in tropical Africa. They are vectors for African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in animals. The fly ingests the parasite when it takes a blood meal from an infected host, then transmits the disease to another host through its saliva during subsequent feedings. This makes tsetse flies medically relevant due to their role in spreading these diseases.

Trypanosoma congolense is a species of protozoan parasite that belongs to the genus Trypanosoma. It is the primary causative agent of African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT), also known as Nagana, which affects both wild and domestic animals in sub-Saharan Africa.

The life cycle of T. congolense involves two main hosts: the tsetse fly (Glossina spp.) and a mammalian host, such as cattle, sheep, goats, or wild animals. The parasite is transmitted to the mammalian host through the bite of an infected tsetse fly. Once inside the host's body, T. congolense multiplies in various bodily fluids, including blood, lymph, and cerebrospinal fluid, causing a range of symptoms such as fever, anemia, weight loss, and weakness.

In severe cases, AAT can lead to death, particularly in young or debilitated animals. The disease has significant economic impacts on agriculture and livestock production in affected regions, making it a major public health concern.

Trypanosoma vivax is a species of protozoan parasite that causes the disease surra in horses, mules, and donkeys, as well as other animals such as camels, dogs, and cats. It belongs to the family Trypanosomatidae and the order Kinetoplastida.

The parasite is transmitted through the bite of infected tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) and occurs in parts of Africa and Asia. The parasites multiply in the bloodstream and lymphatic system of the host, causing symptoms such as fever, anemia, weakness, and edema.

In advanced stages, surra can lead to severe neurological signs, coma, and death if left untreated. Diagnosis is typically made through microscopic examination of blood or tissue samples, and treatment involves the use of drugs such as diminazene accurate or suramin. Prevention measures include avoiding exposure to tsetse flies and using insect repellents or protective clothing.

I'm not aware of any medical definitions associated with the term "Angola." Angola is a country located in Southern Africa, known officially as the Republic of Angola. It does not have any specific relevance to medical terminology or healthcare. If you have more context or information about why you are looking for a medical definition of Angola, I may be able to provide a more helpful response.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a country located in Central Africa. It is named after the Congo River, which flows through the country. The DRC is the second-largest country in Africa by area and the eleventh-largest in the world. It is home to a diverse population of more than 80 million people, making it one of the most populous countries on the continent.

The DRC is a democratic republic, which means that it is a form of government in which the people have the power to choose their leaders through free and fair elections. The country has a presidential system of government, in which the president serves as both the head of state and the head of government. The current president of the DRC is Félix Tshisekedi, who took office in January 2019.

The DRC is a federal republic, meaning that it is divided into several provinces, each with its own elected government. The country has a total of 26 provinces, which are further divided into districts and sectors.

The DRC is a member of various international organizations, including the United Nations, the African Union, and the Southern African Development Community. It is also a party to several international treaties and agreements, such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Paris Agreement on climate change.

The DRC has a mixed economy, with both private and public sectors playing important roles. The country is rich in natural resources, including minerals such as copper, diamonds, gold, and tin. It also has large areas of fertile land that are suitable for agriculture. However, the DRC faces significant challenges, including poverty, corruption, and conflict. Despite these challenges, the country has made progress in recent years in terms of economic growth and development.

Pentamidine is an antimicrobial drug that is primarily used to treat and prevent certain types of pneumonia caused by the parasitic organisms Pneumocystis jirovecii (formerly known as P. carinii) and Leishmania donovani. It can also be used for the treatment of some fungal infections caused by Histoplasma capsulatum and Cryptococcus neoformans.

Pentamidine works by interfering with the DNA replication and protein synthesis of these microorganisms, which ultimately leads to their death. It is available as an injection or inhaled powder for medical use. Common side effects of pentamidine include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and changes in blood sugar levels. More serious side effects can include kidney damage, hearing loss, and heart rhythm disturbances.

It is important to note that the use of pentamidine should be under the supervision of a healthcare professional due to its potential for serious side effects and drug interactions.

I'm not aware of any medical definitions associated with the term "Congo." The term "Congo" is most commonly used to refer to:

1. The Congo River, which is the second longest river in Africa, flowing through the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo.
2. The two countries located in Central Africa that share the name "Congo": the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly known as Zaire) and the Republic of the Congo (formerly known as French Congo or Middle Congo).
3. In historical contexts, "Congo" may also refer to the Congo Free State (1885-1908), a private colony of King Leopold II of Belgium, which later became the Belgian Congo (1908-1960) and then Zaire (1971-1997).

If you are looking for medical information or definitions related to tropical diseases, healthcare in Africa, or similar topics, I would recommend using more specific terms.

Central nervous system (CNS) protozoal infections refer to diseases caused by protozoa that invade and infect the brain and spinal cord. These infections can lead to serious neurological symptoms and complications.

There are several types of protozoa that can cause CNS infections, including:

1. Toxoplasma gondii: This parasite is commonly found in cats and can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected cat feces or consumption of undercooked meat. In people with weakened immune systems, T. gondii can cause severe CNS symptoms such as seizures, confusion, and coma.
2. Naegleria fowleri: Also known as the "brain-eating amoeba," N. fowleri is a free-living protozoan found in warm freshwater environments. When people swim or dive in infected water, the amoeba can enter the body through the nose and travel to the brain, causing primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a rare but often fatal CNS infection.
3. Acanthamoeba: Like N. fowleri, Acanthamoeba is a free-living protozoan found in freshwater and soil. It can cause a range of CNS infections, including granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), which typically affects people with weakened immune systems.
4. Trypanosoma brucei: This parasite is transmitted through the bite of infected tsetse flies and causes African sleeping sickness, a CNS infection that can lead to coma and death if left untreated.
5. Plasmodium falciparum: While not strictly a protozoan, P. falciparum is a parasite that causes malaria, a mosquito-borne disease that can cause severe CNS symptoms such as seizures, coma, and cerebral malaria.

Treatment for CNS protozoal infections depends on the specific type of infection and may include antiprotozoal medications, antibiotics, or supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention measures include avoiding contact with infected animals or insects, practicing good hygiene, and using appropriate protective measures such as insect repellent or bed nets in areas where these infections are common.

Nifurtimox is an antiprotozoal medication used in the treatment of acute and chronic stages of American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. It works by inhibiting the parasite's energy metabolism, ultimately leading to its death. Nifurtimox is often given orally in the form of tablets and its use is typically accompanied by close medical supervision due to potential side effects such as anorexia, nausea, vomiting, and neurological symptoms.

Eflornithine is a antiprotozoal medication, which is used to treat sleeping sickness (human African trypanosomiasis) caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in adults and children. It works by inhibiting the enzyme ornithine decarboxylase, which is needed for the growth of the parasite. By doing so, it helps to control the infection and prevent further complications.

Eflornithine is also used as a topical cream to slow down excessive hair growth in women due to a condition called hirsutism. It works by interfering with the growth of hair follicles.

It's important to note that Eflornithine should be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional, and it may have side effects or interactions with other medications.

Antiprotozoal agents are a type of medication used to treat protozoal infections, which are infections caused by microscopic single-celled organisms called protozoa. These agents work by either killing the protozoa or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. They can be administered through various routes, including oral, topical, and intravenous, depending on the type of infection and the severity of the illness.

Examples of antiprotozoal agents include:

* Metronidazole, tinidazole, and nitazoxanide for treating infections caused by Giardia lamblia and Entamoeba histolytica.
* Atovaquone, clindamycin, and pyrimethamine-sulfadoxine for treating malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum or other Plasmodium species.
* Pentamidine and suramin for treating African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense or T. b. rhodesiense.
* Nitroimidazoles, such as benznidazole and nifurtimox, for treating Chagas disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi.
* Sodium stibogluconate and paromomycin for treating leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania species.

Antiprotozoal agents can have side effects, ranging from mild to severe, depending on the drug and the individual patient's response. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking these medications and report any adverse reactions promptly.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Sudan" is not a medical term. It is a country located in Northeast Africa, known as the Sudan or Sudan proper, and the southern region that seceded to become South Sudan in 2011. If you have any medical terms you would like me to define, please let me know!

'Insect control' is not a term typically used in medical definitions. However, it generally refers to the methods and practices used to manage or reduce the population of insects that can be harmful or disruptive to human health, food supply, or property. This can include various strategies such as chemical pesticides, biological control agents, habitat modification, and other integrated pest management techniques.

