Suspensions of attenuated or killed viruses administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious viral disease.
A species of RESPIROVIRUS, subfamily PARAMYXOVIRINAE, most often seen in conjunction with a secondary infection of MANNHEIMIA HAEMOLYTICA resulting in pneumonic pasteurellosis (PASTEURELLOSIS, PNEUMONIC).
Vaccines in which the infectious microbial nucleic acid components have been destroyed by chemical or physical treatment (e.g., formalin, beta-propiolactone, gamma radiation) without affecting the antigenicity or immunogenicity of the viral coat or bacterial outer membrane proteins.
Small synthetic peptides that mimic surface antigens of pathogens and are immunogenic, or vaccines manufactured with the aid of recombinant DNA techniques. The latter vaccines may also be whole viruses whose nucleic acids have been modified.
Suspensions of killed or attenuated microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa), antigenic proteins, synthetic constructs, or other bio-molecular derivatives, administered for the prevention, amelioration, or treatment of infectious and other diseases.
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
Live vaccines prepared from microorganisms which have undergone physical adaptation (e.g., by radiation or temperature conditioning) or serial passage in laboratory animal hosts or infected tissue/cell cultures, in order to produce avirulent mutant strains capable of inducing protective immunity.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
Two or more vaccines in a single dosage form.
Recombinant DNA vectors encoding antigens administered for the prevention or treatment of disease. The host cells take up the DNA, express the antigen, and present it to the immune system in a manner similar to that which would occur during natural infection. This induces humoral and cellular immune responses against the encoded antigens. The vector is called naked DNA because there is no need for complex formulations or delivery agents; the plasmid is injected in saline or other buffers.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed bacteria administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious bacterial disease.
DNA molecules capable of autonomous replication within a host cell and into which other DNA sequences can be inserted and thus amplified. Many are derived from PLASMIDS; BACTERIOPHAGES; or VIRUSES. They are used for transporting foreign genes into recipient cells. Genetic vectors possess a functional replicator site and contain GENETIC MARKERS to facilitate their selective recognition.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated HIV or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent or treat AIDS. Some vaccines containing antigens are recombinantly produced.
A general term for diseases produced by viruses.
Substances that augment, stimulate, activate, potentiate, or modulate the immune response at either the cellular or humoral level. The classical agents (Freund's adjuvant, BCG, Corynebacterium parvum, et al.) contain bacterial antigens. Some are endogenous (e.g., histamine, interferon, transfer factor, tuftsin, interleukin-1). Their mode of action is either non-specific, resulting in increased immune responsiveness to a wide variety of antigens, or antigen-specific, i.e., affecting a restricted type of immune response to a narrow group of antigens. The therapeutic efficacy of many biological response modifiers is related to their antigen-specific immunoadjuvanticity.
Vaccines consisting of one or more antigens that stimulate a strong immune response. They are purified from microorganisms or produced by recombinant DNA techniques, or they can be chemically synthesized peptides.
Semisynthetic vaccines consisting of polysaccharide antigens from microorganisms attached to protein carrier molecules. The carrier protein is recognized by macrophages and T-cells thus enhancing immunity. Conjugate vaccines induce antibody formation in people not responsive to polysaccharide alone, induce higher levels of antibody, and show a booster response on repeated injection.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Vaccines made from antigens arising from any of the four strains of Plasmodium which cause malaria in humans, or from P. berghei which causes malaria in rodents.
Layers of protein which surround the capsid in animal viruses with tubular nucleocapsids. The envelope consists of an inner layer of lipids and virus specified proteins also called membrane or matrix proteins. The outer layer consists of one or more types of morphological subunits called peplomers which project from the viral envelope; this layer always consists of glycoproteins.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent PAPILLOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS. Human vaccines are intended to reduce the incidence of UTERINE CERVICAL NEOPLASMS, so they are sometimes considered a type of CANCER VACCINES. They are often composed of CAPSID PROTEINS, especially L1 protein, from various types of ALPHAPAPILLOMAVIRUS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing inactivated hepatitis B or some of its component antigens and designed to prevent hepatitis B. Some vaccines may be recombinantly produced.
A live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had measles or been immunized with live measles vaccine and have no serum antibodies against measles. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
A suspension of killed Bordetella pertussis organisms, used for immunization against pertussis (WHOOPING COUGH). It is generally used in a mixture with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids (DTP). There is an acellular pertussis vaccine prepared from the purified antigenic components of Bordetella pertussis, which causes fewer adverse reactions than whole-cell vaccine and, like the whole-cell vaccine, is generally used in a mixture with diphtheria and tetanus toxoids. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Vaccines or candidate vaccines containing antigenic polysaccharides from Haemophilus influenzae and designed to prevent infection. The vaccine can contain the polysaccharides alone or more frequently polysaccharides conjugated to carrier molecules. It is also seen as a combined vaccine with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine.
An active immunizing agent and a viable avirulent attenuated strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, var. bovis, which confers immunity to mycobacterial infections. It is used also in immunotherapy of neoplasms due to its stimulation of antibodies and non-specific immunity.
A suspension of formalin-inactivated poliovirus grown in monkey kidney cell tissue culture and used to prevent POLIOMYELITIS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent and treat RABIES. The inactivated virus vaccine is used for preexposure immunization to persons at high risk of exposure, and in conjunction with rabies immunoglobulin, for postexposure prophylaxis.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with ROTAVIRUS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with VIBRIO CHOLERAE. The original cholera vaccine consisted of killed bacteria, but other kinds of vaccines now exist.
Vaccines used to prevent TYPHOID FEVER and/or PARATYPHOID FEVER which are caused by various species of SALMONELLA. Attenuated, subunit, and inactivated forms of the vaccines exist.
A live VACCINIA VIRUS vaccine of calf lymph or chick embryo origin, used for immunization against smallpox. It is now recommended only for laboratory workers exposed to smallpox virus. Certain countries continue to vaccinate those in the military service. Complications that result from smallpox vaccination include vaccinia, secondary bacterial infections, and encephalomyelitis. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent or treat TUBERCULOSIS.
A live, attenuated varicella virus vaccine used for immunization against chickenpox. It is recommended for children between the ages of 12 months and 13 years.
A vaccine consisting of DIPHTHERIA TOXOID; TETANUS TOXOID; and whole-cell PERTUSSIS VACCINE. The vaccine protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough.
Vaccines used to prevent infection by MUMPS VIRUS. Best known is the live attenuated virus vaccine of chick embryo origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of adolescents and adults who have not had mumps or been immunized with live mumps vaccine. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with hepatitis A virus (HEPATOVIRUS).
Schedule giving optimum times usually for primary and/or secondary immunization.
Any immunization following a primary immunization and involving exposure to the same or a closely related antigen.
A combined vaccine used to prevent MEASLES; MUMPS; and RUBELLA.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent ANTHRAX.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with DENGUE VIRUS. These include live-attenuated, subunit, DNA, and inactivated vaccines.
Vaccines using VIROSOMES as the antigen delivery system that stimulates the desired immune response.
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
Any vaccine raised against any virus or viral derivative that causes hepatitis.
A live vaccine containing attenuated poliovirus, types I, II, and III, grown in monkey kidney cell tissue culture, used for routine immunization of children against polio. This vaccine induces long-lasting intestinal and humoral immunity. Killed vaccine induces only humoral immunity. Oral poliovirus vaccine should not be administered to immunocompromised individuals or their household contacts. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Vaccine used to prevent YELLOW FEVER. It consists of a live attenuated 17D strain of the YELLOW FEVER VIRUS.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
A suspension of killed Yersinia pestis used for immunizing people in enzootic plague areas.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed fungi administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious fungal disease.
A live attenuated virus vaccine of duck embryo or human diploid cell tissue culture origin, used for routine immunization of children and for immunization of nonpregnant adolescent and adult females of childbearing age who are unimmunized and do not have serum antibodies to rubella. Children are usually immunized with measles-mumps-rubella combination vaccine. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Vaccines that are produced by using only the antigenic part of the disease causing organism. They often require a "booster" every few years to maintain their effectiveness.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines designed to prevent SAIDS; (SIMIAN ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME); and containing inactivated SIMIAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS or type D retroviruses or some of their component antigens.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with SALMONELLA. This includes vaccines used to prevent TYPHOID FEVER or PARATYPHOID FEVER; (TYPHOID-PARATYPHOID VACCINES), and vaccines used to prevent nontyphoid salmonellosis.
Vaccines using supra-molecular structures composed of multiple copies of recombinantly expressed viral structural proteins. They are often antigentically indistinguishable from the virus from which they were derived.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
Antibodies that reduce or abolish some biological activity of a soluble antigen or infectious agent, usually a virus.
Staphylococcal vaccines are prophylactic agents developed to prevent infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus, a pathogenic bacterium that frequently colonizes human skin and mucous membranes, often targeting surface proteins or toxins for immune response induction.
Combined vaccines consisting of DIPHTHERIA TOXOID; TETANUS TOXOID; and an acellular form of PERTUSSIS VACCINE. At least five different purified antigens of B. pertussis have been used in various combinations in these vaccines.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with CYTOMEGALOVIRUS.
Organized services to administer immunization procedures in the prevention of various diseases. The programs are made available over a wide range of sites: schools, hospitals, public health agencies, voluntary health agencies, etc. They are administered to an equally wide range of population groups or on various administrative levels: community, municipal, state, national, international.
Forceful administration into a muscle of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the muscle and any tissue covering it.
A combined vaccine used to prevent infection with diphtheria and tetanus toxoid. This is used in place of DTP vaccine (DIPHTHERIA-TETANUS-PERTUSSIS VACCINE) when PERTUSSIS VACCINE is contraindicated.
Vaccines used to prevent POLIOMYELITIS. They include inactivated (POLIOVIRUS VACCINE, INACTIVATED) and oral vaccines (POLIOVIRUS VACCINE, ORAL).
Delivery of medications through the nasal mucosa.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent or treat both enterotoxigenic and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli infections.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with WEST NILE VIRUS.
Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent bacillary dysentery (DYSENTERY, BACILLARY) caused by species of SHIGELLA.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
An attenuated vaccine used to prevent and/or treat HERPES ZOSTER, a disease caused by HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 3.
Sorbitan mono-9-octadecanoate poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl) derivatives; complex mixtures of polyoxyethylene ethers used as emulsifiers or dispersing agents in pharmaceuticals.
Antibody-mediated immune response. Humoral immunity is brought about by ANTIBODY FORMATION, resulting from TH2 CELLS activating B-LYMPHOCYTES, followed by COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION.
A bacterial vaccine for the prevention of brucellosis in man and animal. Brucella abortus vaccine is used for the immunization of cattle, sheep, and goats.
Tetanus toxoid is a purified and chemically inactivated form of the tetanus toxin, used as a vaccine to induce active immunity against tetanus disease by stimulating the production of antibodies.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection by any virus from the family HERPESVIRIDAE.
The forcing into the skin of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle, piercing the top skin layer.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with LEISHMANIA.
A compound with many biomedical applications: as a gastric antacid, an antiperspirant, in dentifrices, as an emulsifier, as an adjuvant in bacterins and vaccines, in water purification, etc.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
Aluminum metal sulfate compounds used medically as astringents and for many industrial purposes. They are used in veterinary medicine for the treatment of ulcerative stomatitis, leukorrhea, conjunctivitis, pharyngitis, metritis, and minor wounds.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with viruses from the genus SIMPLEXVIRUS. This includes vaccines for HSV-1 and HSV-2.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
The formaldehyde-inactivated toxin of Corynebacterium diphtheriae. It is generally used in mixtures with TETANUS TOXOID and PERTUSSIS VACCINE; (DTP); or with tetanus toxoid alone (DT for pediatric use and Td, which contains 5- to 10-fold less diphtheria toxoid, for other use). Diphtheria toxoid is used for the prevention of diphtheria; DIPHTHERIA ANTITOXIN is for treatment.
'Squalene' is a biologically occurring triterpene compound, naturally produced in humans, animals, and plants, that forms an essential part of the lipid-rich membranes in various tissues, including the skin surface and the liver, and has been studied for its potential benefits in skincare, dietary supplements, and vaccine adjuvant systems.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUSES.
Protection conferred on a host by inoculation with one strain or component of a microorganism that prevents infection when later challenged with a similar strain. Most commonly the microorganism is a virus.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infection with Japanese B encephalitis virus (ENCEPHALITIS VIRUS, JAPANESE).
Administration of a vaccine to large populations in order to elicit IMMUNITY.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent conception.
A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines derived from edible plants. Transgenic plants (PLANTS, TRANSGENIC) are used as recombinant protein production systems and the edible plant tissue functions as an oral vaccine.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.

