Inflammation of any one of the blood vessels, including the ARTERIES; VEINS; and rest of the vasculature system in the body.
The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges.
A heterogeneous group of diseases characterized by inflammation and necrosis of the blood vessel walls.
Inflammation of the retinal vasculature with various causes including infectious disease; LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; BEHCET SYNDROME; and CHORIORETINITIS.
Inflammation of blood vessels within the central nervous system. Primary vasculitis is usually caused by autoimmune or idiopathic factors, while secondary vasculitis is caused by existing disease process. Clinical manifestations are highly variable but include HEADACHE; SEIZURES; behavioral alterations; INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGES; TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK; and BRAIN INFARCTION. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp856-61)
Group of systemic vasculitis with a strong association with ANCA. The disorders are characterized by necrotizing inflammation of small and medium size vessels, with little or no immune-complex deposits in vessel walls.
Diseases of any component of the brain (including the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum) or the spinal cord.
Benign and malignant neoplastic processes that arise from or secondarily involve the brain, spinal cord, or meninges.
The entire nerve apparatus, composed of a central part, the brain and spinal cord, and a peripheral part, the cranial and spinal nerves, autonomic ganglia, and plexuses. (Stedman, 26th ed)
A form of necrotizing non-granulomatous inflammation occurring primarily in medium-sized ARTERIES, often with microaneurysms. It is characterized by muscle, joint, and abdominal pain resulting from arterial infarction and scarring in affected organs. Polyarteritis nodosa with lung involvement is called CHURG-STRAUSS SYNDROME.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Widespread necrotizing angiitis with granulomas. Pulmonary involvement is frequent. Asthma or other respiratory infection may precede evidence of vasculitis. Eosinophilia and lung involvement differentiate this disease from POLYARTERITIS NODOSA.
Pathogenic infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. DNA VIRUS INFECTIONS; RNA VIRUS INFECTIONS; BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; MYCOPLASMA INFECTIONS; SPIROCHAETALES INFECTIONS; fungal infections; PROTOZOAN INFECTIONS; HELMINTHIASIS; and PRION DISEASES may involve the central nervous system as a primary or secondary process.
Skin diseases affecting or involving the cutaneous blood vessels and generally manifested as inflammation, swelling, erythema, or necrosis in the affected area.
The nervous system outside of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system has autonomic and somatic divisions. The autonomic nervous system includes the enteric, parasympathetic, and sympathetic subdivisions. The somatic nervous system includes the cranial and spinal nerves and their ganglia and the peripheral sensory receptors.
Necrotizing VASCULITIS of small and medium size vessels, developing as a complication in RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS patients. It is characterized by peripheral vascular lesions, cutaneous ULCERS, peripheral GANGRENE, and MONONEURITIS MULTIPLEX.
Viral infections of the brain, spinal cord, meninges, or perimeningeal spaces.
A primary systemic vasculitis of small- and some medium-sized vessels. It is characterized by a tropism for kidneys and lungs, positive association with anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies (ANCA), and a paucity of immunoglobulin deposits in vessel walls.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
A systemic non-thrombocytopenic purpura caused by HYPERSENSITIVITY VASCULITIS and deposition of IGA-containing IMMUNE COMPLEXES within the blood vessels throughout the body, including those in the kidney (KIDNEY GLOMERULUS). Clinical symptoms include URTICARIA; ERYTHEMA; ARTHRITIS; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; and renal involvement. Most cases are seen in children after acute upper respiratory infections.
A class of drugs producing both physiological and psychological effects through a variety of mechanisms. They can be divided into "specific" agents, e.g., affecting an identifiable molecular mechanism unique to target cells bearing receptors for that agent, and "nonspecific" agents, those producing effects on different target cells and acting by diverse molecular mechanisms. Those with nonspecific mechanisms are generally further classed according to whether they produce behavioral depression or stimulation. Those with specific mechanisms are classed by locus of action or specific therapeutic use. (From Gilman AG, et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p252)
A condition characterized by the presence of abnormal quantities of CRYOGLOBULINS in the blood. Upon cold exposure, these abnormal proteins precipitate into the microvasculature leading to restricted blood flow in the exposed areas.
A cylindrical column of tissue that lies within the vertebral canal. It is composed of WHITE MATTER and GRAY MATTER.
MYCOSES of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges which may result in ENCEPHALITIS; MENINGITIS, FUNGAL; MYELITIS; BRAIN ABSCESS; and EPIDURAL ABSCESS. Certain types of fungi may produce disease in immunologically normal hosts, while others are classified as opportunistic pathogens, causing illness primarily in immunocompromised individuals (e.g., ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME).
Two ganglionated neural plexuses in the gut wall which form one of the three major divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The enteric nervous system innervates the gastrointestinal tract, the pancreas, and the gallbladder. It contains sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. Thus the circuitry can autonomously sense the tension and the chemical environment in the gut and regulate blood vessel tone, motility, secretions, and fluid transport. The system is itself governed by the central nervous system and receives both parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation. (From Kandel, Schwartz, and Jessel, Principles of Neural Science, 3d ed, p766)
Diseases of the central and peripheral nervous system. This includes disorders of the brain, spinal cord, cranial nerves, peripheral nerves, nerve roots, autonomic nervous system, neuromuscular junction, and muscle.
Characteristic properties and processes of the NERVOUS SYSTEM as a whole or with reference to the peripheral or the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; and SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM taken together. Generally speaking, the autonomic nervous system regulates the internal environment during both peaceful activity and physical or emotional stress. Autonomic activity is controlled and integrated by the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, especially the HYPOTHALAMUS and the SOLITARY NUCLEUS, which receive information relayed from VISCERAL AFFERENTS.
The non-neuronal cells of the nervous system. They not only provide physical support, but also respond to injury, regulate the ionic and chemical composition of the extracellular milieu, participate in the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER and BLOOD-RETINAL BARRIER, form the myelin insulation of nervous pathways, guide neuronal migration during development, and exchange metabolites with neurons. Neuroglia have high-affinity transmitter uptake systems, voltage-dependent and transmitter-gated ion channels, and can release transmitters, but their role in signaling (as in many other functions) is unclear.
Bacterial infections of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges, including infections involving the perimeningeal spaces.
The thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers originate in neurons of the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord and project to the paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia, which in turn project to target organs. The sympathetic nervous system mediates the body's response to stressful situations, i.e., the fight or flight reactions. It often acts reciprocally to the parasympathetic system.
The lipid-rich sheath surrounding AXONS in both the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS and PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. The myelin sheath is an electrical insulator and allows faster and more energetically efficient conduction of impulses. The sheath is formed by the cell membranes of glial cells (SCHWANN CELLS in the peripheral and OLIGODENDROGLIA in the central nervous system). Deterioration of the sheath in DEMYELINATING DISEASES is a serious clinical problem.
INFLAMMATION of any ARTERIES.
Specialized non-fenestrated tightly-joined ENDOTHELIAL CELLS with TIGHT JUNCTIONS that form a transport barrier for certain substances between the cerebral capillaries and the BRAIN tissue.
An acute, febrile, mucocutaneous condition accompanied by swelling of cervical lymph nodes in infants and young children. The principal symptoms are fever, congestion of the ocular conjunctivae, reddening of the lips and oral cavity, protuberance of tongue papillae, and edema or erythema of the extremities.
A class of large neuroglial (macroglial) cells in the central nervous system - the largest and most numerous neuroglial cells in the brain and spinal cord. Astrocytes (from "star" cells) are irregularly shaped with many long processes, including those with "end feet" which form the glial (limiting) membrane and directly and indirectly contribute to the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER. They regulate the extracellular ionic and chemical environment, and "reactive astrocytes" (along with MICROGLIA) respond to injury.
Pathologic conditions affecting the BRAIN, which is composed of the intracranial components of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. This includes (but is not limited to) the CEREBRAL CORTEX; intracranial white matter; BASAL GANGLIA; THALAMUS; HYPOTHALAMUS; BRAIN STEM; and CEREBELLUM.
Tuberculosis of the brain, spinal cord, or meninges (TUBERCULOSIS, MENINGEAL), most often caused by MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS and rarely by MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS. The infection may be limited to the nervous system or coexist in other organs (e.g., TUBERCULOSIS, PULMONARY). The organism tends to seed the meninges causing a diffuse meningitis and leads to the formation of TUBERCULOMA, which may occur within the brain, spinal cord, or perimeningeal spaces. Tuberculous involvement of the vertebral column (TUBERCULOSIS, SPINAL) may result in nerve root or spinal cord compression. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp717-20)
Benign and malignant neoplastic processes arising from or involving components of the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, cranial nerves, and meninges. Included in this category are primary and metastatic nervous system neoplasms.
Rare chronic inflammatory disease involving the small blood vessels. It is of unknown etiology and characterized by mucocutaneous ulceration in the mouth and genital region and uveitis with hypopyon. The neuro-ocular form may cause blindness and death. SYNOVITIS; THROMBOPHLEBITIS; gastrointestinal ulcerations; RETINAL VASCULITIS; and OPTIC ATROPHY may occur as well.
'Nerve tissue proteins' are specialized proteins found within the nervous system's biological tissue, including neurofilaments, neuronal cytoskeletal proteins, and neural cell adhesion molecules, which facilitate structural support, intracellular communication, and synaptic connectivity essential for proper neurological function.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
Diseases characterized by loss or dysfunction of myelin in the central or peripheral nervous system.
An experimental animal model for central nervous system demyelinating disease. Inoculation with a white matter emulsion combined with FREUND'S ADJUVANT, myelin basic protein, or purified central myelin triggers a T cell-mediated immune response directed towards central myelin. The pathologic features are similar to MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS, including perivascular and periventricular foci of inflammation and demyelination. Subpial demyelination underlying meningeal infiltrations also occurs, which is also a feature of ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, ACUTE DISSEMINATED. Passive immunization with T-cells from an afflicted animal to a normal animal also induces this condition. (From Immunol Res 1998;17(1-2):217-27; Raine CS, Textbook of Neuropathology, 2nd ed, p604-5)
Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron cell body.
A class of large neuroglial (macroglial) cells in the central nervous system. Oligodendroglia may be called interfascicular, perivascular, or perineuronal (not the same as SATELLITE CELLS, PERINEURONAL of GANGLIA) according to their location. They form the insulating MYELIN SHEATH of axons in the central nervous system.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Inflammation of the renal glomeruli (KIDNEY GLOMERULUS) that can be classified by the type of glomerular injuries including antibody deposition, complement activation, cellular proliferation, and glomerulosclerosis. These structural and functional abnormalities usually lead to HEMATURIA; PROTEINURIA; HYPERTENSION; and RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
A watery fluid that is continuously produced in the CHOROID PLEXUS and circulates around the surface of the BRAIN; SPINAL CORD; and in the CEREBRAL VENTRICLES.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action during the developmental stages of an organism.
A technique that localizes specific nucleic acid sequences within intact chromosomes, eukaryotic cells, or bacterial cells through the use of specific nucleic acid-labeled probes.
Diseases of the peripheral nerves external to the brain and spinal cord, which includes diseases of the nerve roots, ganglia, plexi, autonomic nerves, sensory nerves, and motor nerves.
Central nervous system vasculitis that is associated with SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. Clinical manifestations may include DEMENTIA; SEIZURES; CRANIAL NERVE DISEASES; HEMIPARESIS; BLINDNESS; DYSPHASIA; and other neurological disorders.
Abnormal immunoglobulins, especially IGG or IGM, that precipitate spontaneously when SERUM is cooled below 37 degrees Celsius. It is characteristic of CRYOGLOBULINEMIA.
An autoimmune disorder mainly affecting young adults and characterized by destruction of myelin in the central nervous system. Pathologic findings include multiple sharply demarcated areas of demyelination throughout the white matter of the central nervous system. Clinical manifestations include visual loss, extra-ocular movement disorders, paresthesias, loss of sensation, weakness, dysarthria, spasticity, ataxia, and bladder dysfunction. The usual pattern is one of recurrent attacks followed by partial recovery (see MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS, RELAPSING-REMITTING), but acute fulminating and chronic progressive forms (see MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS, CHRONIC PROGRESSIVE) also occur. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p903)
Inflammation of the BRAIN due to infection, autoimmune processes, toxins, and other conditions. Viral infections (see ENCEPHALITIS, VIRAL) are a relatively frequent cause of this condition.
Neoplasms of the intracranial components of the central nervous system, including the cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, thalamus, brain stem, and cerebellum. Brain neoplasms are subdivided into primary (originating from brain tissue) and secondary (i.e., metastatic) forms. Primary neoplasms are subdivided into benign and malignant forms. In general, brain tumors may also be classified by age of onset, histologic type, or presenting location in the brain.
An inflammatory process involving the brain (ENCEPHALITIS) and meninges (MENINGITIS), most often produced by pathogenic organisms which invade the central nervous system, and occasionally by toxins, autoimmune disorders, and other conditions.
A systemic autoimmune disorder that typically affects medium and large ARTERIES, usually leading to occlusive granulomatous vasculitis with transmural infiltrate containing multinucleated GIANT CELLS. The TEMPORAL ARTERY is commonly involved. This disorder appears primarily in people over the age of 50. Symptoms include FEVER; FATIGUE; HEADACHE; visual impairment; pain in the jaw and tongue; and aggravation of pain by cold temperatures. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed)
A general term indicating inflammation of the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD, often used to indicate an infectious process, but also applicable to a variety of autoimmune and toxic-metabolic conditions. There is significant overlap regarding the usage of this term and ENCEPHALITIS in the literature.
Disorders that are characterized by the production of antibodies that react with host tissues or immune effector cells that are autoreactive to endogenous peptides.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
The third type of glial cell, along with astrocytes and oligodendrocytes (which together form the macroglia). Microglia vary in appearance depending on developmental stage, functional state, and anatomical location; subtype terms include ramified, perivascular, ameboid, resting, and activated. Microglia clearly are capable of phagocytosis and play an important role in a wide spectrum of neuropathologies. They have also been suggested to act in several other roles including in secretion (e.g., of cytokines and neural growth factors), in immunological processing (e.g., antigen presentation), and in central nervous system development and remodeling.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Purplish or brownish red discoloration, easily visible through the epidermis, caused by hemorrhage into the tissues. When the size of the discolorization is >2-3 cm it is generally called Ecchymoses (ECCHYMOSIS).
The nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord, including the autonomic, cranial, and spinal nerves. Peripheral nerves contain non-neuronal cells and connective tissue as well as axons. The connective tissue layers include, from the outside to the inside, the epineurium, the perineurium, and the endoneurium.
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
Inflammation of brain parenchymal tissue as a result of viral infection. Encephalitis may occur as primary or secondary manifestation of TOGAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; HERPESVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ADENOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; FLAVIVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; BUNYAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; PICORNAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; PARAMYXOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; RETROVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; and ARENAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
The three membranes that cover the BRAIN and the SPINAL CORD. They are the dura mater, the arachnoid, and the pia mater.
A chronic inflammatory process that affects the AORTA and its primary branches, such as the brachiocephalic artery (BRACHIOCEPHALIC TRUNK) and CAROTID ARTERIES. It results in progressive arterial stenosis, occlusion, and aneurysm formation. The pulse in the arm is hard to detect. Patients with aortitis syndrome often exhibit retinopathy.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Changes in the amounts of various chemicals (neurotransmitters, receptors, enzymes, and other metabolites) specific to the area of the central nervous system contained within the head. These are monitored over time, during sensory stimulation, or under different disease states.
Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Traumatic injuries to the brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord, autonomic nervous system, or neuromuscular system, including iatrogenic injuries induced by surgical procedures.
MYELIN-specific proteins that play a structural or regulatory role in the genesis and maintenance of the lamellar MYELIN SHEATH structure.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Injections into the cerebral ventricles.
A glucocorticoid with the general properties of the corticosteroids. It is the drug of choice for all conditions in which routine systemic corticosteroid therapy is indicated, except adrenal deficiency states.
A chronic, relapsing, inflammatory, and often febrile multisystemic disorder of connective tissue, characterized principally by involvement of the skin, joints, kidneys, and serosal membranes. It is of unknown etiology, but is thought to represent a failure of the regulatory mechanisms of the autoimmune system. The disease is marked by a wide range of system dysfunctions, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and the formation of LE cells in the blood or bone marrow.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
The part of brain that lies behind the BRAIN STEM in the posterior base of skull (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR). It is also known as the "little brain" with convolutions similar to those of CEREBRAL CORTEX, inner white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Its function is to coordinate voluntary movements, maintain balance, and learn motor skills.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Renewal or physiological repair of damaged nerve tissue.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
Annelids of the class Hirudinea. Some species, the bloodsuckers, may become temporarily parasitic upon animals, including man. Medicinal leeches (HIRUDO MEDICINALIS) have been used therapeutically for drawing blood since ancient times.
An intermediate filament protein found only in glial cells or cells of glial origin. MW 51,000.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Precursor of an alkylating nitrogen mustard antineoplastic and immunosuppressive agent that must be activated in the LIVER to form the active aldophosphamide. It has been used in the treatment of LYMPHOMA and LEUKEMIA. Its side effect, ALOPECIA, has been used for defleecing sheep. Cyclophosphamide may also cause sterility, birth defects, mutations, and cancer.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Mercury chloride (HgCl2). A highly toxic compound that volatizes slightly at ordinary temperature and appreciably at 100 degrees C. It is corrosive to mucous membranes and used as a topical antiseptic and disinfectant.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
An abundant cytosolic protein that plays a critical role in the structure of multilamellar myelin. Myelin basic protein binds to the cytosolic sides of myelin cell membranes and causes a tight adhesion between opposing cell membranes.
A nonspecific term used to denote any cutaneous lesion or group of lesions, or eruptions of any type on the leg. (From Stedman, 25th ed)
Antibodies obtained from a single clone of cells grown in mice or rats.
Procedure whereby plasma is separated and extracted from anticoagulated whole blood and the red cells retransfused to the donor. Plasmapheresis is also employed for therapeutic use.
A PREDNISOLONE derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action.
The thin layer of GRAY MATTER on the surface of the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES that develops from the TELENCEPHALON and folds into gyri and sulchi. It reaches its highest development in humans and is responsible for intellectual faculties and higher mental functions.
A vascular reaction of the skin characterized by erythema and wheal formation due to localized increase of vascular permeability. The causative mechanism may be allergy, infection, or stress.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
The developmental entity of a fertilized egg (ZYGOTE) in animal species other than MAMMALS. For chickens, use CHICK EMBRYO.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
The complex formed by the binding of antigen and antibody molecules. The deposition of large antigen-antibody complexes leading to tissue damage causes IMMUNE COMPLEX DISEASES.
Refers to animals in the period of time just after birth.
Clusters of multipolar neurons surrounded by a capsule of loosely organized CONNECTIVE TISSUE located outside the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The part of the brain that connects the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES with the SPINAL CORD. It consists of the MESENCEPHALON; PONS; and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.
Proteins that originate from insect species belonging to the genus DROSOPHILA. The proteins from the most intensely studied species of Drosophila, DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER, are the subject of much interest in the area of MORPHOGENESIS and development.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Removal of plasma and replacement with various fluids, e.g., fresh frozen plasma, plasma protein fractions (PPF), albumin preparations, dextran solutions, saline. Used in treatment of autoimmune diseases, immune complex diseases, diseases of excess plasma factors, and other conditions.
A genus of small, two-winged flies containing approximately 900 described species. These organisms are the most extensively studied of all genera from the standpoint of genetics and cytology.
The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.
Benign and malignant neoplasms which occur within the substance of the spinal cord (intramedullary neoplasms) or in the space between the dura and spinal cord (intradural extramedullary neoplasms). The majority of intramedullary spinal tumors are primary CNS neoplasms including ASTROCYTOMA; EPENDYMOMA; and LIPOMA. Intramedullary neoplasms are often associated with SYRINGOMYELIA. The most frequent histologic types of intradural-extramedullary tumors are MENINGIOMA and NEUROFIBROMA.
Viral infections of the leptomeninges and subarachnoid space. TOGAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; FLAVIVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; RUBELLA; BUNYAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ORBIVIRUS infections; PICORNAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; RHABDOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ARENAVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; HERPESVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; ADENOVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; JC VIRUS infections; and RETROVIRIDAE INFECTIONS may cause this form of meningitis. Clinical manifestations include fever, headache, neck pain, vomiting, PHOTOPHOBIA, and signs of meningeal irritation. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1996, Ch26, pp1-3)
Peptides released by NEURONS as intercellular messengers. Many neuropeptides are also hormones released by non-neuronal cells.
Infections of the brain, spinal cord, or meninges by single celled organisms of the former subkingdom known as protozoa. The central nervous system may be the primary or secondary site of protozoal infection. These diseases may occur as OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS or arise in immunocompetent hosts.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
Biologically active substances whose activities affect or play a role in the functioning of the immune system.
The pathological process occurring in cells that are dying from irreparable injuries. It is caused by the progressive, uncontrolled action of degradative ENZYMES, leading to MITOCHONDRIAL SWELLING, nuclear flocculation, and cell lysis. It is distinct it from APOPTOSIS, which is a normal, regulated cellular process.
A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Benign and malignant neoplastic processes that arise from or secondarily involve the meningeal coverings of the brain and spinal cord.
Relatively undifferentiated cells that retain the ability to divide and proliferate throughout postnatal life to provide progenitor cells that can differentiate into specialized cells.
Meningitis caused by fungal agents which may occur as OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS or arise in immunocompetent hosts.
'Skin diseases' is a broad term for various conditions affecting the skin, including inflammatory disorders, infections, benign and malignant tumors, congenital abnormalities, and degenerative diseases, which can cause symptoms such as rashes, discoloration, eruptions, lesions, itching, or pain.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Any member of the group of ENDOPEPTIDASES containing at the active site a serine residue involved in catalysis.
Arteries arising from the external carotid or the maxillary artery and distributing to the temporal region.
A characteristic symptom complex.
A myelin protein found in the periaxonal membrane of both the central and peripheral nervous systems myelin sheaths. It binds to cells surface receptors found on AXONS and may regulate cellular interactions between MYELIN and AXONS.
A transmembrane protein present in the MYELIN SHEATH of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. It is one of the main autoantigens implicated in the pathogenesis of MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS.
Characteristic restricted to a particular organ of the body, such as a cell type, metabolic response or expression of a particular protein or antigen.
Ventral part of the DIENCEPHALON extending from the region of the OPTIC CHIASM to the caudal border of the MAMMILLARY BODIES and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the THIRD VENTRICLE.
A species of CARDIOVIRUS which contains three strains: Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus, Vilyuisk human encephalomyelitis virus, and Rat encephalomyelitis virus.
The outer covering of the body that protects it from the environment. It is composed of the DERMIS and the EPIDERMIS.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Adrenal cortex hormones are steroid hormones produced by the outer portion of the adrenal gland, consisting of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens, which play crucial roles in various physiological processes such as metabolism regulation, stress response, electrolyte balance, and sexual development and function.
A condition consisting of inflammatory eye disease usually presenting as interstitial KERATITIS, vestibuloauditory dysfunction, and large- to medium-vessel vasculitis.
Substances that reduce or suppress INFLAMMATION.
Loss of functional activity and trophic degeneration of nerve axons and their terminal arborizations following the destruction of their cells of origin or interruption of their continuity with these cells. The pathology is characteristic of neurodegenerative diseases. Often the process of nerve degeneration is studied in research on neuroanatomical localization and correlation of the neurophysiology of neural pathways.
Formation of NEURONS which involves the differentiation and division of STEM CELLS in which one or both of the daughter cells become neurons.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function.
A neurologic condition associated with the ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME and characterized by impaired concentration and memory, slowness of hand movements, ATAXIA, incontinence, apathy, and gait difficulties associated with HIV-1 viral infection of the central nervous system. Pathologic examination of the brain reveals white matter rarefaction, perivascular infiltrates of lymphocytes, foamy macrophages, and multinucleated giant cells. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp760-1; N Engl J Med, 1995 Apr 6;332(14):934-40)
Diseases of the parasympathetic or sympathetic divisions of the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; which has components located in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM and PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Autonomic dysfunction may be associated with HYPOTHALAMIC DISEASES; BRAIN STEM disorders; SPINAL CORD DISEASES; and PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES. Manifestations include impairments of vegetative functions including the maintenance of BLOOD PRESSURE; HEART RATE; pupil function; SWEATING; REPRODUCTIVE AND URINARY PHYSIOLOGY; and DIGESTION.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
Conditions characterized by loss or dysfunction of myelin (see MYELIN SHEATH) in the brain, spinal cord, or optic nerves secondary to autoimmune mediated processes. This may take the form of a humoral or cellular immune response directed toward myelin or OLIGODENDROGLIA associated autoantigens.
Inflammation of the coverings of the brain and/or spinal cord, which consist of the PIA MATER; ARACHNOID; and DURA MATER. Infections (viral, bacterial, and fungal) are the most common causes of this condition, but subarachnoid hemorrhage (HEMORRHAGES, SUBARACHNOID), chemical irritation (chemical MENINGITIS), granulomatous conditions, neoplastic conditions (CARCINOMATOUS MENINGITIS), and other inflammatory conditions may produce this syndrome. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1994, Ch24, p6)
Immunoglobulin preparations used in intravenous infusion, containing primarily IMMUNOGLOBULIN G. They are used to treat a variety of diseases associated with decreased or abnormal immunoglobulin levels including pediatric AIDS; primary HYPERGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA; SCID; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS infections in transplant recipients, LYMPHOCYTIC LEUKEMIA, CHRONIC; Kawasaki syndrome, infection in neonates, and IDIOPATHIC THROMBOCYTOPENIC PURPURA.
Neurons which activate MUSCLE CELLS.
Infections of the nervous system caused by fungi of the genus ASPERGILLUS, most commonly ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS. Aspergillus infections may occur in immunocompetent hosts, but are more prevalent in individuals with IMMUNOLOGIC DEFICIENCY SYNDROMES. The organism may spread to the nervous system from focal infections in the lung, mastoid region, sinuses, inner ear, bones, eyes, gastrointestinal tract, and heart. Sinus infections may be locally invasive and enter the intracranial compartment, producing MENINGITIS, FUNGAL; cranial neuropathies; and abscesses in the frontal lobes of the brain. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1998, Ch 27, pp62-3)
A dermal inflammatory reaction produced under conditions of antibody excess, when a second injection of antigen produces intravascular antigen-antibody complexes which bind complement, causing cell clumping, endothelial damage, and vascular necrosis.
The movement of cells from one location to another. Distinguish from CYTOKINESIS which is the process of dividing the CYTOPLASM of a cell.
A nerve which originates in the lumbar and sacral spinal cord (L4 to S3) and supplies motor and sensory innervation to the lower extremity. The sciatic nerve, which is the main continuation of the sacral plexus, is the largest nerve in the body. It has two major branches, the TIBIAL NERVE and the PERONEAL NERVE.
Hereditary and sporadic conditions which are characterized by progressive nervous system dysfunction. These disorders are often associated with atrophy of the affected central or peripheral nervous system structures.
A chronic systemic disease, primarily of the joints, marked by inflammatory changes in the synovial membranes and articular structures, widespread fibrinoid degeneration of the collagen fibers in mesenchymal tissues, and by atrophy and rarefaction of bony structures. Etiology is unknown, but autoimmune mechanisms have been implicated.
Virus diseases caused by the CORONAVIRUS genus. Some specifics include transmissible enteritis of turkeys (ENTERITIS, TRANSMISSIBLE, OF TURKEYS); FELINE INFECTIOUS PERITONITIS; and transmissible gastroenteritis of swine (GASTROENTERITIS, TRANSMISSIBLE, OF SWINE).
A group of CORTICOSTEROIDS that affect carbohydrate metabolism (GLUCONEOGENESIS, liver glycogen deposition, elevation of BLOOD SUGAR), inhibit ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE secretion, and possess pronounced anti-inflammatory activity. They also play a role in fat and protein metabolism, maintenance of arterial blood pressure, alteration of the connective tissue response to injury, reduction in the number of circulating lymphocytes, and functioning of the central nervous system.
The biochemical and electrophysiological interactions between the NERVOUS SYSTEM and IMMUNE SYSTEM.
Pathological developments in the CECUM.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
Factors which enhance the growth potentialities of sensory and sympathetic nerve cells.
Granular leukocytes having a nucleus with three to five lobes connected by slender threads of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing fine inconspicuous granules and stainable by neutral dyes.
An exotic species of the family CYPRINIDAE, originally from Asia, that has been introduced in North America. They are used in embryological studies and to study the effects of certain chemicals on development.
Diseases of multiple peripheral nerves simultaneously. Polyneuropathies usually are characterized by symmetrical, bilateral distal motor and sensory impairment with a graded increase in severity distally. The pathological processes affecting peripheral nerves include degeneration of the axon, myelin or both. The various forms of polyneuropathy are categorized by the type of nerve affected (e.g., sensory, motor, or autonomic), by the distribution of nerve injury (e.g., distal vs. proximal), by nerve component primarily affected (e.g., demyelinating vs. axonal), by etiology, or by pattern of inheritance.
An antineoplastic antimetabolite with immunosuppressant properties. It is an inhibitor of TETRAHYDROFOLATE DEHYDROGENASE and prevents the formation of tetrahydrofolate, necessary for synthesis of thymidylate, an essential component of DNA.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
A circumscribed collection of purulent exudate in the brain, due to bacterial and other infections. The majority are caused by spread of infected material from a focus of suppuration elsewhere in the body, notably the PARANASAL SINUSES, middle ear (see EAR, MIDDLE); HEART (see also ENDOCARDITIS, BACTERIAL), and LUNG. Penetrating CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA and NEUROSURGICAL PROCEDURES may also be associated with this condition. Clinical manifestations include HEADACHE; SEIZURES; focal neurologic deficits; and alterations of consciousness. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp712-6)
A synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from CORTISONE. It is biologically inert and converted to PREDNISOLONE in the liver.
A thin membrane that lines the CEREBRAL VENTRICLES and the central canal of the SPINAL CORD.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
The craniosacral division of the autonomic nervous system. The cell bodies of the parasympathetic preganglionic fibers are in brain stem nuclei and in the sacral spinal cord. They synapse in cranial autonomic ganglia or in terminal ganglia near target organs. The parasympathetic nervous system generally acts to conserve resources and restore homeostasis, often with effects reciprocal to the sympathetic nervous system.
Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.
The 2nd cranial nerve which conveys visual information from the RETINA to the brain. The nerve carries the axons of the RETINAL GANGLION CELLS which sort at the OPTIC CHIASM and continue via the OPTIC TRACTS to the brain. The largest projection is to the lateral geniculate nuclei; other targets include the SUPERIOR COLLICULI and the SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEI. Though known as the second cranial nerve, it is considered part of the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Endogenous tissue constituents that have the ability to interact with AUTOANTIBODIES and cause an immune response.
Disorders caused by cellular or humoral immune responses primarily directed towards nervous system autoantigens. The immune response may be directed towards specific tissue components (e.g., myelin) and may be limited to the central nervous system (e.g., MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS) or the peripheral nervous system (e.g., GUILLAIN-BARRE SYNDROME).
Pathologic conditions which feature SPINAL CORD damage or dysfunction, including disorders involving the meninges and perimeningeal spaces surrounding the spinal cord. Traumatic injuries, vascular diseases, infections, and inflammatory/autoimmune processes may affect the spinal cord.
Therapeutic act or process that initiates a response to a complete or partial remission level.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
An immunosuppressive agent used in combination with cyclophosphamide and hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985), this substance has been listed as a known carcinogen. (Merck Index, 11th ed)
In tissue culture, hairlike projections of neurons stimulated by growth factors and other molecules. These projections may go on to form a branched tree of dendrites or a single axon or they may be reabsorbed at a later stage of development. "Neurite" may refer to any filamentous or pointed outgrowth of an embryonal or tissue-culture neural cell.
A species of the CORONAVIRUS genus causing hepatitis in mice. Four strains have been identified as MHV 1, MHV 2, MHV 3, and MHV 4 (also known as MHV-JHM, which is neurotropic and causes disseminated encephalomyelitis with demyelination as well as focal liver necrosis).
Group of diseases mediated by the deposition of large soluble complexes of antigen and antibody with resultant damage to tissue. Besides SERUM SICKNESS and the ARTHUS REACTION, evidence supports a pathogenic role for immune complexes in many other IMMUNE SYSTEM DISEASES including GLOMERULONEPHRITIS, systemic lupus erythematosus (LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC) and POLYARTERITIS NODOSA.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
Introduction of therapeutic agents into the spinal region using a needle and syringe.
Self-renewing cells that generate the main phenotypes of the nervous system in both the embryo and adult. Neural stem cells are precursors to both NEURONS and NEUROGLIA.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
Clinical or subclinical disturbances of cortical function due to a sudden, abnormal, excessive, and disorganized discharge of brain cells. Clinical manifestations include abnormal motor, sensory and psychic phenomena. Recurrent seizures are usually referred to as EPILEPSY or "seizure disorder."
Substances used for their pharmacological actions on any aspect of neurotransmitter systems. Neurotransmitter agents include agonists, antagonists, degradation inhibitors, uptake inhibitors, depleters, precursors, and modulators of receptor function.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
Antibodies found in adult RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS patients that are directed against GAMMA-CHAIN IMMUNOGLOBULINS.
Specialized junctions at which a neuron communicates with a target cell. At classical synapses, a neuron's presynaptic terminal releases a chemical transmitter stored in synaptic vesicles which diffuses across a narrow synaptic cleft and activates receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the target cell. The target may be a dendrite, cell body, or axon of another neuron, or a specialized region of a muscle or secretory cell. Neurons may also communicate via direct electrical coupling with ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES. Several other non-synaptic chemical or electric signal transmitting processes occur via extracellular mediated interactions.
A myelin protein that is the major component of the organic solvent extractable lipoprotein complexes of whole brain. It has been the subject of much study because of its unusual physical properties. It remains soluble in chloroform even after essentially all of its bound lipids have been removed. (From Siegel et al., Basic Neurochemistry, 4th ed, p122)