In medical terms, 'vector control' is a more relevant concept, which refers to the specific practices used to reduce or prevent the transmission of infectious diseases by insects and other arthropods that act as disease vectors (such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas). Vector control measures may include the use of insecticides, larvicides, biological control agents, environmental management, personal protection methods, and other integrated vector management strategies.

Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the protozoan *Trypanosoma cruzi*. It is primarily transmitted to humans through the feces of triatomine bugs (also called "kissing bugs"), which defecate on the skin of people while they are sleeping. The disease can also be spread through contaminated food or drink, during blood transfusions, from mother to baby during pregnancy or childbirth, and through organ transplantation.

The acute phase of Chagas disease can cause symptoms such as fever, fatigue, body aches, headache, rash, loss of appetite, diarrhea, and vomiting. However, many people do not experience any symptoms during the acute phase. After several weeks or months, most people enter the chronic phase of the disease, which can last for decades or even a lifetime. During this phase, many people do not have any symptoms, but about 20-30% of infected individuals will develop serious cardiac or digestive complications, such as heart failure, arrhythmias, or difficulty swallowing.

Chagas disease is primarily found in Latin America, where it is estimated that around 6-7 million people are infected with the parasite. However, due to increased travel and migration, cases of Chagas disease have been reported in other parts of the world, including North America, Europe, and Asia. There is no vaccine for Chagas disease, but medications are available to treat the infection during the acute phase and to manage symptoms during the chronic phase.

The Central African Republic (CAR) is a country located in the central region of Africa. It is not a medical term, but a geographical and political designation for a nation that has its own government, healthcare system, and public health challenges.

The CAR faces significant health issues, including a high burden of infectious diseases such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and neglected tropical diseases. Access to healthcare services is limited, particularly in rural areas, and the country has one of the lowest life expectancies in the world. Political instability and conflict have further exacerbated the health challenges in the CAR, leading to displacement, malnutrition, and reduced access to healthcare for many of its citizens.

Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis. It's transmitted to humans and other mammals through the feces of triatomine bugs, often called "kissing bugs." The parasite can also be spread through contaminated food, drink, or from mother to baby during pregnancy or birth.

The life cycle of Trypanosoma cruzi involves two main forms: the infective metacyclic trypomastigote that is found in the bug's feces and the replicative intracellular amastigote that resides within host cells. The metacyclic trypomastigotes enter the host through mucous membranes or skin lesions, where they invade various types of cells and differentiate into amastigotes. These amastigotes multiply by binary fission and then differentiate back into trypomastigotes, which are released into the bloodstream when the host cell ruptures. The circulating trypomastigotes can then infect other cells or be taken up by another triatomine bug during a blood meal, continuing the life cycle.

Clinical manifestations of Chagas disease range from an acute phase with non-specific symptoms like fever, swelling, and fatigue to a chronic phase characterized by cardiac and gastrointestinal complications, which can develop decades after the initial infection. Early detection and treatment of Chagas disease are crucial for preventing long-term health consequences.

Suramin is a medication that has been used for the treatment of African sleeping sickness, which is caused by trypanosomes. It works as a reverse-specific protein kinase CK inhibitor and also blocks the attachment of the parasite to the host cells. Suramin is not absorbed well from the gastrointestinal tract and is administered intravenously.

It should be noted that Suramin is an experimental treatment for other conditions such as cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, viral infections and autoimmune diseases, but it's still under investigation and has not been approved by FDA for those uses.

Diminazene is an antiparasitic drug, primarily used in veterinary medicine to treat and prevent infections caused by trypanosomes, which are protozoan parasites that can affect both animals and humans. The drug works by inhibiting the protein synthesis of the parasite, leading to its death.

In human medicine, diminazene is used as an alternative treatment for acute African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in areas where other treatments are not available or have failed. It is usually given by intramuscular injection and is often used in combination with suramin.

It's important to note that the use of diminazene in human medicine is limited due to its potential toxicity, and it should only be administered under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Benzamidines are a group of organic compounds that contain a benzene ring linked to an amidine functional group. They are commonly used as antimicrobial agents, particularly in the treatment of various gram-negative bacterial infections. Benzamidines work by inhibiting the enzyme bacterial dehydrogenases, which are essential for the bacteria's survival.

Some examples of benzamidine derivatives include:

* Tempanamine hydrochloride (Tembaglanil): used to treat urinary tract infections caused by susceptible strains of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae.
* Chlorhexidine: a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent used as a disinfectant and preservative in various medical and dental applications.
* Prothiobenzamide: an anti-inflammatory and analgesic drug used to treat gout and rheumatoid arthritis.

It is important to note that benzamidines have a narrow therapeutic index, which means that the difference between an effective dose and a toxic dose is small. Therefore, they should be used with caution and under the supervision of a healthcare professional.

Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) are a group of infectious diseases that primarily affect people living in poverty, in tropical and subtropical areas. These diseases are called "neglected" because they have been largely ignored by medical research and drug development, as well as by global health agencies and pharmaceutical companies.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified 20 diseases as NTDs, including:

1. Buruli ulcer
2. Chagas disease
3. Dengue and chikungunya
4. Dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease)
5. Echinococcosis
6. Endemic treponematoses
7. Foodborne trematodiases
8. Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
9. Leishmaniasis
10. Leprosy (Hansen's disease)
11. Lymphatic filariasis
12. Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
13. Rabies
14. Schistosomiasis
15. Soil-transmitted helminthiases
16. Snakebite envenoming
17. Taeniasis/Cysticercosis
18. Trachoma
19. Mycetoma, chromoblastomycosis and other deep mycoses
20. Yaws (Endemic treponematoses)

These diseases can lead to severe disfigurement, disability, and even death if left untreated. They affect more than 1 billion people worldwide, mainly in low-income countries in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. NTDs also have significant social and economic impacts, contributing to poverty, stigma, discrimination, and exclusion.

Efforts are underway to raise awareness and increase funding for research, prevention, and treatment of NTDs. The WHO has set targets for controlling or eliminating several NTDs by 2030, including dracunculiasis, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, trachoma, and human African trypanosomiasis.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Uganda" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country located in East Africa, known officially as the Republic of Uganda. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help with those!

Central Africa is a geographical region that broadly includes the countries that lie near the equator and are found in the interior of the African continent. The United Nations defines Central Africa as consisting of the following countries: Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Rwanda, and Sao Tome and Principe.

The region is characterized by diverse cultures, languages, and landscapes, ranging from dense rainforests to vast savannas. Central Africa is home to many important rivers, including the Congo River, which is the second longest river in Africa and the deepest river in the world. The region also contains numerous national parks and wildlife reserves that protect a diverse array of plant and animal species, including several endangered species such as mountain gorillas, chimpanzees, and forest elephants.

Central Africa faces many challenges, including political instability, poverty, and environmental degradation. The region has been plagued by conflicts and civil wars, which have resulted in significant loss of life, displacement of people, and destruction of infrastructure. Climate change and deforestation are also major concerns, as they threaten the region's biodiversity and contribute to global warming.

In terms of healthcare, Central Africa faces many challenges, including a high burden of infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and Ebola. Access to healthcare is limited in many areas, particularly in rural communities, and there is a shortage of healthcare workers and medical facilities. In addition, the region has been affected by conflicts and humanitarian crises, which have further strained healthcare systems and made it difficult to provide adequate care to those in need.

Parasitic sensitivity tests, also known as parasite drug susceptibility tests, refer to laboratory methods used to determine the effectiveness of specific antiparasitic medications against a particular parasitic infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which drugs are most likely to be effective in treating an individual's infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance or increased risk of side effects.

There are several types of parasitic sensitivity tests, including:

1. In vitro susceptibility testing: This involves culturing the parasite in a laboratory setting and exposing it to different concentrations of antiparasitic drugs. The growth or survival of the parasite is then observed and compared to a control group that was not exposed to the drug. This helps identify the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the drug, which is the lowest concentration required to prevent the growth of the parasite.
2. Molecular testing: This involves analyzing the genetic material of the parasite to detect specific mutations or gene variations that are associated with resistance to certain antiparasitic drugs. This type of testing can be performed using a variety of methods, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing.
3. Phenotypic testing: This involves observing the effects of antiparasitic drugs on the growth or survival of the parasite in a laboratory setting. For example, a parasite may be grown in a culture medium and then exposed to different concentrations of a drug. The growth of the parasite is then monitored over time to determine the drug's effectiveness.