Low temperature and pressure stability of picornaviruses: implications for virus uncoating. (1/3369)

The family Picornaviridae includes several viruses of great economic and medical importance. Poliovirus replicates in the human digestive tract, causing disease that may range in severity from a mild infection to a fatal paralysis. The human rhinovirus is the most important etiologic agent of the common cold in adults and children. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes one of the most economically important diseases in cattle. These viruses have in common a capsid structure composed of 60 copies of four different proteins, VP1 to VP4, and their 3D structures show similar general features. In this study we describe the differences in stability against high pressure and cold denaturation of these viruses. Both poliovirus and rhinovirus are stable to high pressure at room temperature, because pressures up to 2.4 kbar are not enough to promote viral disassembly and inactivation. Within the same pressure range, FMDV particles are dramatically affected by pressure, with a loss of infectivity of more than 4 log units observed. The dissociation of polio and rhino viruses can be observed only under pressure (2.4 kbar) at low temperatures in the presence of subdenaturing concentrations of urea (1-2 M). The pressure and low temperature data reveal clear differences in stability among the three picornaviruses, FMDV being the most sensitive, polio being the most resistant, and rhino having intermediate stability. Whereas rhino and poliovirus differ little in stability (less than 10 kcal/mol at 0 degrees C), the difference in free energy between these two viruses and FMDV was remarkable (more than 200 kcal/mol of particle). These differences are crucial to understanding the different factors that control the assembly and disassembly of the virus particles during their life cycle. The inactivation of these viruses by pressure (combined or not with low temperature) has potential as a method for producing vaccines.  (+info)

Induction of a protective antibody response to foot and mouth disease virus in mice following oral or parenteral immunization with alfalfa transgenic plants expressing the viral structural protein VP1. (2/3369)

The utilization of transgenic plants expressing recombinant antigens to be used in the formulation of experimental immunogens has been recently communicated. We report here the development of transgenic plants of alfalfa expressing the structural protein VP1 of foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV). The presence of the transgenes in the plants was confirmed by PCR and their specific transcription was demonstrated by RT-PCR. Mice parenterally immunized using leaf extracts or receiving in their diet freshly harvested leaves from the transgenic plants developed a virus-specific immune response. Animals immunized by either method elicited a specific antibody response to a synthetic peptide representing amino acid residues 135-160 of VP1, to the structural protein VP1, and to intact FMDV particles. Additionally, the immunized mice were protected against experimental challenge with the virus. We believe this is the first report demonstrating the induction of a protective systemic antibody response in animals fed transgenic plants expressing a viral antigen. These results support the feasibility of producing edible vaccines in transgenic forage plants, such as alfalfa, commonly used in the diet of domestic animals even for those antigens for which a systemic immune response is required.  (+info)

IL-12 gene as a DNA vaccine adjuvant in a herpes mouse model: IL-12 enhances Th1-type CD4+ T cell-mediated protective immunity against herpes simplex virus-2 challenge. (3/3369)

IL-12 has been shown to enhance cellular immunity in vitro and in vivo. Recent reports have suggested that combining DNA vaccine approach with immune stimulatory molecules delivered as genes may significantly enhance Ag-specific immune responses in vivo. In particular, IL-12 molecules could constitute an important addition to a herpes vaccine by amplifying specific immune responses. Here we investigate the utility of IL-12 cDNA as an adjuvant for a herpes simplex virus-2 (HSV-2) DNA vaccine in a mouse challenge model. Direct i.m. injection of IL-12 cDNA induced activation of resting immune cells in vivo. Furthermore, coinjection with IL-12 cDNA and gD DNA vaccine inhibited both systemic gD-specific Ab and local Ab levels compared with gD plasmid vaccination alone. In contrast, Th cell proliferative responses and secretion of cytokines (IL-2 and IFN-gamma) and chemokines (RANTES and macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha) were significantly increased by IL-12 coinjection. However, the production of cytokines (IL-4 and IL-10) and chemokine (MCP-1) was inhibited by IL-12 coinjection. IL-12 coinjection with a gD DNA vaccine showed significantly better protection from lethal HSV-2 challenge compared with gD DNA vaccination alone in both inbred and outbred mice. This enhanced protection appears to be mediated by CD4+ T cells, as determined by in vivo CD4+ T cell deletion. Thus, IL-12 cDNA as a DNA vaccine adjuvant drives Ag-specific Th1 type CD4+ T cell responses that result in reduced HSV-2-derived morbidity as well as mortality.  (+info)

EBV structural antigens, gp350 and gp85, as targets for ex vivo virus-specific CTL during acute infectious mononucleosis: potential use of gp350/gp85 CTL epitopes for vaccine design. (4/3369)

For many years, EBV vaccine development efforts have concentrated on the use of structural Ag, gp350, and have been directed toward Ab-mediated blocking virus attachment to the target cell. There is increasing evidence to suggest that the development of neutralizing Abs in vaccinated animals does not always correlate with protection; nevertheless, it has been postulated that gp350-specific T cell-mediated immune responses may have an effector role in protection. This hypothesis has largely remained untested. In the present study, we demonstrate that CTL from acute infectious mononucleosis patients display strong ex vivo reactivity against the EBV structural Ags, gp85 and gp350. Moreover, long-term follow up studies on infectious mononucleosis-recovered individuals showed that these individuals maintain gp350- and gp85-specific memory CTL, albeit at low levels, in the peripheral blood. These results strongly suggest that CTL specific for EBV structural proteins may play an important role in the control of EBV infection during acute infection. More importantly, we also show that prior immunization of HLA A2/Kb transgenic mice with gp350 and gp85 CTL epitopes induced a strong epitope-specific CTL response and afforded protection against gp85- or gp350-expressing vaccinia virus challenge. These results have important implications for future EBV vaccine design and provides evidence, for the first time, that CTL epitopes from EBV structural proteins may be used for establishing strong antiviral immunity against EBV infection.  (+info)

Detection and induction of equine infectious anemia virus-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses by use of recombinant retroviral vectors. (5/3369)

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) appear to be critical in resolving or reducing the severity of lentivirus infections. Retroviral vectors expressing the Gag/Pr or SU protein of the lentivirus equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) were constructed and used to evaluate EIAV-specific CTL responses in horses. Three promoters, cytomegalovirus, simian virus SV40, and Moloney murine sarcoma virus (MoMSV) long terminal repeat (LTR), were used, and there was considerable variation in their ability to direct expression of Gag/Pr and SU. Vectors expressing EIAV proteins under the direction of MoMSV LTR and using the gibbon ape leukemia virus (GALV) Env for internalization were efficient at transducing equine kidney (EK) target cells and were effective targets for EIAV-specific CTL lysis. CTL from EIAV-infected horses caused lysis of retroviral vector-transduced EK cells expressing either Gag/Pr or SU in an ELA-A-restricted manner. In contrast, lysis of recombinant vaccinia virus-infected EK cells expressing Gag/Pr and SU/TM was often non-LA-A restricted. Five horses were immunized by direct intramuscular injection with a mixture of retroviral vectors expressing Gag/Pr or SU, and one responded with EIAV-specific CTL. This result indicates that retroviral vector stimulation of CTL in horses needs to be optimized, perhaps by inclusion of appropriate cytokine genes in the constructs. However, the studies demonstrated that retroviral vector-transduced target cells were very effective for in vitro dissection of EIAV-specific CTL responses.  (+info)

Human antibody responses to mature and immature forms of viral envelope in respiratory syncytial virus infection: significance for subunit vaccines. (6/3369)

A number of antibodies generated during human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection have been cloned by the phage library approach. Antibodies reactive with an immunodominant epitope on the F glycoprotein of this virus have a high affinity for affinity-purified F antigen. These antibodies, however, have a much lower affinity for mature F glycoprotein on the surface of infected cells and are nonneutralizing. In contrast, a potent neutralizing antibody has a high affinity for mature F protein but a much lower affinity for purified F protein or F protein in viral lysates. The data indicate that at least two F protein immunogens are produced during natural RSV infection: immature F, found in viral lysates, and mature F, found on infected cells or virions. Binding studies with polyclonal human immunoglobulin G suggest that the antibody responses to the two immunogens are of similar magnitudes. Competitive binding studies suggest that overlap between the responses is relatively limited. A mature envelope with an antigenic configuration different from that of the immature envelope has an evolutionary advantage in that the infecting virus is less subject to neutralization by the humoral response to the immature envelope that inevitably arises following lysis of infected cells. Subunit vaccines may be at a disadvantage because they most often resemble immature envelope molecules and ignore this aspect of viral evasion.  (+info)

Protection of macaques against intrarectal infection by a combination immunization regimen with recombinant simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmne gp160 vaccines. (7/3369)

We previously reported that immunization with recombinant simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmne envelope (gp160) vaccines protected macaques against intravenous challenge by the cloned homologous virus E11S but that this protection was only partially effective against the uncloned virus, SIVmne. In the present study, we examine the protective efficacy of this immunization regimen against infection by a mucosal route. We found that the same gp160-based vaccines were highly effective against intrarectal infection not only with the E11S clone but also with the uncloned SIVmne. Protection against mucosal infection is therefore achievable by parenteral immunization with recombinant envelope vaccines. Protection appears to correlate with high levels of SIV-specific antibodies and, in animals protected against the uncloned virus, the presence of serum-neutralizing activities. To understand the basis for the differential efficacies against the uncloned virus by the intravenous versus the intrarectal routes, we examined viral sequences recovered from the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of animals early after infection by both routes. We previously showed that the majority (85%) of the uncloned SIVmne challenge stock contained V1 sequences homologous to the molecular clone from which the vaccines were made (E11S type), with the remainder (15%) containing multiple conserved changes (the variant types). In contrast to intravenously infected animals, from which either E11S-type or the variant type V1 sequences could be recovered in significant proportions, animals infected intrarectally had predominantly E11S-type sequences. Preferential transmission or amplification of the E11S-type viruses may therefore account in part for the enhanced efficacy of the recombinant gp160 vaccines against the uncloned virus challenge by the intrarectal route compared with the intravenous route.  (+info)

Rapid and sensitive detection of immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG antibodies against canine distemper virus by a new recombinant nucleocapsid protein-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. (8/3369)

Canine distemper morbillivirus (CDV) infection causes a frequently fatal systemic disease in a broad range of carnivore species, including domestic dogs. In CDV infection, classical serology provides data of diagnostic and prognostic values (kinetics of seroconversion) and is also used to predict the optimal vaccination age of pups. Routine CDV serology is still based on time- and cost-intensive virus neutralization assays (V-NA). Here, we describe a new capture-sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) that uses recombinant baculovirus-expressed nucleocapsid (N) protein of a recent CDV wild-type isolate (2544/Han95) for the detection of CDV-specific antibodies in canine sera. Recombinant antigen was produced with high efficacy in Heliothis virescens larvae. The capture-sandwich ELISA enabled a clear-cut qualitative evaluation of the CDV-specific immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM serostatuses of 196 and 35 dog sera, respectively. Inter-rater agreement analysis (kappa = 0.988) indicated that the ELISA can be used unrestrictedly as a substitute for the V-NA for the qualitative determination of CDV-specific IgG serostatus. In an attempt to semiquantify N-specific antibodies, a one-step-dilution (alpha method) IgG-specific ELISA was implemented. Alpha values of >/=50% showed very good inter-rater agreement (kappa = 0.968) with V-NA titers of >/=1/100 50% neutralizing dose (ND50) as measured against the central European CDV wild-type isolate 2544/Han95 in canine sera originating from northern Germany. An ND50 titer of 1/100 is considered a threshold, and titers of >/=1/100 indicate a resilient, protective immunity. CDV N-specific antibodies of the IgM class were detected by the newly developed ELISA in 9 of 15 sera obtained from dogs with symptoms of acute distemper. In leucocytes of 5 of the 15 dogs (all of which were also IgM positive) CDV RNA was detected by reverse transcription (RT)-PCR. The recombinant capture-sandwich ELISA detecting N-specific antibodies of the IgG class provided superior sensitivity and specificity and thus represents a rapid and cost-effective alternative to classical CDV V-NA. By detection of specific IgM antibodies, the ELISA will be complementary to RT-PCR and V-NA in the diagnosis of acute distemper infections.  (+info)

A viral vaccine is a biological preparation that introduces your body to a specific virus in a way that helps your immune system build up protection against the virus without causing the illness. Viral vaccines can be made from weakened or inactivated forms of the virus, or parts of the virus such as proteins or sugars. Once introduced to the body, the immune system recognizes the virus as foreign and produces an immune response, including the production of antibodies. These antibodies remain in the body and provide immunity against future infection with that specific virus.

Viral vaccines are important tools for preventing infectious diseases caused by viruses, such as influenza, measles, mumps, rubella, polio, hepatitis A and B, rabies, rotavirus, chickenpox, shingles, and some types of cancer. Vaccination programs have led to the control or elimination of many infectious diseases that were once common.

It's important to note that viral vaccines are not effective against bacterial infections, and separate vaccines must be developed for each type of virus. Additionally, because viruses can mutate over time, it is necessary to update some viral vaccines periodically to ensure continued protection.

Parainfluenza Virus 3, Bovine (PIV-3, Bovine) is a species-specific virus that belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae and genus Respirovirus. It primarily infects cattle and is one of the major causes of respiratory illness in young calves, known as bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC). The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or contaminated fomites and mainly affects the upper and lower respiratory tract.

The Bovine Parainfluenza Virus 3 has a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome that encodes for several structural and non-structural proteins. The viral envelope contains two glycoprotein spikes: the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) protein and the fusion (F) protein. These proteins play crucial roles in the attachment, fusion, and entry of the virus into the host cell.

Clinical signs of Bovine Parainfluenza Virus 3 infection include coughing, nasal discharge, fever, difficulty breathing, and reduced appetite. In severe cases, it can lead to pneumonia, which may result in significant economic losses for the cattle industry. Although vaccines are available to control the spread of this virus, they might not always prevent infection or transmission but can help reduce the severity of clinical signs and minimize the impact on animal health and productivity.

Inactivated vaccines, also known as killed or non-live vaccines, are created by using a version of the virus or bacteria that has been grown in a laboratory and then killed or inactivated with chemicals, heat, or radiation. This process renders the organism unable to cause disease, but still capable of stimulating an immune response when introduced into the body.

Inactivated vaccines are generally considered safer than live attenuated vaccines since they cannot revert back to a virulent form and cause illness. However, they may require multiple doses or booster shots to maintain immunity because the immune response generated by inactivated vaccines is not as robust as that produced by live vaccines. Examples of inactivated vaccines include those for hepatitis A, rabies, and influenza (inactivated flu vaccine).