Distinguishing primary angiitis of the central nervous system from cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy: the importance of family history. (1/100)

Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) is a genetically linked neurologic disease characterized by recurrent strokes and progressive or stepwise dementia, with or without migraine-like headaches, seizures, and pseudobulbar palsy. We describe a patient referred with a diagnosis of treatment-refractory primary angiitis of the central nervous system. Meningocortical and skin biopsies confirmed that the patient had CADASIL. Clinical and radiographic differences in these disorders may be subtle, but awareness of them is crucial if the patient is to avoid unnecessary exposure to potentially deleterious immunosuppressive therapy.  (+info)

Disseminated coccidioidomycosis complicated by vasculitis: a cause of fatal subarachnoid hemorrhage in two cases. (2/100)

We describe two cases of disseminated coccidioidomycosis that were complicated by fatal subarachnoid hemorrhage. In the first case, a left middle cerebral artery aneurysm and long-segment vasculitis occurred. In the second case, MR imaging revealed an enlarging coccidioidal granuloma at the tip of the basilar artery, and the artery subsequently ruptured. Fatal intracranial hemorrhage is a rare complication of disseminated coccidioidomycosis.  (+info)

Leukoencephalitis and vasculitis with perivascular demyelination in a Weimaraner dog. (3/100)

Aseptic and noninfectious diseases of the central nervous system are being recognized with increasing frequency. After multiple episodes of neurologic illness, this 7-year-old Weimaraner dog was euthanatized and submitted for postmortem examination. Lesions in the central nervous system were found mainly in the white matter of the cerebral cortex and cervical spinal cord and represented acute and more chronic injury. Necrotizing vasculitis with fibrinoid change and a marked neutrophilic infiltrate dominated the acute lesions. More chronic changes consisted of perivascular demyelination and accumulation of foamy macrophages with positive staining for myelin. An immune-complex (Arthus-type) vasculitis is suspected.  (+info)

A case of central nervous system vasculitis related to an episode of Guillain-Barre syndrome. (4/100)

The authors report their knowledge about an uncommon case of isolated vasculitis, restricted to the left sylvian artery during an auto-immune Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS), sustained by cytomegalovirus (CMV). An acute cardiopulmonary failure requiring a ventilator and vasopressor support manifested, notwithstanding plasma exchanging and immune-modulating therapy. An IgM-enriched formula administration coincided with a rapid amelioration of GBS and vasculitis to a complete recovery the next month after her discharge to a rehabilitation centre.  (+info)

Amphetamine abuse and intracranial haemorrhage. (5/100)

Amphetamines taken by any route can cause cerebral vasculitis and intracranial haemorrhage. 8 cases were seen in a neurosurgical unit over 3.5 years. The published work indicates that those who experience these complications, mainly young adults, have poor outcomes.  (+info)

Spontaneous hemorrhagic stroke in a mouse model of cerebral amyloid angiopathy. (6/100)

A high risk factor for spontaneous and often fatal lobar hemorrhage is cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). We now report that CAA in an amyloid precursor protein transgenic mouse model (APP23 mice) leads to a loss of vascular smooth muscle cells, aneurysmal vasodilatation, and in rare cases, vessel obliteration and severe vasculitis. This weakening of the vessel wall is followed by rupture and bleedings that range from multiple, recurrent microhemorrhages to large hematomas. Our results demonstrate that, in APP transgenic mice, the extracellular deposition of neuron-derived beta-amyloid in the vessel wall is the cause of vessel wall disruption, which eventually leads to parenchymal hemorrhage. This first mouse model of CAA-associated hemorrhagic stroke will now allow development of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.  (+info)

Susac's syndrome: beneficial effects of corticosteroid therapy in a Japanese case. (7/100)

Susac's syndrome is a rare disorder characterized by the triad of microangiopathy of the brain and retina with hearing loss. More than 50 affected individuals have been reported worldwide, all Caucasians. We herein identify the first Japanese patient with Susac's syndrome. A 36-year-old man developed recurrent subacute encephalopathy, bi- a lateral sensorineural hearing loss, and retinal arteriolar occlusions, caused by microangiopathy from a year previously. T2-weighted MRI showed multiple high-signal lesions ti predominantly in the periventricular white matter. During the exacerbated phase both high-dose intravenous methyl-prednisolone and oral prednisone therapy produced beneficial effects. He showed definite remission within 2 years from the disease onset.  (+info)

Primary angiitis of the central nervous system: an ante-mortem diagnosis. (8/100)

A rare case of primary angiitis of the central nervous system (PACNS) is reported with its clinical and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features. A 20-year-old girl presented with headache, projectile vomiting, unsteadiness of gait and urgency of micturition. She had left seventh nerve upper motor neuron type paresis, increased tone in all four limbs, exaggerated deep tendon reflexes, cerebellar signs, and papilloedema. Cerebrospinal fluid showed lymphocytosis with elevated protein and normal glucose level. Cerebral computerised tomographic scan and MRI showed bilateral diffuse asymmetric supra- and infra-tentorial lesions (predominantly in the supratentorial and left cerebrum). On MRI, the lesions were hyperintense on T2, and proton density-weighted images and hypointense on T1-weighted images. Based on the clinical findings of raised intracranial tension and MRI features, initial diagnoses of gliomatosis cerebrii, tuberculous meningitis, primary central nervous system lymphoma and chronic viral encephalitis were considered. PACNS was not included in the initial differentials and, an open brain biopsy was advised which established the definitive diagnosis.  (+info)

Vasculitis is a group of disorders characterized by inflammation of the blood vessels, which can cause changes in the vessel walls including thickening, narrowing, or weakening. These changes can restrict blood flow, leading to organ and tissue damage. The specific symptoms and severity of vasculitis depend on the size and location of the affected blood vessels and the extent of inflammation. Vasculitis can affect any organ system in the body, and its causes can vary, including infections, autoimmune disorders, or exposure to certain medications or chemicals.

The Central Nervous System (CNS) is the part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is called the "central" system because it receives information from, and sends information to, the rest of the body through peripheral nerves, which make up the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

The CNS is responsible for processing sensory information, controlling motor functions, and regulating various autonomic processes like heart rate, respiration, and digestion. The brain, as the command center of the CNS, interprets sensory stimuli, formulates thoughts, and initiates actions. The spinal cord serves as a conduit for nerve impulses traveling to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

The CNS is protected by several structures, including the skull (which houses the brain) and the vertebral column (which surrounds and protects the spinal cord). Despite these protective measures, the CNS remains vulnerable to injury and disease, which can have severe consequences due to its crucial role in controlling essential bodily functions.

Systemic vasculitis is a group of disorders characterized by inflammation of the blood vessels (vasculitis) that can affect various organs and systems throughout the body. This condition can cause damage to the walls of the blood vessels, leading to narrowing, blockage, or weakening of the vessel walls, which can further result in reduced blood flow, tissue damage, and organ dysfunction.

The symptoms of systemic vasculitis depend on the severity and location of the affected blood vessels. They may include fever, fatigue, weight loss, joint pain, skin rashes or lesions, muscle weakness, nerve damage, and organ dysfunction such as kidney failure, lung disease, or gastrointestinal bleeding.

Systemic vasculitis can be caused by various factors, including infections, autoimmune diseases, medications, and underlying medical conditions. The diagnosis of systemic vasculitis typically involves a combination of physical examination, laboratory tests, imaging studies, and sometimes biopsy of the affected tissue. Treatment may include corticosteroids, immunosuppressive drugs, and other medications to control inflammation and prevent organ damage.

Retinal vasculitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the blood vessels in the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. This condition can cause damage to the retina and may lead to vision loss if not treated promptly. The inflammation can affect both the small and large blood vessels in the retina and can occur as a result of various systemic diseases or infections, including autoimmune disorders, tuberculosis, syphilis, and toxoplasmosis. In some cases, retinal vasculitis may also be associated with uveitis, which is inflammation of the middle layer of the eye. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the inflammation and may include corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive therapies to reduce inflammation and prevent further damage to the retina.

Vasculitis, Central Nervous System (CNS), refers to a group of disorders characterized by inflammation of blood vessels within the brain and/or spinal cord. This inflammation can cause damage to the blood vessel walls, leading to narrowing, blocking or weakening of the vessels, and in some cases, formation of aneurysms or rupture of the vessels.

The causes of CNS vasculitis are varied and can include infections, autoimmune diseases, medications, and unknown factors. The symptoms of CNS vasculitis depend on the severity and location of the inflammation, and may include headache, seizures, stroke-like symptoms (such as weakness or numbness in the face, arms, or legs), cognitive changes, and in severe cases, coma.

Diagnosis of CNS vasculitis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or angiography), and laboratory tests (including blood tests and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid). Treatment may involve corticosteroids, immunosuppressive medications, and/or other therapies aimed at reducing inflammation and preventing further damage to the blood vessels.

Anti-Neutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody (ANCA)-Associated Vasculitis (AAV) is a group of autoimmune diseases characterized by inflammation and damage to small blood vessels, particularly capillaries, venules, and arterioles. The condition is named after the presence of ANCAs in the patient's serum, which are autoantibodies that target specific proteins in the neutrophil cytoplasm.

AAV includes several subtypes, including:

1. Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (GPA, formerly known as Wegener's granulomatosis) - a form of AAV that typically affects the respiratory tract and kidneys, characterized by the presence of granulomas (clusters of inflammatory cells).
2. Microscopic Polyangiitis (MPA) - a form of AAV that primarily affects small vessels in various organs, such as the kidneys, lungs, and skin.
3. Eosinophilic Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (EGPA, formerly known as Churg-Strauss syndrome) - a form of AAV that involves asthma, allergies, and eosinophilia (an increased number of eosinophils in the blood), along with vasculitis affecting various organs.

The exact cause of ANCA-Associated Vasculitis is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve an interplay between genetic factors, environmental triggers, and dysregulation of the immune system. The condition can lead to a wide range of symptoms depending on which organs are affected, including fever, fatigue, weight loss, joint pain, skin rashes, cough, shortness of breath, nosebleeds, and kidney problems. Treatment typically involves immunosuppressive medications to control inflammation and prevent further damage to the affected organs.

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases refer to medical conditions that primarily affect the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is responsible for controlling various functions in the body, including movement, sensation, cognition, and behavior. Therefore, diseases of the CNS can have significant impacts on a person's quality of life and overall health.

There are many different types of CNS diseases, including:

1. Infectious diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites that infect the brain or spinal cord. Examples include meningitis, encephalitis, and polio.
2. Neurodegenerative diseases: These are characterized by progressive loss of nerve cells in the brain or spinal cord. Examples include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease.
3. Structural diseases: These involve damage to the physical structure of the brain or spinal cord, such as from trauma, tumors, or stroke.
4. Functional diseases: These affect the function of the nervous system without obvious structural damage, such as multiple sclerosis and epilepsy.
5. Genetic disorders: Some CNS diseases are caused by genetic mutations, such as spinal muscular atrophy and Friedreich's ataxia.

Symptoms of CNS diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the area of the brain or spinal cord that is affected. They may include muscle weakness, paralysis, seizures, loss of sensation, difficulty with coordination and balance, confusion, memory loss, changes in behavior or mood, and pain. Treatment for CNS diseases depends on the specific condition and may involve medications, surgery, rehabilitation therapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Central nervous system (CNS) neoplasms refer to a group of abnormal growths or tumors that develop within the brain or spinal cord. These tumors can be benign or malignant, and their growth can compress or disrupt the normal functioning of surrounding brain or spinal cord tissue.

Benign CNS neoplasms are slow-growing and rarely spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause significant problems if they grow large enough to put pressure on vital structures within the brain or spinal cord. Malignant CNS neoplasms, on the other hand, are aggressive tumors that can invade and destroy surrounding tissue. They may also spread to other parts of the CNS or, rarely, to other organs in the body.

CNS neoplasms can arise from various types of cells within the brain or spinal cord, including nerve cells, glial cells (which provide support and insulation for nerve cells), and supportive tissues such as blood vessels. The specific type of CNS neoplasm is often used to help guide treatment decisions and determine prognosis.

Symptoms of CNS neoplasms can vary widely depending on the location and size of the tumor, but may include headaches, seizures, weakness or paralysis, vision or hearing changes, balance problems, memory loss, and changes in behavior or personality. Treatment options for CNS neoplasms may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

The nervous system is a complex, highly organized network of specialized cells called neurons and glial cells that communicate with each other via electrical and chemical signals to coordinate various functions and activities in the body. It consists of two main parts: the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which includes all the nerves and ganglia outside the CNS.

The primary function of the nervous system is to receive, process, and integrate information from both internal and external environments and then respond by generating appropriate motor outputs or behaviors. This involves sensing various stimuli through specialized receptors, transmitting this information through afferent neurons to the CNS for processing, integrating this information with other inputs and memories, making decisions based on this processed information, and finally executing responses through efferent neurons that control effector organs such as muscles and glands.

The nervous system can be further divided into subsystems based on their functions, including the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary movements and reflexes; the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary physiological processes like heart rate, digestion, and respiration; and the enteric nervous system, which is a specialized subset of the autonomic nervous system that controls gut functions. Overall, the nervous system plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis, regulating behavior, and enabling cognition and consciousness.

Polyarteritis nodosa (PAN) is a rare, systemic necrotizing vasculitis that affects medium-sized and small muscular arteries. It is characterized by inflammation and damage to the walls of the arteries, leading to the formation of microaneurysms (small bulges in the artery wall) and subsequent narrowing or complete occlusion of the affected vessels. This can result in tissue ischemia (reduced blood flow) and infarction (tissue death), causing a wide range of clinical manifestations that vary depending on the organs involved.

The exact cause of PAN remains unclear, but it is believed to involve an autoimmune response triggered by various factors such as infections or exposure to certain drugs. The diagnosis of PAN typically requires a combination of clinical findings, laboratory tests, and imaging studies, often supported by histopathological examination of affected tissues. Treatment usually involves the use of immunosuppressive medications to control inflammation and prevent further damage to the arteries and organs.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Churg-Strauss syndrome (CSS), also known as eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (EGPA), is a rare autoimmune disorder characterized by inflammation of small- to medium-sized blood vessels (vasculitis) and the presence of eosinophils, a type of white blood cell. The syndrome typically affects multiple organ systems, including the respiratory tract, peripheral nerves, skin, heart, and kidneys.

The classic triad of symptoms includes asthma, allergies, and peripheral blood eosinophilia (high levels of eosinophils in the blood). Other common features include sinusitis, rhinitis, cough, shortness of breath, skin rashes, neuropathy (nerve damage), and cardiac involvement.

The exact cause of Churg-Strauss syndrome is not well understood, but it is believed to involve an abnormal immune response in genetically susceptible individuals. Treatment typically involves the use of immunosuppressive medications to control inflammation and prevent organ damage. Corticosteroids are often used as a first-line therapy, while other agents such as cyclophosphamide or rituximab may be added for more severe cases.

Central nervous system (CNS) infections refer to infectious processes that affect the brain, spinal cord, and their surrounding membranes, known as meninges. These infections can be caused by various microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Examples of CNS infections are:

1. Meningitis: Inflammation of the meninges, usually caused by bacterial or viral infections. Bacterial meningitis is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment.
2. Encephalitis: Inflammation of the brain parenchyma, often caused by viral infections. Some viruses associated with encephalitis include herpes simplex virus, enteroviruses, and arboviruses.
3. Meningoencephalitis: A combined inflammation of both the brain and meninges, commonly seen in certain viral infections or when bacterial pathogens directly invade the brain.
4. Brain abscess: A localized collection of pus within the brain caused by a bacterial or fungal infection.
5. Spinal epidural abscess: An infection in the space surrounding the spinal cord, usually caused by bacteria.
6. Myelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord, which can result from viral, bacterial, or fungal infections.
7. Rarely, parasitic infections like toxoplasmosis and cysticercosis can also affect the CNS.

Symptoms of CNS infections may include fever, headache, stiff neck, altered mental status, seizures, focal neurological deficits, or meningeal signs (e.g., Brudzinski's and Kernig's signs). The specific symptoms depend on the location and extent of the infection, as well as the causative organism. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent long-term neurological complications or death.

Vascular skin diseases are a group of medical conditions that affect the blood vessels in the skin. These disorders can be caused by problems with the structure or function of the blood vessels, which can lead to various symptoms such as redness, discoloration, pain, itching, and ulcerations. Some examples of vascular skin diseases include:

1. Rosacea: a chronic skin condition that causes redness, flushing, and visible blood vessels in the face.
2. Eczema: a group of inflammatory skin conditions that can cause redness, itching, and dryness. Some types of eczema, such as varicose eczema, are associated with problems with the veins.
3. Psoriasis: an autoimmune condition that causes red, scaly patches on the skin. Some people with psoriasis may also develop psoriatic arthritis, which can affect the blood vessels in the skin and joints.
4. Vasculitis: a group of conditions that cause inflammation of the blood vessels. This can lead to symptoms such as redness, pain, and ulcerations.
5. Livedo reticularis: a condition that causes a net-like pattern of discoloration on the skin, usually on the legs. It is caused by abnormalities in the small blood vessels.
6. Henoch-Schönlein purpura: a rare condition that causes inflammation of the small blood vessels, leading to purple spots on the skin and joint pain.
7. Raynaud's phenomenon: a condition that affects the blood vessels in the fingers and toes, causing them to become narrow and restrict blood flow in response to cold temperatures or stress.

Treatment for vascular skin diseases depends on the specific condition and its severity. It may include medications, lifestyle changes, and in some cases, surgery.

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is that part of the nervous system which lies outside of the brain and spinal cord. It includes all the nerves and ganglia ( clusters of neurons) outside of the central nervous system (CNS). The PNS is divided into two components: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

The somatic nervous system is responsible for transmitting sensory information from the skin, muscles, and joints to the CNS, and for controlling voluntary movements of the skeletal muscles.

The autonomic nervous system, on the other hand, controls involuntary actions, such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, salivation, perspiration, pupillary dilation, and sexual arousal. It is further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which generally have opposing effects and maintain homeostasis in the body.

Damage to the peripheral nervous system can result in various medical conditions such as neuropathies, neuritis, plexopathies, and radiculopathies, leading to symptoms like numbness, tingling, pain, weakness, or loss of reflexes in the affected area.

Rheumatoid vasculitis is not a term that is typically used as a formal medical diagnosis. However, it refers to a condition where there is inflammation of the blood vessels (vasculitis) in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the joints, causing inflammation and pain. In some people with severe RA, the immune system can also attack the blood vessels, leading to rheumatoid vasculitis. This condition is relatively rare, affecting less than 1% of people with rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid vasculitis can affect small and medium-sized blood vessels throughout the body, but it most commonly affects the skin, nerves, and organs such as the heart and lungs. Symptoms may include skin ulcers, nodules, or discoloration; nerve damage causing numbness, tingling, or weakness; and organ damage leading to symptoms related to the affected organ.

The diagnosis of rheumatoid vasculitis is typically made based on a combination of clinical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment usually involves immunosuppressive medications to control the overactive immune system and reduce inflammation.

Central nervous system (CNS) viral diseases refer to medical conditions caused by the infection and replication of viruses within the brain or spinal cord. These viruses can cause a range of symptoms, depending on the specific virus and the location of the infection within the CNS. Some common examples of CNS viral diseases include:

1. Meningitis: This is an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord (meninges) caused by viruses such as enteroviruses, herpes simplex virus, or HIV. Symptoms may include fever, headache, stiff neck, and altered mental status.
2. Encephalitis: This is an inflammation of the brain parenchyma caused by viruses such as herpes simplex virus, West Nile virus, or rabies virus. Symptoms may include fever, headache, confusion, seizures, and focal neurologic deficits.
3. Poliomyelitis: This is a highly infectious disease caused by the poliovirus that can lead to paralysis of the muscles used for breathing, swallowing, and movement. It primarily affects children under 5 years old.
4. HIV-associated neurological disorders (HAND): HIV can cause various neurologic symptoms such as cognitive impairment, peripheral neuropathy, and myopathy.
5. Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML): This is a rare but serious demyelinating disease of the CNS caused by the JC virus that primarily affects individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS or those receiving immunosuppressive therapy.

Treatment for CNS viral diseases depends on the specific virus and may include antiviral medications, supportive care, and management of symptoms. Prevention measures such as vaccination, avoiding contact with infected individuals, and practicing good hygiene can help reduce the risk of these infections.

Microscopic Polyangiitis (MPA) is a rare type of vasculitis, which is a group of disorders that cause inflammation in the blood vessels. In MPA, the small blood vessels in various organs become inflamed and damaged, leading to symptoms that can affect multiple organ systems.

The term "microscopic" refers to the fact that the diagnosis of this condition typically requires examination of tissue samples under a microscope to see the characteristic patterns of inflammation and damage in the small blood vessels.

MPA is an autoimmune disorder, which means that the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own tissues and organs. In MPA, the immune system produces abnormal antibodies called ANCA (antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies) that target certain proteins in the white blood cells, leading to their activation and subsequent damage to the blood vessels.

The symptoms of MPA can vary widely depending on which organs are affected, but they may include fever, fatigue, weight loss, joint pain, skin rashes, cough, shortness of breath, and kidney problems such as proteinuria and hematuria. Treatment typically involves the use of immunosuppressive medications to suppress the overactive immune system and reduce inflammation in the blood vessels.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP) is a type of small vessel vasculitis, which is a condition characterized by inflammation of the blood vessels. HSP primarily affects children, but it can occur in adults as well. It is named after two German physicians, Eduard Heinrich Henoch and Johann Schönlein, who first described the condition in the mid-19th century.

The main feature of HSP is a purpuric rash, which is a type of rash that appears as small, red or purple spots on the skin. The rash is caused by leakage of blood from the small blood vessels (capillaries) beneath the skin. In HSP, this rash typically occurs on the legs and buttocks, but it can also affect other parts of the body, such as the arms, face, and trunk.

In addition to the purpuric rash, HSP is often accompanied by other symptoms, such as joint pain and swelling, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In severe cases, it can also affect the kidneys, leading to hematuria (blood in the urine) and proteinuria (protein in the urine).

The exact cause of HSP is not known, but it is thought to be related to an abnormal immune response to certain triggers, such as infections or medications. Treatment typically involves supportive care, such as pain relief and fluid replacement, as well as medications to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system. In most cases, HSP resolves on its own within a few weeks or months, but it can lead to serious complications in some individuals.

Central nervous system (CNS) agents are drugs or substances that act on the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord. These agents can affect the CNS in various ways, depending on their specific mechanism of action. They may be used for therapeutic purposes, such as to treat medical conditions like pain, anxiety, seizures, or sleep disorders, or they may be abused for their psychoactive effects.

CNS agents can be broadly classified into several categories based on their primary site of action and the nature of their effects. Some common categories of CNS agents include:

1. Depressants: These drugs slow down the activity of the CNS, leading to sedative, hypnotic, or anxiolytic effects. Examples include benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and sleep aids like zolpidem.
2. Stimulants: These drugs increase the activity of the CNS, leading to alertness, energy, and improved concentration. Examples include amphetamines, methylphenidate, and caffeine.
3. Analgesics: These drugs are used to treat pain and can act on various parts of the nervous system, including the peripheral nerves, spinal cord, and brain. Examples include opioids (such as morphine and oxycodone), non-opioid analgesics (such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen), and adjuvant analgesics (such as antidepressants and anticonvulsants).
4. Antiepileptics: These drugs are used to treat seizure disorders and work by modulating the electrical activity of neurons in the brain. Examples include phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproic acid, and lamotrigine.
5. Antipsychotics: These drugs are used to treat psychosis, schizophrenia, and other mental health disorders by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain. Examples include haloperidol, risperidone, and clozapine.
6. Antidepressants: These drugs are used to treat depression and anxiety disorders by modulating neurotransmitter activity in the brain. Examples include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like fluoxetine and sertraline, tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) like phenelzine.
7. Anxiolytics: These drugs are used to treat anxiety disorders and work by modulating the activity of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain. Examples include benzodiazepines like diazepam and alprazolam, and non-benzodiazepine anxiolytics like buspirone.
8. Stimulants: These drugs are used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy by increasing the activity of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain. Examples include methylphenidate, amphetamine salts, and modafinil.
9. Sedative-hypnotics: These drugs are used to treat insomnia and other sleep disorders by depressing the activity of the central nervous system. Examples include benzodiazepines like triazolam and zolpidem, and non-benzodiazepine sedative-hypnotics like eszopiclone and ramelteon.
10. Antipsychotics: These drugs are used to treat psychotic disorders like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder by blocking the activity of dopamine in the brain. Examples include typical antipsychotics like haloperidol and chlorpromazine, and atypical antipsychotics like risperidone and aripiprazole.
11. Antidepressants: These drugs are used to treat depression and anxiety disorders by increasing the activity of serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine in the brain. Examples include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like fluoxetine and sertraline, tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) like phenelzine.
12. Anticonvulsants: These drugs are used to treat seizure disorders like epilepsy, as well as chronic pain and bipolar disorder. They work by stabilizing the electrical activity of the brain. Examples include valproic acid, lamotrigine, and carbamazepine.
13. Anxiolytics: These drugs are used to treat anxiety disorders by reducing anxiety and promoting relaxation. Examples include benzodiazepines like diazepam and alprazolam, and non-benzodiazepine anxiolytics like buspirone.
14. Hypnotics: These drugs are used to treat insomnia and other sleep disorders by promoting sleep. Examples include benzodiazepines like triazolam and temazepam, and non-benzodiazepine hypnotics like zolpidem and eszopiclone.
15. Stimulants: These drugs are used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy by increasing alertness and focus. Examples include amphetamine salts, methylphenidate, and modafinil.
16. Antihistamines: These drugs are used to treat allergies and allergic reactions by blocking the activity of histamine, a chemical that is released during an allergic response. Examples include diphenhydramine, loratadine, and cetirizine.
17. Antipsychotics: These drugs are used to treat psychosis, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and other mental health conditions by reducing the symptoms of these conditions. Examples include risperidone, olanzapine, and quetiapine.
18. Antidepressants: These drugs are used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and some chronic pain conditions by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain. Examples include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like fluoxetine and sertraline, and tricyclic antidepressants like amitriptyline and imipramine.
19. Anticonvulsants: These drugs are used to treat seizure disorders and some chronic pain conditions by stabilizing the electrical activity of the brain. Examples include valproic acid, lamotrigine, and carbamazepine.
20. Muscle relaxants: These drugs are used to treat muscle spasms and pain by reducing muscle tension. Examples include cyclobenzaprine, methocarbamol, and baclofen.