Parasitic sensitivity tests are important for guiding the treatment of many parasitic infections, including malaria, tuberculosis, and leishmaniasis. These tests can help healthcare providers choose the most effective antiparasitic drugs for their patients, reduce the risk of drug resistance, and improve treatment outcomes.

Variants surface glycoproteins (VSGs) in Trypanosoma are a group of molecules found on the surface of the parasitic protozoan that causes African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness. These proteins play a crucial role in the survival of the parasite within the host's body by allowing it to evade the host's immune system.

Trypanosoma parasites have a single VSG gene that is actively expressed at any given time, while thousands of other VSG genes remain silent. The expressed VSG protein is located on the surface of the parasite and serves as a target for the host's immune response. However, when the host's immune system produces antibodies against the VSG protein, the parasite undergoes a process called "antigenic variation" where it switches to expressing a different VSG gene, allowing it to evade the immune response.

This continuous switching of VSG genes allows the parasite to avoid clearance by the host's immune system and establish a chronic infection. Understanding the mechanisms of antigenic variation and VSG gene regulation is important for developing new strategies for treating African trypanosomiasis.

Agglutination tests are laboratory diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of antibodies or antigens in a sample, such as blood or serum. These tests work by observing the clumping (agglutination) of particles, like red blood cells or bacteriophages, coated with specific antigens or antibodies when mixed with a patient's sample.

In an agglutination test, the sample is typically combined with a reagent containing known antigens or antibodies on the surface of particles, such as latex beads, red blood cells, or bacteriophages. If the sample contains the corresponding antibodies or antigens, they will bind to the particles, forming visible clumps or agglutinates. The presence and strength of agglutination are then assessed visually or with automated equipment to determine the presence and quantity of the target antigen or antibody in the sample.

Agglutination tests are widely used in medical diagnostics for various applications, including:

1. Bacterial and viral infections: To identify specific bacterial or viral antigens in a patient's sample, such as group A Streptococcus, Legionella pneumophila, or HIV.
2. Blood typing: To determine the ABO blood group and Rh type of a donor or recipient before a blood transfusion or organ transplantation.
3. Autoimmune diseases: To detect autoantibodies in patients with suspected autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, or Hashimoto's thyroiditis.
4. Allergies: To identify specific IgE antibodies in a patient's sample to determine allergic reactions to various substances, such as pollen, food, or venom.
5. Drug monitoring: To detect and quantify the presence of drug-induced antibodies, such as those developed in response to penicillin or hydralazine therapy.

Agglutination tests are simple, rapid, and cost-effective diagnostic tools that provide valuable information for clinical decision-making and patient management. However, they may have limitations, including potential cross-reactivity with other antigens, false-positive results due to rheumatoid factors or heterophile antibodies, and false-negative results due to the prozone effect or insufficient sensitivity. Therefore, it is essential to interpret agglutination test results in conjunction with clinical findings and other laboratory data.

Parasitology is a branch of biology that deals with the study of parasites, their life cycles, the relationship between parasites and their hosts, the transmission of parasitic diseases, and the development of methods for their control and elimination. It involves understanding various types of parasites including protozoa, helminths, and arthropods that can infect humans, animals, and plants. Parasitologists also study the evolution, genetics, biochemistry, and ecology of parasites to develop effective strategies for their diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

Antibodies, protozoan, refer to the immune system's response to an infection caused by a protozoan organism. Protozoa are single-celled microorganisms that can cause various diseases in humans, such as malaria, giardiasis, and toxoplasmosis.

When the body is infected with a protozoan, the immune system responds by producing specific proteins called antibodies. Antibodies are produced by a type of white blood cell called a B-cell, and they recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the protozoan organism.

There are five main types of antibodies: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each type of antibody has a different role in the immune response. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody and provides long-term immunity to previously encountered pathogens. IgM is the first antibody produced in response to an infection and is important for activating the complement system, which helps to destroy the protozoan organism.

Overall, the production of antibodies against protozoan organisms is a critical part of the immune response and helps to protect the body from further infection.

Insect vectors are insects that transmit disease-causing pathogens (such as viruses, bacteria, parasites) from one host to another. They do this while feeding on the host's blood or tissues. The insects themselves are not infected by the pathogen but act as mechanical carriers that pass it on during their bite. Examples of diseases spread by insect vectors include malaria (transmitted by mosquitoes), Lyme disease (transmitted by ticks), and plague (transmitted by fleas). Proper prevention measures, such as using insect repellent and reducing standing water where mosquitoes breed, can help reduce the risk of contracting these diseases.

To the best of my knowledge, "Côte d'Ivoire" is not a medical term or concept. It is the name of a country, which is officially known as the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire. The country is located in West Africa and is bordered by countries such as Ghana, Mali, Burkina Faso, and Liberia.

Côte d'Ivoire was once a French colony and gained its independence in 1960. The country has a diverse population and a developing economy, with agriculture being a major contributor to its GDP. The capital city of Côte d'Ivoire is Yamoussoukro, while the largest city is Abidjan.

It's important to note that medical terminology and concepts are typically related to anatomy, physiology, diseases, treatments, and other health-related topics. Therefore, it's unlikely that a country name like Côte d'Ivoire would have a direct medical definition or application.

Tropical medicine is a branch of medicine that deals with health problems that are prevalent in or unique to tropical and subtropical regions. These regions are typically characterized by hot and humid climates, and often have distinct ecological systems that can contribute to the spread of infectious diseases.

The field of tropical medicine encompasses a wide range of health issues, including:

1. Infectious diseases: Many tropical diseases are caused by infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi. Some of the most common infectious diseases in the tropics include malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, chikungunya, Zika virus, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, and Chagas disease.
2. Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs): A group of chronic infectious diseases that primarily affect poor and marginalized populations in the tropics. NTDs include diseases such as human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), leprosy, Buruli ulcer, and dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease).
3. Zoonotic diseases: Diseases that are transmitted between animals and humans, often through insect vectors or contaminated food and water. Examples of zoonotic diseases in the tropics include rabies, leptospirosis, and Rift Valley fever.
4. Environmental health issues: The tropical environment can pose unique health challenges, such as exposure to toxic chemicals, heat stress, and poor air quality. Tropical medicine also addresses these environmental health issues.
5. Travel medicine: As global travel increases, there is a growing need for medical professionals who are knowledgeable about the health risks associated with traveling to tropical destinations. Tropical medicine physicians often provide pre-travel consultations and post-travel evaluations for international travelers.

Overall, tropical medicine is an essential field that addresses the unique health challenges faced by populations living in or traveling to tropical and subtropical regions.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a shock absorber for the central nervous system and provides nutrients to the brain while removing waste products. CSF is produced by specialized cells called ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of the ventricles (fluid-filled spaces) inside the brain. From there, it circulates through the ventricular system and around the outside of the brain and spinal cord before being absorbed back into the bloodstream. CSF analysis is an important diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, including infections, inflammation, and cancer.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Zambia" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in southern Africa, known officially as the Republic of Zambia. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help with those!

Leishmaniasis is a complex of diseases caused by the protozoan parasites of the Leishmania species, which are transmitted to humans through the bite of infected female phlebotomine sandflies. The disease presents with a variety of clinical manifestations, depending upon the Leishmania species involved and the host's immune response.

There are three main forms of leishmaniasis: cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (MCL), and visceral leishmaniasis (VL), also known as kala-azar. CL typically presents with skin ulcers, while MCL is characterized by the destruction of mucous membranes in the nose, mouth, and throat. VL, the most severe form, affects internal organs such as the spleen, liver, and bone marrow, causing symptoms like fever, weight loss, anemia, and enlarged liver and spleen.

Leishmaniasis is prevalent in many tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of Asia, Africa, South America, and southern Europe. The prevention strategies include using insect repellents, wearing protective clothing, and improving housing conditions to minimize exposure to sandflies. Effective treatment options are available for leishmaniasis, depending on the form and severity of the disease, geographical location, and the Leishmania species involved.

Flocculation tests are diagnostic procedures used in medical laboratories to detect and measure the presence of certain substances, such as proteins or bacteria, in a sample. These tests work by adding a reagent to the sample that causes any targeted substances to clump together (flocculate) and become visible or easily measurable.