Synthetic vaccines are artificially produced, designed to stimulate an immune response and provide protection against specific diseases. Unlike traditional vaccines that are derived from weakened or killed pathogens, synthetic vaccines are created using synthetic components, such as synthesized viral proteins, DNA, or RNA. These components mimic the disease-causing agent and trigger an immune response without causing the actual disease. The use of synthetic vaccines offers advantages in terms of safety, consistency, and scalability in production, making them valuable tools for preventing infectious diseases.

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. It typically contains an agent that resembles the disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and "remember" it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it encounters in the future.

Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (to fight disease that is already present). The administration of vaccines is called vaccination. Vaccinations are generally administered through needle injections, but can also be administered by mouth or sprayed into the nose.

The term "vaccine" comes from Edward Jenner's 1796 use of cowpox to create immunity to smallpox. The first successful vaccine was developed in 1796 by Edward Jenner, who showed that milkmaids who had contracted cowpox did not get smallpox. He reasoned that exposure to cowpox protected against smallpox and tested his theory by injecting a boy with pus from a cowpox sore and then exposing him to smallpox, which the boy did not contract. The word "vaccine" is derived from Variolae vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 during a conversation with a fellow physician and later in the title of his 1801 Inquiry.

Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way to protect people against harmful diseases, before they come into contact with them. It uses your body's natural defenses to build protection to specific infections and makes your immune system stronger.

A vaccination usually contains a small, harmless piece of a virus or bacteria (or toxins produced by these germs) that has been made inactive or weakened so it won't cause the disease itself. This piece of the germ is known as an antigen. When the vaccine is introduced into the body, the immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign and produces antibodies to fight it.

If a person then comes into contact with the actual disease-causing germ, their immune system will recognize it and immediately produce antibodies to destroy it. The person is therefore protected against that disease. This is known as active immunity.

Vaccinations are important for both individual and public health. They prevent the spread of contagious diseases and protect vulnerable members of the population, such as young children, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems who cannot be vaccinated or for whom vaccination is not effective.

Attenuated vaccines consist of live microorganisms that have been weakened (attenuated) through various laboratory processes so they do not cause disease in the majority of recipients but still stimulate an immune response. The purpose of attenuation is to reduce the virulence or replication capacity of the pathogen while keeping it alive, allowing it to retain its antigenic properties and induce a strong and protective immune response.

Examples of attenuated vaccines include:

1. Sabin oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV): This vaccine uses live but weakened polioviruses to protect against all three strains of the disease-causing poliovirus. The weakened viruses replicate in the intestine and induce an immune response, which provides both humoral (antibody) and cell-mediated immunity.
2. Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine: This combination vaccine contains live attenuated measles, mumps, and rubella viruses. It is given to protect against these three diseases and prevent their spread in the population.
3. Varicella (chickenpox) vaccine: This vaccine uses a weakened form of the varicella-zoster virus, which causes chickenpox. By introducing this attenuated virus into the body, it stimulates an immune response that protects against future infection with the wild-type virus.
4. Yellow fever vaccine: This live attenuated vaccine is used to prevent yellow fever, a viral disease transmitted by mosquitoes in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa and South America. The vaccine contains a weakened form of the yellow fever virus that cannot cause the disease but still induces an immune response.
5. Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine: This live attenuated vaccine is used to protect against tuberculosis (TB). It contains a weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which does not cause TB in humans but stimulates an immune response that provides some protection against the disease.

Attenuated vaccines are generally effective at inducing long-lasting immunity and can provide robust protection against targeted diseases. However, they may pose a risk for individuals with weakened immune systems, as the attenuated viruses or bacteria could potentially cause illness in these individuals. Therefore, it is essential to consider an individual's health status before administering live attenuated vaccines.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

Combined vaccines are defined in medical terms as vaccines that contain two or more antigens from different diseases, which are given to provide protection against multiple diseases at the same time. This approach reduces the number of injections required and simplifies the immunization schedule, especially during early childhood. Examples of combined vaccines include:

1. DTaP-Hib-IPV (e.g., Pentacel): A vaccine that combines diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease, and poliovirus components in one injection to protect against these five diseases.
2. MMRV (e.g., ProQuad): A vaccine that combines measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella (chickenpox) antigens in a single injection to provide immunity against all four diseases.
3. HepA-HepB (e.g., Twinrix): A vaccine that combines hepatitis A and hepatitis B antigens in one injection, providing protection against both types of hepatitis.
4. MenACWY-TT (e.g., MenQuadfi): A vaccine that combines four serogroups of meningococcal bacteria (A, C, W, Y) with tetanus toxoid as a carrier protein in one injection for the prevention of invasive meningococcal disease caused by these serogroups.
5. PCV13-PPSV23 (e.g., Vaxneuvance): A vaccine that combines 13 pneumococcal serotypes with PPSV23, providing protection against a broader range of pneumococcal diseases in adults aged 18 years and older.

Combined vaccines have been thoroughly tested for safety and efficacy to ensure they provide a strong immune response and an acceptable safety profile. They are essential tools in preventing various infectious diseases and improving overall public health.

I could not find a specific medical definition for "Vaccines, DNA." However, I can provide you with some information about DNA vaccines.

DNA vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses genetically engineered DNA to stimulate an immune response in the body. They work by introducing a small piece of DNA into the body that contains the genetic code for a specific antigen (a substance that triggers an immune response). The cells of the body then use this DNA to produce the antigen, which prompts the immune system to recognize and attack it.

DNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines. They are relatively easy to produce, can be stored at room temperature, and can be designed to protect against a wide range of diseases. Additionally, because they use DNA to stimulate an immune response, DNA vaccines do not require the growth and culture of viruses or bacteria, which can make them safer than traditional vaccines.

DNA vaccines are still in the experimental stages, and more research is needed to determine their safety and effectiveness. However, they have shown promise in animal studies and are being investigated as a potential tool for preventing a variety of infectious diseases, including influenza, HIV, and cancer.

Bacterial vaccines are types of vaccines that are created using bacteria or parts of bacteria as the immunogen, which is the substance that triggers an immune response in the body. The purpose of a bacterial vaccine is to stimulate the immune system to develop protection against specific bacterial infections.

There are several types of bacterial vaccines, including:

1. Inactivated or killed whole-cell vaccines: These vaccines contain entire bacteria that have been killed or inactivated through various methods, such as heat or chemicals. The bacteria can no longer cause disease, but they still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response.
2. Subunit, protein, or polysaccharide vaccines: These vaccines use specific components of the bacterium, such as proteins or polysaccharides, that are known to trigger an immune response. By using only these components, the vaccine can avoid using the entire bacterium, which may reduce the risk of adverse reactions.
3. Live attenuated vaccines: These vaccines contain live bacteria that have been weakened or attenuated so that they cannot cause disease but still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine can provide long-lasting immunity, but it may not be suitable for people with weakened immune systems.

Bacterial vaccines are essential tools in preventing and controlling bacterial infections, reducing the burden of diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumococcal disease, meningococcal disease, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease. They work by exposing the immune system to a harmless form of the bacteria or its components, which triggers the production of antibodies and memory cells that can recognize and fight off future infections with that same bacterium.

It's important to note that while vaccines are generally safe and effective, they may cause mild side effects such as pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site, fever, or fatigue. Serious side effects are rare but can occur, so it's essential to consult with a healthcare provider before receiving any vaccine.

A genetic vector is a vehicle, often a plasmid or a virus, that is used to introduce foreign DNA into a host cell as part of genetic engineering or gene therapy techniques. The vector contains the desired gene or genes, along with regulatory elements such as promoters and enhancers, which are needed for the expression of the gene in the target cells.

The choice of vector depends on several factors, including the size of the DNA to be inserted, the type of cell to be targeted, and the efficiency of uptake and expression required. Commonly used vectors include plasmids, adenoviruses, retroviruses, and lentiviruses.

Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently in bacteria. They are often used as cloning vectors to amplify and manipulate DNA fragments. Adenoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of host cells, including human cells. They are commonly used as gene therapy vectors because they can efficiently transfer genes into both dividing and non-dividing cells.

Retroviruses and lentiviruses are RNA viruses that integrate their genetic material into the host cell's genome. This allows for stable expression of the transgene over time. Lentiviruses, a subclass of retroviruses, have the advantage of being able to infect non-dividing cells, making them useful for gene therapy applications in post-mitotic tissues such as neurons and muscle cells.

Overall, genetic vectors play a crucial role in modern molecular biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study gene function, develop new therapies, and modify organisms for various purposes.

An AIDS vaccine is a type of preventive vaccine that aims to stimulate the immune system to produce an effective response against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The goal of an AIDS vaccine is to induce the production of immune cells and proteins that can recognize and eliminate HIV-infected cells, thereby preventing the establishment of a persistent infection.

Despite decades of research, there is still no licensed AIDS vaccine available. This is due in part to the unique challenges posed by HIV, which has a high mutation rate and can rapidly evolve to evade the immune system's defenses. However, several promising vaccine candidates are currently being tested in clinical trials around the world, and researchers continue to explore new approaches and strategies for developing an effective AIDS vaccine.

Viral diseases are illnesses caused by the infection and replication of viruses in host organisms. These infectious agents are obligate parasites, meaning they rely on the cells of other living organisms to survive and reproduce. Viruses can infect various types of hosts, including animals, plants, and microorganisms, causing a wide range of diseases with varying symptoms and severity.

Once a virus enters a host cell, it takes over the cell's machinery to produce new viral particles, often leading to cell damage or death. The immune system recognizes the viral components as foreign and mounts an immune response to eliminate the infection. This response can result in inflammation, fever, and other symptoms associated with viral diseases.

Examples of well-known viral diseases include:

1. Influenza (flu) - caused by influenza A, B, or C viruses
2. Common cold - usually caused by rhinoviruses or coronaviruses
3. HIV/AIDS - caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
4. Measles - caused by measles morbillivirus
5. Hepatitis B and C - caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), respectively
6. Herpes simplex - caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) or type 2 (HSV-2)
7. Chickenpox and shingles - both caused by varicella-zoster virus (VZV)
8. Rabies - caused by rabies lyssavirus
9. Ebola - caused by ebolaviruses
10. COVID-19 - caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)

Prevention and treatment strategies for viral diseases may include vaccination, antiviral medications, and supportive care to manage symptoms while the immune system fights off the infection.

Immunologic adjuvants are substances that are added to a vaccine to enhance the body's immune response to the antigens contained in the vaccine. They work by stimulating the immune system and promoting the production of antibodies and activating immune cells, such as T-cells and macrophages, which help to provide a stronger and more sustained immune response to the vaccine.

Immunologic adjuvants can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, and chemicals. Some common examples include aluminum salts (alum), oil-in-water emulsions (such as MF59), and bacterial components (such as lipopolysaccharide or LPS).

The use of immunologic adjuvants in vaccines can help to improve the efficacy of the vaccine, particularly for vaccines that contain weak or poorly immunogenic antigens. They can also help to reduce the amount of antigen needed in a vaccine, which can be beneficial for vaccines that are difficult or expensive to produce.

It's important to note that while adjuvants can enhance the immune response to a vaccine, they can also increase the risk of adverse reactions, such as inflammation and pain at the injection site. Therefore, the use of immunologic adjuvants must be carefully balanced against their potential benefits and risks.

A subunit vaccine is a type of vaccine that contains a specific piece or component of the microorganism (such as a protein, sugar, or part of the bacterial outer membrane), instead of containing the entire organism. This piece of the microorganism is known as an antigen, and it stimulates an immune response in the body, allowing the development of immunity against the targeted infection without introducing the risk of disease associated with live vaccines.

Subunit vaccines offer several advantages over other types of vaccines. They are generally safer because they do not contain live or weakened microorganisms, making them suitable for individuals with weakened immune systems or specific medical conditions that prevent them from receiving live vaccines. Additionally, subunit vaccines can be designed to focus on the most immunogenic components of a pathogen, potentially leading to stronger and more targeted immune responses.

Examples of subunit vaccines include the Hepatitis B vaccine, which contains a viral protein, and the Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine, which uses pieces of the bacterial polysaccharide capsule. These vaccines have been crucial in preventing serious infectious diseases and reducing associated complications worldwide.

Conjugate vaccines are a type of vaccine that combines a part of a bacterium with a protein or other substance to boost the body's immune response to the bacteria. The bacterial component is usually a polysaccharide, which is a long chain of sugars that makes up part of the bacterial cell wall.

By itself, a polysaccharide is not very immunogenic, meaning it does not stimulate a strong immune response. However, when it is conjugated or linked to a protein or other carrier molecule, it becomes much more immunogenic and can elicit a stronger and longer-lasting immune response.

Conjugate vaccines are particularly effective in protecting against bacterial infections that affect young children, such as Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) and pneumococcal disease. These vaccines have been instrumental in reducing the incidence of these diseases and their associated complications, such as meningitis and pneumonia.

Overall, conjugate vaccines work by mimicking a natural infection and stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against future infections with the same bacterium. By combining a weakly immunogenic polysaccharide with a protein carrier, these vaccines can elicit a stronger and more effective immune response, providing long-lasting protection against bacterial infections.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Malaria vaccines are biological preparations that induce immunity against malaria parasites, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of malaria disease. They typically contain antigens (proteins or other molecules derived from the parasite) that stimulate an immune response in the recipient, enabling their body to recognize and neutralize the pathogen upon exposure.

The most advanced malaria vaccine candidate is RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix), which targets the Plasmodium falciparum parasite's circumsporozoite protein (CSP). This vaccine has shown partial protection in clinical trials, reducing the risk of severe malaria and hospitalization in young children by about 30% over four years. However, it does not provide complete immunity, and additional research is ongoing to develop more effective vaccines against malaria.

Viral envelope proteins are structural proteins found in the envelope that surrounds many types of viruses. These proteins play a crucial role in the virus's life cycle, including attachment to host cells, fusion with the cell membrane, and entry into the host cell. They are typically made up of glycoproteins and are often responsible for eliciting an immune response in the host organism. The exact structure and function of viral envelope proteins vary between different types of viruses.