Cryoglobulinemia is a medical condition characterized by the presence of abnormal proteins called cryoglobulins in the blood. These proteins become insoluble at lower temperatures and can form immune complexes that can cause inflammation and damage to small blood vessels when they precipitate in cooler parts of the body.

Cryoglobulinemia is often associated with underlying conditions such as autoimmune diseases (such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus), chronic infections (such as hepatitis C), and certain types of cancer (such as lymphoma). Symptoms can vary widely, but may include purpura (purple spots on the skin), joint pain, peripheral neuropathy (nerve damage causing numbness or weakness), fatigue, and kidney problems.

The diagnosis of cryoglobulinemia is typically made by detecting cryoglobulins in the blood through a special test that requires the blood sample to be kept at cold temperatures. Treatment for cryoglobulinemia depends on the underlying cause, but may include medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, or chemotherapy drugs.

The spinal cord is a major part of the nervous system, extending from the brainstem and continuing down to the lower back. It is a slender, tubular bundle of nerve fibers (axons) and support cells (glial cells) that carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body. The spinal cord primarily serves as a conduit for motor information, which travels from the brain to the muscles, and sensory information, which travels from the body to the brain. It also contains neurons that can independently process and respond to information within the spinal cord without direct input from the brain.

The spinal cord is protected by the bony vertebral column (spine) and is divided into 31 segments: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Each segment corresponds to a specific region of the body and gives rise to pairs of spinal nerves that exit through the intervertebral foramina at each level.

The spinal cord is responsible for several vital functions, including:

1. Reflexes: Simple reflex actions, such as the withdrawal reflex when touching a hot surface, are mediated by the spinal cord without involving the brain.
2. Muscle control: The spinal cord carries motor signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling voluntary movement and muscle tone regulation.
3. Sensory perception: The spinal cord transmits sensory information, such as touch, temperature, pain, and vibration, from the body to the brain for processing and awareness.
4. Autonomic functions: The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system originate in the thoracolumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord, respectively, controlling involuntary physiological responses like heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and respiration.

Damage to the spinal cord can result in various degrees of paralysis or loss of sensation below the level of injury, depending on the severity and location of the damage.

Central nervous system (CNS) fungal infections refer to invasive fungal diseases that affect the brain and/or spinal cord. These types of infections are relatively uncommon but can be serious and potentially life-threatening, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems due to conditions such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplantation.

There are several types of fungi that can cause CNS infections, including:

1. Candida species: These are yeast-like fungi that can cause a range of infections, from superficial to systemic. When they invade the CNS, they can cause meningitis or brain abscesses.
2. Aspergillus species: These are mold-like fungi that can cause invasive aspergillosis, which can affect various organs, including the brain.
3. Cryptococcus neoformans: This is a yeast-like fungus that primarily affects people with weakened immune systems. It can cause meningitis or brain abscesses.
4. Coccidioides species: These are mold-like fungi that can cause coccidioidomycosis, also known as Valley Fever. While most infections are limited to the lungs, some people may develop disseminated disease, which can affect the CNS.
5. Histoplasma capsulatum: This is a mold-like fungus that causes histoplasmosis, which primarily affects the lungs but can disseminate and involve the CNS.

Symptoms of CNS fungal infections may include headache, fever, altered mental status, seizures, stiff neck, and focal neurologic deficits. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT), and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis or fungal cultures). Treatment usually involves long-term antifungal therapy, often with a combination of drugs, and may also include surgical intervention in some cases.

The enteric nervous system (ENS) is a part of the autonomic nervous system that directly controls the gastrointestinal tract, including the stomach, small intestine, colon, and rectum. It is sometimes referred to as the "second brain" because it can operate independently of the central nervous system (CNS).

The ENS contains around 500 million neurons that are organized into two main plexuses: the myenteric plexus, which lies between the longitudinal and circular muscle layers of the gut, and the submucosal plexus, which is located in the submucosa. These plexuses contain various types of neurons that are responsible for regulating gastrointestinal motility, secretion, and blood flow.

The ENS can communicate with the CNS through afferent nerve fibers that transmit information about the state of the gut to the brain, and efferent nerve fibers that carry signals from the brain back to the ENS. However, the ENS is also capable of functioning independently of the CNS, allowing it to regulate gastrointestinal functions in response to local stimuli such as food intake, inflammation, or infection.

Nervous system diseases, also known as neurological disorders, refer to a group of conditions that affect the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles. These diseases can affect various functions of the body, such as movement, sensation, cognition, and behavior. They can be caused by genetics, infections, injuries, degeneration, or tumors. Examples of nervous system diseases include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, migraine, stroke, and neuroinfections like meningitis and encephalitis. The symptoms and severity of these disorders can vary widely, ranging from mild to severe and debilitating.

'Nervous system physiological phenomena' refer to the functions, activities, and processes that occur within the nervous system in a healthy or normal state. This includes:

1. Neuronal Activity: The transmission of electrical signals (action potentials) along neurons, which allows for communication between different cells and parts of the nervous system.

2. Neurotransmission: The release and binding of neurotransmitters to receptors on neighboring cells, enabling the transfer of information across the synapse or junction between two neurons.

3. Sensory Processing: The conversion of external stimuli into electrical signals by sensory receptors, followed by the transmission and interpretation of these signals within the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

4. Motor Function: The generation and execution of motor commands, allowing for voluntary movement and control of muscles and glands.

5. Autonomic Function: The regulation of internal organs and glands through the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system, maintaining homeostasis within the body.

6. Cognitive Processes: Higher brain functions such as perception, attention, memory, language, learning, and emotion, which are supported by complex neural networks and interactions.

7. Sleep-Wake Cycle: The regulation of sleep and wakefulness through interactions between the brainstem, thalamus, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain, ensuring proper rest and recovery.

8. Development and Plasticity: The growth, maturation, and adaptation of the nervous system throughout life, including processes such as neuronal migration, synaptogenesis, and neural plasticity.

9. Endocrine Regulation: The interaction between the nervous system and endocrine system, with the hypothalamus playing a key role in controlling hormone release and maintaining homeostasis.

10. Immune Function: The communication between the nervous system and immune system, allowing for the coordination of responses to infection, injury, or stress.

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a part of the peripheral nervous system that operates largely below the level of consciousness and controls visceral functions. It is divided into two main subdivisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which generally have opposing effects and maintain homeostasis in the body.

The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response. It increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and metabolic rate, while also decreasing digestive activity. This response helps the body respond quickly to perceived threats.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS), on the other hand, promotes the "rest and digest" state, allowing the body to conserve energy and restore itself after the stress response has subsided. It decreases heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate, while increasing digestive activity and promoting relaxation.

These two systems work together to maintain balance in the body by adjusting various functions based on internal and external demands. Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System can lead to a variety of symptoms, such as orthostatic hypotension, gastroparesis, and cardiac arrhythmias, among others.

Neuroglia, also known as glial cells or simply glia, are non-neuronal cells that provide support and protection for neurons in the nervous system. They maintain homeostasis, form myelin sheaths around nerve fibers, and provide structural support. They also play a role in the immune response of the central nervous system. Some types of neuroglia include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.

Central nervous system (CNS) bacterial infections refer to the invasion and infection of the brain or spinal cord by bacteria. This can lead to serious consequences as the CNS is highly sensitive to inflammation and infection. Examples of CNS bacterial infections include:

1. Meningitis: an infection of the meninges, the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. It is often caused by bacteria such as Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Haemophilus influenzae.

2. Encephalitis: an inflammation of the brain parenchyma, which can be caused by bacterial infections such as Listeria monocytogenes, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, or Bartonella henselae.

3. Brain abscess: a localized collection of pus within the brain tissue, usually resulting from direct spread of bacteria from a nearby infection, or from bacteremia (bacteria in the bloodstream). Common causes include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus species, and anaerobic bacteria.

4. Spinal epidural abscess: an accumulation of pus in the epidural space surrounding the spinal cord, which can lead to compression of the spinal cord and result in serious neurological deficits. Common causative organisms include Staphylococcus aureus and other streptococci.

5. Subdural empyema: an infection in the potential space between the dura mater and the arachnoid membrane, usually caused by direct spread of bacteria from a nearby focus of infection or from bacteremia. Streptococcus species and anaerobic bacteria are common causes.

Treatment for CNS bacterial infections typically involves antibiotics, supportive care, and sometimes surgical intervention to drain abscesses or remove infected tissue. The prognosis depends on the specific infection, the patient's overall health, and how quickly treatment is initiated.

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is a part of the autonomic nervous system that operates largely below the level of consciousness, and it functions to produce appropriate physiological responses to perceived danger. It's often associated with the "fight or flight" response. The SNS uses nerve impulses to stimulate target organs, causing them to speed up (e.g., increased heart rate), prepare for action, or otherwise respond to stressful situations.

The sympathetic nervous system is activated due to stressful emotional or physical situations and it prepares the body for immediate actions. It dilates the pupils, increases heart rate and blood pressure, accelerates breathing, and slows down digestion. The primary neurotransmitter involved in this system is norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline).

The myelin sheath is a multilayered, fatty substance that surrounds and insulates many nerve fibers in the nervous system. It is essential for the rapid transmission of electrical signals, or nerve impulses, along these nerve fibers, allowing for efficient communication between different parts of the body. The myelin sheath is produced by specialized cells called oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system (CNS) and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Damage to the myelin sheath, as seen in conditions like multiple sclerosis, can significantly impair nerve function and result in various neurological symptoms.

Arteritis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the arteries. It is also known as vasculitis of the arteries. The inflammation can cause the walls of the arteries to thicken and narrow, reducing blood flow to affected organs or tissues. There are several types of arteritis, including:

1. Giant cell arteritis (GCA): Also known as temporal arteritis, it is a condition that mainly affects the large and medium-sized arteries in the head and neck. The inflammation can cause headaches, jaw pain, scalp tenderness, and vision problems.
2. Takayasu's arteritis: This type of arteritis affects the aorta and its major branches, mainly affecting young women. Symptoms include fever, weight loss, fatigue, and decreased pulse in the arms or legs.
3. Polyarteritis nodosa (PAN): PAN is a rare systemic vasculitis that can affect medium-sized arteries throughout the body. It can cause a wide range of symptoms, including fever, rash, abdominal pain, and muscle weakness.
4. Kawasaki disease: This is a type of arteritis that mainly affects children under the age of 5. It causes inflammation in the blood vessels throughout the body, leading to fever, rash, swollen lymph nodes, and red eyes.

The exact cause of arteritis is not fully understood, but it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, where the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own tissues. Treatment for arteritis typically involves medications to reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system.

The Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) is a highly specialized, selective interface between the central nervous system (CNS) and the circulating blood. It is formed by unique endothelial cells that line the brain's capillaries, along with tight junctions, astrocytic foot processes, and pericytes, which together restrict the passage of substances from the bloodstream into the CNS. This barrier serves to protect the brain from harmful agents and maintain a stable environment for proper neural function. However, it also poses a challenge in delivering therapeutics to the CNS, as most large and hydrophilic molecules cannot cross the BBB.

Mucocutaneous Lymph Node Syndrome is also known as Kawasaki Disease. It is a type of vasculitis that primarily affects young children, usually those under the age of 5. The disease is named after Dr. Tomisaku Kawasaki, who first described it in Japan in 1967.

The condition is characterized by inflammation of the mucous membranes (mucosa), skin (cutaneous), and lymph nodes. The symptoms typically include fever, rash, red eyes, swollen lips and tongue, strawberry tongue, and swollen lymph nodes in the neck. In addition, children with Kawasaki disease may also experience joint pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.

In severe cases, Kawasaki disease can lead to complications such as coronary artery aneurysms, which can increase the risk of heart attacks and other cardiovascular problems. The exact cause of Kawasaki disease is unknown, but it is thought to be triggered by an infection or other environmental factor in genetically susceptible children. Treatment typically involves administering high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) and aspirin to reduce inflammation and prevent complications.

Astrocytes are a type of star-shaped glial cell found in the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord. They play crucial roles in supporting and maintaining the health and function of neurons, which are the primary cells responsible for transmitting information in the CNS.

Some of the essential functions of astrocytes include:

1. Supporting neuronal structure and function: Astrocytes provide structural support to neurons by ensheathing them and maintaining the integrity of the blood-brain barrier, which helps regulate the entry and exit of substances into the CNS.
2. Regulating neurotransmitter levels: Astrocytes help control the levels of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft (the space between two neurons) by taking up excess neurotransmitters and breaking them down, thus preventing excessive or prolonged activation of neuronal receptors.
3. Providing nutrients to neurons: Astrocytes help supply energy metabolites, such as lactate, to neurons, which are essential for their survival and function.
4. Modulating synaptic activity: Through the release of various signaling molecules, astrocytes can modulate synaptic strength and plasticity, contributing to learning and memory processes.
5. Participating in immune responses: Astrocytes can respond to CNS injuries or infections by releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which help recruit immune cells to the site of injury or infection.
6. Promoting neuronal survival and repair: In response to injury or disease, astrocytes can become reactive and undergo morphological changes that aid in forming a glial scar, which helps contain damage and promote tissue repair. Additionally, they release growth factors and other molecules that support the survival and regeneration of injured neurons.

Dysfunction or damage to astrocytes has been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and multiple sclerosis (MS).

Brain diseases, also known as neurological disorders, refer to a wide range of conditions that affect the brain and nervous system. These diseases can be caused by various factors such as genetics, infections, injuries, degeneration, or structural abnormalities. They can affect different parts of the brain, leading to a variety of symptoms and complications.

Some examples of brain diseases include:

1. Alzheimer's disease - a progressive degenerative disorder that affects memory and cognitive function.
2. Parkinson's disease - a movement disorder characterized by tremors, stiffness, and difficulty with coordination and balance.
3. Multiple sclerosis - a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the nervous system and can cause a range of symptoms such as vision loss, muscle weakness, and cognitive impairment.
4. Epilepsy - a neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures.
5. Brain tumors - abnormal growths in the brain that can be benign or malignant.
6. Stroke - a sudden interruption of blood flow to the brain, which can cause paralysis, speech difficulties, and other neurological symptoms.
7. Meningitis - an infection of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
8. Encephalitis - an inflammation of the brain that can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or autoimmune disorders.
9. Huntington's disease - a genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination, cognitive function, and mental health.
10. Migraine - a neurological condition characterized by severe headaches, often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.

Brain diseases can range from mild to severe and may be treatable or incurable. They can affect people of all ages and backgrounds, and early diagnosis and treatment are essential for improving outcomes and quality of life.

Central Nervous System (CNS) Tuberculosis is a specific form of tuberculosis (TB) that refers to the infection and inflammation caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the brain or spinal cord. The two most common forms of CNS tuberculosis are tuberculous meningitis and tuberculomas.

1. Tuberculous Meningitis (TBM): This is the most frequent form of CNS TB, characterized by the inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord (meninges). The infection can lead to the formation of caseous lesions (granulomas), which may obstruct cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow and result in increased intracranial pressure. Symptoms often include headache, fever, altered mental status, neck stiffness, vomiting, and focal neurological deficits.
2. Tuberculomas: These are localized granulomatous lesions formed by the immune response to M. tuberculosis in the brain parenchyma. They can cause various neurological symptoms depending on their size and location, such as seizures, focal deficits, or increased intracranial pressure.

CNS TB is a severe manifestation of tuberculosis that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent long-term neurological damage or even death. Diagnosis typically involves imaging studies (CT or MRI scans) and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid obtained through lumbar puncture. Treatment usually consists of a prolonged course of multiple antituberculous drugs, along with corticosteroids to manage inflammation and prevent complications.

Nervous system neoplasms are abnormal growths or tumors that occur within the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. These tumors can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), and their growth can compress or infiltrate surrounding tissues, leading to various neurological symptoms. The causes of nervous system neoplasms are not fully understood but may involve genetic factors, exposure to certain chemicals or radiation, and certain viral infections. Treatment options depend on the type, location, and size of the tumor and can include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Behçet syndrome is a rare inflammatory disease that can cause symptoms in various parts of the body. It's characterized by recurrent mouth sores (aphthous ulcers), genital sores, and inflammation of the eyes (uveitis). The condition may also cause skin lesions, joint pain and swelling, and inflammation of the digestive tract, brain, or spinal cord.

The exact cause of Behçet syndrome is not known, but it's thought to be an autoimmune disorder, in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own healthy cells and tissues. The condition tends to affect men more often than women and typically develops during a person's 20s or 30s.

There is no cure for Behçet syndrome, but treatments can help manage symptoms and prevent complications. Treatment options may include medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and biologics to reduce inflammation, as well as pain relievers and other supportive therapies.

Nerve tissue proteins are specialized proteins found in the nervous system that provide structural and functional support to nerve cells, also known as neurons. These proteins include:

1. Neurofilaments: These are type IV intermediate filaments that provide structural support to neurons and help maintain their shape and size. They are composed of three subunits - NFL (light), NFM (medium), and NFH (heavy).

2. Neuronal Cytoskeletal Proteins: These include tubulins, actins, and spectrins that provide structural support to the neuronal cytoskeleton and help maintain its integrity.

3. Neurotransmitter Receptors: These are specialized proteins located on the postsynaptic membrane of neurons that bind neurotransmitters released by presynaptic neurons, triggering a response in the target cell.

4. Ion Channels: These are transmembrane proteins that regulate the flow of ions across the neuronal membrane and play a crucial role in generating and transmitting electrical signals in neurons.

5. Signaling Proteins: These include enzymes, receptors, and adaptor proteins that mediate intracellular signaling pathways involved in neuronal development, differentiation, survival, and death.

6. Adhesion Proteins: These are cell surface proteins that mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, playing a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of neural circuits.

7. Extracellular Matrix Proteins: These include proteoglycans, laminins, and collagens that provide structural support to nerve tissue and regulate neuronal migration, differentiation, and survival.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Demyelinating diseases are a group of disorders that are characterized by damage to the myelin sheath, which is the protective covering surrounding nerve fibers in the brain, optic nerves, and spinal cord. Myelin is essential for the rapid transmission of nerve impulses, and its damage results in disrupted communication between the brain and other parts of the body.

The most common demyelinating disease is multiple sclerosis (MS), where the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath. Other demyelinating diseases include:

1. Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM): An autoimmune disorder that typically follows a viral infection or vaccination, causing widespread inflammation and demyelination in the brain and spinal cord.
2. Neuromyelitis Optica (NMO) or Devic's Disease: A rare autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the optic nerves and spinal cord, leading to severe vision loss and motor disability.
3. Transverse Myelitis: Inflammation of the spinal cord causing damage to both sides of one level (segment) of the spinal cord, resulting in various neurological symptoms such as muscle weakness, numbness, or pain, depending on which part of the spinal cord is affected.
4. Guillain-Barré Syndrome: An autoimmune disorder that causes rapid-onset muscle weakness, often beginning in the legs and spreading to the upper body, including the face and breathing muscles. It occurs when the immune system attacks the peripheral nerves' myelin sheath.
5. Central Pontine Myelinolysis (CPM): A rare neurological disorder caused by rapid shifts in sodium levels in the blood, leading to damage to the myelin sheath in a specific area of the brainstem called the pons.

These diseases can result in various symptoms, such as muscle weakness, numbness, vision loss, difficulty with balance and coordination, and cognitive impairment, depending on the location and extent of the demyelination. Treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms, modifying the immune system's response, and promoting nerve regeneration and remyelination when possible.

Autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a model of inflammatory demyelinating disease used in medical research to study the mechanisms of multiple sclerosis (MS) and develop new therapies. It is experimentally induced in laboratory animals, typically mice or rats, through immunization with myelin antigens or T-cell transfer. The resulting immune response leads to inflammation, demyelination, and neurological dysfunction in the central nervous system (CNS), mimicking certain aspects of MS.

EAE is a valuable tool for understanding the pathogenesis of MS and testing potential treatments. However, it is essential to recognize that EAE is an experimental model and may not fully recapitulate all features of human autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

An axon is a long, slender extension of a neuron (a type of nerve cell) that conducts electrical impulses (nerve impulses) away from the cell body to target cells, such as other neurons or muscle cells. Axons can vary in length from a few micrometers to over a meter long and are typically surrounded by a myelin sheath, which helps to insulate and protect the axon and allows for faster transmission of nerve impulses.

Axons play a critical role in the functioning of the nervous system, as they provide the means by which neurons communicate with one another and with other cells in the body. Damage to axons can result in serious neurological problems, such as those seen in spinal cord injuries or neurodegenerative diseases like multiple sclerosis.

Oligodendroglia are a type of neuroglial cell found in the central nervous system (CNS) of vertebrates, including humans. These cells play a crucial role in providing support and insulation to nerve fibers (axons) in the CNS, which includes the brain and spinal cord.

More specifically, oligodendroglia produce a fatty substance called myelin that wraps around axons, forming myelin sheaths. This myelination process helps to increase the speed of electrical impulse transmission (nerve impulses) along the axons, allowing for efficient communication between different neurons.

In addition to their role in myelination, oligodendroglia also contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the CNS by providing essential nutrients and supporting factors to neurons. Dysfunction or damage to oligodendroglia has been implicated in various neurological disorders, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), where demyelination of axons leads to impaired nerve function and neurodegeneration.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Glomerulonephritis is a medical condition that involves inflammation of the glomeruli, which are the tiny blood vessel clusters in the kidneys that filter waste and excess fluids from the blood. This inflammation can impair the kidney's ability to filter blood properly, leading to symptoms such as proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), edema (swelling), hypertension (high blood pressure), and eventually kidney failure.

Glomerulonephritis can be acute or chronic, and it may occur as a primary kidney disease or secondary to other medical conditions such as infections, autoimmune disorders, or vasculitis. The diagnosis of glomerulonephritis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, urinalysis, blood tests, and imaging studies, with confirmation often requiring a kidney biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and severity of the disease but may include medications to suppress inflammation, control blood pressure, and manage symptoms.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a shock absorber for the central nervous system and provides nutrients to the brain while removing waste products. CSF is produced by specialized cells called ependymal cells in the choroid plexus of the ventricles (fluid-filled spaces) inside the brain. From there, it circulates through the ventricular system and around the outside of the brain and spinal cord before being absorbed back into the bloodstream. CSF analysis is an important diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, including infections, inflammation, and cancer.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Developmental gene expression regulation refers to the processes that control the activation or repression of specific genes during embryonic and fetal development. These regulatory mechanisms ensure that genes are expressed at the right time, in the right cells, and at appropriate levels to guide proper growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis of an organism.

Developmental gene expression regulation is a complex and dynamic process involving various molecular players, such as transcription factors, chromatin modifiers, non-coding RNAs, and signaling molecules. These regulators can interact with cis-regulatory elements, like enhancers and promoters, to fine-tune the spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development.

Dysregulation of developmental gene expression can lead to various congenital disorders and developmental abnormalities. Therefore, understanding the principles and mechanisms governing developmental gene expression regulation is crucial for uncovering the etiology of developmental diseases and devising potential therapeutic strategies.

In situ hybridization (ISH) is a molecular biology technique used to detect and localize specific nucleic acid sequences, such as DNA or RNA, within cells or tissues. This technique involves the use of a labeled probe that is complementary to the target nucleic acid sequence. The probe can be labeled with various types of markers, including radioisotopes, fluorescent dyes, or enzymes.

During the ISH procedure, the labeled probe is hybridized to the target nucleic acid sequence in situ, meaning that the hybridization occurs within the intact cells or tissues. After washing away unbound probe, the location of the labeled probe can be visualized using various methods depending on the type of label used.

In situ hybridization has a wide range of applications in both research and diagnostic settings, including the detection of gene expression patterns, identification of viral infections, and diagnosis of genetic disorders.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) diseases, also known as Peripheral Neuropathies, refer to conditions that affect the functioning of the peripheral nervous system, which includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. These nerves transmit signals between the central nervous system (CNS) and the rest of the body, controlling sensations, movements, and automatic functions such as heart rate and digestion.

PNS diseases can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, toxins, metabolic disorders, trauma, or autoimmune conditions. The symptoms of PNS diseases depend on the type and extent of nerve damage but often include:

1. Numbness, tingling, or pain in the hands and feet
2. Muscle weakness or cramps
3. Loss of reflexes
4. Decreased sensation to touch, temperature, or vibration
5. Coordination problems and difficulty with balance
6. Sexual dysfunction
7. Digestive issues, such as constipation or diarrhea
8. Dizziness or fainting due to changes in blood pressure

Examples of PNS diseases include Guillain-Barre syndrome, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, diabetic neuropathy, and peripheral nerve injuries. Treatment for these conditions varies depending on the underlying cause but may involve medications, physical therapy, lifestyle changes, or surgery.

Lupus vasculitis in the central nervous system (CNS) is a specific type of inflammation that occurs in the blood vessels of the brain and/or spinal cord due to systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease. In this condition, the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue, including blood vessel walls, leading to their inflammation and damage.

CNS vasculitis can cause various neurological symptoms such as headaches, seizures, cognitive impairment, mood changes, stroke-like episodes, and even loss of consciousness. The diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or angiography), and laboratory tests to detect the presence of autoantibodies associated with SLE. Treatment usually includes immunosuppressive therapy to control the inflammation and prevent further damage to the blood vessels in the CNS.

Cryoglobulins are immunoglobulins (a type of antibody) that precipitate or become insoluble at reduced temperatures, typically below 37°C (98.6°F), and re-dissolve when rewarmed. They can be found in various clinical conditions such as infections, inflammatory diseases, and lymphoproliferative disorders.

The presence of cryoglobulins in the blood can lead to a variety of symptoms, including purpura (a type of skin rash), arthralgias (joint pain), neuropathy (nerve damage), and glomerulonephritis (kidney inflammation). The diagnosis of cryoglobulinemia is made by detecting the presence of cryoglobulins in the serum, which requires special handling and processing of the blood sample. Treatment of cryoglobulinemia depends on the underlying cause and may include medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents, or targeted therapies.

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain, spinal cord, and optic nerves. In MS, the immune system mistakenly attacks the protective covering of nerve fibers, called myelin, leading to damage and scarring (sclerosis). This results in disrupted communication between the brain and the rest of the body, causing a variety of neurological symptoms that can vary widely from person to person.

The term "multiple" refers to the numerous areas of scarring that occur throughout the CNS in this condition. The progression, severity, and specific symptoms of MS are unpredictable and may include vision problems, muscle weakness, numbness or tingling, difficulty with balance and coordination, cognitive impairment, and mood changes. There is currently no cure for MS, but various treatments can help manage symptoms, modify the course of the disease, and improve quality of life for those affected.

Encephalitis is defined as inflammation of the brain parenchyma, which is often caused by viral infections but can also be due to bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections, autoimmune disorders, or exposure to toxins. The infection or inflammation can cause various symptoms such as headache, fever, confusion, seizures, and altered consciousness, ranging from mild symptoms to severe cases that can lead to brain damage, long-term disabilities, or even death.

The diagnosis of encephalitis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT scans), and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis). Treatment may include antiviral medications, corticosteroids, immunoglobulins, and supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Brain neoplasms, also known as brain tumors, are abnormal growths of cells within the brain. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign brain tumors typically grow slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause serious problems if they press on sensitive areas of the brain. Malignant brain tumors, on the other hand, are cancerous and can grow quickly, invading surrounding brain tissue and spreading to other parts of the brain or spinal cord.

Brain neoplasms can arise from various types of cells within the brain, including glial cells (which provide support and insulation for nerve cells), neurons (nerve cells that transmit signals in the brain), and meninges (the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord). They can also result from the spread of cancer cells from other parts of the body, known as metastatic brain tumors.

Symptoms of brain neoplasms may vary depending on their size, location, and growth rate. Common symptoms include headaches, seizures, weakness or paralysis in the limbs, difficulty with balance and coordination, changes in speech or vision, confusion, memory loss, and changes in behavior or personality.

Treatment for brain neoplasms depends on several factors, including the type, size, location, and grade of the tumor, as well as the patient's age and overall health. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination of these approaches. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor for recurrence and manage any long-term effects of treatment.

Meningoencephalitis is a medical term that refers to an inflammation of both the brain (encephalitis) and the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges), known as the meninges. It is often caused by an infection, such as bacterial or viral infections, that spreads to the meninges and brain. In some cases, it can also be caused by other factors like autoimmune disorders or certain medications.