For example, in a coagulation or flocculation test for proteinuria (protein in urine), a reagent such as sulfosalicylic acid is added to a urine sample. If proteins are present in the sample, they will react with the reagent and form a white precipitate that can be seen with the naked eye or measured with a spectrophotometer.

Flocculation tests are commonly used in clinical chemistry and microbiology to diagnose various medical conditions, monitor treatment progress, and assess overall health status.

Nitroimidazoles are a class of antibiotic drugs that contain a nitro group (-NO2) attached to an imidazole ring. These medications have both antiprotozoal and antibacterial properties, making them effective against a range of anaerobic organisms, including bacteria and parasites. They work by being reduced within the organism, which leads to the formation of toxic radicals that interfere with DNA function and ultimately kill the microorganism.

Some common examples of nitroimidazoles include:

* Metronidazole: used for treating infections caused by anaerobic bacteria and protozoa, such as bacterial vaginosis, amebiasis, giardiasis, and pseudomembranous colitis.
* Tinidazole: similar to metronidazole, it is used to treat various infections caused by anaerobic bacteria and protozoa, including trichomoniasis, giardiasis, and amebiasis.
* Secnidazole: another medication in this class, used for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, and amebiasis.

Nitroimidazoles are generally well-tolerated, but side effects can include gastrointestinal symptoms like nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea. Rare but serious side effects may include peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage) and central nervous system toxicity, particularly with high doses or long-term use. It is essential to follow the prescribed dosage and duration closely to minimize potential risks while ensuring effective treatment.

A disease vector is a living organism that transmits infectious pathogens from one host to another. These vectors can include mosquitoes, ticks, fleas, and other arthropods that carry viruses, bacteria, parasites, or other disease-causing agents. The vector becomes infected with the pathogen after biting an infected host, and then transmits the infection to another host through its saliva or feces during a subsequent blood meal.

Disease vectors are of particular concern in public health because they can spread diseases rapidly and efficiently, often over large geographic areas. Controlling vector-borne diseases requires a multifaceted approach that includes reducing vector populations, preventing bites, and developing vaccines or treatments for the associated diseases.

Central nervous system (CNS) parasitic infections refer to the invasion and infection of the brain and/or spinal cord by parasites. These infections can cause a range of symptoms depending on the type of parasite, the location of the infection within the CNS, and the severity of the infection.

Parasites that can infect the CNS include protozoa (such as Toxoplasma gondii, Naegleria fowleri, and Plasmodium falciparum), helminths (such as cysticercosis caused by Taenia solium tapeworm larvae), and arthropods (such as ticks that can transmit Lyme disease).

Symptoms of CNS parasitic infections can include headache, fever, seizures, confusion, weakness, numbness, loss of coordination, and changes in behavior or personality. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT scans), and laboratory tests (such as CSF analysis or PCR).

Treatment for CNS parasitic infections depends on the specific type of parasite involved and may include medications such as antiparasitics, antibiotics, or corticosteroids. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove parasites or cysts from the CNS. Prevention measures include avoiding contaminated food and water, practicing good hygiene, using insect repellent, and seeking prompt medical attention for any suspected infectious symptoms.

There doesn't seem to be a specific medical definition for "DNA, protozoan" as it is simply a reference to the DNA found in protozoa. Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic organisms that can be found in various environments such as soil, water, and the digestive tracts of animals.

Protozoan DNA refers to the genetic material present in these organisms. It is composed of nucleic acids, including deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which contain the instructions for the development, growth, and reproduction of the protozoan.

The DNA in protozoa, like in other organisms, is made up of two strands of nucleotides that coil together to form a double helix. The four nucleotide bases that make up protozoan DNA are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). These bases pair with each other to form the rungs of the DNA ladder, with A always pairing with T and G always pairing with C.

The genetic information stored in protozoan DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nucleotide bases. This information is used to synthesize proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of the organism's cells. Protozoan DNA also contains other types of genetic material, such as regulatory sequences that control gene expression and repetitive elements with no known function.

Understanding the DNA of protozoa is important for studying their biology, evolution, and pathogenicity. It can help researchers develop new treatments for protozoan diseases and gain insights into the fundamental principles of genetics and cellular function.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Africa" actually refers to a continent, not a medical condition or concept. Africa is the second-largest continent in the world, consisting of 54 countries and a wide range of diverse ethnic groups, cultures, languages, and landscapes. It is home to a vast array of wildlife, including many species that are not found anywhere else in the world. If you have any questions about Africa's geography, history, or culture, I would be happy to try to help answer them!

I apologize for any confusion, but "livestock" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is an agricultural term that refers to animals that are kept or raised on a farm or ranch for commercial purposes, such as the production of food, fiber, or labor. Examples of livestock include cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, poultry, and horses. I hope this clarifies any confusion. If you have any questions related to medical terminology, I would be happy to help.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Gabon" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in Central Africa, known officially as the Gabonese Republic. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to help with those!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Protozoan Proteins" is not a specific medical or scientific term. Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotic organisms, and proteins are large biological molecules consisting of one or more chains of amino acid residues. Therefore, "Protozoan Proteins" generally refers to the various types of proteins found in protozoa.

However, if you're looking for information about proteins specific to certain protozoan parasites with medical relevance (such as Plasmodium falciparum, which causes malaria), I would be happy to help! Please provide more context or specify the particular protozoan of interest.

I apologize, but "Chad" is not a medical term or condition. It is a given name and also a slang term that has been used in popular culture to refer to an attractive man or a stereotypical fraternity member in some English-speaking countries. If you have any questions about medical terminology, I would be happy to help answer those for you.

An endemic disease is a type of disease that is regularly found among particular people or in a certain population, and is spread easily from person to person. The rate of infection is consistently high in these populations, but it is relatively stable and does not change dramatically over time. Endemic diseases are contrasted with epidemic diseases, which suddenly increase in incidence and spread rapidly through a large population.

Endemic diseases are often associated with poverty, poor sanitation, and limited access to healthcare. They can also be influenced by environmental factors such as climate, water quality, and exposure to vectors like mosquitoes or ticks. Examples of endemic diseases include malaria in some tropical countries, tuberculosis (TB) in many parts of the world, and HIV/AIDS in certain populations.

Effective prevention and control measures for endemic diseases typically involve improving access to healthcare, promoting good hygiene and sanitation practices, providing vaccinations when available, and implementing vector control strategies. By addressing the underlying social and environmental factors that contribute to the spread of these diseases, it is possible to reduce their impact on affected populations and improve overall health outcomes.

Parasitic diseases are infections or illnesses caused by parasites, which are organisms that live and feed on host organisms, often causing harm. Parasites can be protozoans (single-celled organisms), helminths (worms), or ectoparasites (ticks, mites, fleas). These diseases can affect various body systems and cause a range of symptoms, depending on the type of parasite and the location of infection. They are typically spread through contaminated food or water, insect vectors, or direct contact with an infected host or contaminated environment. Examples of parasitic diseases include malaria, giardiasis, toxoplasmosis, ascariasis, and leishmaniasis.

Protozoan infections are diseases caused by microscopic, single-celled organisms known as protozoa. These parasites can enter the human body through contaminated food, water, or contact with an infected person or animal. Once inside the body, they can multiply and cause a range of symptoms depending on the type of protozoan and where it infects in the body. Some common protozoan infections include malaria, giardiasis, amoebiasis, and toxoplasmosis. Symptoms can vary widely but may include diarrhea, abdominal pain, fever, fatigue, and skin rashes. Treatment typically involves the use of antiprotozoal medications to kill the parasites and alleviate symptoms.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Guinea" is not a medical term. It is a geographical term referring to a region on the west coast of Africa, as well as the country of Equatorial Guinea and its neighboring countries. Additionally, "Guinea" can also refer to a unit of currency in Liberia.

If you have any medical concerns or questions, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you.

A chancre is a medical term that refers to a hard, painless skin ulcer that is typically the first stage of certain bacterial infections, most commonly syphilis. It is usually round or oval in shape and can appear as a sore or lesion on the skin or mucous membranes, such as the genitals, anus, or mouth. The chancre is caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum and is typically accompanied by swollen lymph nodes in the nearby area.

The chancre usually develops about 3 weeks after exposure to the bacteria and can last for several weeks. While it may heal on its own, it's important to seek medical attention if you suspect you have a chancre, as syphilis is a serious infection that can cause long-term health problems if left untreated. Treatment with antibiotics, such as penicillin, can cure syphilis and prevent further complications.