Papillomavirus vaccines are vaccines that have been developed to prevent infection by human papillomaviruses (HPV). HPV is a DNA virus that is capable of infecting the skin and mucous membranes. Certain types of HPV are known to cause cervical cancer, as well as other types of cancer such as anal, penile, vulvar, and oropharyngeal cancers. Other types of HPV can cause genital warts.

There are currently two papillomavirus vaccines that have been approved for use in the United States: Gardasil and Cervarix. Both vaccines protect against the two most common cancer-causing types of HPV (types 16 and 18), which together cause about 70% of cervical cancers. Gardasil also protects against the two most common types of HPV that cause genital warts (types 6 and 11).

Papillomavirus vaccines are given as a series of three shots over a period of six months. They are most effective when given to people before they become sexually active, as this reduces the risk of exposure to HPV. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that all boys and girls get vaccinated against HPV at age 11 or 12, but the vaccine can be given to people as young as age 9 and as old as age 26.

It is important to note that papillomavirus vaccines do not protect against all types of HPV, and they do not treat existing HPV infections or cervical cancer. They are intended to prevent new HPV infections and the cancers and other diseases that can be caused by HPV.

Meningococcal vaccines are vaccines that protect against Neisseria meningitidis, a type of bacteria that can cause serious infections such as meningitis (inflammation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord) and septicemia (bloodstream infection). There are several types of meningococcal vaccines available, including conjugate vaccines and polysaccharide vaccines. These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against the different serogroups of N. meningitidis, including A, B, C, Y, and W-135. The specific type of vaccine used and the number of doses required may depend on a person's age, health status, and other factors. Meningococcal vaccines are recommended for certain high-risk populations, such as infants, young children, adolescents, and people with certain medical conditions, as well as for travelers to areas where meningococcal disease is common.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

"Hepatitis B vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by the hepatitis B virus. They work by introducing a small and harmless piece of the virus to your body, which triggers your immune system to produce antibodies to fight off the infection. These antibodies remain in your body and provide protection if you are exposed to the real hepatitis B virus in the future.

The hepatitis B vaccine is typically given as a series of three shots over a six-month period. It is recommended for all infants, children and adolescents who have not previously been vaccinated, as well as for adults who are at increased risk of infection, such as healthcare workers, people who inject drugs, and those with certain medical conditions.

It's important to note that hepatitis B vaccine does not provide protection against other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis A or C."

A measles vaccine is a biological preparation that induces immunity against the measles virus. It contains an attenuated (weakened) strain of the measles virus, which stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against future infection with the wild-type (disease-causing) virus. Measles vaccines are typically administered in combination with vaccines against mumps and rubella (German measles), forming the MMR vaccine.

The measles vaccine is highly effective, with one or two doses providing immunity in over 95% of people who receive it. It is usually given to children as part of routine childhood immunization programs, with the first dose administered at 12-15 months of age and the second dose at 4-6 years of age.

Measles vaccination has led to a dramatic reduction in the incidence of measles worldwide and is considered one of the greatest public health achievements of the past century. However, despite widespread availability of the vaccine, measles remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in some parts of the world, particularly in areas with low vaccination coverage or where access to healthcare is limited.

A Pertussis vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against pertussis, also known as whooping cough. It contains components that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies against the bacteria that cause pertussis, Bordetella pertussis. There are two main types of pertussis vaccines: whole-cell pertussis (wP) vaccines and acellular pertussis (aP) vaccines. wP vaccines contain killed whole cells of B. pertussis, while aP vaccines contain specific components of the bacteria, such as pertussis toxin and other antigens. Pertussis vaccines are often combined with diphtheria and tetanus to form combination vaccines, such as DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus, and acellular pertussis) and TdaP (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis). These vaccines are typically given to young children as part of their routine immunization schedule.

Haemophilus vaccines are vaccines that are designed to protect against Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib), a bacterium that can cause serious infections such as meningitis, pneumonia, and epiglottitis. There are two main types of Hib vaccines:

1. Polysaccharide vaccine: This type of vaccine is made from the sugar coating (polysaccharide) of the bacterial cells. It is not effective in children under 2 years of age because their immune systems are not yet mature enough to respond effectively to this type of vaccine.
2. Conjugate vaccine: This type of vaccine combines the polysaccharide with a protein carrier, which helps to stimulate a stronger and more sustained immune response. It is effective in infants as young as 6 weeks old.

Hib vaccines are usually given as part of routine childhood immunizations starting at 2 months of age. They are administered through an injection into the muscle. The vaccine is safe and effective, with few side effects. Vaccination against Hib has led to a significant reduction in the incidence of Hib infections worldwide.

BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine is a type of immunization used primarily to prevent tuberculosis (TB). It contains a live but weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which is related to the bacterium that causes TB in humans (Mycobacterium tuberculosis).

The BCG vaccine works by stimulating an immune response in the body, enabling it to better resist infection with TB bacteria if exposed in the future. It is often given to infants and children in countries where TB is common, and its use varies depending on the national immunization policies. The protection offered by the BCG vaccine is moderate and may not last for a very long time.

In addition to its use against TB, the BCG vaccine has also been investigated for its potential therapeutic role in treating bladder cancer and some other types of cancer. The mechanism of action in these cases is thought to be related to the vaccine's ability to stimulate an immune response against abnormal cells.

Poliovirus Vaccine, Inactivated (IPV) is a vaccine used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio), a highly infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. IPV contains inactivated (killed) polioviruses of all three poliovirus types. It works by stimulating an immune response in the body, but because the viruses are inactivated, they cannot cause polio. After vaccination, the immune system recognizes and responds to the inactivated viruses, producing antibodies that protect against future infection with wild, or naturally occurring, polioviruses. IPV is typically given as an injection in the leg or arm, and a series of doses are required for full protection. It is a safe and effective way to prevent polio and its complications.

Rabies vaccines are medical products that contain antigens of the rabies virus, which stimulate an immune response in individuals who receive them. The purpose of rabies vaccines is to prevent the development of rabies, a viral disease that is almost always fatal once symptoms appear.

There are two primary types of rabies vaccines available:

1. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) vaccines: These vaccines are given to individuals who are at high risk of coming into contact with the rabies virus, such as veterinarians, animal handlers, and travelers visiting areas where rabies is common. The vaccine series typically consists of three doses given over a period of 28 days.
2. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) vaccines: These vaccines are administered to individuals who have already been exposed to the rabies virus, usually through a bite or scratch from an infected animal. The vaccine series typically consists of four doses given over a period of 14 days, along with a dose of rabies immune globulin (RIG) to provide immediate protection while the immune system responds to the vaccine.

Both types of rabies vaccines are highly effective at preventing the disease, but it is essential to receive them as soon as possible after exposure or before potential exposure, as the virus can be fatal if left untreated.

Rotavirus vaccines are preventive measures used to protect against rotavirus infections, which are the leading cause of severe diarrhea and dehydration among infants and young children worldwide. These vaccines contain weakened or inactivated forms of the rotavirus, a pathogen that infects and causes symptoms by multiplying inside cells lining the small intestine.

The weakened or inactivated virus in the vaccine stimulates an immune response in the body, enabling it to recognize and fight off future rotavirus infections more effectively. The vaccines are usually administered orally, as a liquid droplet or on a sugar cube, to mimic natural infection through the gastrointestinal tract.

There are currently two licensed rotavirus vaccines available globally:

1. Rotarix (GlaxoSmithKline): This vaccine contains an attenuated (weakened) strain of human rotavirus and is given in a two-dose series, typically at 2 and 4 months of age.
2. RotaTeq (Merck): This vaccine contains five reassortant viruses, combining human and animal strains to provide broader protection. It is administered in a three-dose series, usually at 2, 4, and 6 months of age.

Rotavirus vaccines have been shown to significantly reduce the incidence of severe rotavirus gastroenteritis and related hospitalizations among infants and young children. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the inclusion of rotavirus vaccination in national immunization programs, particularly in countries with high child mortality rates due to diarrheal diseases.

Cholera vaccines are preventive measures used to protect against the infection caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. There are several types of cholera vaccines available, including:

1. Inactivated oral vaccine (ICCV): This vaccine contains killed whole-cell bacteria and is given in two doses, with each dose administered at least 14 days apart. It provides protection for up to six months and can be given to adults and children over the age of one year.
2. Live attenuated oral vaccine (LCV): This vaccine contains weakened live bacteria that are unable to cause disease but still stimulate an immune response. The most commonly used LCV is called CVD 103-HgR, which is given in a single dose and provides protection for up to three months. It can be given to adults and children over the age of six years.
3. Injectable cholera vaccine: This vaccine contains inactivated bacteria and is given as an injection. It is not widely available and its effectiveness is limited compared to oral vaccines.

Cholera vaccines are recommended for travelers visiting areas with known cholera outbreaks, particularly if they plan to eat food or drink water that may be contaminated. They can also be used in response to outbreaks to help control the spread of the disease. However, it is important to note that vaccination alone is not sufficient to prevent cholera infection and good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and safe food handling, should always be followed.

Typhoid-Paratyphoid vaccines are immunizations that protect against typhoid fever and paratyphoid fevers, which are caused by the Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi and Paratyphi, respectively. These vaccines contain inactivated or attenuated bacteria or specific antigens that stimulate an individual's immune system to develop immunity against these diseases without causing the illness itself. There are several types of typhoid-paratyphoid vaccines available, including:

1. Ty21a (oral live attenuated vaccine): This is a live but weakened form of the Salmonella Typhi bacteria. It is given orally in capsule form and requires a series of 4 doses taken every other day. The vaccine provides protection for about 5-7 years.
2. Vi polysaccharide (ViPS) typhoid vaccine: This vaccine contains purified Vi antigens from the Salmonella Typhi bacterium's outer capsular layer. It is given as an injection and provides protection for approximately 2-3 years.
3. Combined typhoid-paratyphoid A and B vaccines (Vi-rEPA): This vaccine combines Vi polysaccharide antigens from Salmonella Typhi and Paratyphi A and B. It is given as an injection and provides protection for about 3 years against typhoid fever and paratyphoid fevers A and B.
4. Typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs): These vaccines combine the Vi polysaccharide antigen from Salmonella Typhi with a protein carrier to enhance the immune response, particularly in children under 2 years of age. TCVs are given as an injection and provide long-lasting protection against typhoid fever.

It is important to note that none of these vaccines provides 100% protection, but they significantly reduce the risk of contracting typhoid or paratyphoid fevers. Additionally, good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and safe food handling, can further minimize the risk of infection.

The Smallpox vaccine is not a live virus vaccine but is instead made from a vaccinia virus, which is a virus related to the variola virus (the virus that causes smallpox). The vaccinia virus used in the vaccine does not cause smallpox, but it does cause a milder illness with symptoms such as a fever and a rash of pustules or blisters at the site of inoculation.

The smallpox vaccine was first developed by Edward Jenner in 1796 and is one of the oldest vaccines still in use today. It has been highly effective in preventing smallpox, which was once a major cause of death and disability worldwide. In fact, smallpox was declared eradicated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1980, thanks in large part to the widespread use of the smallpox vaccine.

Despite the eradication of smallpox, the smallpox vaccine is still used today in certain circumstances. For example, it may be given to laboratory workers who handle the virus or to military personnel who may be at risk of exposure to the virus. The vaccine may also be used as an emergency measure in the event of a bioterrorism attack involving smallpox.

It is important to note that the smallpox vaccine is not without risks and can cause serious side effects, including a severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and myocarditis (inflammation of the heart muscle). As a result, it is only given to people who are at high risk of exposure to the virus and who have been determined to be good candidates for vaccination by a healthcare professional.

A tuberculosis vaccine, also known as the BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine, is a type of immunization used to prevent tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The BCG vaccine contains a weakened strain of the bacteria that causes TB in cattle.

The BCG vaccine works by stimulating an immune response in the body, which helps to protect against severe forms of TB, such as TB meningitis and TB in children. However, it is not very effective at preventing pulmonary TB (TB that affects the lungs) in adults.

The BCG vaccine is not routinely recommended for use in the United States due to the low risk of TB infection in the general population. However, it may be given to people who are at high risk of exposure to TB, such as healthcare workers, laboratory personnel, and people traveling to countries with high rates of TB.

It is important to note that the BCG vaccine does not provide complete protection against TB and that other measures, such as testing and treatment for latent TB infection, are also important for controlling the spread of this disease.

The chickenpox vaccine, also known as varicella vaccine, is a preventive measure against the highly contagious viral infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus. The vaccine contains a live but weakened form of the virus, which stimulates the immune system to produce a response without causing the disease itself.

The chickenpox vaccine is typically given in two doses, with the first dose administered between 12 and 15 months of age and the second dose between 4 and 6 years of age. In some cases, the vaccine may be given to older children, adolescents, or adults who have not previously been vaccinated or who have never had chickenpox.

The chickenpox vaccine is highly effective at preventing severe cases of the disease and reducing the risk of complications such as bacterial infections, pneumonia, and encephalitis. It is also effective at preventing transmission of the virus to others.

Like any vaccine, the chickenpox vaccine can cause mild side effects such as soreness at the injection site, fever, or a mild rash. However, these side effects are generally mild and short-lived. Serious side effects are rare but may include allergic reactions or severe immune responses.

Overall, the chickenpox vaccine is a safe and effective way to prevent this common childhood disease and its potential complications.

The Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis (DTaP) vaccine is a combination immunization that protects against three bacterial diseases: diphtheria, tetanus (lockjaw), and pertussis (whooping cough).

Diphtheria is an upper respiratory infection that can lead to breathing difficulties, heart failure, paralysis, or even death. Tetanus is a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscle stiffness and spasms, leading to "lockjaw." Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory infection characterized by severe coughing fits, which can make it difficult to breathe and may lead to pneumonia, seizures, or brain damage.