The symptoms of meningoencephalitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, and changes in mental status. If left untreated, this condition can lead to serious complications, such as brain damage, hearing loss, learning disabilities, or even death. Treatment typically involves antibiotics for bacterial infections or antiviral medications for viral infections, along with supportive care to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA), also known as Temporal Arteritis, is a chronic inflammatory disease affecting large and medium-sized arteries, most commonly the temporal artery. It primarily occurs in people over 50 years old. The condition is characterized by the infiltration of the artery walls with immune cells, leading to inflammation, swelling, and damage. This can restrict blood flow, causing various symptoms.

The key feature of GCA is the presence of multinucleated giant cells, which are large collections of fused immune cells, in the affected artery walls. These cells are a hallmark of this condition when viewed under a microscope.

Common symptoms include new onset of severe headaches, scalp tenderness, jaw pain while chewing (called jaw claudication), vision problems, and systemic symptoms such as fever, fatigue, and weight loss. If left untreated, GCA can lead to serious complications like blindness or stroke. Treatment typically involves high-dose corticosteroids to reduce inflammation and prevent further damage.

Encephalomyelitis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of both the brain (encephalitis) and spinal cord (myelitis). This condition can be caused by various infectious agents, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites, or it can be due to an autoimmune response where the body's own immune system attacks the nervous tissue.

The symptoms of encephalomyelitis can vary widely depending on the extent and location of the inflammation, but they may include fever, headache, stiff neck, seizures, muscle weakness, sensory changes, and difficulty with coordination or walking. In severe cases, encephalomyelitis can lead to permanent neurological damage or even death.

Treatment for encephalomyelitis typically involves addressing the underlying cause, such as administering antiviral medications for viral infections or immunosuppressive drugs for autoimmune reactions. Supportive care, such as pain management, physical therapy, and rehabilitation, may also be necessary to help manage symptoms and promote recovery.

Autoimmune diseases are a group of disorders in which the immune system, which normally protects the body from foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses, mistakenly attacks the body's own cells and tissues. This results in inflammation and damage to various organs and tissues in the body.

In autoimmune diseases, the body produces autoantibodies that target its own proteins or cell receptors, leading to their destruction or malfunction. The exact cause of autoimmune diseases is not fully understood, but it is believed that a combination of genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development.

There are over 80 different types of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms can vary widely depending on the specific autoimmune disease and the organs or tissues affected. Treatment typically involves managing symptoms and suppressing the immune system to prevent further damage.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Immunosuppressive agents are medications that decrease the activity of the immune system. They are often used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. These drugs work by interfering with the immune system's normal responses, which helps to reduce inflammation and damage to tissues. However, because they suppress the immune system, people who take immunosuppressive agents are at increased risk for infections and other complications. Examples of immunosuppressive agents include corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and sirolimus.

Microglia are a type of specialized immune cell found in the brain and spinal cord. They are part of the glial family, which provide support and protection to the neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia account for about 10-15% of all cells found in the CNS.

The primary role of microglia is to constantly survey their environment and eliminate any potentially harmful agents, such as pathogens, dead cells, or protein aggregates. They do this through a process called phagocytosis, where they engulf and digest foreign particles or cellular debris. In addition to their phagocytic function, microglia also release various cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors that help regulate the immune response in the CNS, promote neuronal survival, and contribute to synaptic plasticity.

Microglia can exist in different activation states depending on the nature of the stimuli they encounter. In a resting state, microglia have a small cell body with numerous branches that are constantly monitoring their surroundings. When activated by an injury, infection, or neurodegenerative process, microglia change their morphology and phenotype, retracting their processes and adopting an amoeboid shape to migrate towards the site of damage or inflammation. Based on the type of activation, microglia can release both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors that contribute to either neuroprotection or neurotoxicity.

Dysregulation of microglial function has been implicated in several neurological disorders, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Therefore, understanding the role of microglia in health and disease is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Purpura is a medical term that refers to the appearance of purple-colored spots on the skin or mucous membranes, caused by bleeding underneath the skin due to various factors such as blood clotting disorders, vasculitis (inflammation of the blood vessels), severe thrombocytopenia (low platelet count), or use of certain medications. These spots can vary in size and shape, ranging from small pinpoint hemorrhages (petechiae) to larger, irregularly shaped patches (ecchymoses). The bleeding is usually not caused by trauma or injury to the area. It's important to consult a healthcare professional if you notice any unexplained purpuric spots on your skin or mucous membranes, as they can indicate an underlying medical condition that requires further evaluation and treatment.

Peripheral nerves are nerve fibers that transmit signals between the central nervous system (CNS, consisting of the brain and spinal cord) and the rest of the body. These nerves convey motor, sensory, and autonomic information, enabling us to move, feel, and respond to changes in our environment. They form a complex network that extends from the CNS to muscles, glands, skin, and internal organs, allowing for coordinated responses and functions throughout the body. Damage or injury to peripheral nerves can result in various neurological symptoms, such as numbness, weakness, or pain, depending on the type and severity of the damage.

Autoantibodies are defined as antibodies that are produced by the immune system and target the body's own cells, tissues, or organs. These antibodies mistakenly identify certain proteins or molecules in the body as foreign invaders and attack them, leading to an autoimmune response. Autoantibodies can be found in various autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and thyroiditis. The presence of autoantibodies can also be used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

Viral encephalitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the brain caused by a viral infection. The infection can be caused by various types of viruses, such as herpes simplex virus, enteroviruses, arboviruses (transmitted through insect bites), or HIV.

The symptoms of viral encephalitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, and altered level of consciousness. In severe cases, it can lead to brain damage, coma, or even death. The diagnosis is usually made based on clinical presentation, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as MRI or CT scan. Treatment typically involves antiviral medications, supportive care, and management of complications.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

The meninges are the protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. They consist of three layers: the dura mater (the outermost, toughest layer), the arachnoid mater (middle layer), and the pia mater (the innermost, delicate layer). These membranes provide protection and support to the central nervous system, and contain blood vessels that supply nutrients and remove waste products. Inflammation or infection of the meninges is called meningitis, which can be a serious medical condition requiring prompt treatment.

Takayasu arteritis is a rare inflammatory disease that affects the large blood vessels in the body, most commonly the aorta and its main branches. It's also known as pulseless disease or aortic arch syndrome. The condition primarily affects young to middle-aged women, although it can occur in anyone at any age.

The inflammation caused by Takayasu arteritis can lead to narrowing, thickening, and weakening of the affected blood vessels' walls, which can result in reduced blood flow to various organs and tissues. This can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the severity and location of the vessel involvement.

Common symptoms include:

* Weak or absent pulses in the arms and/or legs
* High blood pressure (hypertension)
* Dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting spells due to reduced blood flow to the brain
* Headaches
* Visual disturbances
* Fatigue
* Weight loss
* Night sweats
* Fever

Diagnosis of Takayasu arteritis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment usually includes corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive medications to control inflammation and maintain remission. Regular follow-up with a healthcare provider is essential to monitor disease activity and adjust treatment as necessary.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Brain chemistry refers to the chemical processes that occur within the brain, particularly those involving neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and neuropeptides. These chemicals are responsible for transmitting signals between neurons (nerve cells) in the brain, allowing for various cognitive, emotional, and physical functions.

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse (the tiny gap between two neurons). Examples of neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), and glutamate. Each neurotransmitter has a specific role in brain function, such as regulating mood, motivation, attention, memory, and movement.

Neuromodulators are chemicals that modify the effects of neurotransmitters on neurons. They can enhance or inhibit the transmission of signals between neurons, thereby modulating brain activity. Examples of neuromodulators include acetylcholine, histamine, and substance P.

Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators. They play a role in various physiological functions, such as pain perception, stress response, and reward processing. Examples of neuropeptides include endorphins, enkephalins, and oxytocin.

Abnormalities in brain chemistry can lead to various neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Understanding brain chemistry is crucial for developing effective treatments for these conditions.

Medical Definition:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed cross-sectional or three-dimensional images of the internal structures of the body. The patient lies within a large, cylindrical magnet, and the scanner detects changes in the direction of the magnetic field caused by protons in the body. These changes are then converted into detailed images that help medical professionals to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as tumors, injuries, or diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, joints, and other internal organs. MRI does not use radiation like computed tomography (CT) scans.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Nervous system trauma, also known as neurotrauma, refers to damage or injury to the nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. This type of trauma can result from various causes, such as vehicular accidents, sports injuries, falls, violence, or penetrating traumas. Nervous system trauma can lead to temporary or permanent impairments in sensory, motor, or cognitive functions, depending on the severity and location of the injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a common form of nervous system trauma that occurs when an external force causes brain dysfunction. TBIs can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe, based on factors such as loss of consciousness, memory loss, and neurological deficits. Mild TBIs, also known as concussions, may not cause long-term damage but still require medical attention to ensure proper healing and prevent further complications.

Spinal cord injuries (SCI) are another form of nervous system trauma that can have severe consequences. SCI occurs when the spinal cord is damaged due to a sudden, traumatic blow or cut, causing loss of motor function, sensation, or autonomic function below the level of injury. The severity and location of the injury determine the extent of impairment, which can range from partial to complete paralysis.

Immediate medical intervention is crucial in cases of nervous system trauma to minimize secondary damage, prevent complications, and optimize recovery outcomes. Treatment options may include surgery, medication, rehabilitation, or a combination of these approaches.

Myelin proteins are proteins that are found in the myelin sheath, which is a fatty (lipid-rich) substance that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers (axons) in the nervous system. The myelin sheath enables the rapid transmission of electrical signals (nerve impulses) along the axons, allowing for efficient communication between different parts of the nervous system.

There are several types of myelin proteins, including:

1. Proteolipid protein (PLP): This is the most abundant protein in the myelin sheath and plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure and function of the myelin sheath.
2. Myelin basic protein (MBP): This protein is also found in the myelin sheath and helps to stabilize the compact structure of the myelin sheath.
3. Myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG): This protein is involved in the adhesion of the myelin sheath to the axon and helps to maintain the integrity of the myelin sheath.
4. 2'3'-cyclic nucleotide 3' phosphodiesterase (CNP): This protein is found in oligodendrocytes, which are the cells that produce the myelin sheath in the central nervous system. CNP plays a role in maintaining the structure and function of the oligodendrocytes.

Damage to myelin proteins can lead to demyelination, which is a characteristic feature of several neurological disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS), Guillain-Barré syndrome, and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Intraventricular injections are a type of medical procedure where medication is administered directly into the cerebral ventricles of the brain. The cerebral ventricles are fluid-filled spaces within the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). This procedure is typically used to deliver drugs that target conditions affecting the central nervous system, such as infections or tumors.

Intraventricular injections are usually performed using a thin, hollow needle that is inserted through a small hole drilled into the skull. The medication is then injected directly into the ventricles, allowing it to circulate throughout the CSF and reach the brain tissue more efficiently than other routes of administration.

This type of injection is typically reserved for situations where other methods of drug delivery are not effective or feasible. It carries a higher risk of complications, such as bleeding, infection, or damage to surrounding tissues, compared to other routes of administration. Therefore, it is usually performed by trained medical professionals in a controlled clinical setting.

Prednisolone is a synthetic glucocorticoid drug, which is a class of steroid hormones. It is commonly used in the treatment of various inflammatory and autoimmune conditions due to its potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. Prednisolone works by binding to specific receptors in cells, leading to changes in gene expression that reduce the production of substances involved in inflammation, such as cytokines and prostaglandins.

Prednisolone is available in various forms, including tablets, syrups, and injectable solutions. It can be used to treat a wide range of medical conditions, including asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, allergies, skin conditions, and certain types of cancer.

Like other steroid medications, prednisolone can have significant side effects if used in high doses or for long periods of time. These may include weight gain, mood changes, increased risk of infections, osteoporosis, diabetes, and adrenal suppression. As a result, the use of prednisolone should be closely monitored by a healthcare professional to ensure that its benefits outweigh its risks.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease that can affect almost any organ or system in the body. In SLE, the immune system produces an exaggerated response, leading to the production of autoantibodies that attack the body's own cells and tissues, causing inflammation and damage. The symptoms and severity of SLE can vary widely from person to person, but common features include fatigue, joint pain, skin rashes (particularly a "butterfly" rash across the nose and cheeks), fever, hair loss, and sensitivity to sunlight.

Systemic lupus erythematosus can also affect the kidneys, heart, lungs, brain, blood vessels, and other organs, leading to a wide range of symptoms such as kidney dysfunction, chest pain, shortness of breath, seizures, and anemia. The exact cause of SLE is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Treatment typically involves medications to suppress the immune system and manage symptoms, and may require long-term management by a team of healthcare professionals.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

The cerebellum is a part of the brain that lies behind the brainstem and is involved in the regulation of motor movements, balance, and coordination. It contains two hemispheres and a central portion called the vermis. The cerebellum receives input from sensory systems and other areas of the brain and spinal cord and sends output to motor areas of the brain. Damage to the cerebellum can result in problems with movement, balance, and coordination.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Nerve regeneration is the process of regrowth and restoration of functional nerve connections following damage or injury to the nervous system. This complex process involves various cellular and molecular events, such as the activation of support cells called glia, the sprouting of surviving nerve fibers (axons), and the reformation of neural circuits. The goal of nerve regeneration is to enable the restoration of normal sensory, motor, and autonomic functions impaired due to nerve damage or injury.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.

Leeches are parasitic worms that belong to the family Hirudinidae and the phylum Annelida. They are typically cylindrical in shape, have a suction cup at both ends, and possess rows of sharp teeth that allow them to attach to a host and feed on their blood.

In a medical context, leeches have been used for therapeutic purposes in a practice known as hirudotherapy. This technique involves applying leeches to certain parts of the body to draw out blood and promote healing. The saliva of some leech species contains substances that act as anticoagulants, which can help improve circulation and reduce swelling in the affected area.

However, it's important to note that the use of leeches for medical purposes is not without risks, including infection and allergic reactions. Therefore, it should only be performed under the supervision of a trained healthcare professional.

Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) is a type of intermediate filament protein that is primarily found in astrocytes, which are a type of star-shaped glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS). These proteins play an essential role in maintaining the structural integrity and stability of astrocytes. They also participate in various cellular processes such as responding to injury, providing support to neurons, and regulating the extracellular environment.

GFAP is often used as a marker for astrocytic activation or reactivity, which can occur in response to CNS injuries, neuroinflammation, or neurodegenerative diseases. Elevated GFAP levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or blood can indicate astrocyte damage or dysfunction and are associated with several neurological conditions, including traumatic brain injury, stroke, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Alexander's disease.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating agent, which is a type of chemotherapy medication. It works by interfering with the DNA of cancer cells, preventing them from dividing and growing. This helps to stop the spread of cancer in the body. Cyclophosphamide is used to treat various types of cancer, including lymphoma, leukemia, multiple myeloma, and breast cancer. It can be given orally as a tablet or intravenously as an injection.

Cyclophosphamide can also have immunosuppressive effects, which means it can suppress the activity of the immune system. This makes it useful in treating certain autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. However, this immunosuppression can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects.

Like all chemotherapy medications, cyclophosphamide can cause a range of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, fatigue, and increased susceptibility to infections. It is important for patients receiving cyclophosphamide to be closely monitored by their healthcare team to manage these side effects and ensure the medication is working effectively.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Mercuric chloride, also known as corrosive sublimate, is defined medically as a white or colorless crystalline compound used historically as a topical antiseptic and caustic. It has been used in the treatment of various skin conditions such as warts, thrush, and some parasitic infestations. However, its use is limited nowadays due to its high toxicity and potential for serious side effects, including kidney damage, digestive problems, and nervous system disorders. It is classified as a hazardous substance and should be handled with care.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Myelin Basic Protein (MBP) is a key structural protein found in the myelin sheath, which is a multilayered membrane that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers (axons) in the nervous system. The myelin sheath enables efficient and rapid transmission of electrical signals (nerve impulses) along the axons, allowing for proper communication between different neurons.

MBP is one of several proteins responsible for maintaining the structural integrity and organization of the myelin sheath. It is a basic protein, meaning it has a high isoelectric point due to its abundance of positively charged amino acids. MBP is primarily located in the intraperiod line of the compact myelin, which is a region where the extracellular leaflets of the apposing membranes come into close contact without fusing.

MBP plays crucial roles in the formation, maintenance, and repair of the myelin sheath:

1. During development, MBP helps mediate the compaction of the myelin sheath by interacting with other proteins and lipids in the membrane.
2. MBP contributes to the stability and resilience of the myelin sheath by forming strong ionic bonds with negatively charged phospholipids in the membrane.
3. In response to injury or disease, MBP can be cleaved into smaller peptides that act as chemoattractants for immune cells, initiating the process of remyelination and repair.

Dysregulation or damage to MBP has been implicated in several demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS), where the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath, leading to its degradation and loss. The presence of autoantibodies against MBP is a common feature in MS patients, suggesting that an abnormal immune response to this protein may contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease.

Leg dermatoses is a general term that refers to various skin conditions affecting the legs. This can include a wide range of inflammatory, infectious, or degenerative diseases that cause symptoms such as redness, itching, scaling, blistering, or pigmentation changes on the leg skin. Examples of specific leg dermatoses include stasis dermatitis, venous eczema, contact dermatitis, lichen planus, psoriasis, and cellulitis among others. Accurate diagnosis usually requires a thorough examination and sometimes a biopsy to determine the specific type of dermatosis and appropriate treatment.

Monoclonal murine-derived antibodies are a type of laboratory-produced antibody that is identical in structure, having been derived from a single clone of cells. These antibodies are created using mouse cells and are therefore composed entirely of mouse immune proteins. They are designed to bind specifically to a particular target protein or antigen, making them useful tools for research, diagnostic testing, and therapeutic applications.

Monoclonal antibodies offer several advantages over polyclonal antibodies (which are derived from multiple clones of cells and can recognize multiple epitopes on an antigen). Monoclonal antibodies have a consistent and uniform structure, making them more reliable for research and diagnostic purposes. They also have higher specificity and affinity for their target antigens, allowing for more sensitive detection and measurement.

However, there are some limitations to using monoclonal murine-derived antibodies in therapeutic applications. Because they are composed entirely of mouse proteins, they can elicit an immune response in humans, leading to the production of human anti-mouse antibodies (HAMA) that can neutralize their effectiveness. To overcome this limitation, researchers have developed chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies that incorporate human protein sequences, reducing the risk of an immune response.

Plasmapheresis is a medical procedure where the liquid portion of the blood (plasma) is separated from the blood cells. The plasma, which may contain harmful substances such as antibodies or toxins, is then removed and replaced with fresh plasma or a plasma substitute. The remaining blood cells are mixed with the new plasma and returned to the body. This process is also known as therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE). It's used to treat various medical conditions including certain autoimmune diseases, poisonings, and neurological disorders.

Methylprednisolone is a synthetic glucocorticoid drug, which is a class of hormones that naturally occur in the body and are produced by the adrenal gland. It is often used to treat various medical conditions such as inflammation, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. Methylprednisolone works by reducing the activity of the immune system, which helps to reduce symptoms such as swelling, pain, and redness.

Methylprednisolone is available in several forms, including tablets, oral suspension, and injectable solutions. It may be used for short-term or long-term treatment, depending on the condition being treated. Common side effects of methylprednisolone include increased appetite, weight gain, insomnia, mood changes, and increased susceptibility to infections. Long-term use of methylprednisolone can lead to more serious side effects such as osteoporosis, cataracts, and adrenal suppression.

It is important to note that methylprednisolone should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider, as it can cause serious side effects if not used properly. The dosage and duration of treatment will depend on various factors such as the patient's age, weight, medical history, and the condition being treated.

The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain, characterized by its intricate folded structure and wrinkled appearance. It is a region of great importance as it plays a key role in higher cognitive functions such as perception, consciousness, thought, memory, language, and attention. The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres, each containing four lobes: the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. These areas are responsible for different functions, with some regions specializing in sensory processing while others are involved in motor control or associative functions. The cerebral cortex is composed of gray matter, which contains neuronal cell bodies, and is covered by a layer of white matter that consists mainly of myelinated nerve fibers.

Urticaria, also known as hives, is an allergic reaction that appears on the skin. It is characterized by the rapid appearance of swollen, pale red bumps or plaques (wheals) on the skin, which are often accompanied by itching, stinging, or burning sensations. These wheals can vary in size and shape, and they may change location and appear in different places over a period of hours or days. Urticaria is usually caused by an allergic reaction to food, medication, or other substances, but it can also be triggered by physical factors such as heat, cold, pressure, or exercise. The condition is generally harmless, but severe cases of urticaria may indicate a more serious underlying medical issue and should be evaluated by a healthcare professional.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

Cell differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell, or stem cell, becomes a more specialized cell type with specific functions and structures. This process involves changes in gene expression, which are regulated by various intracellular signaling pathways and transcription factors. Differentiation results in the development of distinct cell types that make up tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. It is a crucial aspect of embryonic development, tissue repair, and maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

A nonmammalian embryo refers to the developing organism in animals other than mammals, from the fertilized egg (zygote) stage until hatching or birth. In nonmammalian species, the developmental stages and terminology differ from those used in mammals. The term "embryo" is generally applied to the developing organism up until a specific stage of development that is characterized by the formation of major organs and structures. After this point, the developing organism is referred to as a "larva," "juvenile," or other species-specific terminology.

The study of nonmammalian embryos has played an important role in our understanding of developmental biology and evolutionary developmental biology (evo-devo). By comparing the developmental processes across different animal groups, researchers can gain insights into the evolutionary origins and diversification of body plans and structures. Additionally, nonmammalian embryos are often used as model systems for studying basic biological processes, such as cell division, gene regulation, and pattern formation.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

An antigen-antibody complex is a type of immune complex that forms when an antibody binds to a specific antigen. An antigen is any substance that triggers an immune response, while an antibody is a protein produced by the immune system to neutralize or destroy foreign substances like antigens.

When an antibody binds to an antigen, it forms a complex that can be either soluble or insoluble. Soluble complexes are formed when the antigen is small and can move freely through the bloodstream. Insoluble complexes, on the other hand, are formed when the antigen is too large to move freely, such as when it is part of a bacterium or virus.

The formation of antigen-antibody complexes plays an important role in the immune response. Once formed, these complexes can be recognized and cleared by other components of the immune system, such as phagocytes, which help to prevent further damage to the body. However, in some cases, the formation of large numbers of antigen-antibody complexes can lead to inflammation and tissue damage, contributing to the development of certain autoimmune diseases.

"Newborn animals" refers to the very young offspring of animals that have recently been born. In medical terminology, newborns are often referred to as "neonates," and they are classified as such from birth until about 28 days of age. During this time period, newborn animals are particularly vulnerable and require close monitoring and care to ensure their survival and healthy development.

The specific needs of newborn animals can vary widely depending on the species, but generally, they require warmth, nutrition, hydration, and protection from harm. In many cases, newborns are unable to regulate their own body temperature or feed themselves, so they rely heavily on their mothers for care and support.

In medical settings, newborn animals may be examined and treated by veterinarians to ensure that they are healthy and receiving the care they need. This can include providing medical interventions such as feeding tubes, antibiotics, or other treatments as needed to address any health issues that arise. Overall, the care and support of newborn animals is an important aspect of animal medicine and conservation efforts.

A ganglion is a cluster of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. Ganglia are typically associated with nerves and serve as sites for sensory processing, integration, and relay of information between the periphery and the central nervous system (CNS). The two main types of ganglia are sensory ganglia, which contain pseudounipolar neurons that transmit sensory information to the CNS, and autonomic ganglia, which contain multipolar neurons that control involuntary physiological functions.

Examples of sensory ganglia include dorsal root ganglia (DRG), which are associated with spinal nerves, and cranial nerve ganglia, such as the trigeminal ganglion. Autonomic ganglia can be further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia, which regulate different aspects of the autonomic nervous system.

It's worth noting that in anatomy, "ganglion" refers to a group of nerve cell bodies, while in clinical contexts, "ganglion" is often used to describe a specific type of cystic structure that forms near joints or tendons, typically in the wrist or foot. These ganglia are not related to the peripheral nervous system's ganglia but rather are fluid-filled sacs that may cause discomfort or pain due to their size or location.

The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The brainstem controls many vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory and motor information between the cerebral cortex and the rest of the body. Additionally, several cranial nerves originate from the brainstem, including those that control eye movements, facial movements, and hearing.

'Drosophila proteins' refer to the proteins that are expressed in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. This organism is a widely used model system in genetics, developmental biology, and molecular biology research. The study of Drosophila proteins has contributed significantly to our understanding of various biological processes, including gene regulation, cell signaling, development, and aging.

Some examples of well-studied Drosophila proteins include:

1. HSP70 (Heat Shock Protein 70): A chaperone protein involved in protein folding and protection from stress conditions.
2. TUBULIN: A structural protein that forms microtubules, important for cell division and intracellular transport.
3. ACTIN: A cytoskeletal protein involved in muscle contraction, cell motility, and maintenance of cell shape.
4. BETA-GALACTOSIDASE (LACZ): A reporter protein often used to monitor gene expression patterns in transgenic flies.
5. ENDOGLIN: A protein involved in the development of blood vessels during embryogenesis.
6. P53: A tumor suppressor protein that plays a crucial role in preventing cancer by regulating cell growth and division.
7. JUN-KINASE (JNK): A signaling protein involved in stress response, apoptosis, and developmental processes.
8. DECAPENTAPLEGIC (DPP): A member of the TGF-β (Transforming Growth Factor Beta) superfamily, playing essential roles in embryonic development and tissue homeostasis.

These proteins are often studied using various techniques such as biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, and structural biology to understand their functions, interactions, and regulation within the cell.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Plasma exchange, also known as plasmapheresis, is a medical procedure where the liquid portion of the blood (plasma) is separated from the blood cells. The plasma, which may contain harmful substances such as antibodies, clotting factors, or toxins, is then removed and replaced with fresh plasma or a plasma substitute. This process helps to remove the harmful substances from the blood and allows the body to replenish its own plasma with normal components. Plasma exchange is used in the treatment of various medical conditions including autoimmune diseases, poisonings, and certain types of kidney diseases.

"Drosophila" is a genus of small flies, also known as fruit flies. The most common species used in scientific research is "Drosophila melanogaster," which has been a valuable model organism for many areas of biological and medical research, including genetics, developmental biology, neurobiology, and aging.

The use of Drosophila as a model organism has led to numerous important discoveries in genetics and molecular biology, such as the identification of genes that are associated with human diseases like cancer, Parkinson's disease, and obesity. The short reproductive cycle, large number of offspring, and ease of genetic manipulation make Drosophila a powerful tool for studying complex biological processes.

Recurrence, in a medical context, refers to the return of symptoms or signs of a disease after a period of improvement or remission. It indicates that the condition has not been fully eradicated and may require further treatment. Recurrence is often used to describe situations where a disease such as cancer comes back after initial treatment, but it can also apply to other medical conditions. The likelihood of recurrence varies depending on the type of disease and individual patient factors.

Spinal cord neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors within the spinal cord. These can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). They originate from the cells within the spinal cord itself (primary tumors), or they may spread to the spinal cord from other parts of the body (metastatic tumors). Spinal cord neoplasms can cause various symptoms depending on their location and size, including back pain, neurological deficits, and even paralysis. Treatment options include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

Viral meningitis is a form of meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It is caused by viral infections, such as enteroviruses, herpesviruses, and HIV. The infection enters the body through the respiratory system or the gastrointestinal tract and then spreads to the central nervous system.

Symptoms of viral meningitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, photophobia (intolerance to light), and altered mental status. In some cases, patients may also experience vomiting, seizures, or skin rash. However, viral meningitis is generally less severe than bacterial meningitis and has a lower mortality rate.

Most cases of viral meningitis resolve on their own within 7-10 days, and treatment typically involves supportive care such as hydration, pain relief, and fever reduction. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses, so they are not used to treat viral meningitis. In some cases, antiviral medications may be prescribed for certain types of viral meningitis, such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) meningitis.

Preventive measures include practicing good hygiene, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with people who are sick. There is also a vaccine available to protect against enterovirus D68, which can cause viral meningitis in some cases.

Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that are used by neurons to communicate with each other and with other cells in the body. They are produced in the cell body of a neuron, processed from larger precursor proteins, and then transported to the nerve terminal where they are stored in secretory vesicles. When the neuron is stimulated, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents into the extracellular space.

Neuropeptides can act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, depending on their target receptors and the duration of their effects. They play important roles in a variety of physiological processes, including pain perception, appetite regulation, stress response, and social behavior. Some neuropeptides also have hormonal functions, such as oxytocin and vasopressin, which are produced in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream to regulate reproductive and cardiovascular function, respectively.

There are hundreds of different neuropeptides that have been identified in the nervous system, and many of them have multiple functions and interact with other signaling molecules to modulate neural activity. Dysregulation of neuropeptide systems has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as chronic pain, addiction, depression, and anxiety.

Central nervous system (CNS) protozoal infections refer to diseases caused by protozoa that invade and infect the brain and spinal cord. These infections can lead to serious neurological symptoms and complications.

There are several types of protozoa that can cause CNS infections, including:

1. Toxoplasma gondii: This parasite is commonly found in cats and can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected cat feces or consumption of undercooked meat. In people with weakened immune systems, T. gondii can cause severe CNS symptoms such as seizures, confusion, and coma.
2. Naegleria fowleri: Also known as the "brain-eating amoeba," N. fowleri is a free-living protozoan found in warm freshwater environments. When people swim or dive in infected water, the amoeba can enter the body through the nose and travel to the brain, causing primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), a rare but often fatal CNS infection.
3. Acanthamoeba: Like N. fowleri, Acanthamoeba is a free-living protozoan found in freshwater and soil. It can cause a range of CNS infections, including granulomatous amoebic encephalitis (GAE), which typically affects people with weakened immune systems.
4. Trypanosoma brucei: This parasite is transmitted through the bite of infected tsetse flies and causes African sleeping sickness, a CNS infection that can lead to coma and death if left untreated.
5. Plasmodium falciparum: While not strictly a protozoan, P. falciparum is a parasite that causes malaria, a mosquito-borne disease that can cause severe CNS symptoms such as seizures, coma, and cerebral malaria.