Amidines are organic compounds that contain a functional group with the structure R-C=N-R, where R can be an alkyl or aromatic group. This functional group consists of a carbonyl (C=O) group and a nitrogen atom (N) connected to two organic groups (R).

In medical terminology, amidines are not commonly used. However, some amidine derivatives have been investigated for their potential therapeutic properties. For example, certain amidine compounds have shown antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral activities. Some of these compounds have also been studied as potential drugs for the treatment of various diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurological disorders.

It is important to note that while some amidines may have therapeutic potential, they can also be toxic at high concentrations and should be handled with care.

Parasitemia is a medical term that refers to the presence of parasites, particularly malaria-causing Plasmodium species, in the bloodstream. It is the condition where red blood cells are infected by these parasites, which can lead to various symptoms such as fever, chills, anemia, and organ damage in severe cases. The level of parasitemia is often used to assess the severity of malaria infection and to guide treatment decisions.

Blood is the fluid that circulates in the body of living organisms, carrying oxygen and nutrients to the cells and removing carbon dioxide and other waste products. It is composed of red and white blood cells suspended in a liquid called plasma. The main function of blood is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. It also transports nutrients, hormones, and other substances to the cells and removes waste products from them. Additionally, blood plays a crucial role in the body's immune system by helping to fight infection and disease.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "travel" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. In general, travel refers to the act of moving or journeying from one place to another, often over long distances. However, in a medical context, it might refer to the recommendation that individuals with certain medical conditions or those who are immunocompromised avoid traveling to areas where they may be at increased risk of exposure to infectious diseases. It's always best to check with a healthcare professional for advice related to specific medical situations and travel.

Meningoencephalitis is a medical term that refers to an inflammation of both the brain (encephalitis) and the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges), known as the meninges. It is often caused by an infection, such as bacterial or viral infections, that spreads to the meninges and brain. In some cases, it can also be caused by other factors like autoimmune disorders or certain medications.

The symptoms of meningoencephalitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, and changes in mental status. If left untreated, this condition can lead to serious complications, such as brain damage, hearing loss, learning disabilities, or even death. Treatment typically involves antibiotics for bacterial infections or antiviral medications for viral infections, along with supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

A disease reservoir refers to a population or group of living organisms, including humans, animals, and even plants, that can naturally carry and transmit a particular pathogen (disease-causing agent) without necessarily showing symptoms of the disease themselves. These hosts serve as a source of infection for other susceptible individuals, allowing the pathogen to persist and circulate within a community or environment.

Disease reservoirs can be further classified into:

1. **Primary (or Main) Reservoir**: This refers to the species that primarily harbors and transmits the pathogen, contributing significantly to its natural ecology and maintaining its transmission cycle. For example, mosquitoes are the primary reservoirs for many arboviruses like dengue, Zika, and chikungunya viruses.

2. **Amplifying Hosts**: These hosts can become infected with the pathogen and experience a high rate of replication, leading to an increased concentration of the pathogen in their bodies. This allows for efficient transmission to other susceptible hosts or vectors. For instance, birds are amplifying hosts for West Nile virus, as they can become viremic (have high levels of virus in their blood) and infect feeding mosquitoes that then transmit the virus to other animals and humans.

3. **Dead-end Hosts**: These hosts may become infected with the pathogen but do not contribute significantly to its transmission cycle, as they either do not develop sufficient quantities of the pathogen to transmit it or do not come into contact with potential vectors or susceptible hosts. For example, humans are dead-end hosts for many zoonotic diseases like rabies, as they cannot transmit the virus to other humans.

Understanding disease reservoirs is crucial in developing effective strategies for controlling and preventing infectious diseases, as it helps identify key species and environments that contribute to their persistence and transmission.

Antiparasitic agents are a type of medication used to treat parasitic infections. These agents include a wide range of drugs that work to destroy, inhibit the growth of, or otherwise eliminate parasites from the body. Parasites are organisms that live on or inside a host and derive nutrients at the host's expense.

Antiparasitic agents can be divided into several categories based on the type of parasite they target. Some examples include:

* Antimalarial agents: These drugs are used to treat and prevent malaria, which is caused by a parasite that is transmitted through the bites of infected mosquitoes.
* Antiprotozoal agents: These drugs are used to treat infections caused by protozoa, which are single-celled organisms that can cause diseases such as giardiasis, amoebic dysentery, and sleeping sickness.
* Antihelminthic agents: These drugs are used to treat infections caused by helminths, which are parasitic worms that can infect various organs of the body, including the intestines, lungs, and skin. Examples include roundworms, tapeworms, and flukes.

Antiparasitic agents work in different ways to target parasites. Some disrupt the parasite's metabolism or interfere with its ability to reproduce. Others damage the parasite's membrane or exoskeleton, leading to its death. The specific mechanism of action depends on the type of antiparasitic agent and the parasite it is targeting.

It is important to note that while antiparasitic agents can be effective in treating parasitic infections, they can also have side effects and potential risks. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any antiparasitic medication to ensure safe and appropriate use.

Cattle diseases are a range of health conditions that affect cattle, which include but are not limited to:

1. Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD): Also known as "shipping fever," BRD is a common respiratory illness in feedlot cattle that can be caused by several viruses and bacteria.
2. Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD): A viral disease that can cause a variety of symptoms, including diarrhea, fever, and reproductive issues.
3. Johne's Disease: A chronic wasting disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. It primarily affects the intestines and can cause severe diarrhea and weight loss.
4. Digital Dermatitis: Also known as "hairy heel warts," this is a highly contagious skin disease that affects the feet of cattle, causing lameness and decreased productivity.
5. Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis (IBK): Also known as "pinkeye," IBK is a common and contagious eye infection in cattle that can cause blindness if left untreated.
6. Salmonella: A group of bacteria that can cause severe gastrointestinal illness in cattle, including diarrhea, dehydration, and septicemia.
7. Leptospirosis: A bacterial disease that can cause a wide range of symptoms in cattle, including abortion, stillbirths, and kidney damage.
8. Blackleg: A highly fatal bacterial disease that causes rapid death in young cattle. It is caused by Clostridium chauvoei and vaccination is recommended for prevention.
9. Anthrax: A serious infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Cattle can become infected by ingesting spores found in contaminated soil, feed or water.
10. Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD): A highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hooved animals, including cattle. It is characterized by fever and blisters on the feet, mouth, and teats. FMD is not a threat to human health but can have serious economic consequences for the livestock industry.

It's important to note that many of these diseases can be prevented or controlled through good management practices, such as vaccination, biosecurity measures, and proper nutrition. Regular veterinary care and monitoring are also crucial for early detection and treatment of any potential health issues in your herd.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Tanzania" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in East Africa. If you have any questions about medical terms or conditions, I would be happy to help clarify those for you.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Kenya" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in East Africa, known for its diverse wildlife and geography, including savannas, lakelands, the dramatic Great Rift Valley, and mountain highlands. It is also where you can find the Maasai Mara Reserve, known for its annual wildebeest migrations, and vast Nairobi National Park. The capital city of Kenya is Nairobi. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help with those!

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases refer to medical conditions that primarily affect the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is responsible for controlling various functions in the body, including movement, sensation, cognition, and behavior. Therefore, diseases of the CNS can have significant impacts on a person's quality of life and overall health.

There are many different types of CNS diseases, including:

1. Infectious diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites that infect the brain or spinal cord. Examples include meningitis, encephalitis, and polio.
2. Neurodegenerative diseases: These are characterized by progressive loss of nerve cells in the brain or spinal cord. Examples include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.
3. Structural diseases: These involve damage to the physical structure of the brain or spinal cord, such as from trauma, tumors, or stroke.
4. Functional diseases: These affect the function of the nervous system without obvious structural damage, such as multiple sclerosis and epilepsy.
5. Genetic disorders: Some CNS diseases are caused by genetic mutations, such as spinal muscular atrophy and Friedreich's ataxia.