The DTaP vaccine contains inactivated toxins (toxoids) from the bacteria that cause these diseases. It is typically given as a series of five shots, with doses administered at 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 15-18 months, and 4-6 years of age. The vaccine helps the immune system develop protection against the diseases without causing the actual illness.

It is important to note that there are other combination vaccines available that protect against these same diseases, such as DT (diphtheria and tetanus toxoids) and Tdap (tetanus, diphtheria, and acellular pertussis), which contain higher doses of the diphtheria and pertussis components. These vaccines are recommended for different age groups and may be used as booster shots to maintain immunity throughout adulthood.

The Mumps Vaccine is a biological preparation intended to induce immunity against mumps, a contagious viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands. The vaccine contains live attenuated (weakened) mumps virus, which stimulates the immune system to develop a protective response without causing the disease.

There are two types of mumps vaccines available:

1. The Jeryl Lynn strain is used in the United States and is part of the Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) vaccine and the Measles, Mumps, Rubella, and Varicella (MMRV) vaccine. This strain is derived from a clinical isolate obtained from the throat washings of a child with mumps in 1963.
2. The Urabe AM9 strain was used in some countries but has been discontinued in many places due to an increased risk of meningitis as a rare complication.

The MMR vaccine is typically given to children at 12-15 months of age and again at 4-6 years of age, providing long-lasting immunity against mumps in most individuals. The vaccine has significantly reduced the incidence of mumps and its complications worldwide.

Hepatitis A vaccines are inactivated or live attenuated viral vaccines that are administered to prevent infection and illness caused by the hepatitis A virus. The vaccine contains antigens that stimulate an immune response in the body, leading to the production of antibodies that protect against future infection with the virus.

The inactivated hepatitis A vaccine is made from viruses that have been chemically treated to destroy their ability to cause disease while preserving their ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is typically given in two doses, six months apart, and provides long-term protection against the virus.

The live attenuated hepatitis A vaccine contains a weakened form of the virus that is unable to cause illness but can still stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine is given as a single dose and provides protection against the virus for at least 20 years.

Hepatitis A vaccines are recommended for people who are at increased risk of infection, including travelers to areas where hepatitis A is common, men who have sex with men, people who use injection drugs, and people with chronic liver disease or clotting factor disorders. The vaccine is also recommended for children in certain states and communities where hepatitis A is endemic.

An immunization schedule is a series of planned dates when a person, usually a child, should receive specific vaccines in order to be fully protected against certain preventable diseases. The schedule is developed based on scientific research and recommendations from health organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

The immunization schedule outlines which vaccines are recommended, the number of doses required, the age at which each dose should be given, and the minimum amount of time that must pass between doses. The schedule may vary depending on factors such as the individual's age, health status, and travel plans.

Immunization schedules are important for ensuring that individuals receive timely protection against vaccine-preventable diseases, and for maintaining high levels of immunity in populations, which helps to prevent the spread of disease. It is important to follow the recommended immunization schedule as closely as possible to ensure optimal protection.

Secondary immunization, also known as "anamnestic response" or "booster," refers to the enhanced immune response that occurs upon re-exposure to an antigen, having previously been immunized or infected with the same pathogen. This response is characterized by a more rapid and robust production of antibodies and memory cells compared to the primary immune response. The secondary immunization aims to maintain long-term immunity against infectious diseases and improve vaccine effectiveness. It usually involves administering additional doses of a vaccine or booster shots after the initial series of immunizations, which helps reinforce the immune system's ability to recognize and combat specific pathogens.

The Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) vaccine is a combination immunization that protects against three infectious diseases: measles, mumps, and rubella. It contains live attenuated viruses of each disease, which stimulate an immune response in the body similar to that produced by natural infection but do not cause the diseases themselves.

The MMR vaccine is typically given in two doses, the first at 12-15 months of age and the second at 4-6 years of age. It is highly effective in preventing these diseases, with over 90% effectiveness reported after a single dose and near 100% effectiveness after the second dose.

Measles is a highly contagious viral disease that can cause fever, rash, cough, runny nose, and red, watery eyes. It can also lead to serious complications such as pneumonia, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), and even death.

Mumps is a viral infection that primarily affects the salivary glands, causing swelling and tenderness in the cheeks and jaw. It can also cause fever, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue. Mumps can lead to serious complications such as deafness, meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), and inflammation of the testicles or ovaries.

Rubella, also known as German measles, is a viral infection that typically causes a mild fever, rash, and swollen lymph nodes. However, if a pregnant woman becomes infected with rubella, it can cause serious birth defects such as hearing impairment, heart defects, and developmental delays in the fetus.

The MMR vaccine is an important tool in preventing these diseases and protecting public health.

Streptococcal vaccines are immunizations designed to protect against infections caused by Streptococcus bacteria. These vaccines contain antigens, which are substances that trigger an immune response and help the body recognize and fight off specific types of Streptococcus bacteria. There are several different types of streptococcal vaccines available or in development, including:

1. Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV): This vaccine protects against Streptococcus pneumoniae, a type of bacteria that can cause pneumonia, meningitis, and other serious infections. PCV is recommended for all children under 2 years old, as well as older children and adults with certain medical conditions.
2. Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV): This vaccine also protects against Streptococcus pneumoniae, but it is recommended for adults 65 and older, as well as younger people with certain medical conditions.
3. Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine: This vaccine is being developed to protect against Group A Streptococcus (GAS), which can cause a variety of infections, including strep throat, skin infections, and serious diseases like rheumatic fever and toxic shock syndrome. There are several different GAS vaccine candidates in various stages of development.
4. Streptococcus agalactiae vaccine: This vaccine is being developed to protect against Group B Streptococcus (GBS), which can cause serious infections in newborns, pregnant women, and older adults with certain medical conditions. There are several different GBS vaccine candidates in various stages of development.

Overall, streptococcal vaccines play an important role in preventing bacterial infections and reducing the burden of disease caused by Streptococcus bacteria.

Anthrax vaccines are biological preparations designed to protect against anthrax, a potentially fatal infectious disease caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax can affect both humans and animals, and it is primarily transmitted through contact with contaminated animal products or, less commonly, through inhalation of spores.

There are two types of anthrax vaccines currently available:

1. Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA): This vaccine is licensed for use in the United States and is approved for pre-exposure prophylaxis in high-risk individuals, such as military personnel and laboratory workers who handle the bacterium. AVA contains a cell-free filtrate of cultured B. anthracis cells that have been chemically treated to render them non-infectious. The vaccine works by stimulating the production of antibodies against protective antigens (PA) present in the bacterial culture.
2. Recombinant Anthrax Vaccine (rPA): This vaccine, also known as BioThrax, is a newer generation anthrax vaccine that was approved for use in the United States in 2015. It contains only the recombinant protective antigen (rPA) of B. anthracis, which is produced using genetic engineering techniques. The rPA vaccine has been shown to be as effective as AVA in generating an immune response and offers several advantages, including a more straightforward manufacturing process, fewer side effects, and a longer shelf life.

Both vaccines require multiple doses for initial immunization, followed by periodic booster shots to maintain protection. Anthrax vaccines are generally safe and effective at preventing anthrax infection; however, they may cause mild to moderate side effects, such as soreness at the injection site, fatigue, and muscle aches. Severe allergic reactions are rare but possible.

It is important to note that anthrax vaccines do not provide immediate protection against anthrax infection. They require several weeks to stimulate an immune response, so they should be administered before potential exposure to the bacterium. In cases of known or suspected exposure to anthrax, antibiotics are used as a primary means of preventing and treating the disease.

Dengue vaccines are designed to protect against dengue fever, a mosquito-borne viral disease that can cause severe flu-like symptoms and potentially life-threatening complications. Dengue is caused by four distinct serotypes of the virus (DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and DENV-4), and infection with one serotype does not provide immunity against the others.

The first licensed dengue vaccine, Dengvaxia (CYD-TDV), is a chimeric yellow fever-dengue tetravalent vaccine developed by Sanofi Pasteur. It is approved for use in several countries and has demonstrated efficacy against dengue fever caused by all four serotypes in clinical trials. However, the vaccine has raised concerns about the risk of severe disease in individuals who have not been previously exposed to dengue. As a result, it is recommended primarily for people with a documented past dengue infection or living in areas with high dengue prevalence and where the benefits outweigh the risks.

Another dengue vaccine candidate, Takeda's TAK-003 (also known as TDV), is a live attenuated tetravalent dengue vaccine that has shown efficacy against all four serotypes in clinical trials. It was granted approval by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and several other countries for use in individuals aged 4-16 years old, living in endemic areas.

Research and development of additional dengue vaccine candidates are ongoing to address concerns about safety, efficacy, and accessibility, particularly for at-risk populations in low- and middle-income countries where dengue is most prevalent.

Virosomes are artificially constructed spherical vesicles composed of lipids and viral envelope proteins. They are used as a delivery system for vaccines and other therapeutic agents. In the context of vaccines, virosomes can be used to present viral antigens to the immune system in a way that mimics a natural infection, thereby inducing a strong immune response.

Virosome-based vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines. For example, they are non-infectious, meaning they do not contain live or attenuated viruses, which makes them safer for certain populations such as immunocompromised individuals. Additionally, virosomes can be engineered to target specific cells in the body, leading to more efficient uptake and presentation of antigens to the immune system.

Virosome-based vaccines have been developed for a variety of diseases, including influenza, hepatitis A, and HIV. While they are not yet widely used, they show promise as a safe and effective alternative to traditional vaccine approaches.

Immunization is defined medically as the process where an individual is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically through the administration of a vaccine. The vaccine stimulates the body's own immune system to recognize and fight off the specific disease-causing organism, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of future infections with that organism.

Immunization can be achieved actively, where the person is given a vaccine to trigger an immune response, or passively, where antibodies are transferred to the person through immunoglobulin therapy. Immunizations are an important part of preventive healthcare and have been successful in controlling and eliminating many infectious diseases worldwide.

Viral hepatitis vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection caused by various hepatitis viruses, including hepatitis A and B. These vaccines contain antigens that stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that protect against infection with the corresponding virus. The vaccines are typically administered through injection and may require multiple doses for full protection.

The hepatitis A vaccine is made from inactivated hepatitis A virus, while the hepatitis B vaccine is made from recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen. Both vaccines have been shown to be highly effective in preventing infection and reducing the risk of complications associated with viral hepatitis, such as liver disease and liver cancer.

It's important to note that there are no vaccines available for other types of viral hepatitis, such as hepatitis C, D, or E. Prevention strategies for these types of viral hepatitis typically involve measures to reduce exposure to the virus, such as safe injection practices and avoiding high-risk behaviors like sharing needles or having unprotected sex with infected individuals.

Poliovirus Vaccine, Oral (OPV) is a vaccine used to prevent poliomyelitis (polio). It contains live attenuated (weakened) polioviruses, which stimulate an immune response in the body and provide protection against all three types of wild, infectious polioviruses. OPV is given by mouth, usually in drops, and it replicates in the gastrointestinal tract, where it induces a strong immune response. This response not only protects the individual who receives the vaccine but also helps to stop the spread of poliovirus in the community, providing indirect protection (herd immunity) to those who are not vaccinated. OPV is safe, effective, and easy to administer, making it an important tool for global polio eradication efforts. However, due to the risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP), inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) is recommended for routine immunization in some countries.

The Yellow Fever Vaccine is a vaccine that protects against the yellow fever virus, which is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. The vaccine contains live, weakened yellow fever virus, and it works by stimulating the immune system to produce an immune response that provides protection against the disease.

The yellow fever vaccine is recommended for people who are traveling to areas where yellow fever is common, including parts of Africa and South America. It is also required for entry into some countries in these regions. The vaccine is generally safe and effective, but it can cause mild side effects such as headache, muscle pain, and fever in some people. Serious side effects are rare, but may include allergic reactions or infection with the weakened virus used in the vaccine.

It's important to note that yellow fever vaccine may not be recommended for certain individuals, including infants younger than 6 months, pregnant women, people with weakened immune systems, and those with a history of severe allergic reaction to a previous dose of the vaccine or any component of the vaccine. It is always best to consult with a healthcare provider before receiving any vaccination.

Bacterial antibodies are a type of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by bacteria. These antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the bacterial cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Bacterial antibodies can be classified into several types based on their structure and function, including IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against bacterial infections and provide immunity to future infections with the same bacteria.

A plague vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against the bacterial infection caused by Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague. The vaccine contains killed or weakened forms of the bacteria, which stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and activate immune cells that can recognize and fight off the infection if the person is exposed to the bacteria in the future.

There are several types of plague vaccines available, including whole-cell killed vaccines, live attenuated vaccines, and subunit vaccines. The choice of vaccine depends on various factors, such as the target population, the route of exposure (e.g., respiratory or cutaneous), and the desired duration of immunity.

Plague vaccines have been used for many years to protect military personnel and individuals at high risk of exposure to plague, such as laboratory workers and people living in areas where plague is endemic. However, their use is not widespread, and they are not currently recommended for general use in the United States or other developed countries.

It's important to note that while plague vaccines can provide some protection against the disease, they are not 100% effective, and other measures such as antibiotics and insect control are also important for preventing and treating plague infections.

A fungal vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity against fungal infections. It contains one or more fungal antigens, which are substances that can stimulate an immune response, along with adjuvants to enhance the immune response. The goal of fungal vaccines is to protect against invasive fungal diseases, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing chemotherapy, organ transplantation, or HIV/AIDS treatment.

Fungal vaccines can work by inducing both humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Humoral immunity involves the production of antibodies that recognize and neutralize fungal antigens, while cell-mediated immunity involves the activation of T cells to directly attack infected cells.

Currently, there are no licensed fungal vaccines available for human use, although several candidates are in various stages of development and clinical trials. Some examples include vaccines against Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Pneumocystis jirovecii.