Treatment for CNS protozoal infections depends on the specific type of infection and may include antiprotozoal medications, antibiotics, or supportive care to manage symptoms. Prevention measures include avoiding contact with infected animals or insects, practicing good hygiene, and using appropriate protective measures such as insect repellent or bed nets in areas where these infections are common.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

Immunologic factors refer to the elements of the immune system that contribute to the body's defense against foreign substances, infectious agents, and cancerous cells. These factors include various types of white blood cells (such as lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils), antibodies, complement proteins, cytokines, and other molecules involved in the immune response.

Immunologic factors can be categorized into two main types: innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the non-specific defense mechanism that provides immediate protection against pathogens through physical barriers (e.g., skin, mucous membranes), chemical barriers (e.g., stomach acid, enzymes), and inflammatory responses. Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is a specific defense mechanism that develops over time as the immune system learns to recognize and respond to particular pathogens or antigens.

Abnormalities in immunologic factors can lead to various medical conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, immunodeficiency diseases, and allergies. Therefore, understanding immunologic factors is crucial for diagnosing and treating these conditions.

Necrosis is the premature death of cells or tissues due to damage or injury, such as from infection, trauma, infarction (lack of blood supply), or toxic substances. It's a pathological process that results in the uncontrolled and passive degradation of cellular components, ultimately leading to the release of intracellular contents into the extracellular space. This can cause local inflammation and may lead to further tissue damage if not treated promptly.

There are different types of necrosis, including coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, fat, fibrinoid, and gangrenous necrosis, each with distinct histological features depending on the underlying cause and the affected tissues or organs.

The hippocampus is a complex, curved formation in the brain that resembles a seahorse (hence its name, from the Greek word "hippos" meaning horse and "kampos" meaning sea monster). It's part of the limbic system and plays crucial roles in the formation of memories, particularly long-term ones.

This region is involved in spatial navigation and cognitive maps, allowing us to recognize locations and remember how to get to them. Additionally, it's one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer's disease, which often results in memory loss as an early symptom.

Anatomically, it consists of two main parts: the Ammon's horn (or cornu ammonis) and the dentate gyrus. These structures are made up of distinct types of neurons that contribute to different aspects of learning and memory.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Meningeal neoplasms, also known as malignant meningitis or leptomeningeal carcinomatosis, refer to cancerous tumors that originate in the meninges, which are the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. These tumors can arise primarily from the meningeal cells themselves, although they more commonly result from the spread (metastasis) of cancer cells from other parts of the body, such as breast, lung, or melanoma.

Meningeal neoplasms can cause a variety of symptoms, including headaches, nausea and vomiting, mental status changes, seizures, and focal neurological deficits. Diagnosis typically involves imaging studies (such as MRI) and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid obtained through a spinal tap. Treatment options may include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or surgery, depending on the type and extent of the tumor. The prognosis for patients with meningeal neoplasms is generally poor, with a median survival time of several months to a year.

According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), stem cells are "initial cells" or "precursor cells" that have the ability to differentiate into many different cell types in the body. They can also divide without limit to replenish other cells for as long as the person or animal is still alive.

There are two main types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells, which come from human embryos, and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues throughout the body. Embryonic stem cells have the ability to differentiate into all cell types in the body, while adult stem cells have more limited differentiation potential.

Stem cells play an essential role in the development and repair of various tissues and organs in the body. They are currently being studied for their potential use in the treatment of a wide range of diseases and conditions, including cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and neurological disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand the properties and capabilities of these cells before they can be used safely and effectively in clinical settings.

Fungal meningitis is a form of meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. It is specifically caused by the invasion of the meninges by fungi. The most common causative agents are Cryptococcus neoformans and Histoplasma capsulatum.

Fungal meningitis typically occurs in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS, cancer, or organ transplant recipients. It begins gradually, often with symptoms including headache, fever, stiff neck, and sensitivity to light. Other possible symptoms can include confusion, nausea, vomiting, and altered mental status.

Diagnosis of fungal meningitis typically involves a combination of clinical examination, imaging studies (such as CT or MRI scans), and laboratory tests (such as cerebrospinal fluid analysis). Treatment usually requires long-term antifungal therapy, often administered intravenously in a hospital setting. The prognosis for fungal meningitis depends on several factors, including the underlying immune status of the patient, the specific causative agent, and the timeliness and adequacy of treatment.

Skin diseases, also known as dermatological conditions, refer to any medical condition that affects the skin, which is the largest organ of the human body. These diseases can affect the skin's function, appearance, or overall health. They can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, allergies, environmental factors, and aging.

Skin diseases can present in many different forms, such as rashes, blisters, sores, discolorations, growths, or changes in texture. Some common examples of skin diseases include acne, eczema, psoriasis, dermatitis, fungal infections, viral infections, bacterial infections, and skin cancer.

The symptoms and severity of skin diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and individual factors. Some skin diseases are mild and can be treated with over-the-counter medications or topical creams, while others may require more intensive treatments such as prescription medications, light therapy, or even surgery.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any unusual or persistent changes in your skin, as some skin diseases can be serious or indicative of other underlying health conditions. A dermatologist is a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of skin diseases.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Serine endopeptidases are a type of enzymes that cleave peptide bonds within proteins (endopeptidases) and utilize serine as the nucleophilic amino acid in their active site for catalysis. These enzymes play crucial roles in various biological processes, including digestion, blood coagulation, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). Examples of serine endopeptidases include trypsin, chymotrypsin, thrombin, and elastase.

Temporal arteries are the paired set of arteries that run along the temples on either side of the head. They are branches of the external carotid artery and play a crucial role in supplying oxygenated blood to the scalp and surrounding muscles. One of the most common conditions associated with temporal arteries is Temporal Arteritis (also known as Giant Cell Arteritis), which is an inflammation of these arteries that can lead to serious complications like vision loss if not promptly diagnosed and treated.

A syndrome, in medical terms, is a set of symptoms that collectively indicate or characterize a disease, disorder, or underlying pathological process. It's essentially a collection of signs and/or symptoms that frequently occur together and can suggest a particular cause or condition, even though the exact physiological mechanisms might not be fully understood.

For example, Down syndrome is characterized by specific physical features, cognitive delays, and other developmental issues resulting from an extra copy of chromosome 21. Similarly, metabolic syndromes like diabetes mellitus type 2 involve a group of risk factors such as obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels that collectively increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.

It's important to note that a syndrome is not a specific diagnosis; rather, it's a pattern of symptoms that can help guide further diagnostic evaluation and management.

Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein (MAG) is a glycoprotein found on the surface of myelin sheaths, which are the protective insulating layers around nerve fibers in the nervous system. MAG plays a role in the adhesion and interaction between the myelin sheath and the axon it surrounds. It's particularly important during the development and maintenance of the nervous system. Additionally, MAG has been implicated in the regulation of neuronal growth and signal transmission. In certain autoimmune diseases like Guillain-Barré syndrome, the immune system may mistakenly attack MAG, leading to damage of the myelin sheath and associated neurological symptoms.

Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein (MOG) is a protein found exclusively on the outermost layer of myelin sheath in the central nervous system (CNS). The myelin sheath is a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers, allowing for efficient and rapid transmission of electrical signals. MOG plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and structure of the myelin sheath. It is involved in the adhesion of oligodendrocytes to the surface of neuronal axons and contributes to the stability of the compact myelin structure. Autoimmune reactions against MOG have been implicated in certain inflammatory demyelinating diseases, such as optic neuritis, transverse myelitis, and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM).

Organ specificity, in the context of immunology and toxicology, refers to the phenomenon where a substance (such as a drug or toxin) or an immune response primarily affects certain organs or tissues in the body. This can occur due to various reasons such as:

1. The presence of specific targets (like antigens in the case of an immune response or receptors in the case of drugs) that are more abundant in these organs.
2. The unique properties of certain cells or tissues that make them more susceptible to damage.
3. The way a substance is metabolized or cleared from the body, which can concentrate it in specific organs.

For example, in autoimmune diseases, organ specificity describes immune responses that are directed against antigens found only in certain organs, such as the thyroid gland in Hashimoto's disease. Similarly, some toxins or drugs may have a particular affinity for liver cells, leading to liver damage or specific drug interactions.

The hypothalamus is a small, vital region of the brain that lies just below the thalamus and forms part of the limbic system. It plays a crucial role in many important functions including:

1. Regulation of body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
2. Production and regulation of hormones through its connection with the pituitary gland (the hypophysis). It controls the release of various hormones by producing releasing and inhibiting factors that regulate the anterior pituitary's function.
3. Emotional responses, behavior, and memory formation through its connections with the limbic system structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.
4. Autonomic nervous system regulation, which controls involuntary physiological functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
5. Regulation of the immune system by interacting with the autonomic nervous system.

Damage to the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders like diabetes insipidus, growth hormone deficiency, altered temperature regulation, sleep disturbances, and emotional or behavioral changes.

Theilovirus is not typically considered a separate virus in modern virology. Instead, it is now classified as a genotype (genotype 3) of the human parechovirus (HPeV), which belongs to the family Picornaviridae. HPeVs are small, non-enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses that can cause various clinical manifestations, ranging from mild respiratory or gastrointestinal symptoms to severe neurological diseases in infants and young children.

Historically, Theilovirus was first identified as a separate virus in 1958 by H. Theil and K. Maassab, isolated from the feces of healthy children. It was initially classified as a member of the Enterovirus genus but was later reclassified as a distinct genus, Theilovirus, in 1999. However, subsequent genetic analysis revealed that Theilovirus is closely related to HPeVs, and it is now considered a genotype within the HPeV species.

In summary, Theilovirus is not a separate medical term or virus but rather a historical name for what is now classified as human parechovirus genotype 3 (HPeV3).

In medical terms, the skin is the largest organ of the human body. It consists of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer), as well as accessory structures like hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands. The skin plays a crucial role in protecting us from external factors such as bacteria, viruses, and environmental hazards, while also regulating body temperature and enabling the sense of touch.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

The adrenal cortex hormones are a group of steroid hormones produced and released by the outer portion (cortex) of the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each kidney. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes, including:

1. Glucose metabolism: Cortisol helps control blood sugar levels by increasing glucose production in the liver and reducing its uptake in peripheral tissues.
2. Protein and fat metabolism: Cortisol promotes protein breakdown and fatty acid mobilization, providing essential building blocks for energy production during stressful situations.
3. Immune response regulation: Cortisol suppresses immune function to prevent overactivation and potential damage to the body during stress.
4. Cardiovascular function: Aldosterone regulates electrolyte balance and blood pressure by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.
5. Sex hormone production: The adrenal cortex produces small amounts of sex hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, which contribute to sexual development and function.
6. Growth and development: Cortisol plays a role in normal growth and development by influencing the activity of growth-promoting hormones like insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1).

The main adrenal cortex hormones include:

1. Glucocorticoids: Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid, responsible for regulating metabolism and stress response.
2. Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone is the primary mineralocorticoid, involved in electrolyte balance and blood pressure regulation.
3. Androgens: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate derivative (DHEAS) are the most abundant adrenal androgens, contributing to sexual development and function.
4. Estrogens: Small amounts of estrogens are produced by the adrenal cortex, mainly in women.

Disorders related to impaired adrenal cortex hormone production or regulation can lead to various clinical manifestations, such as Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency), Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism), and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).

Cogan syndrome is a rare inflammatory disorder that affects the eyes and inner ear. It is characterized by the combination of non-syphilitic interstitial keratitis (inflammation of the cornea) and vestibuloauditory dysfunction (damage to the inner ear causing balance problems and hearing loss).

The symptoms of Cogan syndrome can develop suddenly or gradually, and they may include:

* Redness, pain, and blurry vision in one or both eyes
* Sensitivity to light
* Hearing loss, often sudden and progressive, affecting one or both ears
* Vertigo (a spinning sensation) and balance problems
* Tinnitus (ringing or buzzing in the ears)
* Nausea and vomiting

The exact cause of Cogan syndrome is not known, but it is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissues. Treatment typically involves the use of corticosteroids and other immunosuppressive drugs to reduce inflammation and prevent further damage. In severe cases, aggressive treatment with biologic agents may be necessary.

It is important to note that Cogan syndrome is a rare condition, affecting only about 1 in 500,000 people worldwide. If you are experiencing symptoms of this disorder, it is important to seek medical attention from a healthcare professional who has experience diagnosing and treating rare inflammatory disorders.

Anti-inflammatory agents are a class of drugs or substances that reduce inflammation in the body. They work by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are released during an immune response and contribute to symptoms like pain, swelling, redness, and warmth.

There are two main types of anti-inflammatory agents: steroidal and nonsteroidal. Steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) include corticosteroids, which mimic the effects of hormones produced by the adrenal gland. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a larger group that includes both prescription and over-the-counter medications, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and celecoxib.

While both types of anti-inflammatory agents can be effective in reducing inflammation and relieving symptoms, they differ in their mechanisms of action, side effects, and potential risks. Long-term use of NSAIDs, for example, can increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding, kidney damage, and cardiovascular events. Corticosteroids can have significant side effects as well, particularly with long-term use, including weight gain, mood changes, and increased susceptibility to infections.

It's important to use anti-inflammatory agents only as directed by a healthcare provider, and to be aware of potential risks and interactions with other medications or health conditions.

Nerve degeneration, also known as neurodegeneration, is the progressive loss of structure and function of neurons, which can lead to cognitive decline, motor impairment, and various other symptoms. This process occurs due to a variety of factors, including genetics, environmental influences, and aging. It is a key feature in several neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. The degeneration can affect any part of the nervous system, leading to different symptoms depending on the location and extent of the damage.

Neurogenesis is the process by which new neurons (nerve cells) are generated in the brain. It occurs throughout life in certain areas of the brain, such as the hippocampus and subventricular zone, although the rate of neurogenesis decreases with age. Neurogenesis involves the proliferation, differentiation, and integration of new neurons into existing neural circuits. This process plays a crucial role in learning, memory, and recovery from brain injury or disease.

The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) is a type of immunofluorescence assay used in laboratory medicine and pathology for the detection and localization of specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, cells, or microorganisms. In this technique, a fluorescein-labeled antibody is used to selectively bind to the target antigen or antibody, forming an immune complex. When excited by light of a specific wavelength, the fluorescein label emits light at a longer wavelength, typically visualized as green fluorescence under a fluorescence microscope.

The FAT is widely used in diagnostic microbiology for the identification and characterization of various bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It has also been applied in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and certain cancers by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in patient samples. The main advantage of FAT is its high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for accurate detection and differentiation of various pathogens and disease markers. However, it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel to perform and interpret the results.

Inflammation is a complex biological response of tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by the following signs: rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), calor (heat), dolor (pain), and functio laesa (loss of function). The process involves the activation of the immune system, recruitment of white blood cells, and release of inflammatory mediators, which contribute to the elimination of the injurious stimuli and initiation of the healing process. However, uncontrolled or chronic inflammation can also lead to tissue damage and diseases.

AIDS Dementia Complex (ADC) is a neurological disorder that occurs in people with advanced HIV infection or AIDS. It is also known as HIV-associated dementia (HAD) or HIV encephalopathy. ADC is characterized by cognitive impairment, motor dysfunction, and behavioral changes that can significantly affect the individual's daily functioning and quality of life.

The symptoms of AIDS Dementia Complex may include:
- Difficulty with concentration and memory
- Slowness in thinking, processing information, or making decisions
- Changes in mood or personality, such as depression, irritability, or apathy
- Difficulty with coordination, balance, or speech
- Progressive weakness and wasting of muscles
- Difficulty with swallowing or speaking

The exact cause of ADC is not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to the direct effects of HIV on the brain. The virus can infect and damage nerve cells, leading to inflammation and degeneration of brain tissue. Treatment for ADC typically involves antiretroviral therapy (ART) to control HIV replication, as well as medications to manage specific symptoms. In some cases, supportive care such as physical therapy or occupational therapy may also be recommended.

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a part of the nervous system that controls involuntary actions, such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. It consists of two subdivisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which generally have opposing effects and maintain homeostasis in the body.

Autonomic Nervous System Diseases (also known as Autonomic Disorders or Autonomic Neuropathies) refer to a group of conditions that affect the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. These diseases can cause damage to the nerves that control automatic functions, leading to various symptoms and complications.

Autonomic Nervous System Diseases can be classified into two main categories:

1. Primary Autonomic Nervous System Disorders: These are conditions that primarily affect the autonomic nervous system without any underlying cause. Examples include:
* Pure Autonomic Failure (PAF): A rare disorder characterized by progressive loss of autonomic nerve function, leading to symptoms such as orthostatic hypotension, urinary retention, and constipation.
* Multiple System Atrophy (MSA): A degenerative neurological disorder that affects both the autonomic nervous system and movement coordination. Symptoms may include orthostatic hypotension, urinary incontinence, sexual dysfunction, and Parkinsonian features like stiffness and slowness of movements.
* Autonomic Neuropathy associated with Parkinson's Disease: Some individuals with Parkinson's disease develop autonomic symptoms such as orthostatic hypotension, constipation, and urinary dysfunction due to the degeneration of autonomic nerves.
2. Secondary Autonomic Nervous System Disorders: These are conditions that affect the autonomic nervous system as a result of an underlying cause or disease. Examples include:
* Diabetic Autonomic Neuropathy: A complication of diabetes mellitus that affects the autonomic nerves, leading to symptoms such as orthostatic hypotension, gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying), and sexual dysfunction.
* Autoimmune-mediated Autonomic Neuropathies: Conditions like Guillain-Barré syndrome or autoimmune autonomic ganglionopathy can cause autonomic symptoms due to the immune system attacking the autonomic nerves.
* Infectious Autonomic Neuropathies: Certain infections, such as HIV or Lyme disease, can lead to autonomic dysfunction as a result of nerve damage.
* Toxin-induced Autonomic Neuropathy: Exposure to certain toxins, like heavy metals or organophosphate pesticides, can cause autonomic neuropathy.

Autonomic nervous system disorders can significantly impact a person's quality of life and daily functioning. Proper diagnosis and management are crucial for improving symptoms and preventing complications. Treatment options may include lifestyle modifications, medications, and in some cases, devices or surgical interventions.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Demyelinating autoimmune diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) are a group of disorders characterized by inflammation and damage to the myelin sheath, which is the protective covering that surrounds nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord. This damage can result in various neurological symptoms, including muscle weakness, sensory loss, vision problems, and cognitive impairment.

The most common demyelinating autoimmune disease of the CNS is multiple sclerosis (MS), which affects approximately 2.3 million people worldwide. Other examples include neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM), and transverse myelitis.

These conditions are thought to arise when the immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath, leading to inflammation, damage, and scarring (sclerosis) in the CNS. The exact cause of this autoimmune response is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a complex interplay between genetic, environmental, and immunological factors.

Treatment for demyelinating autoimmune diseases of the CNS typically involves a combination of medications to manage symptoms, reduce inflammation, and modify the course of the disease. These may include corticosteroids, immunosuppressive drugs, and disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) that target specific components of the immune system.

Meningitis is a medical condition characterized by the inflammation of the meninges, which are the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord. This inflammation can be caused by various infectious agents, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, or by non-infectious causes like autoimmune diseases, cancer, or certain medications.

The symptoms of meningitis may include fever, headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light. In severe cases, it can lead to seizures, coma, or even death if not treated promptly and effectively. Bacterial meningitis is usually more severe and requires immediate medical attention, while viral meningitis is often less severe and may resolve on its own without specific treatment.

It's important to note that meningitis can be a serious and life-threatening condition, so if you suspect that you or someone else has symptoms of meningitis, you should seek medical attention immediately.

Intravenous Immunoglobulins (IVIG) are a preparation of antibodies, specifically immunoglobulins, that are derived from the plasma of healthy donors. They are administered intravenously to provide passive immunity and help boost the immune system's response in individuals with weakened or compromised immune systems. IVIG can be used for various medical conditions such as primary immunodeficiency disorders, secondary immunodeficiencies, autoimmune diseases, and some infectious diseases. The administration of IVIG can help prevent infections, reduce the severity and frequency of infections, and manage the symptoms of certain autoimmune disorders. It is important to note that while IVIG provides temporary immunity, it does not replace a person's own immune system.

Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that play a crucial role in controlling voluntary muscle movements. They transmit electrical signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions such as walking, talking, and swallowing. There are two types of motor neurons: upper motor neurons, which originate in the brain's motor cortex and travel down to the brainstem and spinal cord; and lower motor neurons, which extend from the brainstem and spinal cord to the muscles. Damage or degeneration of these motor neurons can lead to various neurological disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).

Neuroaspergillosis is a rare and serious invasive fungal infection caused by the Aspergillus species, which primarily affects the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord. This condition is often seen in individuals with weakened immune systems due to underlying medical conditions such as hematological malignancies, solid organ transplantation, or advanced HIV infection.

The infection can occur through various routes, including direct extension from the paranasal sinuses, hematogenous dissemination, or direct inoculation during neurosurgical procedures. Neuroaspergillosis may present with a wide range of symptoms, such as headache, altered mental status, seizures, focal neurologic deficits, and signs of increased intracranial pressure.

Diagnosis typically involves imaging studies (MRI or CT scans), cerebrospinal fluid analysis, and sometimes tissue biopsy to detect the presence of Aspergillus hyphae or DNA. Treatment usually consists of a combination of antifungal medications, such as voriconazole or isavuconazole, and surgical debridement when possible. The prognosis for neuroaspergillosis is generally poor due to the difficulty in treating CNS infections and the underlying immunocompromised state of affected individuals.

The Arthus reaction is a type of localized immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity reaction (type III hypersensitivity). It is named after the French scientist Nicolas Maurice Arthus who first described it in 1903. The reaction occurs when an antigen is injected into the skin or tissues of a sensitized individual, leading to the formation of immune complexes composed of antigens and antibodies (usually IgG). These immune complexes deposit in the small blood vessels, causing complement activation, recruitment of inflammatory cells, and release of mediators that result in tissue damage.

Clinically, an Arthus reaction is characterized by localized signs of inflammation, such as redness, swelling, pain, and warmth at the site of antigen injection. In severe cases, it can lead to necrosis and sloughing of the skin. The Arthus reaction typically occurs within 2-8 hours after antigen exposure and is distinct from immediate hypersensitivity reactions (type I), which occur within minutes of antigen exposure.

The Arthus reaction is often seen in laboratory animals used for antibody production, where repeated injections of antigens can lead to sensitization and subsequent Arthus reactions. In humans, it can occur as a complication of immunizations or diagnostic tests that involve the injection of foreign proteins or drugs. To prevent Arthus reactions, healthcare providers may perform skin testing before administering certain medications or vaccines to assess for preexisting sensitization.

Cell movement, also known as cell motility, refers to the ability of cells to move independently and change their location within tissue or inside the body. This process is essential for various biological functions, including embryonic development, wound healing, immune responses, and cancer metastasis.

There are several types of cell movement, including:

1. **Crawling or mesenchymal migration:** Cells move by extending and retracting protrusions called pseudopodia or filopodia, which contain actin filaments. This type of movement is common in fibroblasts, immune cells, and cancer cells during tissue invasion and metastasis.
2. **Amoeboid migration:** Cells move by changing their shape and squeezing through tight spaces without forming protrusions. This type of movement is often observed in white blood cells (leukocytes) as they migrate through the body to fight infections.
3. **Pseudopodial extension:** Cells extend pseudopodia, which are temporary cytoplasmic projections containing actin filaments. These protrusions help the cell explore its environment and move forward.
4. **Bacterial flagellar motion:** Bacteria use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel themselves through their environment. The rotation of the flagellum is driven by a molecular motor in the bacterial cell membrane.
5. **Ciliary and ependymal movement:** Ciliated cells, such as those lining the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes, have hair-like structures called cilia that beat in coordinated waves to move fluids or mucus across the cell surface.

Cell movement is regulated by a complex interplay of signaling pathways, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and adhesion molecules, which enable cells to respond to environmental cues and navigate through tissues.

The sciatic nerve is the largest and longest nerve in the human body, running from the lower back through the buttocks and down the legs to the feet. It is formed by the union of the ventral rami (branches) of the L4 to S3 spinal nerves. The sciatic nerve provides motor and sensory innervation to various muscles and skin areas in the lower limbs, including the hamstrings, calf muscles, and the sole of the foot. Sciatic nerve disorders or injuries can result in symptoms such as pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness in the lower back, hips, legs, and feet, known as sciatica.

Neurodegenerative diseases are a group of disorders characterized by progressive and persistent loss of neuronal structure and function, often leading to cognitive decline, functional impairment, and ultimately death. These conditions are associated with the accumulation of abnormal protein aggregates, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and genetic mutations in the brain. Examples of neurodegenerative diseases include Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), and Spinal Muscular Atrophy (SMA). The underlying causes and mechanisms of these diseases are not fully understood, and there is currently no cure for most neurodegenerative disorders. Treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms and slowing disease progression.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints. It is characterized by persistent inflammation, synovial hyperplasia, and subsequent damage to the articular cartilage and bone. The immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, specifically targeting the synovial membrane lining the joint capsule. This results in swelling, pain, warmth, and stiffness in affected joints, often most severely in the hands and feet.

RA can also have extra-articular manifestations, affecting other organs such as the lungs, heart, skin, eyes, and blood vessels. The exact cause of RA remains unknown, but it is believed to involve a complex interplay between genetic susceptibility and environmental triggers. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial in managing rheumatoid arthritis to prevent joint damage, disability, and systemic complications.

Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that can cause illnesses ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as pneumonia. The name "coronavirus" comes from the Latin word "corona," which means crown or halo, reflecting the distinctive appearance of the virus particles under electron microscopy, which have a crown-like structure due to the presence of spike proteins on their surface.

Coronaviruses are zoonotic, meaning they can be transmitted between animals and humans. Some coronaviruses are endemic in certain animal populations and occasionally jump to humans, causing outbreaks of new diseases. This is what happened with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2002-2003, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) in 2012, and the most recent Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by SARS-CoV-2.

Coronavirus infections typically cause respiratory symptoms such as cough, shortness of breath, and fever. In severe cases, they can lead to pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and even death, especially in older adults or people with underlying medical conditions. Other symptoms may include fatigue, muscle aches, headache, sore throat, and gastrointestinal issues such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Preventive measures for coronavirus infections include frequent hand washing, wearing face masks, practicing social distancing, avoiding close contact with sick individuals, and covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing. There are currently vaccines available to prevent COVID-19, which have been shown to be highly effective in preventing severe illness, hospitalization, and death from the disease.

Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones that are naturally produced in the adrenal gland, or can be synthetically manufactured. They play an essential role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and have significant anti-inflammatory effects. Glucocorticoids suppress immune responses and inflammation by inhibiting the release of inflammatory mediators from various cells, such as mast cells, eosinophils, and lymphocytes. They are frequently used in medical treatment for a wide range of conditions, including allergies, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, dermatological disorders, and certain cancers. Prolonged use or high doses of glucocorticoids can lead to several side effects, such as weight gain, mood changes, osteoporosis, and increased susceptibility to infections.

Neuroimmunomodulation is a complex process that refers to the interaction and communication between the nervous system (including the brain, spinal cord, and nerves) and the immune system. This interaction can have modulatory effects on both systems, influencing their functions and responses.

In simpler terms, neuroimmunomodulation describes how the nervous system and the immune system can affect each other's activities, leading to changes in behavior, inflammation, and immune response. For example, stress or depression can influence the immune system's ability to fight off infections, while an overactive immune response can lead to neurological symptoms such as fatigue, confusion, or mood changes.

Neuroimmunomodulation plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and health in the body, and its dysregulation has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and mental health conditions. Understanding this complex interplay is essential for developing effective treatments and therapies for these conditions.

Cecal diseases refer to medical conditions that affect the cecum, which is a pouch-like structure located at the junction of the small and large intestines. The cecum plays an important role in digestion, particularly in the fermentation of certain types of food.

There are several different types of cecal diseases, including:

1. Cecal volvulus: This is a rare condition in which the cecum twists on itself, cutting off blood flow and causing severe pain and other symptoms.
2. Diverticulitis: This occurs when small pouches called diverticula form in the wall of the cecum and become inflamed or infected.
3. Appendicitis: Although not strictly a cecal disease, the appendix is a small tube-like structure that branches off from the cecum. Inflammation of the appendix (appendicitis) can cause severe pain in the lower right abdomen and may require surgical removal of the appendix.
4. Crohn's disease: This is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease that can affect any part of the digestive tract, including the cecum.
5. Tuberculosis: The cecum can also be affected by tuberculosis, which is a bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body.
6. Cancer: Although rare, cancer can also affect the cecum, leading to symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits.

Treatment for cecal diseases depends on the specific condition and its severity. Treatment options may include antibiotics, surgery, or other medical interventions. If you are experiencing symptoms that may be related to a cecal disease, it is important to seek medical attention promptly.

Inbred strains of mice are defined as lines of mice that have been brother-sister mated for at least 20 consecutive generations. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the mice of an inbred strain are genetically identical to one another, with the exception of spontaneous mutations.

Inbred strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research due to their genetic uniformity and stability, which makes them useful for studying the genetic basis of various traits, diseases, and biological processes. They also provide a consistent and reproducible experimental system, as compared to outbred or genetically heterogeneous populations.