Symptoms of CNS diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the area of the brain or spinal cord that is affected. They may include muscle weakness, paralysis, seizures, loss of sensation, difficulty with coordination and balance, confusion, memory loss, changes in behavior or mood, and pain. Treatment for CNS diseases depends on the specific condition and may involve medications, surgery, rehabilitation therapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Preclinical drug evaluation refers to a series of laboratory tests and studies conducted to determine the safety and effectiveness of a new drug before it is tested in humans. These studies typically involve experiments on cells and animals to evaluate the pharmacological properties, toxicity, and potential interactions with other substances. The goal of preclinical evaluation is to establish a reasonable level of safety and understanding of how the drug works, which helps inform the design and conduct of subsequent clinical trials in humans. It's important to note that while preclinical studies provide valuable information, they may not always predict how a drug will behave in human subjects.

Nitroreductases are a group of enzymes that can reduce nitro groups (-NO2) to nitroso groups (-NHOH) or amino groups (-NH2) in various organic compounds. These enzymes are widely distributed in nature and found in many different types of organisms, including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals.

In medicine, nitroreductases have been studied for their potential role in the activation of certain drugs or prodrugs. For example, some anticancer agents such as CB1954 (also known as 5-(aziridin-1-yl)-2,4-dinitrobenzamide) are relatively inert until they are reduced by nitroreductases to more reactive metabolites that can interact with DNA and other cellular components. This property has been exploited in the development of targeted cancer therapies that selectively deliver prodrugs to tumor cells, where they can be activated by endogenous nitroreductases to kill the cancer cells while minimizing toxicity to normal tissues.

Nitroreductases have also been implicated in the development of bacterial resistance to certain antibiotics, such as metronidazole and nitrofurantoin. These drugs are activated by nitroreductases in bacteria, but overexpression or mutation of the enzyme can lead to reduced drug activation and increased resistance.

Emerging communicable diseases are infections whose incidence has increased in the past two decades or threatens to increase in the near future. These diseases can be caused by new microbial agents, or by previously known agents that have newly acquired the ability to cause disease in humans. They may also result from changes in human demographics, behavior, or travel patterns, or from technological or environmental changes. Examples of emerging communicable diseases include COVID-19, Ebola virus disease, Zika virus infection, and West Nile fever.

The ribosomal spacer in DNA refers to the non-coding sequences of DNA that are located between the genes for ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These spacer regions are present in the DNA of organisms that have a nuclear genome, including humans and other animals, plants, and fungi.

In prokaryotic cells, such as bacteria, there are two ribosomal RNA genes, 16S and 23S, separated by a spacer region known as the intergenic spacer (IGS). In eukaryotic cells, there are multiple copies of ribosomal RNA genes arranged in clusters called nucleolar organizer regions (NORs), which are located on the short arms of several acrocentric chromosomes. Each cluster contains hundreds to thousands of copies of the 18S, 5.8S, and 28S rRNA genes, separated by non-transcribed spacer regions known as internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and external transcribed spacers (ETS).

The ribosomal spacer regions in DNA are often used as molecular markers for studying evolutionary relationships among organisms because they evolve more rapidly than the rRNA genes themselves. The sequences of these spacer regions can be compared among different species to infer their phylogenetic relationships and to estimate the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Additionally, the length and composition of ribosomal spacers can vary between individuals within a species, making them useful for studying genetic diversity and population structure.

"Africa South of the Sahara" is a term commonly used in medical and scientific literature to refer to the region of the African continent that lies south of the Sahara Desert. This region includes 48 countries, with a population of over 1 billion people, and is characterized by its tropical or subtropical climate, diverse cultures, and unique health challenges.

The term "South of the Sahara" is used to distinguish this region from North Africa, which is predominantly Arab and Berber in culture and has closer ties to the Middle East than to Sub-Saharan Africa. The Sahara Desert serves as a natural geographical boundary between these two regions.

In medical terms, "Africa South of the Sahara" encompasses a wide range of health issues, including infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, and Ebola, which are prevalent in many parts of the region. The area also faces challenges related to maternal and child health, nutrition, water and sanitation, and non-communicable diseases such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Medical research and interventions focused on "Africa South of the Sahara" aim to address these unique health challenges and improve the overall health outcomes of the population in this region.

Latex fixation tests are diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of certain antigens or antibodies in a patient's sample, such as blood or serum. These tests use latex particles that are coated with specific antigens or antibodies that can bind to complementary antigens or antibodies present in the sample. When the sample is added to the latex reagent, if the specific antigen or antibody is present, they will bind to the latex particles, forming an agglutination reaction that can be seen as a visible clumping or agglutination of the latex particles.

Latex fixation tests are commonly used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and genetic disorders. For example, a latex fixation test may be used to detect the presence of Streptococcus pneumoniae antigens in a patient's sputum sample or to identify the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF) antibodies in a patient's blood sample. These tests are known for their simplicity, speed, and sensitivity, making them a valuable tool in clinical laboratories.