Rubella vaccine is a preventive measure used to immunize individuals against rubella, also known as German measles. It contains inactivated or weakened forms of the rubella virus that stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body. The two types of rubella vaccines available are:

1. Live Attenuated Rubella Vaccine (RAV): This vaccine contains a weakened form of the rubella virus, which triggers an immune response without causing the disease. It is the most commonly used rubella vaccine and is often combined with measles and mumps vaccines to create the Measles-Mumps-Rubella (MMR) or Measles-Mumps-Rubella-Varicella (MMRV) vaccines.

2. Inactivated Rubella Vaccine: This vaccine contains a killed rubella virus, which is less commonly used but can still provide immunity against the disease.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that children receive one dose of MMR vaccine at 12-15 months of age and another dose at 4-6 years of age. This schedule ensures optimal protection against rubella and other diseases included in the vaccines.

It is important to note that pregnant women should not receive the rubella vaccine, as it can potentially harm the developing fetus. Women who are planning to become pregnant should ensure they have had their rubella immunization before conceiving.

Acellular vaccines are a type of vaccine that contain one or more antigens but do not contain whole cell parts or components of the pathogen. They are designed to produce an immune response in the body that is specific to the antigen(s) contained within the vaccine, while minimizing the risk of adverse reactions associated with whole cell vaccines.

Acellular vaccines are often produced using recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene from the pathogen is inserted into a different organism (such as yeast or bacteria) that can produce large quantities of the antigen. The antigen is then purified and used to create the vaccine.

One example of an acellular vaccine is the DTaP vaccine, which is used to protect against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (whooping cough). This vaccine contains only a small portion of the pertussis bacterium, along with purified versions of the toxins produced by the bacteria. By contrast, whole cell pertussis vaccines contain entire killed bacteria, which can cause more frequent and severe side effects.

Overall, acellular vaccines offer a safer and more targeted approach to immunization than whole cell vaccines, while still providing effective protection against infectious diseases.

I believe there may be a slight confusion in your question. AIDS is a condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, and it weakens the immune system, making people more susceptible to other infections and diseases. There is no vaccine for AIDS itself. However, there are vaccines being developed and tested to prevent HIV infection, which would help prevent AIDS from developing.

SAIDS is not a medical term. If you meant to ask about "HIV vaccines," I can provide a definition:

An HIV vaccine aims to stimulate the immune system to produce an effective response against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). An effective HIV vaccine would ideally prevent the initial infection or significantly reduce viral replication and disease progression in infected individuals. Currently, no licensed HIV vaccines are available, but research is ongoing to develop a protective vaccine against HIV infection.

Salmonella vaccines are immunizations that are developed to protect against Salmonella infections, which are caused by bacteria of the Salmonella enterica species. These vaccines typically contain antigens or weakened forms of the Salmonella bacteria that stimulate an immune response in the body, enabling it to recognize and fight off future Salmonella infections.

There are two main types of Salmonella vaccines:

1. Live Attenuated Vaccines: These vaccines contain weakened (attenuated) forms of the Salmonella bacteria that can still replicate but at a much slower rate and with reduced virulence compared to the wild-type bacteria. Examples include Ty21a, a live oral typhoid vaccine, and χ 144, an experimental live oral vaccine against nontyphoidal Salmonella serovars.
2. Inactivated (Killed) Vaccines: These vaccines contain killed Salmonella bacteria or their components, such as proteins or polysaccharides. They cannot replicate and are generally considered safer than live attenuated vaccines. However, they may not stimulate as strong an immune response compared to live vaccines. An example is the Vi polysaccharide vaccine against typhoid fever.

Salmonella vaccines are primarily used for preventing Salmonella infections in humans and animals, particularly those that cause typhoid fever and nontyphoidal Salmonella (NTS) infections. Vaccination is an essential component of controlling Salmonella infections, especially in areas with poor sanitation and hygiene, where the risk of exposure to Salmonella bacteria is higher.

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are nanostructures that mimic the organization and conformation of authentic viruses but lack the genetic material required for replication. VLPs can be produced from one or more viral proteins, which can be derived from various expression systems including bacteria, yeast, insect, or mammalian cells.

VLP-based vaccines are a type of vaccine that uses these virus-like particles to induce an immune response in the body. These vaccines can be designed to target specific viruses or other pathogens and have been shown to be safe and effective in inducing both humoral and cellular immunity.

VLPs resemble authentic viruses in their structure, size, and antigenic properties, making them highly immunogenic. They can be designed to present specific epitopes or antigens from a pathogen, which can stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies and activate T-cells that recognize and attack the pathogen.

VLP vaccines have been developed for several viruses, including human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). They offer several advantages over traditional vaccines, such as a strong immune response, safety, and stability.

Ebola vaccines are medical products designed to confer immunity against the Ebola virus, a deadly pathogen that causes hemorrhagic fever. Several Ebola vaccine candidates have been developed and tested in clinical trials, with some showing promising results. The most advanced Ebola vaccine is rVSV-ZEBOV, which has been shown to be highly effective in preventing the disease in clinical trials. It uses a weakened version of the vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) to deliver a protein from the Ebola virus surface, triggering an immune response that protects against infection. Other Ebola vaccine candidates use different approaches, such as delivering Ebola virus genes using a harmless adenovirus vector or using inactivated whole Ebola viruses. These vaccines are still in development and have not yet been approved for widespread use.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral infection that attacks the respiratory system of humans. It is caused by influenza viruses A, B, or C and is characterized by the sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, muscle pain, sore throat, cough, runny nose, and fatigue. Influenza can lead to complications such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and ear infections, and can be particularly dangerous for young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. The virus is spread through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can also survive on surfaces for a period of time. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, which makes it necessary to get vaccinated annually to protect against the most recent and prevalent strains.

Neutralizing antibodies are a type of antibody that defends against pathogens such as viruses or bacteria by neutralizing their ability to infect cells. They do this by binding to specific regions on the surface proteins of the pathogen, preventing it from attaching to and entering host cells. This renders the pathogen ineffective and helps to prevent or reduce the severity of infection. Neutralizing antibodies can be produced naturally in response to an infection or vaccination, or they can be generated artificially for therapeutic purposes.

Staphylococcal vaccines are immunizations that are developed to protect against infections caused by the Staphylococcus bacteria, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. These vaccines typically contain components of the bacterial cell wall or toxins that stimulate an immune response in the body, leading to the production of antibodies that can recognize and neutralize the bacteria if they invade the body in the future.

There are currently no licensed staphylococcal vaccines available for use in humans, although several candidates are in various stages of development. These vaccines aim to prevent a range of staphylococcal infections, including skin and soft tissue infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and toxic shock syndrome.

It's important to note that while antibiotics can be effective against staphylococcal infections, the bacteria have become increasingly resistant to these drugs over time, making vaccines an important area of research and development for preventing and controlling the spread of these infections.

Diphtheria-Tetanus-acellular Pertussis (DTaP) vaccines are a type of combination vaccine that protect against three serious diseases caused by bacteria: diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (also known as whooping cough).

Diphtheria is a highly contagious respiratory infection that can cause breathing difficulties, heart failure, paralysis, and even death. Tetanus, also known as lockjaw, is a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscle stiffness and spasms, which can be severe enough to cause broken bones or suffocation. Pertussis is a highly contagious respiratory infection that causes severe coughing fits, making it difficult to breathe, eat, or drink.

The "a" in DTaP stands for "acellular," which means that the pertussis component of the vaccine contains only parts of the bacteria, rather than the whole cells used in older vaccines. This reduces the risk of side effects associated with the whole-cell pertussis vaccine while still providing effective protection against the disease.

DTaP vaccines are typically given as a series of five shots, starting at 2 months of age and ending at 4-6 years of age. Booster doses may be recommended later in life to maintain immunity. DTaP vaccines are an essential part of routine childhood immunization schedules and have significantly reduced the incidence of these diseases worldwide.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) vaccines are medical products being developed to prevent or ameliorate infection and disease caused by the human cytomegalovirus. CMV is a type of herpesvirus that can cause serious health problems in people with weakened immune systems, such as those undergoing organ transplantation, people living with HIV/AIDS, and newborns infected with the virus before birth (congenital CMV infection).

There are currently no approved vaccines for CMV. However, several vaccine candidates are being investigated in clinical trials to evaluate their safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy. These vaccine candidates use various approaches, such as:

1. Live-attenuated viruses: These vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus that can stimulate an immune response without causing disease. An example is the Towne vaccine, which has been studied in clinical trials for several decades.
2. Recombinant proteins: These vaccines use specific viral proteins to induce an immune response. For instance, a glycoprotein B (gB) subunit vaccine has shown promising results in phase II clinical trials.
3. Virus-like particles (VLPs): VLPs mimic the structure of the virus but do not contain any viral genetic material. They can be used to induce an immune response without causing infection.
4. DNA vaccines: These vaccines use plasmids containing CMV genes to stimulate an immune response. A DNA vaccine encoding the CMV phosphoprotein 65 (pp65) has been tested in clinical trials.
5. mRNA vaccines: Similar to DNA vaccines, mRNA vaccines use genetic material to induce an immune response. Moderna Therapeutics is developing an mRNA vaccine candidate for CMV.

The development of a safe and effective CMV vaccine remains a significant public health priority, as CMV infection can lead to severe complications in vulnerable populations.

Immunization programs, also known as vaccination programs, are organized efforts to administer vaccines to populations or communities in order to protect individuals from vaccine-preventable diseases. These programs are typically implemented by public health agencies and involve the planning, coordination, and delivery of immunizations to ensure that a high percentage of people are protected against specific infectious diseases.

Immunization programs may target specific age groups, such as infants and young children, or populations at higher risk of certain diseases, such as travelers, healthcare workers, or individuals with weakened immune systems. The goals of immunization programs include controlling and eliminating vaccine-preventable diseases, reducing the morbidity and mortality associated with these diseases, and protecting vulnerable populations from outbreaks and epidemics.

Immunization programs may be delivered through a variety of settings, including healthcare facilities, schools, community centers, and mobile clinics. They often involve partnerships between government agencies, healthcare providers, non-governmental organizations, and communities to ensure that vaccines are accessible, affordable, and acceptable to the populations they serve. Effective immunization programs require strong leadership, adequate funding, robust data systems, and ongoing monitoring and evaluation to assess their impact and identify areas for improvement.

"Intramuscular injections" refer to a medical procedure where a medication or vaccine is administered directly into the muscle tissue. This is typically done using a hypodermic needle and syringe, and the injection is usually given into one of the large muscles in the body, such as the deltoid (shoulder), vastus lateralis (thigh), or ventrogluteal (buttock) muscles.

Intramuscular injections are used for a variety of reasons, including to deliver medications that need to be absorbed slowly over time, to bypass stomach acid and improve absorption, or to ensure that the medication reaches the bloodstream quickly and directly. Common examples of medications delivered via intramuscular injection include certain vaccines, antibiotics, and pain relievers.

It is important to follow proper technique when administering intramuscular injections to minimize pain and reduce the risk of complications such as infection or injury to surrounding tissues. Proper site selection, needle length and gauge, and injection technique are all critical factors in ensuring a safe and effective intramuscular injection.

The Diphtheria-Tetanus vaccine, also known as the DT vaccine or Td vaccine (if diphtheria toxoid is not included), is a combination vaccine that protects against two potentially serious bacterial infections: diphtheria and tetanus.

Diphtheria is a respiratory infection that can cause breathing difficulties, heart problems, and nerve damage. Tetanus, also known as lockjaw, is a bacterial infection that affects the nervous system and causes muscle stiffness and spasms, particularly in the jaw and neck.

The vaccine contains small amounts of inactivated toxins (toxoids) from the bacteria that cause diphtheria and tetanus. When the vaccine is administered, it stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies that provide protection against these diseases.

In addition to protecting against diphtheria and tetanus, some formulations of the vaccine may also include protection against pertussis (whooping cough), polio, or hepatitis B. The DTaP vaccine is a similar combination vaccine that includes protection against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis, but uses acellular pertussis components instead of the whole-cell pertussis component used in the DT vaccine.

The Diphtheria-Tetanus vaccine is typically given as a series of shots in childhood, with booster shots recommended every 10 years to maintain immunity. It is an important part of routine childhood vaccination and is also recommended for adults who have not received the full series of shots or whose protection has waned over time.

Poliovirus vaccines are preparations used for active immunization against poliomyelitis, a highly infectious disease caused by the poliovirus. The two types of poliovirus vaccines available are:

1. Inactivated Poliovirus Vaccine (IPV): This vaccine contains inactivated (killed) poliovirus strains of all three serotypes. IPV is typically administered through an injection, usually in combination with other vaccines. It provides a strong immune response and does not carry the risk of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP), which is a rare but serious adverse event associated with the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV).

2. Oral Poliovirus Vaccine (OPV): This vaccine contains live attenuated (weakened) poliovirus strains of all three serotypes. OPV is administered orally and induces both humoral and intestinal immunity, which helps prevent the spread of the virus in a community. However, there is a small risk of VAPP associated with this vaccine, especially after multiple doses. In rare cases, the weakened virus can revert to its virulent form and cause paralytic polio in the vaccinated individual or their close contacts.

Both IPV and OPV have been instrumental in global efforts to eradicate polio. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends using IPV in routine immunization programs, while using OPV during supplementary immunization activities in areas with a high risk of poliovirus transmission.

Intranasal administration refers to the delivery of medication or other substances through the nasal passages and into the nasal cavity. This route of administration can be used for systemic absorption of drugs or for localized effects in the nasal area.

When a medication is administered intranasally, it is typically sprayed or dropped into the nostril, where it is absorbed by the mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity. The medication can then pass into the bloodstream and be distributed throughout the body for systemic effects. Intranasal administration can also result in direct absorption of the medication into the local tissues of the nasal cavity, which can be useful for treating conditions such as allergies, migraines, or pain in the nasal area.