Some commonly used inbred strains of mice include C57BL/6J, BALB/cByJ, DBA/2J, and 129SvEv. Each strain has its own unique genetic background and phenotypic characteristics, which can influence the results of experiments. Therefore, it is important to choose the appropriate inbred strain for a given research question.

Nerve Growth Factors (NGFs) are a family of proteins that play an essential role in the growth, maintenance, and survival of certain neurons (nerve cells). They were first discovered by Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen in 1956. NGF is particularly crucial for the development and function of the peripheral nervous system, which connects the central nervous system to various organs and tissues throughout the body.

NGF supports the differentiation and survival of sympathetic and sensory neurons during embryonic development. In adults, NGF continues to regulate the maintenance and repair of these neurons, contributing to neuroplasticity – the brain's ability to adapt and change over time. Additionally, NGF has been implicated in pain transmission and modulation, as well as inflammatory responses.

Abnormal levels or dysfunctional NGF signaling have been associated with various medical conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's and Parkinson's), chronic pain disorders, and certain cancers (e.g., small cell lung cancer). Therefore, understanding the role of NGF in physiological and pathological processes may provide valuable insights into developing novel therapeutic strategies for these conditions.

Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that are part of the immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and released into the bloodstream where they circulate and are able to move quickly to sites of infection or inflammation in the body. Neutrophils are capable of engulfing and destroying bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances through a process called phagocytosis. They are also involved in the release of inflammatory mediators, which can contribute to tissue damage in some cases. Neutrophils are characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, which contain enzymes and other proteins that help them carry out their immune functions.

A zebrafish is a freshwater fish species belonging to the family Cyprinidae and the genus Danio. Its name is derived from its distinctive striped pattern that resembles a zebra's. Zebrafish are often used as model organisms in scientific research, particularly in developmental biology, genetics, and toxicology studies. They have a high fecundity rate, transparent embryos, and a rapid development process, making them an ideal choice for researchers. However, it is important to note that providing a medical definition for zebrafish may not be entirely accurate or relevant since they are primarily used in biological research rather than clinical medicine.

Polyneuropathy is a medical condition that refers to the damage or dysfunction of peripheral nerves (nerves outside the brain and spinal cord) in multiple areas of the body. These nerves are responsible for transmitting sensory, motor, and autonomic signals between the central nervous system and the rest of the body.

In polyneuropathies, this communication is disrupted, leading to various symptoms depending on the type and extent of nerve damage. Commonly reported symptoms include:

1. Numbness or tingling in the hands and feet
2. Muscle weakness and cramps
3. Loss of reflexes
4. Burning or stabbing pain
5. Balance and coordination issues
6. Increased sensitivity to touch
7. Autonomic dysfunction, such as bowel, bladder, or digestive problems, and changes in blood pressure

Polyneuropathies can be caused by various factors, including diabetes, alcohol abuse, nutritional deficiencies, autoimmune disorders, infections, toxins, inherited genetic conditions, or idiopathic (unknown) causes. The treatment for polyneuropathy depends on the underlying cause and may involve managing underlying medical conditions, physical therapy, pain management, and lifestyle modifications.

Methotrexate is a medication used in the treatment of certain types of cancer and autoimmune diseases. It is an antimetabolite that inhibits the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which is necessary for the synthesis of purines and pyrimidines, essential components of DNA and RNA. By blocking this enzyme, methotrexate interferes with cell division and growth, making it effective in treating rapidly dividing cells such as cancer cells.

In addition to its use in cancer treatment, methotrexate is also used to manage autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. In these conditions, methotrexate modulates the immune system and reduces inflammation.

It's important to note that methotrexate can have significant side effects and should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider. Regular monitoring of blood counts, liver function, and kidney function is necessary during treatment with methotrexate.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

A brain abscess is a localized collection of pus in the brain that is caused by an infection. It can develop as a result of a bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infection that spreads to the brain from another part of the body or from an infection that starts in the brain itself (such as from a head injury or surgery).

The symptoms of a brain abscess may include headache, fever, confusion, seizures, weakness or numbness on one side of the body, and changes in vision, speech, or behavior. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to treat the infection, as well as surgical drainage of the abscess to relieve pressure on the brain.

It is a serious medical condition that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent potentially life-threatening complications such as brain herniation or permanent neurological damage.

Prednisone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, which is a type of corticosteroid hormone. It is primarily used to reduce inflammation in various conditions such as asthma, allergies, arthritis, and autoimmune disorders. Prednisone works by mimicking the effects of natural hormones produced by the adrenal glands, suppressing the immune system's response and reducing the release of substances that cause inflammation.

It is available in oral tablet form and is typically prescribed to be taken at specific times during the day, depending on the condition being treated. Common side effects of prednisone include increased appetite, weight gain, mood changes, insomnia, and easy bruising. Long-term use or high doses can lead to more serious side effects such as osteoporosis, diabetes, cataracts, and increased susceptibility to infections.

Healthcare providers closely monitor patients taking prednisone for extended periods to minimize the risk of adverse effects. It is essential to follow the prescribed dosage regimen and not discontinue the medication abruptly without medical supervision, as this can lead to withdrawal symptoms or a rebound of the underlying condition.

The ependyma is a type of epithelial tissue that lines the ventricular system of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord. These cells are specialized glial cells that help to form the blood-brain barrier, regulate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) composition, and provide support and protection for the nervous tissue.

Ependymal cells have a cuboidal or columnar shape and possess numerous cilia on their apical surface, which helps to circulate CSF within the ventricles. They also have tight junctions that help to form the blood-brain barrier and prevent the passage of harmful substances from the blood into the CSF.

In addition to their role in maintaining the integrity of the CNS, ependymal cells can also differentiate into other types of cells, such as neurons and glial cells, under certain conditions. This property has made them a topic of interest in regenerative medicine and the study of neurodevelopmental disorders.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) is the part of the autonomic nervous system that primarily controls vegetative functions during rest, relaxation, and digestion. It is responsible for the body's "rest and digest" activities including decreasing heart rate, lowering blood pressure, increasing digestive activity, and stimulating sexual arousal. The PNS utilizes acetylcholine as its primary neurotransmitter and acts in opposition to the Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS), which is responsible for the "fight or flight" response.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

The optic nerve, also known as the second cranial nerve, is the nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. It is composed of approximately one million nerve fibers that carry signals related to vision, such as light intensity and color, from the eye's photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) to the visual cortex in the brain. The optic nerve is responsible for carrying this visual information so that it can be processed and interpreted by the brain, allowing us to see and perceive our surroundings. Damage to the optic nerve can result in vision loss or impairment.

Autoantigens are substances that are typically found in an individual's own body, but can stimulate an immune response because they are recognized as foreign by the body's own immune system. In autoimmune diseases, the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy tissues and organs because it recognizes some of their components as autoantigens. These autoantigens can be proteins, DNA, or other molecules that are normally present in the body but have become altered or exposed due to various factors such as infection, genetics, or environmental triggers. The immune system then produces antibodies and activates immune cells to attack these autoantigens, leading to tissue damage and inflammation.

Autoimmune diseases of the nervous system are a group of conditions that occur when the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in the brain, spinal cord, or nerves. These diseases can cause inflammation, damage to nerve cells, and interference with the transmission of nerve impulses, leading to various neurological symptoms.

Examples of autoimmune diseases that affect the nervous system include:

1. Multiple sclerosis (MS): A chronic disease characterized by damage to the protective covering of nerve fibers in the brain and spinal cord, causing a variety of neurological symptoms such as muscle weakness, vision problems, and difficulty with coordination and balance.
2. Myasthenia gravis: A condition that causes muscle weakness and fatigue, particularly affecting the eyes, face, and neck muscles. It occurs when the immune system attacks the receptors that transmit signals between nerves and muscles.
3. Guillain-Barré syndrome: A rare disorder in which the body's immune system attacks the nerves, causing muscle weakness, tingling, and numbness that can spread throughout the body. In severe cases, it can lead to paralysis and respiratory failure.
4. Neuromyelitis optica (NMO): A rare autoimmune disease that affects the optic nerve and spinal cord, causing vision loss, muscle weakness, and other neurological symptoms.
5. Autoimmune encephalitis: A group of conditions characterized by inflammation of the brain, caused by an overactive immune response. Symptoms can include seizures, memory loss, confusion, and behavioral changes.
6. Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP): A rare disorder that causes progressive weakness and numbness in the legs and arms due to damage to the nerves' protective covering.

Treatment for autoimmune diseases of the nervous system typically involves medications to suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation, as well as physical therapy and other supportive measures to manage symptoms and maintain function.

Spinal cord diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the spinal cord, which is a part of the central nervous system responsible for transmitting messages between the brain and the rest of the body. These diseases can cause damage to the spinal cord, leading to various symptoms such as muscle weakness, numbness, pain, bladder and bowel dysfunction, and difficulty with movement and coordination.

Spinal cord diseases can be congenital or acquired, and they can result from a variety of causes, including infections, injuries, tumors, degenerative conditions, autoimmune disorders, and genetic factors. Some examples of spinal cord diseases include multiple sclerosis, spina bifida, spinal cord injury, herniated discs, spinal stenosis, and motor neuron diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

The treatment for spinal cord diseases varies depending on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Treatment options may include medication, physical therapy, surgery, and rehabilitation. In some cases, the damage to the spinal cord may be irreversible, leading to permanent disability or paralysis.

Remission induction is a treatment approach in medicine, particularly in the field of oncology and hematology. It refers to the initial phase of therapy aimed at reducing or eliminating the signs and symptoms of active disease, such as cancer or autoimmune disorders. The primary goal of remission induction is to achieve a complete response (disappearance of all detectable signs of the disease) or a partial response (a decrease in the measurable extent of the disease). This phase of treatment is often intensive and may involve the use of multiple drugs or therapies, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, or targeted therapy. After remission induction, patients may receive additional treatments to maintain the remission and prevent relapse, known as consolidation or maintenance therapy.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

Azathioprine is an immunosuppressive medication that is used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and inflammatory bowel disease. It works by suppressing the activity of the immune system, which helps to reduce inflammation and prevent the body from attacking its own tissues.

Azathioprine is a prodrug that is converted into its active form, 6-mercaptopurine, in the body. This medication can have significant side effects, including decreased white blood cell count, increased risk of infection, and liver damage. It may also increase the risk of certain types of cancer, particularly skin cancer and lymphoma.

Healthcare professionals must carefully monitor patients taking azathioprine for these potential side effects. They may need to adjust the dosage or stop the medication altogether if serious side effects occur. Patients should also take steps to reduce their risk of infection and skin cancer, such as practicing good hygiene, avoiding sun exposure, and using sunscreen.

Neurites are extensions of a neuron (a type of cell in the nervous system) that can be either an axon or a dendrite. An axon is a thin, cable-like extension that carries signals away from the cell body, while a dendrite is a branching extension that receives signals from other neurons. Neurites play a crucial role in the communication between neurons and the formation of neural networks. They are involved in the transmission of electrical and chemical signals, as well as in the growth and development of the nervous system.

Murine hepatitis virus (MHV) is a type of coronavirus that primarily infects laboratory mice. It is not related to the human hepatitis viruses A, B, C, D, or E. MHV causes a range of diseases in mice, including hepatitis (liver inflammation), encephalomyelitis (inflammation of the brain and spinal cord), and enteritis (inflammation of the intestine). The virus is transmitted through fecal-oral route and respiratory droplets. It's widely used in research to understand the pathogenesis, immunity, and molecular biology of coronaviruses.

Immune complex diseases are medical conditions that occur when the immune system produces an abnormal response to certain antigens, leading to the formation and deposition of immune complexes in various tissues and organs. These immune complexes consist of antibodies bound to antigens, which can trigger an inflammatory reaction and damage the surrounding tissue.

Immune complex diseases can be classified into two categories: acute and chronic. Acute immune complex diseases include serum sickness and hypersensitivity vasculitis, while chronic immune complex diseases include systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis.

The symptoms of immune complex diseases depend on the location and extent of tissue damage. They can range from mild to severe and may include fever, joint pain, skin rashes, kidney dysfunction, and neurological problems. Treatment typically involves medications that suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation, such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and anti-inflammatory drugs.

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Spinal injections, also known as epidural injections or intrathecal injections, are medical procedures involving the injection of medications directly into the spinal canal. The medication is usually delivered into the space surrounding the spinal cord (the epidural space) or into the cerebrospinal fluid that surrounds and protects the spinal cord (the subarachnoid space).

The medications used in spinal injections can include local anesthetics, steroids, opioids, or a combination of these. The purpose of spinal injections is to provide diagnostic information, therapeutic relief, or both. They are commonly used to treat various conditions affecting the spine, such as radicular pain (pain that radiates down the arms or legs), disc herniation, spinal stenosis, and degenerative disc disease.

Spinal injections can be administered using different techniques, including fluoroscopy-guided injections, computed tomography (CT) scan-guided injections, or with the help of a nerve stimulator. These techniques ensure accurate placement of the medication and minimize the risk of complications.

It is essential to consult a healthcare professional for specific information regarding spinal injections and their potential benefits and risks.

Neural stem cells (NSCs) are a type of undifferentiated cells found in the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord. They have the ability to self-renew and generate the main types of cells found in the nervous system, such as neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. NSCs are capable of dividing symmetrically to increase their own population or asymmetrically to produce one stem cell and one differentiated cell. They play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of the nervous system, and have the potential to be used in regenerative medicine and therapies for neurological disorders and injuries.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

A seizure is an uncontrolled, abnormal firing of neurons (brain cells) that can cause various symptoms such as convulsions, loss of consciousness, altered awareness, or changes in behavior. Seizures can be caused by a variety of factors including epilepsy, brain injury, infection, toxic substances, or genetic disorders. They can also occur without any identifiable cause, known as idiopathic seizures. Seizures are a medical emergency and require immediate attention.

Neurotransmitter agents are substances that affect the synthesis, storage, release, uptake, degradation, or reuptake of neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that transmit signals across a chemical synapse from one neuron to another. These agents can be either agonists, which mimic the action of a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptor, or antagonists, which block the action of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor without activating it. They are used in medicine to treat various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and Parkinson's disease.

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

Rheumatoid factor (RF) is an autoantibody, specifically an immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody, that can be detected in the blood serum of some people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), other inflammatory conditions, and infectious diseases. RF targets the Fc portion of IgG, leading to immune complex formation and subsequent inflammation, which contributes to the pathogenesis of RA. However, not all patients with RA test positive for RF, and its presence does not necessarily confirm a diagnosis of RA. Other conditions can also lead to elevated RF levels, such as infections, liver diseases, and certain malignancies. Therefore, the interpretation of RF results should be considered alongside other clinical, laboratory, and imaging findings for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate management.

A synapse is a structure in the nervous system that allows for the transmission of signals from one neuron (nerve cell) to another. It is the point where the axon terminal of one neuron meets the dendrite or cell body of another, and it is here that neurotransmitters are released and received. The synapse includes both the presynaptic and postsynaptic elements, as well as the cleft between them.

At the presynaptic side, an action potential travels down the axon and triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis. These neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic side, which can either excite or inhibit the receiving neuron. The strength of the signal between two neurons is determined by the number and efficiency of these synapses.

Synapses play a crucial role in the functioning of the nervous system, allowing for the integration and processing of information from various sources. They are also dynamic structures that can undergo changes in response to experience or injury, which has important implications for learning, memory, and recovery from neurological disorders.

Myelin Proteolipid Protein (PLP) is a major component of the myelin sheath, which is a fatty insulating substance that covers and protects nerve fibers in the central nervous system (CNS). PLP makes up about 50% of the proteins found in the myelin sheath. It plays a crucial role in the structure and function of the myelin sheath, including maintaining its compactness and stability. Defects or mutations in the gene that encodes for PLP can lead to various demyelinating diseases, such as X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (X-ALD) and Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD), which are characterized by the degeneration of the myelin sheath and subsequent neurological impairments.

Membrane proteins are a type of protein that are embedded in the lipid bilayer of biological membranes, such as the plasma membrane of cells or the inner membrane of mitochondria. These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including:

1. Cell-cell recognition and signaling
2. Transport of molecules across the membrane (selective permeability)
3. Enzymatic reactions at the membrane surface
4. Energy transduction and conversion
5. Mechanosensation and signal transduction

Membrane proteins can be classified into two main categories: integral membrane proteins, which are permanently associated with the lipid bilayer, and peripheral membrane proteins, which are temporarily or loosely attached to the membrane surface. Integral membrane proteins can further be divided into three subcategories based on their topology:

1. Transmembrane proteins, which span the entire width of the lipid bilayer with one or more alpha-helices or beta-barrels.
2. Lipid-anchored proteins, which are covalently attached to lipids in the membrane via a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor or other lipid modifications.
3. Monotopic proteins, which are partially embedded in the membrane and have one or more domains exposed to either side of the bilayer.

Membrane proteins are essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and are targets for various therapeutic interventions, including drug development and gene therapy. However, their structural complexity and hydrophobicity make them challenging to study using traditional biochemical methods, requiring specialized techniques such as X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM).

Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO) is a medical condition defined as a fever that remains undiagnosed after one week of inpatient evaluation or three days of outpatient evaluation, with temperatures repeatedly measuring at or above 38.3°C (101°F). The fevers can be continuous or intermittent and are often associated with symptoms such as fatigue, weight loss, and general malaise.

The causes of FUO can be broadly categorized into four groups: infections, inflammatory diseases, neoplasms (cancers), and miscellaneous conditions. Infections account for a significant proportion of cases, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Other possible causes include connective tissue disorders, vasculitides, drug reactions, and factitious fever.

The diagnostic approach to FUO involves a thorough history and physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. The goal is to identify the underlying cause of the fever and provide appropriate treatment. In some cases, despite extensive evaluation, the cause may remain undiagnosed, and management focuses on supportive care and monitoring for any new symptoms or complications.

'Drosophila melanogaster' is the scientific name for a species of fruit fly that is commonly used as a model organism in various fields of biological research, including genetics, developmental biology, and evolutionary biology. Its small size, short generation time, large number of offspring, and ease of cultivation make it an ideal subject for laboratory studies. The fruit fly's genome has been fully sequenced, and many of its genes have counterparts in the human genome, which facilitates the understanding of genetic mechanisms and their role in human health and disease.

Here is a brief medical definition:

Drosophila melanogaster (droh-suh-fih-luh meh-lon-guh-ster): A species of fruit fly used extensively as a model organism in genetic, developmental, and evolutionary research. Its genome has been sequenced, revealing many genes with human counterparts, making it valuable for understanding genetic mechanisms and their role in human health and disease.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

The choroid plexus is a network of blood vessels and tissue located within each ventricle (fluid-filled space) of the brain. It plays a crucial role in the production of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which provides protection and nourishment to the brain and spinal cord.

The choroid plexus consists of modified ependymal cells, called plexus epithelial cells, that line the ventricular walls. These cells have finger-like projections called villi, which increase their surface area for efficient CSF production. The blood vessels within the choroid plexus transport nutrients, ions, and water to these epithelial cells, where they are actively secreted into the ventricles to form CSF.

In addition to its role in CSF production, the choroid plexus also acts as a barrier between the blood and the central nervous system (CNS), regulating the exchange of substances between them. This barrier function is primarily attributed to tight junctions present between the epithelial cells, which limit the paracellular movement of molecules.

Abnormalities in the choroid plexus can lead to various neurological conditions, such as hydrocephalus (excessive accumulation of CSF) or certain types of brain tumors.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

Sequence homology, amino acid, refers to the similarity in the order of amino acids in a protein or a portion of a protein between two or more species. This similarity can be used to infer evolutionary relationships and functional similarities between proteins. The higher the degree of sequence homology, the more likely it is that the proteins are related and have similar functions. Sequence homology can be determined through various methods such as pairwise alignment or multiple sequence alignment, which compare the sequences and calculate a score based on the number and type of matching amino acids.

Autoimmunity is a medical condition in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy tissues within the body. In normal function, the immune system recognizes and fights off foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. However, when autoimmunity occurs, the immune system identifies self-molecules or tissues as foreign and produces an immune response against them.

This misguided response can lead to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and impaired organ function. Autoimmune diseases can affect various parts of the body, including the joints, skin, glands, muscles, and blood vessels. Some common examples of autoimmune diseases are rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and Graves' disease.

The exact cause of autoimmunity is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that trigger an abnormal immune response in susceptible individuals. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves managing symptoms, reducing inflammation, and suppressing the immune system's overactive response using medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and biologics.

Homeodomain proteins are a group of transcription factors that play crucial roles in the development and differentiation of cells in animals and plants. They are characterized by the presence of a highly conserved DNA-binding domain called the homeodomain, which is typically about 60 amino acids long. The homeodomain consists of three helices, with the third helix responsible for recognizing and binding to specific DNA sequences.

Homeodomain proteins are involved in regulating gene expression during embryonic development, tissue maintenance, and organismal growth. They can act as activators or repressors of transcription, depending on the context and the presence of cofactors. Mutations in homeodomain proteins have been associated with various human diseases, including cancer, congenital abnormalities, and neurological disorders.

Some examples of homeodomain proteins include PAX6, which is essential for eye development, HOX genes, which are involved in body patterning, and NANOG, which plays a role in maintaining pluripotency in stem cells.

The retina is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of tissue in the eye of many vertebrates and some cephalopods. It receives light that has been focused by the cornea and lens, converts it into neural signals, and sends these to the brain via the optic nerve. The retina contains several types of photoreceptor cells including rods (which handle vision in low light) and cones (which are active in bright light and are capable of color vision).

In medical terms, any pathological changes or diseases affecting the retinal structure and function can lead to visual impairment or blindness. Examples include age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment, and retinitis pigmentosa among others.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Nervous system malformations, also known as nervous system dysplasias or developmental anomalies, refer to structural abnormalities or defects in the development of the nervous system. These malformations can occur during fetal development and can affect various parts of the nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

Nervous system malformations can result from genetic mutations, environmental factors, or a combination of both. They can range from mild to severe and may cause a wide variety of symptoms, depending on the specific type and location of the malformation. Some common examples of nervous system malformations include:

* Spina bifida: a defect in the closure of the spinal cord and surrounding bones, which can lead to neurological problems such as paralysis, bladder and bowel dysfunction, and hydrocephalus.
* Anencephaly: a severe malformation where the brain and skull do not develop properly, resulting in stillbirth or death shortly after birth.
* Chiari malformation: a structural defect in the cerebellum, the part of the brain that controls balance and coordination, which can cause headaches, neck pain, and difficulty swallowing.
* Microcephaly: a condition where the head is smaller than normal due to abnormal development of the brain, which can lead to intellectual disability and developmental delays.
* Hydrocephalus: a buildup of fluid in the brain that can cause pressure on the brain and lead to cognitive impairment, vision problems, and other neurological symptoms.

Treatment for nervous system malformations depends on the specific type and severity of the condition and may include surgery, medication, physical therapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Lymphoma is a type of cancer that originates from the white blood cells called lymphocytes, which are part of the immune system. These cells are found in various parts of the body such as the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, and other organs. Lymphoma can be classified into two main types: Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL).

HL is characterized by the presence of a specific type of abnormal lymphocyte called Reed-Sternberg cells, while NHL includes a diverse group of lymphomas that lack these cells. The symptoms of lymphoma may include swollen lymph nodes, fever, night sweats, weight loss, and fatigue.

The exact cause of lymphoma is not known, but it is believed to result from genetic mutations in the lymphocytes that lead to uncontrolled cell growth and division. Exposure to certain viruses, chemicals, and radiation may increase the risk of developing lymphoma. Treatment options for lymphoma depend on various factors such as the type and stage of the disease, age, and overall health of the patient. Common treatments include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunotherapy, and stem cell transplantation.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Spinal ganglia, also known as dorsal root ganglia, are clusters of nerve cell bodies located in the peripheral nervous system. They are situated along the length of the spinal cord and are responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body to the brain. Each spinal ganglion contains numerous neurons, or nerve cells, with long processes called axons that extend into the periphery and innervate various tissues and organs. The cell bodies within the spinal ganglia receive sensory input from these axons and transmit this information to the central nervous system via the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves. This allows the brain to interpret and respond to a wide range of sensory stimuli, including touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (the sense of the position and movement of one's body).

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Central nervous system helminthiasis is a medical condition that refers to the invasion and infection of the central nervous system (CNS), specifically the brain and spinal cord, by parasitic worms, also known as helminths. This rare but serious condition can occur when helminth larvae or eggs accidentally migrate from their usual location in the body to the CNS through the bloodstream or cerebrospinal fluid.

The most common types of helminths that can cause CNS helminthiasis include:

1. Neurocysticercosis: This is caused by the larval stage of the tapeworm Taenia solium, which typically infects the muscles and brain. However, when the larvae invade the CNS, they can form cysts that cause inflammation, swelling, and damage to brain tissue.
2. Echinococcosis: This is caused by the larval stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus or Echinococcus multilocularis. The larvae can form hydatid cysts in various organs, including the brain, leading to neurological symptoms.
3. Gnathostomiasis: This is caused by the larval stage of the nematode Gnathostoma spinigerum or Gnathostoma hispidum. The larvae can migrate to various organs, including the CNS, causing inflammation and damage to brain tissue.
4. Angiostrongyliasis: This is caused by the nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis, which typically infects rats but can accidentally infect humans through contaminated food or water. The larvae can migrate to the CNS and cause eosinophilic meningitis, an inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Symptoms of CNS helminthiasis depend on the type of parasite involved, the location and extent of the infection, and the host's immune response. They can range from mild to severe and may include headache, seizures, weakness, numbness, vision changes, confusion, and cognitive impairment. Diagnosis is usually based on clinical presentation, imaging studies, and laboratory tests, such as serology or CSF analysis. Treatment depends on the type of parasite involved and may include antiparasitic drugs, corticosteroids, and supportive care. Prevention measures include avoiding contaminated food and water, practicing good hygiene, and using insect repellents to prevent mosquito-borne infections.

Synaptic transmission is the process by which a neuron communicates with another cell, such as another neuron or a muscle cell, across a junction called a synapse. It involves the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic terminal of the neuron, which then cross the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, leading to changes in the electrical or chemical properties of the target cell. This process is critical for the transmission of signals within the nervous system and for controlling various physiological functions in the body.

A "mutant strain of mice" in a medical context refers to genetically engineered mice that have specific genetic mutations introduced into their DNA. These mutations can be designed to mimic certain human diseases or conditions, allowing researchers to study the underlying biological mechanisms and test potential therapies in a controlled laboratory setting.

Mutant strains of mice are created through various techniques, including embryonic stem cell manipulation, gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9, and radiation-induced mutagenesis. These methods allow scientists to introduce specific genetic changes into the mouse genome, resulting in mice that exhibit altered physiological or behavioral traits.

These strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research because their short lifespan, small size, and high reproductive rate make them an ideal model organism for studying human diseases. Additionally, the mouse genome has been well-characterized, and many genetic tools and resources are available to researchers working with these animals.

Examples of mutant strains of mice include those that carry mutations in genes associated with cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic diseases, and immunological conditions. These mice provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of human diseases and help advance our understanding of potential therapeutic interventions.

Complement C3c is a protein component of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Complement C3c is formed when the third component of the complement system (C3) is cleaved into two smaller proteins, C3a and C3b, during the complement activation process.

C3b can then be further cleaved into C3c and C3dg. C3c is a stable fragment that remains in the circulation and can be measured in blood tests as a marker of complement activation. It plays a role in the opsonization of pathogens, which means it coats them to make them more recognizable to immune cells, and helps to initiate the membrane attack complex (MAC), which forms a pore in the cell membrane of pathogens leading to their lysis or destruction.

Abnormal levels of C3c may indicate an underlying inflammatory or immune-mediated condition, such as infection, autoimmune disease, or cancer.

Pulse therapy, in the context of drug treatment, refers to a therapeutic regimen where a medication is administered in large doses for a short period of time, followed by a break or "drug-free" interval before the next dose. This cycle is then repeated at regular intervals. The goal of pulse therapy is to achieve high concentrations of the drug in the body to maximize its therapeutic effect while minimizing overall exposure and potential side effects.

This approach is often used for drugs that have a long half-life or slow clearance, as it allows for periodic "washing out" of the drug from the body. Pulse therapy can also help reduce the risk of developing drug resistance in certain conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis. Common examples include pulse methotrexate for rheumatoid arthritis and intermittent preventive treatment with anti-malarial drugs.

It is important to note that the use of pulse therapy should be based on a thorough understanding of the drug's pharmacokinetics, therapeutic index, and potential adverse effects. Close monitoring of patients undergoing pulse therapy is essential to ensure safety and efficacy.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) proteins refer to the proteins present in the cerebrospinal fluid, which is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. The protein concentration in the CSF is much lower than that in the blood, and it contains a specific set of proteins that are produced by the brain, spinal cord, and associated tissues.

The normal range for CSF protein levels is typically between 15-45 mg/dL, although this can vary slightly depending on the laboratory's reference range. An elevation in CSF protein levels may indicate the presence of neurological disorders such as meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, or Guillain-Barre syndrome. Additionally, certain conditions such as spinal cord injury, brain tumors, or neurodegenerative diseases can also cause an increase in CSF protein levels.

Therefore, measuring CSF protein levels is an important diagnostic tool for neurologists to evaluate various neurological disorders and monitor disease progression. However, it's essential to interpret the results of CSF protein tests in conjunction with other clinical findings and laboratory test results to make an accurate diagnosis.

In invertebrate biology, ganglia are clusters of neurons that function as a centralized nervous system. They can be considered as the equivalent to a vertebrate's spinal cord and brain. Ganglia serve to process sensory information, coordinate motor functions, and integrate various neural activities within an invertebrate organism.