... could, in future be prevented by genetically altering the tsetse fly. As the tsetse fly is the main vector of ... Trypanosomiasis or trypanosomosis is the name of several diseases in vertebrates caused by parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of ... African trypanosomiasis, which is caused by either Trypanosoma brucei gambiense or Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, threatens ... Another way to diagnose trypanosomiasis in humans is to detect the trypanosome protozoans themselves. One way to do this would ...
A Trypanosomiasis vaccine is a vaccine against trypanosomiasis. No effective vaccine currently exists, but development of a ... Radwanska M, Guirnalda P, De Trez C, Ryffel B, Black S, Magez S (May 2008). Riley EM (ed.). "Trypanosomiasis-Induced B Cell ... "Trypanosomiasis". Retrieved 2009-01-15. Lalmanach G, Boulangé A, Serveau C, et al. (May 2002). "Congopain from Trypanosoma ... Eradication of infectious diseases § African trypanosomiasis Trypanocidal agent "US Fraunhofer Center receives Grant from the ...
... , also known as nagana and nagana pest, or sleeping sickness, is a disease of vertebrates. The disease is ... "Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)". Fact sheet. World Health Organization (WHO). 10 January 2022. Courtin D, ... Some drugs can prevent trypanosomiasis, and are called prophylactic drugs. These are very effective in protecting animals ... WHO fact sheet on Trypanosomiasis (CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list, Articles with short description, Short description ...
... is a cutaneous condition caused by several species of trypanosomes, with skin manifestations usually ... 428 Trypanosomiasis Skin lesion James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G.; et al. (2006). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical ...
"East African Trypanosomiasis FAQs". Parasites - African Trypanosomiasis (also known as Sleeping Sickness). Centers for Disease ... "West African Trypanosomiasis FAQs". Parasites - African Trypanosomiasis (also known as Sleeping Sickness). Centers for Disease ... "CDC - African Trypanosomiasis - General Information - East African Trypanosomiasis FAQs". www.cdc.gov. 22 April 2019. Retrieved ... Ulcer of human African trypanosomiasis Typical fine-spotted pink rash of acute African trypanosomiasis on the skin of the ...
"Trypanosomiasis". Retrieved 19 May 2017. "OIE Technical Disease Card: Dourine" (PDF). Dourine at the U.S. National Library of ...
Trypanosomiasis. In: A Textbook of Medicine, 2d ed., ed. R. L. Cecil, pp. 377-80. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders. 1928 With W. H ... Complement fixation, precipitin, adhesion, mercuric chloride and Wassermann tests in equine trypanosomiasis of Panama (murrina ...
"African trypanosomiasis". World Health Organization. August 2006. Archived from the original on 2016-12-04. Retrieved 2020-10- ... The three major human diseases caused by trypanosomatids are; African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness, caused by Trypanosoma ... July 2002). "Treatment of human African trypanosomiasis-present situation and needs for research and development". Lancet ... PMID 16504583.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) "Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping ...
"American Trypanosomiasis". Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Retrieved 17 July 2015. Goddard, J; deShazo, R (1 April 2009). " ...
"DPDx - Trypanosomiasis, American. Fact Sheet". Centers for Disease Control (CDC). 30 April 2019. Archived from the original on ... 2004). The Trypanosomiases. Wallingford: CAB International. p. 184. ISBN 9780851990347. Robertson LJ, Deveesschauwer B, de Noya ... Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is a tropical parasitic disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. It is ... Liu Q, Zhou XN (December 2015). "Preventing the transmission of American trypanosomiasis and its spread into non-endemic ...
"Trypanosomiasis, human African (Sleeping sickness)". "WHO; World Health Organization". apps.who.int. Mehlitz, D.; Molyneux, D.H ... Brun R, Blum J, Chappuis F, Burri C (January 2010). "Human African trypanosomiasis". Lancet. 375 (9709): 148-59. doi:10.1016/ ... The Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC) works to eradicate the tsetse fly vector population ... Schofield CJ, Kabayo JP (August 2008). "Trypanosomiasis vector control in Africa and Latin America". Parasites & Vectors. 1 (1 ...
However, arsenicals such as melarsoprol are still used for the treatment of trypanosomiasis, since although these drugs have ... "Human African trypanosomiasis". Lancet. 390 (10110): 2397-2409. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31510-6. PMID 28673422. S2CID 4853616 ...
However, since African trypanosomiasis has a high mortality rate if left untreated, treatment with eflornithine may justify any ... "CDC - African Trypanosomiasis - Resources for Health Professionals". www.cdc.gov. 10 August 2016. Archived from the original on ... Sleeping sickness, or trypanosomiasis, is treated with pentamidine or suramin (depending on subspecies of parasite) delivered ... It has also been given orally on at least some rare occasions for the treatment of African trypanosomiasis. Common side effects ...
"Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness)". World Health Organization. February 2016. Archived from the original on 4 ... Melarsoprol was used to treat a patient with second-stage African trypanosomiasis on season 1 episode 7 "Fidelity" of the ... Melarsoprol is an arsenic-containing medication used for the treatment of sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis). It is ... CDC (2013). "Disease Control and Prevention: Parasites - African Trypanosomiasis". Archived from the original on 2017-06-19. {{ ...
Economics of African trypanosomiasis. In The Trypanosomiases (eds. I. Maudlin, P.H. Holmes & M.A. Miles) CABI Publishing, 2004 ... In humans, tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is called sleeping sickness. In animals, tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases include ... called African trypanosomiasis, human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness. An estimated 60-70 million people in ... Other forms of human trypanosomiasis also exist but are not transmitted by tsetse. The most notable is American trypanosomiasis ...
"CDC - African Trypanosomiasis - Biology". www.cdc.gov. 2019-06-12. Retrieved 2020-04-22. Funk, Sebastian; Nishiura, Hiroshi; ... is a species of African trypanosomes which are protozoan hemoflagellates responsible for trypanosomiasis (more commonly known ... The Role of Animal Reservoirs in Maintaining Gambiense Human African Trypanosomiasis". PLOS Computational Biology. 9 (1): ...
Uganda Trypanosomiasis Research Organization. 8: 57-60. doi:10.1017/S1742758400006962. S2CID 87065966. "Effect of weeds Lantana ...
Human African trypanosomiasis is vector-borne and spreads through the bite of the tsetse fly. The most common symptoms are ... "Human African trypanosomiasis: number of new cases drops to historically low level in 50 years". World Health Organization. ... African trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness) is a somewhat rare protozoal disease, with fewer than 10,000 cases ... "Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis)". Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014. "World Health ...
Trypanosomiasis vaccine Trypanocidal+Agents at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) MeSH list ... of agents 82014344 GOBLE, F. C. (January 1950). "Chemotherapy of experimental trypanosomiasis; trypanocidal activity of certain ...
Trypanosomiasis in humans progresses with the development of the trypanosome into a trypomastigote in the blood and into an ... The acute form of trypanosomiasis is usually unnoticed, although it may manifest itself as a localized swelling at the site of ... 2017). American trypanosomiasis Chagas disease : one hundred years of research. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/ ... "American Trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma cruzi)". DPDx-Laboratory Identification of Parasitic Diseases of Public Health Concern. ...
In African trypanosomiasis it is used for early disease before central nervous system involvement, as a second line option to ... "Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness)". World Health Organization. February 2016. Archived from the original on 4 ... In regions of the world where trypanosomiasis is common pentamidine is provided for free by the World Health Organization (WHO ... Pentamidine was first used to treat African trypanosomiasis in 1937 and leishmaniasis in 1940 before it was registered as ...
... cause the infectious disease trypanosomiasis. In humans, G. fuscipes trypanosomiasis is also known as sleeping sickness. In ... Mulligan, H. W. (Hugh Waddell) (1970). The African trypanosomiases. Potts, W. H. (William Herbert). London: Allen and Unwin. ... Shaw, A. P. M.; Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United; Organization, Food and Agriculture; Trypanosomiasis, ... it is commonly used to describe any type of animal trypanosomiasis. G. fuscipes, alongside other tsetse flies, are prominent ...
ROBERTSON M (April 1956). "Some aspects of trypanosomiasis with particular reference to the work of Sir David Bruce". The ... Lumsden, W. H. (1974). "Some episodes in the history of African trypanosomiasis". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine ... Steverding, Dietmar (2008). "The history of African trypanosomiasis". Parasites & Vectors. 1 (1): 3. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-1-3 ... animal trypanosomiasis). Working in the Army Medical Services and the Royal Army Medical Corps, Bruce's major scientific ...
Trypanosomes are parasitic protozoa that cause African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis). There are ... Franco JR, Simarro PP, Diarra A, Jannin JG (2014). "Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis". Clinical Epidemiology. 6: ... The protozoan parasites that cause the diseases malaria, trypanosomiasis, toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis and leishmaniasis ...
Perleth, Matthias (1997). Historical Aspects of American Trypanosomiasis. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 3-631-31063-3. News ...
American Trypanosomiasis), caused by Trypanosoma cruzi. Nifurtimox has also been used to treat African trypanosomiasis ( ... "Parasites - American Trypanosomiasis (also known as Chagas Disease)". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). ... "Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness)". World Health Organization. February 2016. Archived from the original on 4 ... It has been recommended as first-line treatment for second-stage African trypanosomiasis. Use of nifurtimox should be avoided ...
Lumsden, W. H. (1974). "Some episodes in the history of African trypanosomiasis". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine ... Steverding, Dietmar (2008). "The history of African trypanosomiasis". Parasites & Vectors. 1 (1): 3. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-1-3 ...
"Trypanosomiasis, human African (sleeping sickness)". World Health Organization. February 2016. Archived from the original on 4 ... Specifically, it is used for treatment of first-stage African trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and ... Trypanosomiasis, Leishmaniasis, and Other Protozoal Infections". In Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC (eds.). Goodman and ...
Barrett MP, Croft SL (2012). "Management of trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis". British Medical Bulletin. 104 (1): 175-96. doi: ...