Intranasal administration has several advantages over other routes of administration. It is non-invasive and does not require needles or injections, making it a more comfortable option for many people. Additionally, intranasal administration can result in faster onset of action than oral administration, as the medication bypasses the digestive system and is absorbed directly into the bloodstream. However, there are also some limitations to this route of administration, including potential issues with dosing accuracy and patient tolerance.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) vaccines are designed to protect against infections caused by various strains of the E. coli bacterium. These vaccines typically contain inactivated or attenuated (weakened) forms of the bacteria, which stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body. The immune system learns to recognize and fight off the specific strain of E. coli used in the vaccine, providing protection against future infections with that strain.

There are several types of E. coli vaccines available or in development, including:

1. Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) vaccines: These vaccines protect against STEC strains, such as O157:H7 and non-O157 STECs, which can cause severe illness, including hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS).
2. Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) vaccines: These vaccines target ETEC strains that are a common cause of traveler's diarrhea in people visiting areas with poor sanitation.
3. Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) vaccines: EPEC strains can cause persistent diarrhea, especially in young children in developing countries. Vaccines against these strains are still in the research and development stage.
4. Extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC) vaccines: These vaccines aim to protect against ExPEC strains that can cause urinary tract infections, sepsis, and meningitis.

It is important to note that different E. coli vaccines are designed for specific purposes and may not provide cross-protection against other strains or types of E. coli infections.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

West Nile Virus (WNV) vaccines are immunizations that are designed to protect against the West Nile virus, which is a single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the family Flaviviridae. The virus is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes, particularly those of the Culex species.

There are currently no licensed WNV vaccines available for human use in the United States or Europe. However, there are several veterinary vaccines that have been developed and approved for use in horses and other animals, such as birds and geese. These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus, which can help prevent infection and reduce the severity of symptoms in animals that do become infected.

Human WNV vaccine candidates are in various stages of development and testing. Some of these vaccines use inactivated or weakened forms of the virus, while others use only a portion of the viral protein to stimulate an immune response. While these vaccines have shown promise in clinical trials, further research is needed to determine their safety and effectiveness in larger populations before they can be approved for widespread use.

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests are a type of serological assay used in medical laboratories to detect and measure the amount of antibodies present in a patient's serum. These tests are commonly used to diagnose viral infections, such as influenza or HIV, by identifying the presence of antibodies that bind to specific viral antigens and prevent hemagglutination (the agglutination or clumping together of red blood cells).

In an HI test, a small amount of the patient's serum is mixed with a known quantity of the viral antigen, which has been treated to attach to red blood cells. If the patient's serum contains antibodies that bind to the viral antigen, they will prevent the antigen from attaching to the red blood cells and inhibit hemagglutination. The degree of hemagglutination inhibition can be measured and used to estimate the amount of antibody present in the patient's serum.

HI tests are relatively simple and inexpensive to perform, but they have some limitations. For example, they may not detect early-stage infections before the body has had a chance to produce antibodies, and they may not be able to distinguish between different strains of the same virus. Nonetheless, HI tests remain an important tool for diagnosing viral infections and monitoring immune responses to vaccination or infection.

Shigella vaccines are immunizations that are developed to protect against Shigella infection, which is caused by the bacterium Shigella spp. These vaccines aim to stimulate the immune system to produce an immune response (the production of antibodies and activation of immune cells) that will provide protection against future Shigella infections.

There are currently no licensed Shigella vaccines available for use, although several candidate vaccines are in various stages of development and clinical trials. These vaccines typically contain inactivated or attenuated (weakened) forms of the bacteria, or specific components of the bacteria that can stimulate an immune response.

Shigella infection can cause a range of symptoms, including diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and tenesmus (the strong, frequent urge to have a bowel movement). In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as dehydration, seizures, and hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), which is a serious condition that can cause kidney failure. Shigella infection is most commonly transmitted through contaminated food or water, or direct contact with an infected person's feces.

Neutralization tests are a type of laboratory assay used in microbiology and immunology to measure the ability of a substance, such as an antibody or antitoxin, to neutralize the activity of a toxin or infectious agent. In these tests, the substance to be tested is mixed with a known quantity of the toxin or infectious agent, and the mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions. After incubation, the mixture is tested for residual toxicity or infectivity using a variety of methods, such as cell culture assays, animal models, or biochemical assays.

The neutralization titer is then calculated based on the highest dilution of the test substance that completely neutralizes the toxin or infectious agent. Neutralization tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation of immune responses to vaccines, as well as in the detection and quantification of toxins and other harmful substances.

Examples of neutralization tests include the serum neutralization test for measles antibodies, the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for dengue virus antibodies, and the cytotoxicity neutralization assay for botulinum neurotoxins.

Antibody formation, also known as humoral immune response, is the process by which the immune system produces proteins called antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign substance (antigen) in the body. This process involves several steps:

1. Recognition: The antigen is recognized and bound by a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell, which then becomes activated.
2. Differentiation: The activated B cell undergoes differentiation to become a plasma cell, which is a type of cell that produces and secretes large amounts of antibodies.
3. Antibody production: The plasma cells produce and release antibodies, which are proteins made up of four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains and two light chains) arranged in a Y-shape. Each antibody has two binding sites that can recognize and bind to specific regions on the antigen called epitopes.
4. Neutralization or elimination: The antibodies bind to the antigens, neutralizing them or marking them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to prevent the spread of infection and protect the body from harmful substances.

Antibody formation is an important part of the adaptive immune response, which allows the body to specifically recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens and foreign substances.

The Herpes Zoster vaccine, also known as the shingles vaccine, is a preventive measure against the reactivation of the varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in individuals who have previously had chickenpox. The vaccine contains a live but weakened form of VZV that boosts the immune system's ability to recognize and fight off the virus, thereby reducing the risk of developing shingles and its complications. It is typically administered as a single dose for people aged 50 and older, or as a two-dose series for those aged 19 and older who have weakened immune systems.

Polysorbates are a type of nonionic surfactant (a compound that lowers the surface tension between two substances, such as oil and water) commonly used in pharmaceuticals, foods, and cosmetics. They are derived from sorbitol and reacted with ethylene oxide to create a polyoxyethylene structure. The most common types of polysorbates used in medicine are polysorbate 20, polysorbate 40, and polysorbate 60, which differ in the number of oxyethylene groups in their molecular structure.

Polysorbates are often added to pharmaceutical formulations as emulsifiers, solubilizers, or stabilizers. They help to improve the solubility and stability of drugs that are otherwise insoluble in water, allowing for better absorption and bioavailability. Polysorbates can also prevent the aggregation and precipitation of proteins in injectable formulations.

In addition to their use in pharmaceuticals, polysorbates are also used as emulsifiers in food products such as ice cream, salad dressings, and baked goods. They help to mix oil and water-based ingredients together and prevent them from separating. In cosmetics, polysorbates are used as surfactants, solubilizers, and stabilizers in a variety of personal care products.

It is important to note that some people may have allergic reactions to polysorbates, particularly those with sensitivities to sorbitol or other ingredients used in their production. Therefore, it is essential to carefully consider the potential risks and benefits of using products containing polysorbates in individuals who may be at risk for adverse reactions.

Humoral immunity is a type of immune response in which the body produces proteins called antibodies that circulate in bodily fluids such as blood and help to protect against infection. This form of immunity involves the interaction between antigens (foreign substances that trigger an immune response) and soluble factors, including antibodies, complement proteins, and cytokines.

When a pathogen enters the body, it is recognized as foreign by the immune system, which triggers the production of specific antibodies to bind to and neutralize or destroy the pathogen. These antibodies are produced by B cells, a type of white blood cell that is part of the adaptive immune system.

Humoral immunity provides protection against extracellular pathogens, such as bacteria and viruses, that exist outside of host cells. It is an important component of the body's defense mechanisms and plays a critical role in preventing and fighting off infections.

A Brucella vaccine is a type of immunization used to protect against brucellosis, an infectious disease caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella. The most commonly used vaccine is the Brucella melitensis Rev-1 strain, which is administered to sheep and goats to prevent the spread of the disease to humans through contaminated food and animal contact.

The Brucella vaccine works by stimulating the immune system to produce a protective response against the bacteria. When the vaccinated animal encounters the actual bacterial infection, their immune system is better prepared to fight it off and prevent the development of clinical disease.

It's important to note that the Brucella vaccine is not approved for use in humans due to the risk of severe side effects and the possibility of causing a false positive result on brucellosis diagnostic tests. Therefore, it should only be administered to animals under the supervision of a veterinarian.

Tetanus toxoid is a purified and inactivated form of the tetanus toxin, which is derived from the bacterium Clostridium tetani. It is used as a vaccine to induce active immunity against tetanus, a potentially fatal disease caused by this toxin. The toxoid is produced through a series of chemical treatments that modify the toxic properties of the tetanus toxin while preserving its antigenic qualities. This allows the immune system to recognize and develop protective antibodies against the toxin without causing illness. Tetanus toxoid is often combined with diphtheria and/or pertussis toxoids in vaccines such as DTaP, Tdap, and Td.

Herpesvirus vaccines are immunizations designed to protect against infections caused by herpesviruses. These viruses include herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), which primarily causes oral herpes, and herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), which primarily causes genital herpes. Additionally, other herpesviruses such as varicella-zoster virus (VZV), which causes chickenpox and shingles, and cytomegalovirus (CMV), which can cause serious complications in newborns and immunocompromised individuals, are also targeted by herpesvirus vaccines.

Herpesvirus vaccines work by exposing the immune system to a weakened or inactivated form of the virus, or to specific viral proteins, which triggers an immune response. This response includes the production of antibodies and activation of T-cells that recognize and attack the virus if it enters the body in the future.

Currently, there are vaccines available for HSV-1 and HSV-2, but they are not widely used. The only FDA-approved herpesvirus vaccine is for VZV, which is marketed as Varivax and prevents chickenpox and reduces the risk of shingles. There are also several experimental vaccines in development for other herpesviruses, including HSV-1, HSV-2, and CMV.

An "injection, intradermal" refers to a type of injection where a small quantity of a substance is introduced into the layer of skin between the epidermis and dermis, using a thin gauge needle. This technique is often used for diagnostic or research purposes, such as conducting allergy tests or administering immunizations in a way that stimulates a strong immune response. The injection site typically produces a small, raised bump (wheal) that disappears within a few hours. It's important to note that intradermal injections should be performed by trained medical professionals to minimize the risk of complications.

Leishmaniasis vaccines do not currently exist for human use, despite extensive research efforts. However, the concept and goal of a leishmaniasis vaccine refer to a potential prophylactic treatment that would prevent or significantly reduce the risk of contracting Leishmania infections, which cause various clinical manifestations of the disease.

Leishmaniasis is a vector-borne neglected tropical disease caused by protozoan parasites of the Leishmania genus, transmitted through the bite of infected female sandflies. The disease has diverse clinical presentations, ranging from self-healing cutaneous lesions (localized cutaneous leishmaniasis) to destructive mucocutaneous forms (mucocutaneous leishmaniasis) and potentially fatal visceral leishmaniasis, also known as kala-azar.

The development of an effective vaccine against Leishmania infections is challenging due to the complexity of the parasite's life cycle, genetic diversity, and the variety of clinical outcomes it can cause. Several vaccine candidates have been investigated, primarily focusing on inducing cell-mediated immunity, particularly a Th1 response. These candidates include:

1. First-generation vaccines: These are whole-parasite or live-attenuated vaccines, such as Leishmania major (Lm) strain Friedlin and Leishmania tarentolae. Although these vaccines have shown promising results in animal models, their use in humans is limited due to safety concerns.
2. Second-generation vaccines: These involve subunit or recombinant protein vaccines, which utilize specific antigens from the parasite to stimulate an immune response. Examples include Leishmania antigens such as Leishmania major stress-inducible protein 1 (LiSP1), Leishmania donovani A2, and Leishmania infantum nucleoside hydrolase (LiNH36).
3. Third-generation vaccines: These are DNA or RNA/mRNA vaccines that encode specific antigens from the parasite to stimulate an immune response. Examples include plasmid DNA vaccines encoding Leishmania major HSP70 and Leishmania donovani A2.
4. Adjuvant systems: To enhance the immunogenicity of these vaccine candidates, various adjuvants are being explored, such as saponins (QS-21), cytokines (GM-CSF), and TLR agonists (CpG oligodeoxynucleotides).

Despite significant progress in developing Leishmania vaccines, no licensed vaccine is currently available for human use. Further research is required to optimize the formulation, delivery, and safety of these vaccine candidates to ensure their effectiveness against various Leishmania species and clinical manifestations.

Aluminum hydroxide is a medication that contains the active ingredient aluminum hydroxide, which is an inorganic compound. It is commonly used as an antacid to neutralize stomach acid and relieve symptoms of acid reflux and heartburn. Aluminum hydroxide works by reacting with the acid in the stomach to form a physical barrier that prevents the acid from backing up into the esophagus.

In addition to its use as an antacid, aluminum hydroxide is also used as a phosphate binder in patients with kidney disease. It works by binding to phosphate in the gut and preventing it from being absorbed into the bloodstream, which can help to control high phosphate levels in the body.

Aluminum hydroxide is available over-the-counter and by prescription in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquid suspensions. It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and to talk to a healthcare provider if symptoms persist or worsen.

'Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype' is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes flu in humans and animals. It contains certain proteins called hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) on its surface, with this subtype specifically having H1 and N1 antigens. The H1N1 strain is well-known for causing the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which was a global outbreak of flu that resulted in significant morbidity and mortality. This subtype can also cause seasonal flu, although the severity and symptoms may vary. It is important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, and new strains or subtypes can emerge over time, requiring regular updates to vaccines to protect against them.