Invertebrate ganglia are typically found in animals such as arthropods (insects, crustaceans), annelids (earthworms), mollusks (snails, squids), and cnidarians (jellyfish). The structure of the ganglia varies among different invertebrate groups.

For example, in arthropods, the central nervous system consists of a pair of connected ganglia called the supraesophageal ganglion or brain, and the subesophageal ganglion, located near the esophagus. The ventral nerve cord runs along the length of the body, containing pairs of ganglia that control specific regions of the body.

In mollusks, the central nervous system is composed of several ganglia, which can be fused or dispersed, depending on the species. In cephalopods (such as squids and octopuses), the brain is highly developed and consists of several lobes that perform various functions, including learning and memory.

Overall, invertebrate ganglia are essential components of the nervous system that allow these animals to respond to environmental stimuli, move, and interact with their surroundings.

A larva is a distinct stage in the life cycle of various insects, mites, and other arthropods during which they undergo significant metamorphosis before becoming adults. In a medical context, larvae are known for their role in certain parasitic infections. Specifically, some helminth (parasitic worm) species use larval forms to infect human hosts. These invasions may lead to conditions such as cutaneous larva migrans, visceral larva migrans, or gnathostomiasis, depending on the specific parasite involved and the location of the infection within the body.

The larval stage is characterized by its markedly different morphology and behavior compared to the adult form. Larvae often have a distinct appearance, featuring unsegmented bodies, simple sense organs, and undeveloped digestive systems. They are typically adapted for a specific mode of life, such as free-living or parasitic existence, and rely on external sources of nutrition for their development.

In the context of helminth infections, larvae may be transmitted to humans through various routes, including ingestion of contaminated food or water, direct skin contact with infective stages, or transmission via an intermediate host (such as a vector). Once inside the human body, these parasitic larvae can cause tissue damage and provoke immune responses, leading to the clinical manifestations of disease.

It is essential to distinguish between the medical definition of 'larva' and its broader usage in biology and zoology. In those fields, 'larva' refers to any juvenile form that undergoes metamorphosis before reaching adulthood, regardless of whether it is parasitic or not.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Enterovirus infections are viral illnesses caused by enteroviruses, which are a type of picornavirus. These viruses commonly infect the gastrointestinal tract and can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the specific type of enterovirus and the age and overall health of the infected individual.

There are over 100 different types of enteroviruses, including polioviruses, coxsackieviruses, echoviruses, and newer enteroviruses such as EV-D68 and EV-A71. Some enterovirus infections may be asymptomatic or cause only mild symptoms, while others can lead to more severe illnesses.

Common symptoms of enterovirus infections include fever, sore throat, runny nose, cough, muscle aches, and skin rashes. In some cases, enteroviruses can cause more serious complications such as meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle), and paralysis.

Enterovirus infections are typically spread through close contact with an infected person, such as through respiratory droplets or fecal-oral transmission. They can also be spread through contaminated surfaces or objects. Preventive measures include good hygiene practices, such as washing hands frequently and avoiding close contact with sick individuals.

There are no specific antiviral treatments for enterovirus infections, and most cases resolve on their own within a few days to a week. However, severe cases may require hospitalization and supportive care, such as fluids and medication to manage symptoms. Prevention efforts include vaccination against poliovirus and surveillance for emerging enteroviruses.

A mammalian embryo is the developing offspring of a mammal, from the time of implantation of the fertilized egg (blastocyst) in the uterus until the end of the eighth week of gestation. During this period, the embryo undergoes rapid cell division and organ differentiation to form a complex structure with all the major organs and systems in place. This stage is followed by fetal development, which continues until birth. The study of mammalian embryos is important for understanding human development, evolution, and reproductive biology.

Neuronal plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity or neural plasticity, refers to the ability of the brain and nervous system to change and adapt as a result of experience, learning, injury, or disease. This can involve changes in the structure, organization, and function of neurons (nerve cells) and their connections (synapses) in the central and peripheral nervous systems.

Neuronal plasticity can take many forms, including:

* Synaptic plasticity: Changes in the strength or efficiency of synaptic connections between neurons. This can involve the formation, elimination, or modification of synapses.
* Neural circuit plasticity: Changes in the organization and connectivity of neural circuits, which are networks of interconnected neurons that process information.
* Structural plasticity: Changes in the physical structure of neurons, such as the growth or retraction of dendrites (branches that receive input from other neurons) or axons (projections that transmit signals to other neurons).
* Functional plasticity: Changes in the physiological properties of neurons, such as their excitability, responsiveness, or sensitivity to stimuli.

Neuronal plasticity is a fundamental property of the nervous system and plays a crucial role in many aspects of brain function, including learning, memory, perception, and cognition. It also contributes to the brain's ability to recover from injury or disease, such as stroke or traumatic brain injury.

The rhombencephalon is a term used in the field of neuroanatomy, which refers to the most posterior region of the developing brain during embryonic development. It is also known as the hindbrain and it gives rise to several important structures in the adult brain.

More specifically, the rhombencephalon can be further divided into two main parts: the metencephalon and the myelencephalon. The metencephalon eventually develops into the pons and cerebellum, while the myelencephalon becomes the medulla oblongata.

The rhombencephalon plays a crucial role in several critical functions of the nervous system, including regulating heart rate and respiration, maintaining balance and posture, and coordinating motor movements. Defects or abnormalities in the development of the rhombencephalon can lead to various neurological disorders, such as cerebellar hypoplasia, Chiari malformation, and certain forms of brainstem tumors.

Astrocytoma is a type of brain tumor that arises from astrocytes, which are star-shaped glial cells in the brain. These tumors can occur in various parts of the brain and can have different grades of malignancy, ranging from low-grade (I or II) to high-grade (III or IV). Low-grade astrocytomas tend to grow slowly and may not cause any symptoms for a long time, while high-grade astrocytomas are more aggressive and can grow quickly, causing neurological problems.

Symptoms of astrocytoma depend on the location and size of the tumor but may include headaches, seizures, weakness or numbness in the limbs, difficulty speaking or swallowing, changes in vision or behavior, and memory loss. Treatment options for astrocytomas include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches. The prognosis for astrocytoma varies widely depending on the grade and location of the tumor, as well as the age and overall health of the patient.

Eye diseases are a range of conditions that affect the eye or visual system, causing damage to vision and, in some cases, leading to blindness. These diseases can be categorized into various types, including:

1. Refractive errors: These include myopia (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsightedness), astigmatism, and presbyopia, which affect the way light is focused on the retina and can usually be corrected with glasses or contact lenses.
2. Cataracts: A clouding of the lens inside the eye that leads to blurry vision, glare, and decreased contrast sensitivity. Cataract surgery is the most common treatment for this condition.
3. Glaucoma: A group of diseases characterized by increased pressure in the eye, leading to damage to the optic nerve and potential blindness if left untreated. Treatment includes medications, laser therapy, or surgery.
4. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): A progressive condition that affects the central part of the retina called the macula, causing blurry vision and, in advanced stages, loss of central vision. Treatment may include anti-VEGF injections, laser therapy, or nutritional supplements.
5. Diabetic retinopathy: A complication of diabetes that affects the blood vessels in the retina, leading to bleeding, leakage, and potential blindness if left untreated. Treatment includes laser therapy, anti-VEGF injections, or surgery.
6. Retinal detachment: A separation of the retina from its underlying tissue, which can lead to vision loss if not treated promptly with surgery.
7. Amblyopia (lazy eye): A condition where one eye does not develop normal vision, often due to a misalignment or refractive error in childhood. Treatment includes correcting the underlying problem and encouraging the use of the weaker eye through patching or other methods.
8. Strabismus (crossed eyes): A misalignment of the eyes that can lead to amblyopia if not treated promptly with surgery, glasses, or other methods.
9. Corneal diseases: Conditions that affect the transparent outer layer of the eye, such as keratoconus, Fuchs' dystrophy, and infectious keratitis, which can lead to vision loss if not treated promptly.
10. Uveitis: Inflammation of the middle layer of the eye, which can cause vision loss if not treated promptly with anti-inflammatory medications or surgery.

Schwann cells, also known as neurolemmocytes, are a type of glial cell that form the myelin sheath around peripheral nervous system (PNS) axons, allowing for the rapid and efficient transmission of nerve impulses. These cells play a crucial role in the maintenance and function of the PNS.

Schwann cells originate from the neural crest during embryonic development and migrate to the developing nerves. They wrap around the axons in a spiral fashion, forming multiple layers of myelin, which insulates the nerve fibers and increases the speed of electrical impulse transmission. Each Schwann cell is responsible for myelinating a single segment of an axon, with the gaps between these segments called nodes of Ranvier.

Schwann cells also provide structural support to the neurons and contribute to the regeneration of injured peripheral nerves by helping to guide the regrowth of axons to their targets. Additionally, Schwann cells can participate in immune responses within the PNS, such as releasing cytokines and chemokines to recruit immune cells during injury or infection.

The telencephalon is the most anterior (front) region of the embryonic brain, which eventually develops into the largest portion of the adult human brain, including the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulbs. It is derived from the prosencephalon (forebrain) during embryonic development and is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, perception, and language. The telencephalon can be further divided into two hemispheres, each containing regions associated with different functions.

Scleritis is a serious, painful inflammatory condition that affects the sclera, which is the white, tough outer coating of the eye. It can lead to severe pain, light sensitivity, and potential loss of vision if not promptly treated. Scleritis may occur in isolation or be associated with various systemic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, or granulomatosis with polyangiitis (formerly known as Wegener's granulomatosis). Immediate medical attention is necessary for proper diagnosis and management.

Nerve tissue, also known as neural tissue, is a type of specialized tissue that is responsible for the transmission of electrical signals and the processing of information in the body. It is a key component of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves. Nerve tissue is composed of two main types of cells: neurons and glial cells.

Neurons are the primary functional units of nerve tissue. They are specialized cells that are capable of generating and transmitting electrical signals, known as action potentials. Neurons have a unique structure, with a cell body (also called the soma) that contains the nucleus and other organelles, and processes (dendrites and axons) that extend from the cell body and are used to receive and transmit signals.

Glial cells, also known as neuroglia or glia, are non-neuronal cells that provide support and protection for neurons. There are several different types of glial cells, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and Schwann cells. These cells play a variety of roles in the nervous system, such as providing structural support, maintaining the proper environment for neurons, and helping to repair and regenerate nerve tissue after injury.

Nerve tissue is found throughout the body, but it is most highly concentrated in the brain and spinal cord, which make up the central nervous system (CNS). The peripheral nerves, which are the nerves that extend from the CNS to the rest of the body, also contain nerve tissue. Nerve tissue is responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body to the brain, controlling muscle movements, and regulating various bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiration.

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a type of DNA that is synthesized from a single-stranded RNA molecule through the process of reverse transcription. In this process, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses an RNA molecule as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand. The resulting cDNA is therefore complementary to the original RNA molecule and is a copy of its coding sequence, but it does not contain non-coding regions such as introns that are present in genomic DNA.

Complementary DNA is often used in molecular biology research to study gene expression, protein function, and other genetic phenomena. For example, cDNA can be used to create cDNA libraries, which are collections of cloned cDNA fragments that represent the expressed genes in a particular cell type or tissue. These libraries can then be screened for specific genes or gene products of interest. Additionally, cDNA can be used to produce recombinant proteins in heterologous expression systems, allowing researchers to study the structure and function of proteins that may be difficult to express or purify from their native sources.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Paraneoplastic syndromes refer to a group of rare disorders that are caused by an abnormal immune system response to a cancerous (malignant) tumor. These syndromes are characterized by symptoms or signs that do not result directly from the growth of the tumor itself, but rather from substances produced by the tumor or the body's immune system in response to the tumor.

Paraneoplastic syndromes can affect various organs and systems in the body, including the nervous system, endocrine system, skin, and joints. Examples of paraneoplastic syndromes include Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS), which affects nerve function and causes muscle weakness; cerebellar degeneration, which can cause difficulty with coordination and balance; and dermatomyositis, which is an inflammatory condition that affects the skin and muscles.

Paraneoplastic syndromes can occur in association with a variety of different types of cancer, including lung cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and lymphoma. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cancer, as well as managing the symptoms of the paraneoplastic syndrome.

I'm happy to help! "Rats, Inbred Lew" is a specific strain of laboratory rats that have been inbred for research purposes. The "Lew" part of the name refers to the location where they were first developed, the Lewis Institute in Lake Bluff, Illinois, USA.

Inbreeding is a process of mating closely related individuals over many generations to create a genetically homogeneous population. This results in a high degree of genetic similarity among members of the strain, making them ideal for use as experimental models because any differences observed between individuals are more likely to be due to the experimental manipulation rather than genetic variation.

Inbred Lew rats have been widely used in biomedical research, particularly in studies related to hypertension and cardiovascular disease. They exhibit a number of unique characteristics that make them useful for these types of studies, including their susceptibility to developing high blood pressure when fed a high-salt diet or given certain drugs.

It's important to note that while inbred strains like Lew rats can be very useful tools for researchers, they are not perfect models for human disease. Because they have been bred in a controlled environment and selected for specific traits, they may not respond to experimental manipulations in the same way that humans or other animals would. Therefore, it's important to interpret findings from these studies with caution and consider multiple lines of evidence before drawing any firm conclusions.

The cerebral ventricles are a system of interconnected fluid-filled cavities within the brain. They are located in the center of the brain and are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which provides protection to the brain by cushioning it from impacts and helping to maintain its stability within the skull.

There are four ventricles in total: two lateral ventricles, one third ventricle, and one fourth ventricle. The lateral ventricles are located in each cerebral hemisphere, while the third ventricle is located between the thalami of the two hemispheres. The fourth ventricle is located at the base of the brain, above the spinal cord.

CSF flows from the lateral ventricles into the third ventricle through narrow passageways called the interventricular foramen. From there, it flows into the fourth ventricle through another narrow passageway called the cerebral aqueduct. CSF then leaves the fourth ventricle and enters the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord, where it can be absorbed into the bloodstream.

Abnormalities in the size or shape of the cerebral ventricles can indicate underlying neurological conditions, such as hydrocephalus (excessive accumulation of CSF) or atrophy (shrinkage) of brain tissue. Imaging techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), are often used to assess the size and shape of the cerebral ventricles in clinical settings.

Central nervous system (CNS) parasitic infections refer to the invasion and infection of the brain and/or spinal cord by parasites. These infections can cause a range of symptoms depending on the type of parasite, the location of the infection within the CNS, and the severity of the infection.

Parasites that can infect the CNS include protozoa (such as Toxoplasma gondii, Naegleria fowleri, and Plasmodium falciparum), helminths (such as cysticercosis caused by Taenia solium tapeworm larvae), and arthropods (such as ticks that can transmit Lyme disease).

Symptoms of CNS parasitic infections can include headache, fever, seizures, confusion, weakness, numbness, loss of coordination, and changes in behavior or personality. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as MRI or CT scans), and laboratory tests (such as CSF analysis or PCR).

Treatment for CNS parasitic infections depends on the specific type of parasite involved and may include medications such as antiparasitics, antibiotics, or corticosteroids. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to remove parasites or cysts from the CNS. Prevention measures include avoiding contaminated food and water, practicing good hygiene, using insect repellent, and seeking prompt medical attention for any suspected infectious symptoms.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the adaptive immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are several different types of T-cells, including CD4+ helper T-cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, and regulatory T-cells (Tregs).

CD4+ helper T-cells assist in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages. They also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response. CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic substances. Regulatory T-cells help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes are important in the immune response to viral infections, cancer, and other diseases. Dysfunction or depletion of T-cells can lead to immunodeficiency and increased susceptibility to infections. On the other hand, an overactive T-cell response can contribute to autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

"Body patterning" is a general term that refers to the process of forming and organizing various tissues and structures into specific patterns during embryonic development. This complex process involves a variety of molecular mechanisms, including gene expression, cell signaling, and cell-cell interactions. It results in the creation of distinct body regions, such as the head, trunk, and limbs, as well as the organization of internal organs and systems.

In medical terminology, "body patterning" may refer to specific developmental processes or abnormalities related to embryonic development. For example, in genetic disorders such as Poland syndrome or Holt-Oram syndrome, mutations in certain genes can lead to abnormal body patterning, resulting in the absence or underdevelopment of certain muscles, bones, or other structures.

It's important to note that "body patterning" is not a formal medical term with a specific definition, but rather a general concept used in developmental biology and genetics.

Glutamic acid is an alpha-amino acid, which is one of the 20 standard amino acids in the genetic code. The systematic name for this amino acid is (2S)-2-Aminopentanedioic acid. Its chemical formula is HO2CCH(NH2)CH2CH2CO2H.

Glutamic acid is a crucial excitatory neurotransmitter in the human brain, and it plays an essential role in learning and memory. It's also involved in the metabolism of sugars and amino acids, the synthesis of proteins, and the removal of waste nitrogen from the body.

Glutamic acid can be found in various foods such as meat, fish, beans, eggs, dairy products, and vegetables. In the human body, glutamic acid can be converted into gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), another important neurotransmitter that has a calming effect on the nervous system.