In American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease), the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi forms pseudocysts, particularly within muscular ... Lalloo, David (2014). "South American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease)". In Beeching, Nick; Gill, Geoff (eds.). Lecture Notes ...
Trypanosomiasis, American / Chagas Disease. CDC Yellow Book 2024. Travel-Associated Infections & Diseases ... CDC website: American trypanosomiasis. The following authors contributed to the previous version of this chapter: Susan ...
Trypanosomiasis could, in future be prevented by genetically altering the tsetse fly. As the tsetse fly is the main vector of ... Trypanosomiasis or trypanosomosis is the name of several diseases in vertebrates caused by parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of ... African trypanosomiasis, which is caused by either Trypanosoma brucei gambiense or Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, threatens ... Another way to diagnose trypanosomiasis in humans is to detect the trypanosome protozoans themselves. One way to do this would ...
African Trypanosomiasis, also known as "sleeping sickness", is caused by microscopic parasites of the species Trypanosoma ... www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/topics/human-african-trypanosomiasis). Sleeping sickness is curable with medication but is ... gambiense causes a slowly progressing African trypanosomiasis in western and central Africa and T. b. rhodesiense causes a more ... acute African trypanosomiasis in eastern and southern Africa. Control efforts have reduced the number of annual cases and for ...
American trypanosomiasis, also known as Chagas disease, affects millions of people throughout the Americas. Carlos Chagas first ... encoded search term (Trypanosomiasis) and Trypanosomiasis What to Read Next on Medscape ... Endemic trypanosomiasis is extremely rare but has been reported in Texas [5] , Oklahoma, Tennessee, Louisiana, and California. ... American trypanosomiasis, also known as Chagas disease, affects millions of people throughout the Americas. [1] Carlos Chagas ...
The card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis/T. b. gambiense (CATT) is a serologic screening test used for population ... There is no test of cure for African trypanosomiasis. After treatment, patients should be closely followed for 24 months and ... Adverse reactions to suramin treatment in patients with T. b. rhodesiense trypanosomiasis are frequent, but usually mild and ... Antitrypanosomal treatment is indicated for all persons diagnosed with African trypanosomiasis. Choice of therapy depends on ...
... also known as American trypanosomiasis, is caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The organism T ... encoded search term (Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis)) and Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis) What to Read Next ... Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis). Updated: Jul 06, 2023 * Author: Louis V Kirchhoff, MD, MPH; Chief Editor: ... American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)--a tropical disease now in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1993 Aug 26. 329 (9):639 ...
Camel trypanosomiasis or surra is of great concern in Somalia, since the country possesses the largest one-humped camel ( ... survey ofcamel trypanosomiasis inSomalia. Ahmed A. Hassan‑Kadle1,2*† , Abdalla M. Ibrahim1†, Hamisi S. Nyingilili3, ... Background: Camel trypanosomiasis or surra is of great concern in Somalia, since the country possesses the largest ... Background: Camel trypanosomiasis or surra is of great concern in Somalia, since the country possesses the largest one-humped ...
Human African trypanosomiasis in travellers to Kenya, Page 1 of 1 , Previous page , Next page , /docserver/preview/fulltext/ ... Human African trypanosomiasis in travellers to Kenya. Euro Surveill. 2012;17(10):pii=20109. https://doi.org/10.2807/ese.17.10. ...
Human African Trypanosomiasis. In this section:. *Number of new reported cases (T.b. gambiense) ...
Human African trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is only endemic in South Sudan within the WHO Eastern ... Large epidemics of human African trypanosomiasis have periodically occurred in South Sudan since the early 20th century. When ... The number of people at risk of human African trypanosomiasis is estimated at 1.8 million. ...
A spectrum of disease in human African trypanosomiasis: the host and parasite genetics of virulence. Download Prime PubMed App ... Human African trypanosomiasis: connecting parasite and host genetics.. *Human African trypanosomiasis: clinical presentation ... A spectrum of disease in human African trypanosomiasis: the host and parasite genetics of virulence.. Parasitology. 2010 Dec; ... "A Spectrum of Disease in Human African Trypanosomiasis: the Host and Parasite Genetics of Virulence." Parasitology, vol. 137, ...
... also known as American trypanosomiasis, is caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The organism T ... encoded search term (Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis)) and Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis) What to Read Next ... Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis). Updated: Jul 06, 2023 * Author: Louis V Kirchhoff, MD, MPH; Chief Editor: ... American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)--a tropical disease now in the United States. N Engl J Med. 1993 Aug 26. 329 (9):639 ...
Ibang tawag: African lethargy, sleeping sickness, Congo trypanosomiasis *↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 ... Ang African trypanosomiasis[1][2] ay isang karamdamang endemiko sa Aprika[3] na dulot ng parasito sa tao at ibang hayop. Ito ay ... Kennedy, PG (Pebrero 2013). "Clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness ... "Fact sheet N°259: Trypanosomiasis, Human African (sleeping sickness)".. {{cite journal}}. : Kailangan ng cite journal ang , ...
Summary: Few therapeutic options are available to treat the late-stage of human African trypanosomiasis, a neglected tropical ... Oral fexinidazole for late-stage African Trypanosoma brucei gambiense trypanosomiasis: A pivotal multicentre, randomized, non- ...
Welcome to the Pathology Education Informational Resource (PEIR) Digital Library, a multidisciplinary public access image database for use in medical education. ...
... a plant-derived compound may represent a key frontier in the treatment of blood-stage trypanosomiasis. To be a viable future ... Columbin, a plant-derived compound may represent a key frontier in the treatment of blood-stage trypanosomiasis. To be a viable ... Acetyl-CoA synthetase and isopentyl-diphosphate isomerase inhibition underscore columbin anti trypanosomiasis: Computational ...
African Trypanosomiasis - Etiology, pathophysiology, symptoms, signs, diagnosis & prognosis from the MSD Manuals - Medical ... African Trypanosomiasis (African Sleeping Sickness; Human African Trypanosomiasis; HAT). By Chelsea Marie , PhD, University of ... Treatment of African Trypanosomiasis Treatment of African trypanosomiasis is guided by species and stage of disease. ... Prevention of African Trypanosomiasis Prevention of African trypanosomiasis includes avoiding endemic areas and protecting ...
This paper proposes an exploratory spatial analysis using geo-referenced human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) cases and matched ... Human African trypanosomiasis data. A matched case-control study design was used; passively detected Rhodesian HAT case records ... Simarro PP, Cecchi G, Paone M, Franco JR, Diarra A, Ruiz JA, et al: The Atlas of human African trypanosomiasis: a contribution ... Laveissière C, Sane B, Meda HA: Measurement of risk in endemic areas of human African trypanosomiasis in Cote-Divoire. Trans R ...
Author(s): Aksoy, Serap; Attardo, Geoffrey; Berriman, Matt; Christoffels, Alan; Lehane, Mike; Masiga, Dan; Toure, Yeya
African Trypanosomiasis Pipeline Insight Report: The report covers the dormant and discontinued pipeline projects related to ... and molecule type for African Trypanosomiasis. Price : Single User $1250, Industry Forecast: 2019, Region: Global ... the African Trypanosomiasis. It Provides pipeline assessment by monotherapy and combination therapy products, stage of ... 2. African Trypanosomiasis Overview. 3. Pipeline Therapeutics. • An Overview of Pipeline Products for African Trypanosomiasis. ...
American trypanosomiasis, also known as Chagas disease, affects millions of people throughout the Americas. Carlos Chagas first ... encoded search term (Trypanosomiasis) and Trypanosomiasis What to Read Next on Medscape ... Trypanosomiasis. Updated: May 14, 2015 * Author: David J Cennimo, MD, FAAP, FACP, AAHIVS; Chief Editor: Russell W Steele, MD ... Endemic trypanosomiasis is extremely rare but has been reported in Texas [5] , Oklahoma, Tennessee, Louisiana, and California. ...
Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of African trypanosomiasis. Surgery. Surgical intervention is not ... Retrieved from "https://www.wikidoc.org/index.php?title=African_trypanosomiasis_surgery&oldid=1634469" ...
Lejon, V. / Neuro-inflammation in human West-African trypanosomiasis: a basis for improved stage determination. Antwerpen : ... Lejon V. Neuro-inflammation in human West-African trypanosomiasis: a basis for improved stage determination. Antwerpen: ... Lejon, V. (2002). Neuro-inflammation in human West-African trypanosomiasis: a basis for improved stage determination. ... Lejon, V 2002, Neuro-inflammation in human West-African trypanosomiasis: a basis for improved stage determination, Antwerpen. ...
AMERICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS: 2020 Cannabis, One Health, and Veterinary Medicine: Cannabinoids Role in Public Health, Food... ...
Rhodesiense-trypanosomiasis. Hitta alla ICD-10 diagnoskoder snabbt och enkelt. ... ICD-10 kod för Rhodesiense-trypanosomiasis är B561.. Diagnosen klassificeras under kategorin Afrikansk trypanosomiasis ( ...
... also known as American trypanosomiasis, is caused by infection with the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The organism T ... encoded search term (Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis)) and Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis) What to Read Next ... Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis). Updated: Nov 10, 2014 * Author: Louis V Kirchhoff, MD, MPH; Chief Editor: ... Trypanosomiasis of the central nervous system. Scheld WM, Marra CM, Whitely RJ, eds. Infections of the Central Nervous System. ...
As I do through these Dungeons, I actually going any of the effects on your free Trypanosomiasis (Deadly Diseases. Lee carved ... The free Trypanosomiasis (Deadly Diseases writes things on the 1950s of these worth elves. ... to find the free Trypanosomiasis (Deadly Diseases and of the prone definition? ... free Trypanosomiasis s the difficult of January, 1997. Chas, have you m to live these one at a free Trypanosomiasis (Deadly ...
American trypanosomiasis. Health and Medicine Reference Covering Thousands of Diseases and Prescription Drugs. ... American trypanosomiasis. Chagas disease (also called American trypanosomiasis) is a human tropical parasitic disease which ... African Trypanosomiasis Gambiense, Italy. African trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense has not been reported ... American trypanosomiasis. Amoebiasis. Amyloidosis. Amyotrophic lateral.... Anaphylaxis. Androgen insensitivity.... Anemia. ...
Animal African Trypanosomiasis. Glasgow is collaborating with other universities to tackle this devastating parasitic disease. ...

No FAQ available that match "trypanosomiasis"