"Central Nervous System Vasculitis (CNS Vasculitis)". Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved 1 May 2015. Scolding NJ, Wilson H, Hohlfeld R ... "Primary" angiitis/vasculitis of the central nervous system (PACNS) is said to be present if there is no underlying cause. The ... Rehman HU (November 2000). "Primary angiitis of the central nervous system". J R Soc Med. 93 (11): 586-8. doi:10.1177/ ... Cerebral vasculitis (sometimes the word angiitis is used instead of "vasculitis") is vasculitis (inflammation of the blood ...
Central Nervous System vasculitis may be associated with this condition as well. The syndrome can be difficult to diagnose and ... Central Nervous System vasculitis may be associated with this condition as well. The table below demonstrates the extensive and ...
The neurological complications per central nervous system lesions are increasingly reported. The neurological complications ... Jennette JC, Falk RJ (October 2000). "Do vasculitis categorization systems really matter?". Current Rheumatology Reports. 2 (5 ... "Kawasaki disease with predominant central nervous system involvement". Pediatric Neurology. 25 (3): 239-41. doi:10.1016/S0887- ... Kawasaki disease is also considered to be a primary childhood vasculitis, a disorder associated with vasculitis that mainly ...
This is significant because it would reduce the likelihood of toxic side effects in the central nervous system. Cinnarizine is ... Cinnarizine has also been found to be a valuable second-line treatment for idiopathic urticarial vasculitis. Side effects ... Additionally, cinnarizine can be used in scuba divers without an increased risk of central nervous system oxygen toxicity which ... evidence even seems to suggest that cinnarizine may be beneficial in helping delay O2 toxicity in the central nervous system. ...
... central nervous system disorders, and birth defects (particularly reproductive and heart problems). Some of the residents moved ... Former residents have since reported various illnesses which include cancer, vasculitis, and autoimmune disease. To address ... However, the multiple symptoms reported in excess for the respiratory system are a cause of concern." In 1992, the Brio ...
This subset of symptoms affects the central nervous system. These include ataxia, muscle spasticity, intellectual disabilities ... vasculitis, Raynaud's phenomenon, pain affecting the lower limbs, chronic headaches, chronic kidney disease, cranio-facial ... Immune system cells is among the many systems this protein plays a role in. Individuals with this condition have over-active ... This subset of symptoms primarily affects the immune system (immunodeficiency) and also causes autoimmune diseases, which ...
... vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C20.111.258.962.400 - lupus vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C20.111.258.962.800 ... lupus vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C20.111.736.700 - pemphigus, benign familial MeSH C20.188.413.480 - hydrops ... central nervous system MeSH C20.673.480.050 - aids-associated nephropathy MeSH C20.673.480.070 - aids dementia complex MeSH ... nervous system autoimmune disease, experimental MeSH C20.111.258.625.300 - encephalomyelitis, autoimmune, experimental MeSH ...
... vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C10.228.140.300.850.125 - aids arteritis, central nervous system MeSH C10.228.140.300. ... central nervous system MeSH C10.114.875.350 - lupus vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C10.114.875.700 - temporal ... central nervous system MeSH C10.228.228.553 - meningoencephalitis MeSH C10.228.228.553.450 - lupus vasculitis, central nervous ... central nervous system MeSH C10.500.190.600 - central nervous system venous angioma MeSH C10.500.190.800 - sinus pericranii ...
... lupus vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C17.300.550.274 - ganglion cysts MeSH C17.300.550.550 - mucinosis, follicular ... vasculitis, allergic cutaneous MeSH C17.800.865.070 - acantholysis MeSH C17.800.865.187 - blister MeSH C17.800.865.360 - ...
The involvement of the peripheral or central nervous system is relatively rare and only occurs in 3% of persons affected with ... Systemic vasculitis is the most common association with RP, followed by rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. ... Cardiovascular system: Relapsing polychrondritis may cause inflammation of the aorta. It can also cause leaky heart valves ( ... Relapsing polychondritis may affect many different organ systems of the body. At first, some people with the disease may have ...
... central nervous system MeSH C14.907.253.946.350 - lupus vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C14.907.253.946.700 - temporal ... central nervous system MeSH C14.907.940.907.350 - lupus vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C14.907.940.907.700 - temporal ... vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C14.907.253.946.175 - aids arteritis, ... vasculitis, central nervous system MeSH C14.907.940.907.175 - aids arteritis, ...
Complications may include inflammation of heart muscle, central nervous system involvement, and inflammation of the lungs. ... A classic sign of trichinosis is periorbital edema, swelling around the eyes, which may be caused by vasculitis. Splinter ... from worms entering the central nervous system (CNS), which is compromised by trichinosis in 10-24% of reported cases of ... Adult worms can only reproduce for a limited time, because the immune system eventually expels them from the small intestine. ...
... which has particular importance for treatment is whether there is involvement of the meninges around the central nervous system ... pyoderma gangrenosum and vasculitis. Some people with AML may experience swelling of the gums because of infiltration of ... The FAB system divides AML into eight subtypes, M0 through to M7, based on the type of cell from which the leukemia developed ... The morphologic subtypes of AML also include rare types not included in the FAB system, such as acute basophilic leukemia, ...
In addition to examining central nervous system tissue, the neuropathologist usually is assigned the task of examining muscle ... nerve is assessed to help work up patients with suspected peripheral neuropathies secondary to such conditions as vasculitis ... If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous ... to help in the post-mortem diagnosis of various forms of dementia and other conditions that affect the central nervous system. ...
The virus is not detected in the central nervous system (CNS) of the majority of COVID-19 patients with neurological issues. ... and vasculitis. The production of IL-1, IL-2, IL-6, TNF-alpha, and interferon-gamma, all crucial components of normal immune ... The cells of the central nervous system, the microglia, neurons, and astrocytes, are also involved in the release of pro- ... The involvement of both the central and peripheral nervous system in COVID‑19 has been reported in many medical publications. ...
Honda H, Warren DK (September 2009). "Central nervous system infections: meningitis and brain abscess". Infectious Disease ... Inflammation of the brain (encephalitis) or its blood vessels (cerebral vasculitis), as well as the formation of blood clots in ... can rather largely be attributed to the response of the immune system to the entry of bacteria into the central nervous system ... the central nervous system). The pia mater is a delicate impermeable membrane that firmly adheres to the surface of the brain, ...
... nervous system and is found in high levels in the myelin sheath in both the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous ... Mixed cryoglobulinemia (MC) is an immune disease, which typically presents with immune complex mediated vasculitis of the small ... and 3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide can be located mainly in the central nervous system as well as in the peripheral nervous system ... produced by the oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and in the Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. ...
December 2019). "Determination of pentraxin 3 levels in cerebrospinal fluid during central nervous system infections". European ... "PTX3 in small-vessel vasculitides: an independent indicator of disease activity produced at sites of inflammation". Arthritis ... "PTX3 in small-vessel vasculitides: an independent indicator of disease activity produced at sites of inflammation". Arthritis ...
The central nervous system is often affected and results in various complications including cerebellitis, cranial nerve palsies ... Within a few days, vasculitis extends to various organs including the liver, brain, kidney, meninges and lungs. The disease is ... The precise role of type IV secretion system in O. tsutsugamushi is not known. It may be involved in horizontal gene transfer ... In O. tsutsugamushi, however, RAGE contains a number of genes including tra genes typical of type IV secretion systems and gene ...
... which is a stimulating neurotransmitter of the central nervous system. Thus, all sympathomimetic amines fall into the larger ... Imbesi, S G (December 1999). "Diffuse cerebral vasculitis with normal results on brain MR imaging". American Journal of ... If a drug causes effects similar to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, it is called a sympathomimetic [...] A ... The primary endogenous agonists of the sympathetic nervous system are the catecholamines (i.e., epinephrine [adrenaline], ...
After ruling out a lesion in the central nervous system as a cause, diagnosis may be made on the basis of symptoms, laboratory ... Cacoub P, Comarmond C, Domont F, Savey L, Saadoun D (September 2015). "Cryoglobulinemia Vasculitis". The American Journal of ... non-sensory nervous system (i.e., the autonomic nervous system), affecting mostly the internal organs such as the bladder ... A range of medications that act on the central nervous system have been used to symptomatically treat neuropathic pain. ...
The disease in dogs can affect the lungs and skin, but more commonly the eye and central nervous system. Ringworm is a fungal ... Signs include fever, vasculitis, and low blood counts. Rocky Mountain spotted fever* is a rickettsial disease that occurs in ... is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system of dogs. It is a form of meningoencephalitis. The disease is more ... Central diabetes insipidus (CDI) is usually idiopathic, but can also be caused by head trauma or tumors of the brain. ...
... (GME) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) of dogs and, rarely, ... Steroid-responsive meningitis/arteritis, also known as necrotizing vasculitis, is seen most commonly in Beagles, Boxers, ... Vite, C.H. (2005). "Inflammatory Diseases of the Central Nervous System". Braund's Clinical Neurology in Small Animals: ... Higginbotham, Michael J.; Kent, Marc; Glass, Eric N. (August 2007). "Noninfectious Inflammatory Central Nervous System Diseases ...
Problems in other organs, such as the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and lungs may occur, but is much less ... such as vasculitis due to cryoglobulinemia; on microscopy, the appearances are of a hypersensitivity vasculitis, and ... Cutaneous small-vessel vasculitis J. C. Jennette; R. J. Falk; P. A. Bacon; et al. (January 2013). "2012 Revised International ... The incidence of HSP in children is about 20 per 100,000 children per year, making it the most common vasculitis in children. ...
Clinical signs of Histophilosis may include central nervous system signs such as depression, behavioral changes, and ataxia, ... vasculitis caused by endothelial damage and more. H. somni can be a part of the bovine respiratory disease (BRD) and causes ... In order to treat this infection, one must know which organ system it is effecting and some systems, such as the neurological ... Another way that H. somni can evade the host immune system is by preventing intracellular killing. Although the mechanism is ...
The duration of the central nervous system involvement may vary from a few minutes, as in classic migraine or a transient ... True vasculitis, however, is found only in about 10% of patients with cerebral lupus. Anti-neuronal antibodies. The three ... In some cases, inflammation of the brain can be seen if the brain or the nervous system is attacked as a result of problems ... The proposed mechanisms are likely due to the assault of several autoimmune system changes, including the following: ...
Both the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system may be involved. Emboli to the brain ... If vasculitis is suspected, complement levels may be determined as reduced levels are often encountered in vasculitis; ... The main problem is the distinction between cholesterol embolism and vasculitis (inflammation of the small blood vessels), ... vasculitis, that often cannot be made confidently based on clinical criteria.[citation needed] Treatment of an episode of ...
Central nervous system involvement may cause strokes or seizures.[citation needed] Renal system: Kidney involvement is common ... Sarah Ringold; Carol A Wallace (May 1, 2010). "Evolution of paediatric-specific vasculitis classification criteria". Annals of ... These manifestations result from ischemic damage to affected organs, often the skin, heart, kidneys, and nervous system. ... Neurologic system: Nerve involvement may cause sensory changes with numbness, pain, burning, and weakness (peripheral ...
... or pancreatitis Involvement of the central nervous system Cardiomyopathy Having none of these factors indicates milder case, ... It is a type of systemic necrotizing vasculitis. Effective treatment of EGPA requires suppression of the immune system with ... The French Vasculitis Study Group has developed a five-point system ("five-factor score") that predicts the risk of death in ... resulting from vascular embarrassment in various systems of organs" in a series of 13 patients with necrotizing vasculitis ...
After pathogen invasion, the immune system is activated. An infectious agent can enter the central nervous system and cause ... Further considerations include brain tumors, lupus, vasculitis, and Kawasaki disease in the pediatric population. Because there ... Rantakallio P, Leskinen M, von Wendt L (1986). "Incidence and prognosis of central nervous system infections in a birth cohort ... "Herpes simplex virus infections of the central nervous system: encephalitis and meningitis, including Mollaret's". Herpes. 11 ( ...
Yanique was just 9 years old when she was diagnosed with central nervous system (CNS) vasculitis-a rare inflammatory blood ... which make up the central nervous system. Its a serious condition in which the inflamed vessels can block the flow of oxygen ... Brett Hack Vasculitis Charities: Raising Awareness of This Rare Disease. January 27, 2023 ... The Vasculitis Foundation is a registered 501 (c) (3) non-profit organization. All contributions are 100% tax-deductible. ...
Background: Eosinophilic vasculitis has been described as part of the Churg-Strauss syndrome, but affects the central nervous ... We present a case of eosinophilic vasculitis isolated to the CNS.. Case report: A 39-year-old woman with a history of migraine ... Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first case of non-granulomatous eosinophilic vasculitis isolated to the CNS. No ... Spontaneous resolution and recurrence of her syndrome is an unusual feature of the typical CNS vasculitis and may suggest an ...
Without treatment, vasculitis can damage several organs and the nervous system. Learn more about these diseases and how to ... Vasculitis refers to conditions that cause inflammation of blood vessels. Arteries, veins, and capillaries throughout the body ... Central nervous system vasculitis. Share on Pinterest. Central nervous system vasculitis can induce mental changes.. ... Symptoms of vasculitis can include fever, tiredness, and joint pain.. *Central nervous system vasculitis can cause mental ...
... central nervous system vasculitis is restricted to the central nervous system Onset of primary ... Central nervous system vasculitis *Isolated (or primary) central nervous system vasculitis is restricted to the central nervous ... Central nervous system abnormalities in Fibromyalgia. What abnormalities in the central nervous system have been implicated in ... Symptoms of Primary Angiitis of the Central Nervous System. Symptoms of Primary Angiitis of the Central Nervous System What are ...
... PubMed, SCI, Scopus, ESCI, PMC indexed ... Angiography-negative primary central nervous system vasculitis in children: a newly recognized inflammatory central nervous ... Primary Central Nervous System Vasculitis in Childhood (Cpacns): A Case Series Study. Journal of Pediatrics, Perinatology and ... Vasculitis in the central nervous system. Arthritis & Rheumatism: Official Journal of the American College of Rheumatology 40 ( ...
Central Nervous System. Central nervous system vasculitis (CNSV) is inflammation of blood vessel walls in the brain or spine. ... Learn more about Central Nervous System Vasculitis.. Cryoglobulinemia. Cryogloblinemia is a vasculitis of small blood vessels ... Urticarial Vasculitis. Urticarial Vasculitis (UV) is a form of vasculitis that affects the skin, causing wheals or hives and/or ... Hypersensitivity Vasculitis. Hypersensitivity Vasculitis (HSV) is often used to describe different types of vasculitis related ...
Vasculitis, also called Angiitis, is an inflammation of the blood vessels. Learn about symptoms and treatment. ... Central Nervous System Vasculitis (Vasculitis Foundation) * Cryoglobulinemia (Vasculitis Foundation) * Eosinophilic ... Vasculitis (Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research) Also in Spanish * Vasculitis in the Nervous System (National ... Vasculitis is an inflammation of the blood vessels. It happens when the bodys immune system attacks the blood vessel by ...
"Central Nervous System Vasculitis (CNS Vasculitis)". Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved 1 May 2015. Scolding NJ, Wilson H, Hohlfeld R ... "Primary" angiitis/vasculitis of the central nervous system (PACNS) is said to be present if there is no underlying cause. The ... Rehman HU (November 2000). "Primary angiitis of the central nervous system". J R Soc Med. 93 (11): 586-8. doi:10.1177/ ... Cerebral vasculitis (sometimes the word angiitis is used instead of "vasculitis") is vasculitis (inflammation of the blood ...
An unusual central nervous system involvement in rheumatoid arthritis: combination of pachymeningitis and cerebral vasculitis ... Severe primary central nervous system (CNS) involvement such as vasculitis and pachymeningitis can rarely occur in rheumatoid ... Cerebral vasculitis is a rare but certain manifestation of RA. This complication can be diagnosed in the presence of suggestive ... Primary rheumatoid cerebral vasculitis and pachymeningitis were diagnosed based on suggestive brain magnetic resonance (MR) ...
Vasculitis is defined as inflammation of blood vessels. It may result in vessel wall thickening, stenosis, and occlusion with ... Central nervous system vasculitis in children. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2008 Jan. 20(1):47-54. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ... Hypersensitivity vasculitis (leukocytoclastic vasculitis) and drug-induced ANCA vasculitis (propylthiouracil, hydralazine) are ... is a granulomatous vasculitis that most commonly involves the sinopulmonary system but can involve any organ system. Presenting ...
Adult primary central nervous system vasculitis treatment and course: Analysis of one hundred sixty-three patients. Arthritis ... Adult primary central nervous system vasculitis treatment and course : Analysis of one hundred sixty-three patients. In: ... Adult primary central nervous system vasculitis treatment and course: Analysis of one hundred sixty-three patients. / Salvarani ... title = "Adult primary central nervous system vasculitis treatment and course: Analysis of one hundred sixty-three patients", ...
Improvement of Central Nervous System Vasculitis in a Patient with Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection after Treatment with an ... as secondary mixed cryoglobulinemia may also have a role in central nervous system lesions. Although peripheral nervous system ... 4 Casato M, Saadoun D, Marchetti A, et al: Central nervous system involvement in hepatitis C virus cryoglobulinemia vasculitis ... Keywords: Hepatitis C virus infection, Neurosarcoidosis, Central nervous system vasculitis, Direct antiviral agents, ...
CNS vasculitis. VWMRI. vessel wall MR imaging. We operationally define central nervous system vasculitis (CNSV) as any ... Primary central nervous system vasculitis: analysis of 101 patients. Ann Neurol 2007;62:442-51 doi:10.1002/ana.21226 pmid: ... SUMMARY: Central nervous system vasculitides are elusive diseases that are challenging to diagnose because brain biopsies have ... Evaluation and treatment of central nervous system vasculitis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 1995;7:37-44 pmid:7718420. ...
central nervous system vasculitis. IDs. central nervous system vasculitis DOID:525. MESH:D020293. NCI:C84622. UMLS_CUI:C0751878 ...
Central Nervous System Vasculitis. *Chondrocalcinosis (Pseudo Gout). *Churg-Strauss Syndrome. *Connective Tissue Diseases ... No part of this work may be altered, reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, by any means, ...
Central and Peripheral Nervous System convulsions, paresthesia, tremor, vertigo Gastrointestinal colitis, dry mouth, duodenal ... angina pectoris, cardiac failure, hypertension, hypotension, myocardial infarction, vasculitis ... Liver and Biliary System ALT increased, AST increased, bilirubinemia, GGT increased, hepatitis ...
Vasculitis and ventricular arrhythmia. Central Nervous System. Hypertonia. Myasthenia. Exacerbation of myasthenia gravis. ... Central Nervous System Effects. Fluoroquinolones, including CIPRO XR, have been associated with an increased risk of central ... you have central nervous system problems. See "What is the most important information I should know about CIPRO?" ... Central Nervous System Effects [see WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS]. *Exacerbation of Myasthenia Gravis [see WARNINGS AND PRECAUTIONS ...
Central and Peripheral Nervous System convulsions, paresthesia, tremor, vertigo. Gastrointestinal colitis, dry mouth, duodenal ... angina pectoris, cardiac failure, hypertension, hypotension, myocardial infarction, vasculitis. ... Because this disorder is variable in its presentation, other organ systems not noted here may be involved. It is important to ... Liver and Biliary System ALT increased, AST increased, bilirubinemia, GGT increased, hepatitis. ...
Central Nervous System: Nightmares.. Dermatologic: Acne, alopecia.. Cardiovascular: Angina, arrhythmia, hypertension, ... Cardiovascular: Vasculitis.. Metabolic: Weight gain.. Respiratory: Dyspnea, eosinophilic pneumonia, hypersensitivity ... Central Nervous System: Dizziness*, headache*, fatigue, increased sweating, insomnia, nervousness, somnolence.. Dermatologic: ... Central Nervous System: Asthenia, agitation, anxiety, confusion, depression, malaise, paresthesia, tremor, vertigo.. ...
Multiple Sclerosis/neuroimmunology, neurosarcoidosis, central nervous system vasculitis, autoimmune diseases affecting the ... Our curriculum produces physicians whose foundation in basic, clinical, and health systems sciences prepare them to promote ...
Primary central nervous system (CNS) vasculitis is extremely rare.. Other forms of vasculopathy have been related to stroke in ... Iron is a cofactor in the endogenous production of dopamine in the central nervous system (CNS). Dopamine, in turn, plays a ... It may cause recurrent activation of the sympathetic nervous system in response to airway obstruction and hypoxemia. Women with ... Like the FDA system, this system tends toward a proscriptive approach when no information is available to confirm that ...
Overview of Vasculitis - Etiology, pathophysiology, symptoms, signs, diagnosis & prognosis from the Merck Manuals - Medical ... Central nervous system and retinal ischemic symptoms (eg, strokes). Medium. Medium-vessel cutaneous vasculitis Cutaneous ... Small-vessel cutaneous vasculitis Cutaneous Vasculitis Cutaneous vasculitis refers to vasculitis affecting small- or medium- ... Immunoglobulin A-associated vasculitis Immunoglobulin A-Associated Vasculitis (IgAV) Immunoglobulin A-associated vasculitis ( ...
Primary central nervous system (CNS) vasculitis is extremely rare.. Other forms of vasculopathy have been related to stroke in ... Iron is a cofactor in the endogenous production of dopamine in the central nervous system (CNS). Dopamine, in turn, plays a ... It may cause recurrent activation of the sympathetic nervous system in response to airway obstruction and hypoxemia. Women with ... Like the FDA system, this system tends toward a proscriptive approach when no information is available to confirm that ...
Some cases of arthritis, vasculitis, and central or peripheral nervous system disorders have been reported following ...
A brain computed tomography (CT) scan revealed multiple lesions suspected for vasculitis of the central nervous system (CNS). ... and magnetic resonance imaging revealed multiple lesions suspected for vasculitis of the central nervous system; abdominal CT ... Key Words: Idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome, Eosinophilia, Cerebral vasculitis, PDGFR molecular rearrangement, Imatinib ... Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) confirmed the suspicion of CNS vasculitis (Figure 2). Re-test for ANCA produced the same ...
Hydrocephalus: a rare complication of primary central nervous system vasculitis. Joana Lopes, Hugo Doria, Ricardo Taipa, Raquel ...
Information about the SNOMED CT code 234019004 representing Secondary systemic vasculitis. ... Demyelination of central nervous system due to Behcet disease 724783000. *Disorder of respiratory system due to microscopic ... Vasculitis 31996006. Vasculitis of systemic vasculature 1268294009. Secondary systemic vasculitis 234019004. SNOMED CT Concept ... Secondary systemic vasculitis 234019004. ancestors. sorted most to least specific. *Vasculitis of systemic vasculature ...
Central Nervous System Vasculitis due to Infection. David S. Younger and Patricia K. Coyle. Neurol Clinics 2019; 37: 441-463.. ... Central Nervous System Vasculitis due to Infection. David S. Younger and Patricia K. Coyle. Neurol Clinics 2019; 37: 441-463 ... Central Nervous System Vasculitis Due to Substance Abuse. David S. Younger. Neurol Clinics 2019; 37: 425-440.. ... Central Nervous System Vasculitis Due to Substance Abuse. David S. Younger. Neurol Clinics 2019; 37: 425-440. ...
Central nervous system (CNS). vasculitis. • Central retinal artery occlusion. (CRAO) • Cerebral Venous Sinus. Thrombosis (CVST ... the neurovascular system, the spine, and the peripheral nervous system. Our patients are unique because we care for all types ...
  • Cerebral vasculitis (sometimes the word angiitis is used instead of "vasculitis") is vasculitis (inflammation of the blood vessel wall) involving the brain and occasionally the spinal cord. (wikipedia.org)
  • Other possible secondary causes of cerebral vasculitis are infections, systemic auto-immune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis, medications and drugs (amphetamine, cocaine and heroin), some forms of cancer (lymphomas, leukemia and lung cancer) and other forms of systemic vasculitis such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis, polyarteritis nodosa or Behçet's disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • Another crucial part in the diagnosis of cerebral vasculitis is the use of imaging techniques. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cerebral vasculitis is a very rare condition that is difficult to diagnose, and as a result there are significant variations in the way it is diagnosed and treated. (wikipedia.org)
  • Primary rheumatoid cerebral vasculitis and pachymeningitis were diagnosed based on suggestive brain magnetic resonance (MR) imaging, MR angiography, cerebrospinal fluid analysis and cerebral angiography. (hacettepe.edu.tr)
  • Cerebral angiography findings were consistent with vasculitis. (hacettepe.edu.tr)
  • Cerebral vasculitis is a rare but certain manifestation of RA. (hacettepe.edu.tr)
  • Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging have aided the characterization of central nervous system lesions, and cerebral angiograms have pointed to vasculitis as a part of disease pathogenesis. (hindawi.com)
  • He was awarded the degree of MD from the University of Bristol for his work on Central Nervous System Inflammatory Disorders including Multiple Sclerosis, Cerebral lupus, Cerebral Vasculitis, Neurosarcoidosis, and Neuro-Behçet's disease. (nuffieldhealth.com)
  • Dr Joseph has presented research work nationally and internationally covering the Central Nervous System Inflammatory Disorders including Multiple Sclerosis, Cerebral lupus, Cerebral Vasculitis, Neurosarcoidosis, and Neuro-Behçet's disease. (nuffieldhealth.com)
  • What Is Cerebral Vasculitis? (glutenfreeworks.com)
  • Cerebral vasculitis, also called vasculitis of the central nervous system (CNS), is an autoimune attack against elastin fibers in the walls of arteries that bring blood to the head. (glutenfreeworks.com)
  • Vasculitis refers to a large group of diseases, also known as angiitis, that damage blood vessels by causing inflammation. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Vasculitis is also called angiitis and arteritis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • CNS vasculitis has been reported under a variety of descriptive terms including isolated CNS angiitis, idiopathic angiitis of the CNS, and primary angiitis or vasculitis of the CNS. (fortuneonline.org)
  • Primary" angiitis/vasculitis of the central nervous system (PACNS) is said to be present if there is no underlying cause. (wikipedia.org)
  • Vasculitis means inflammation of the blood vessels. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Signs and symptoms of vasculitis vary depending on which blood vessels are affected, and which organs are damaged, if any. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Vasculitis is a heterogeneous group of blood vessels disorders which characterized by inflammation, necrosis and the obstruction of the inflamed vessels [1]. (fortuneonline.org)
  • Vasculitis means inflammation of the blood vessels, arteries, veins or capillaries. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • A result of vasculitis is that the tissues and organs supplied by affected blood vessels do not get enough blood. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • The different types of vasculitis are classified according to the size and location of the blood vessels that are affected. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Cryogloblinemia is a vasculitis of small blood vessels that is caused by deposition of immune complexes: large aggregates of antibodies and the other proteins they are bound to. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Churg-Strauss Syndrome (CSS), now also referred to by its medically more accurate term eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis (EGPA), is a rare systemic vasculitis (inflammation in the wall of blood vessels of the body), predominantly affecting small-sized vessels. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Vasculitis is an inflammation of the blood vessels. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Vasculitis is defined as inflammation of blood vessels. (medscape.com)
  • Vasculitis is considered a rare group of disorders caused by inflammation of blood vessels. (sanevax.org)
  • Sarcoid granulomas can also affect the meninges, the parenchyma of the brain, the brainstem, the subependymal layer of the ventricular system, the choroids plexuses, the peripheral nerves and the blood vessels supplying the nervous structures [6]. (eurorad.org)
  • Inflammation of blood vessels within the central nervous system. (bvsalud.org)
  • The predominantly large vessel vasculitis is Takayasu arteritis. (medscape.com)
  • Note that the main large vessel vasculitis that affects children is Takayasu arteritis , and that temporal arteritis is not seen in the pediatric population. (medscape.com)
  • Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a primary large-vessel vasculitis found commonly in older people aged 50 or more years and mainly affects the extracranial branches of the carotid artery. (surgicalneurologyint.com)
  • Polymyalgia rheumatica: when should we suspect an underlying large vessel vasculitis? (clinexprheumatol.org)
  • Do statins decrease vascular inflammation in patients at risk for large-vessel vasculitis? (clinexprheumatol.org)
  • Because antineutrophil cytoplasmic auto-antibodies (ANCA) can be detected in the serum (liquid and a cellular part of the blood) in up to 40% of the patients, it is also considered one of the three ANCA-associated vasculitides, along with granulomatosis with polyangiitis (Wegener's) and microscopic polyangiitis. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis (GPA) Granulomatosis with polyangiitis is characterized by necrotizing granulomatous inflammation, small- and medium-sized vessel vasculitis, and focal necrotizing glomerulonephritis, often with crescent. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Some cases of arthritis, vasculitis, and central or peripheral nervous system disorders have been reported following vaccination ( 3 ). (frontiersin.org)
  • An inflammatory process involving the brain (ENCEPHALITIS) and meninges (MENINGITIS), most often produced by pathogenic organisms which invade the central nervous system, and occasionally by toxins, autoimmune disorders, and other conditions. (reference.md)
  • A. What disorders do we evaluate under the immune system disorders listings? (ssa.gov)
  • 1. We evaluate immune system disorders that cause dysfunction in one or more components of your immune system. (ssa.gov)
  • Immune system disorders may result in recurrent and unusual infections, or inflammation and dysfunction of the body's own tissues. (ssa.gov)
  • Immune system disorders can cause a deficit in a single organ or body system that results in extreme (that is, very serious) loss of function. (ssa.gov)
  • The symptoms listed above are by no means an exhaustive list, but it does give you some idea of the various possible manifestations and how easily vasculitis can be mistaken for a multitude of other disorders. (sanevax.org)
  • Taking into account that the increase in cAMP levels has an important impact on immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory properties, selective inhibitors of PDEs have been widely studied for the treatment of certain pathologies such as immunological disorders, inflammatory processes and disorders of the central nervous system. (justia.com)
  • Though some forms of vasculitis improve on their own, most require treatment. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Some forms of vasculitis are characterized by giant cells in the vessel wall. (merckmanuals.com)
  • anecdotal cases continue to be reported of autoimmune phenomena following influenza vaccination, including SLE, RA, pericarditis and various forms of vasculitis. (sanevax.org)
  • See Vasculitis: Case Presentations , a Critical Images slideshow, for more information on clinical, histologic, and radiographic imaging findings in various forms of vasculitis. (medscape.com)
  • These criteria represent a modification and adaptation of existing American College of Rheumatology and Chapel Hill criteria for vasculitis in adults. (medscape.com)
  • Leukocytoclastic vasculitis is a histopathologic term used to describe findings in small-vessel vasculitis. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Leukocytoclastic vasculitis. (medscape.com)
  • Vasculitis has a number of potential causes including infections and immunologic diseases. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Vasculitis is a family of rare diseases that can affect people of all ages. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • However, an overlap of vessel sizes affected within the diseases is noted, and the phenotype and pattern of organ involvement in vasculitis seems to be independent of vessel size. (medscape.com)
  • Central nervous system vasculitides are elusive diseases that are challenging to diagnose because brain biopsies have high false-negative rates. (ajnr.org)
  • The image below depicts nodules in cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa (PAN), a systemic vasculitis characterized by necrotizing inflammatory lesions that affect medium-sized and small muscular arteries. (medscape.com)
  • Cutaneous Vasculitis Cutaneous vasculitis refers to vasculitis affecting small- or medium-sized vessels in the skin and subcutaneous tissue but not the internal organs. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Cutaneous vasculitis may be limited to the. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Cutaneous vasculitis [7] may cause petechiae (small red dots), purpura, urticaria (hives), bruising, or ulcers of the skin. (sanevax.org)
  • It's been a year of surprises for our Vasculitis Recognizing Excellence in Diagnosis (V-RED) award program. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • 18 years of age were enrolled this study with diagnosis of cPACNS if they had: a clinical symptoms compatible with primary CNS vasculitis, and MRA findings demonstrating arterial stenosis and or aneurism that are not attributable to other disease and background. (fortuneonline.org)
  • Provisional diagnosis of infantile stroke due to infective vasculitis was made. (iospress.com)
  • In this study, we integrated sunrise-type smart amplification process (s-SmartAmp), a convenient and sensitive isothermal amplification method for nucleic acid, into a portable 3D-printed device equipped with smartphone-assisted image analysis capabilities to develop a novel fluorescence-based sensing system for the on-site diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB). (bvsalud.org)
  • For example, Kawasaki disease is characterized by a mucocutaneous syndrome and coronary artery inflammation, whereas polyarteritis nodosa (PAN), another medium-vessel vasculitis, manifests with nodular skin lesions, neuropathy, and hypertension. (medscape.com)
  • We present a rare case of central nervous system vasculitic lesions in the context of chronic HCV infection associated with mixed cryoglobulinemia, elevated angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) levels, and documentation of viral RNA in the cerebrospinal fluid in a treatment-naïve chronic HCV patient. (scielo.pt)
  • Symptoms of vasculitis can include fever , tiredness , and joint pain. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Treatment for vasculitis depends on several factors, including what type of vasculitis the person has, the severity of their symptoms, their age, and their general health. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Symptoms of vasculitis can vary, but usually include fever, swelling and a general sense of feeling ill. (medlineplus.gov)
  • June 8th 2021 "The (symptoms) affected every system in my body, pretty much," said Lugar, who was experiencing vision, hearing, and digestive issues, as well as extreme fatigue and light and sound sensitivity. (canlyme.com)
  • They can also cause lesser degrees of limitations in two or more organs or body systems, and when associated with symptoms or signs, such as severe fatigue, fever, malaise, diffuse musculoskeletal pain, or involuntary weight loss, can also result in extreme limitation. (ssa.gov)
  • Churg-Strauss vasculitis [4] can have symptoms similar to asthma because of lung involvement. (sanevax.org)
  • We care for adult patients of all ages who are being treated for anything from disease or injury involving the brain, the neurovascular system, the spine, and the peripheral nervous system. (vumc.org)
  • Some of the topics to be addressed in Phase 2 include guidelines for pulmonary complications, central nervous system involvement, peripheral nervous system involvement, lymphoma and vasculitis. (sjogrens.org)
  • Some other types of vasculitis are also caused by immune complexes, but cryoglobulinemia is defined by a laboratory test that identifies immune complexes that fall out of solution in the cold. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Mixed cryoglobulinemia (present in up to 50% of the patients), non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and chronic renal disease are some of the immune complex-mediated manifestations of chronic hepatitis C. In addition, a large spectrum of neuropsychiatric manifestations may be present, probably linked to vascular inflammatory changes in the central nervous system [1]. (scielo.pt)
  • Building upon the collective strength of the vasculitis community, the Foundation supports, inspires and empowers individuals with vasculitis and their families through a wide range of education, research, clinical, and awareness initiatives. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • However, the clinical characteristics and outcomes of these three vasculitides differ noticeably. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Characteristic clinical features are caused by stenotic large vessels and subsequently decreased blood supply to the organ systems. (medscape.com)
  • Our curriculum produces physicians whose foundation in basic, clinical, and health systems sciences prepare them to promote health and reduce patient suffering. (unmc.edu)
  • The clinical spectrum of primary renal vasculitis. (medscape.com)
  • The precise meaning will depend on the specific immune system disorder, the usual course of the disorder, and the other circumstances of your clinical course. (ssa.gov)
  • The prevalence of clinical involvement of the nervous system is estimated to be about 5-15% [3, 4]. (eurorad.org)
  • To evaluate the performance of our proposed on-site sensing system, we used s-SmartAmp 3D-printed ultraviolet light-emitting diode device to test multiple clinical samples of TB. (bvsalud.org)
  • CNS vasculitis can cause brain damage with reversible and or irreversible neurologic involvement, including acute ischemic attack, progressive cognitive decline and seizures often with intractable pattern. (fortuneonline.org)
  • Severe primary central nervous system (CNS) involvement such as vasculitis and pachymeningitis can rarely occur in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) even in the absence of systemic disease activation. (hacettepe.edu.tr)
  • Preferred sites of vascular involvement by selected vasculitides. (medscape.com)
  • We operationally define central nervous system vasculitis (CNSV) as any inflammatory vasculopathy producing nonatheromatous inflammation of intracranial vessels either directly (eg, primary CNS vasculitis) or indirectly via inflammation of CNS parenchyma with secondary vascular involvement (eg, as seen with infections, tumors, and certain autoimmune conditions). (ajnr.org)
  • Background and Purpose The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is a multisystemic disease and involvement of the nervous system is well established. (thieme-connect.com)
  • LS is traditionally considered to be limited to skin, subcutaneous tissue, underlying bone, and, in craniofacial subtype, nervous system involvement [ 1 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Leptomeningeal involvement is the most typical manifestation of central nervous system disease, accounting for 40% of the cases. (eurorad.org)
  • In a range of inflammatory vascular process, vasculitis may affect the CNS vessels. (fortuneonline.org)
  • Predominantly small vessel vasculitis is divided into granulomatous and nongranulomatous. (medscape.com)
  • Small-vessel vasculitis. (medscape.com)
  • Central nervous system vasculitis (CNSV) is inflammation of blood vessel walls in the brain or spine. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Spontaneous resolution and recurrence of her syndrome is an unusual feature of the typical CNS vasculitis and may suggest an environmental epitope with immune reaction as the cause. (bmj.com)
  • If a person does not respond well to steroid therapy, a doctor may prescribe cytotoxic drugs that stop the immune system cells that cause inflammation. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • It happens when the body's immune system attacks the blood vessel by mistake. (medlineplus.gov)
  • A complex interplay of neurotropism and direct central nervous system invasion, immune activation and cytokine storm, vasculitis, and parainfectious processes are implicated in the pathophysiology. (thieme-connect.com)
  • B. What information do we need to show that you have an immune system disorder? (ssa.gov)
  • Generally, we need your medical history, a report(s) of a physical examination, a report(s) of laboratory findings, and in some instances, appropriate medically acceptable imaging or tissue biopsy reports to show that you have an immune system disorder. (ssa.gov)
  • Because of its species-restricted activity, it has not been possible to demonstrate antitumor activity in immunologically intact syngeneic tumor model systems, where effects on the host immune system would be observable. (drugs.com)
  • No aetiology for this patient's primary CNS eosinophilic vasculitis has yet been identified. (bmj.com)
  • Methods We retrospectively studied a cohort of 163 consecutive patients with primary CNS vasculitis who were seen at the Mayo Clinic over a 29-year period. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Conclusion The majority of patients with primary CNS vasculitis responded to treatment. (elsevierpure.com)
  • the vessel inflammation (true vasculitis) is only part of the pathophysiology and there is predominant parenchymal inflammation in a characteristic pattern that involves specific organs. (merckmanuals.com)
  • How vasculitis presents itself depends upon which tissues, organs or systems are affected, and to which degree they are affected by the impaired blood flow resulting from inflammation. (sanevax.org)
  • Central nervous system (CNS) vasculitis of childhood is a novel recognized autoimmune brain disorder with significant diagnostic and therapeutic challenges [2,3]. (fortuneonline.org)
  • Primary vasculitis is usually caused by autoimmune or idiopathic factors, while secondary vasculitis is caused by existing disease process. (bvsalud.org)
  • Brain biopsy is a test of last resort to confirm central nervous system vasculitis. (seekhealthz.com)
  • We report a case of biopsy proven vasculitis, presenting as mononeuritis multiplex, following influenza vaccination. (sanevax.org)
  • Vasculitis can involve vessels of any size and can affect any organ system. (medscape.com)
  • Practitioners may find it helpful to think of primary systemic vasculitides based on the predominant size of the involved vessels, as suggested by the Chapel Hill Classification. (medscape.com)
  • Many subtypes of vasculitis are recognized. (medscape.com)
  • Other subtypes of primary childhood vasculitis are much rarer. (medscape.com)
  • In the literature different subtypes of vasculitis have been repeatedly reported after influenza vaccination. (sanevax.org)
  • Acute and or chronic inflammatory course of vasculitis may causes severe neurological impairment or also death. (fortuneonline.org)
  • They were mammals, WNV infection has been reported in a harbor characterized by central ulcerations with necrosis and seal ( Phoca vitulina ) ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Secondary vasculitis may be triggered by an infection, a drug, or a toxin or may occur as part of another inflammatory disorder or cancer. (merckmanuals.com)
  • 14. Central Nervous System Vasculitis due to Infection. (davidsyounger.com)
  • As such, the classification of childhood vasculitides incorporates both vessel size and organ manifestations. (medscape.com)
  • Unfortunately, the correlation between the 2 risk classification systems is poor. (medscape.com)
  • As such, the most recent classification of childhood vasculitides incorporates both vessel size and organ manifestations. (medscape.com)
  • Apresentamos um caso raro de vasculite do Sistema nervoso central associada a elevação dos níveis de enzima conversora da angiotensina, documentação de RNA viral no líquido cefalo-raquidiano num doente com infeção crónica a hepatite C sem tratamentos prévios. (scielo.pt)
  • Yanique was just 9 years old when she was diagnosed with central nervous system (CNS) vasculitis-a rare inflammatory blood vessel disorder of the brain and spinal cord, which make up the central nervous system. (vasculitisfoundation.org)
  • Whale, Texas, subacute vasculitis and nonsuppurative encephalitis. (cdc.gov)
  • To our knowledge, this is the first case of non-granulomatous eosinophilic vasculitis isolated to the CNS. (bmj.com)
  • Fraticelli P, Kafyeke A, Mattioli M, Martino GP, Murri M, Gabrielli A. Idiopathic hypereosinophilic syndrome presenting with severe vasculitis successfully treated with imatinib. (wjgnet.com)
  • We present a case of eosinophilic vasculitis isolated to the CNS. (bmj.com)
  • doi: 10.1097/RLU.0b013e318262ad9b Abstract OBJECTIVES: Lyme disease is an infectious disease that frequently involves the central nervous system, leading to cognitive and/or mood dysfunction. (canlyme.com)
  • Vasculitis can also occur secondary to another disease, and this should be ruled out. (medscape.com)
  • Kawasaki Disease Kawasaki disease is a vasculitis, sometimes involving the coronary arteries, that tends to occur in infants and children between the ages of 1 year and 8 years. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Use during late pregnancy should be avoided because of the known effects of NSAIDs in the fetal cardiovascular system (closure of ductus arteriosus). (rxlist.com)