Alum compounds are a type of double sulfate salt, typically consisting of aluminum sulfate and another metal sulfate. The most common variety is potassium alum, or potassium aluminum sulfate (KAl(SO4)2·12H2O). Alum compounds have a wide range of uses, including water purification, tanning leather, dyeing and printing textiles, and as a food additive for baking powder and pickling. They are also used in medicine as astringents to reduce bleeding and swelling, and to soothe skin irritations. Alum compounds have the ability to make proteins in living cells become more stable, which can be useful in medical treatments.

Herpes simplex virus vaccines are types of vaccines that are being developed to prevent infections caused by the herpes simplex viruses (HSV), which include HSV-1 and HSV-2. These viruses can cause painful blisters or sores on the skin or mucous membranes, such as those found inside the mouth or genitals.

There are currently no approved vaccines for HSV-1 or HSV-2, although several candidates are in various stages of development. The goal of an HSV vaccine is to stimulate the immune system to produce a strong and durable response that can prevent infection with the virus or reduce the severity and frequency of outbreaks in people who are already infected.

HSV vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless piece of the virus, such as a protein or a weakened or killed virus, to the body. This triggers the immune system to produce antibodies and activate immune cells that can recognize and attack the virus if it enters the body in the future. Some HSV vaccine candidates are designed to stimulate both arms of the immune system (humoral and cell-mediated immunity), while others focus on one or the other.

While there is no cure for herpes simplex virus infections, a successful vaccine could help prevent the spread of the virus and reduce the burden of disease.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

Diphtheria toxoid is a modified form of the diphtheria toxin that has been made harmless but still stimulates an immune response. It is used in vaccines to provide immunity against diphtheria, a serious bacterial infection that can cause breathing difficulties, heart failure, and paralysis. The toxoid is typically combined with other components in a vaccine, such as tetanus toxoid and pertussis vaccine, to form a combination vaccine that protects against multiple diseases.

The diphtheria toxoid is made by treating the diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde, which modifies the toxin's structure and makes it nontoxic while still retaining its ability to stimulate an immune response. When the toxoid is introduced into the body through vaccination, the immune system recognizes it as a foreign substance and produces antibodies against it. These antibodies then provide protection against future infections with the diphtheria bacteria.

The diphtheria toxoid vaccine is usually given as part of a routine childhood immunization schedule, starting at 2 months of age. Booster shots are recommended throughout childhood and adolescence, and adults may also need booster shots if they have not received them previously or if their immune status has changed.

Squalene is a organic compound that is a polyunsaturated triterpene. It is a natural component of human skin surface lipids and sebum, where it plays a role in maintaining the integrity and permeability barrier of the stratum corneum. Squalene is also found in various plant and animal tissues, including olive oil, wheat germ oil, and shark liver oil.

In the body, squalene is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and other sterols. It is produced in the liver and transported to other tissues via low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). Squalene has been studied for its potential health benefits due to its antioxidant properties, as well as its ability to modulate immune function and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential benefits.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) vaccines are immunizations designed to protect against the RSV infection, which is a major cause of respiratory tract illnesses in infants and young children worldwide. The virus can also cause serious illness in older adults and people with weakened immune systems.

There are currently no approved RSV vaccines available on the market, although several candidates are in various stages of development and clinical trials. Most of the vaccine candidates are aimed at preventing severe lower respiratory tract disease caused by RSV infection in infants and young children.

RSV vaccines typically work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies against the virus, which can help prevent infection or reduce the severity of symptoms if infection occurs. Some vaccine candidates use live-attenuated viruses, while others use inactivated viruses or viral proteins to induce an immune response.

While RSV vaccines have shown promise in clinical trials, developing a safe and effective vaccine has proven challenging due to the risk of vaccine-associated enhanced respiratory disease (VAERD), a rare but serious complication that can occur when certain types of RSV vaccines are given to people who have previously been infected with the virus. Therefore, ongoing research is focused on developing vaccines that can safely and effectively protect against RSV infection while minimizing the risk of VAERD.

Cross-protection is a term used in immunology and vaccinology that refers to the ability of a vaccine or natural infection with one strain of a microorganism (such as a virus or bacteria) to provide protection against other, related strains. This occurs because the immune response elicited by the initial exposure also recognizes and targets certain common features present in the related strains.

In the context of vaccines, cross-protection can be an important factor in designing broadly protective vaccines that can cover multiple strains or serotypes of a pathogen, thus reducing the need for individual vaccines against each strain. However, the degree of cross-protection can vary depending on the specific microorganisms and antigens involved.

It's important to note that cross-protection is not always complete or long-lasting, and additional research may be needed to fully understand its mechanisms and limitations.

Japanese Encephalitis (JE) vaccines are immunobiological preparations used for active immunization against Japanese Encephalitis, a viral infection transmitted through the bite of infected mosquitoes. The vaccines contain inactivated or live attenuated strains of the JE virus. They work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies and T-cells that provide protection against the virus. There are several types of JE vaccines available, including inactivated Vero cell-derived vaccine, live attenuated SA14-14-2 vaccine, and inactivated mouse brain-derived vaccine. These vaccines have been shown to be effective in preventing JE and are recommended for use in individuals traveling to or living in areas where the disease is endemic.

Mass vaccination is a coordinated effort to administer vaccine doses to a large portion of a population in a short amount of time. This strategy is often used during outbreaks of infectious diseases, such as influenza or measles, to quickly build up community immunity (herd immunity) and reduce the spread of the disease. Mass vaccination campaigns can also be implemented as part of public health initiatives to control or eliminate vaccine-preventable diseases in a population. These campaigns typically involve mobilizing healthcare workers, volunteers, and resources to reach and vaccinate as many people as possible, often through mobile clinics, community centers, and other accessible locations.

A contraceptive vaccine is a type of immunocontraception that uses the immune system to prevent pregnancy. It is a relatively new field of research and development, and there are currently no licensed contraceptive vaccines available on the market. However, several experimental vaccines are in various stages of preclinical and clinical testing.

Contraceptive vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies against specific proteins or hormones that play a critical role in reproduction. By neutralizing these targets, the vaccine can prevent fertilization or inhibit the implantation of a fertilized egg in the uterus.

For example, one approach is to develop vaccines that target the zona pellucida (ZP), a glycoprotein layer surrounding mammalian eggs. Antibodies generated against ZP proteins can prevent sperm from binding and fertilizing the egg. Another strategy is to create vaccines that generate antibodies against hormones such as human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), a hormone produced during pregnancy. By blocking hCG, the vaccine can prevent the maintenance of pregnancy and induce a miscarriage.

While contraceptive vaccines have shown promise in preclinical studies, several challenges remain before they can be widely adopted. These include issues related to safety, efficacy, duration of protection, and public acceptance. Additionally, there are concerns about the potential for accidental cross-reactivity with other proteins or hormones, leading to unintended side effects.

Overall, contraceptive vaccines represent a promising area of research that could provide long-acting, reversible, and user-friendly contraception options in the future. However, further studies are needed to address the remaining challenges and ensure their safe and effective use.

CD8-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD8+ T cells or cytotoxic T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the adaptive immune system. They are named after the CD8 molecule found on their surface, which is a protein involved in cell signaling and recognition.

CD8+ T cells are primarily responsible for identifying and destroying virus-infected cells or cancerous cells. When activated, they release cytotoxic granules that contain enzymes capable of inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in the target cells. They also produce cytokines such as interferon-gamma, which can help coordinate the immune response and activate other immune cells.

CD8+ T cells are generated in the thymus gland and are a type of T cell, which is a lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They recognize and respond to specific antigens presented on the surface of infected or cancerous cells in conjunction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules.

Overall, CD8+ T cells are an essential component of the immune system's defense against viral infections and cancer.

Edible vaccines are a relatively new concept in the field of immunization, whereby vaccine antigens are produced in edible plant material. The idea is to create an easy-to-deliver, cost-effective, and potentially more accessible way to protect against various diseases, especially in developing countries.

The process involves genetically modifying plants to express the desired vaccine antigen within their tissues. Once the plant has been grown and harvested, the edible material containing the antigen can be consumed directly, stimulating an immune response in the consumer. This approach bypasses the need for traditional methods of vaccine production, such as fermentation or egg-based manufacturing, and eliminates the need for sterile injection equipment and cold storage during transportation and distribution.

Examples of edible vaccines that have been explored include those targeting infectious diseases like cholera, hepatitis B, and influenza, among others. However, it is important to note that this area of vaccine development still faces several challenges, including ensuring consistent antigen expression, maintaining stability during storage and preparation, and addressing potential public concerns regarding genetically modified organisms (GMOs) used in the production process.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Cellular immunity, also known as cell-mediated immunity, is a type of immune response that involves the activation of immune cells, such as T lymphocytes (T cells), to protect the body against infected or damaged cells. This form of immunity is important for fighting off infections caused by viruses and intracellular bacteria, as well as for recognizing and destroying cancer cells.

Cellular immunity involves a complex series of interactions between various immune cells and molecules. When a pathogen infects a cell, the infected cell displays pieces of the pathogen on its surface in a process called antigen presentation. This attracts T cells, which recognize the antigens and become activated. Activated T cells then release cytokines, chemicals that help coordinate the immune response, and can directly attack and kill infected cells or help activate other immune cells to do so.

Cellular immunity is an important component of the adaptive immune system, which is able to learn and remember specific pathogens in order to mount a faster and more effective response upon subsequent exposure. This form of immunity is also critical for the rejection of transplanted organs, as the immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and attacks it.

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"Measles Vaccine". Viral Immunol. 31 (2): 86-95. doi:10.1089/vim.2017.0143. PMC 5863094. PMID 29256824. "The Measles Vaccine". ... standalone vaccine) Measles and rubella combined vaccine (MR vaccine) Mumps, measles and rubella combined vaccine (MMR vaccine ... a combination with the rubella vaccine and mumps vaccine) or the MMRV vaccine (a combination of MMR with the chickenpox vaccine ... MMRV vaccine) Most health insurance plans in the United States cover the cost of vaccines, and Vaccines for Children Program ...
"Live Attenuated Viral Vaccines", Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and Control, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 1-44 ... vaccine Polio vaccine Rotavirus vaccine Rubella vaccine Smallpox vaccine Varicella vaccine Yellow fever vaccine Zoster/shingles ... Anthrax vaccine Cholera vaccine Plague vaccine Salmonella vaccine Tuberculosis vaccine Typhoid vaccine Live attenuated ... oral polio vaccine, recombinant live attenuated cholera vaccine, oral typhoid vaccine, oral rotavirus vaccine) Oral vaccines or ...
"Principles underlying the development and use of live attenuated cold-adapted influenza A and B virus vaccines". Viral Immunol ... doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.11.042. PMID 21115061. Vaccines for pandemic (H1N1) 2009. World Health Organization (WHO). Vaccine ... If vaccine production doesn't start soon, swine flu vaccine won't be ready when it's needed." The costs of producing a vaccine ... Most flu vaccine companies can not make both seasonal flu vaccine and pandemic flu vaccine at the same time. Production takes ...
Vaccine. 25 (24): 4697-4705. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.04.008. PMID 17485150. "WHO , Viral Cancers". Archived from the ... Several clinical trials for a vaccine were conducted in 2006-2008. The viral proteins Gp350/220 are a primary target, but this ... Regarding the mRNA-1189, the company said that the "vaccine encodes five glycoproteins to inhibit both mechanisms for viral ... The viral proteins produced by the mRNA in this vaccine are expressed in their native form, bound to the cell membrane, where ...
Disease acquisition and viral pathogenesis Infection and vaccine-induced immune responses Structure-based vaccine design ... Notable visits to Vaccine Research Center President George W. Bush visits the Vaccine Research Center President Barack Obama ... "Building 40, Vaccine Research Center". orf.od.nih.gov. Retrieved 2022-02-11. "Nabel to Head AIDS Vaccine Institute". www. ... the Vaccine Research Center President Donald Trump visits the Vaccine Research Center President Joseph Biden visits the Vaccine ...
The vaccine contains one of the viral envelope proteins, Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg). It is produced by yeast cells, ... Both types of the vaccine, the plasma-derived vaccine (PDV) and recombinant vaccine (RV), seems to be able to elicit similar ... brands, Recombinant proteins, Subunit vaccines, Hepatitis vaccines, World Health Organization essential medicines (vaccines), ... The vaccine is given by injection into a muscle. Serious side effects from the hepatitis B vaccine are very uncommon. Pain may ...
Types include: Viral: Injected polio vaccine (Salk vaccine) Hepatitis A vaccine Rabies vaccine Most influenza vaccines Tick- ... Injected typhoid vaccine Cholera vaccine Plague vaccine Pertussis vaccine Inactivated pathogens are more stable than live ... An inactivated vaccine (or killed vaccine) is a vaccine consisting of virus particles, bacteria, or other pathogens that have ... Sanders B, Koldijk M, Schuitemaker H (2015). "Inactivated Viral Vaccines". Vaccine Analysis: Strategies, Principles, and ...
Some Christians have objected to the use of cell cultures of some viral vaccines, and the virus of the rubella vaccine, on the ... Vaccine hesitancy is a delay in acceptance, or refusal, of vaccines despite the availability of vaccine services and supporting ... when the routine vaccine schedule could contain more than 3,000 antigens (in a single shot of DTP vaccine). The vaccine ... the more vaccines offered, the higher the likelihood of vaccine deferral). The use of combination vaccines to protect against ...
The vaccine comes in inactive and weakened viral forms. The live, weakened vaccine is generally not recommended in pregnant ... Vaccine. 25 (19): 3871-78. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2007.01.106. PMID 17337102. "Priming with DNA vaccine makes avian flu vaccine ... Vaccines are an effective means to control outbreaks of many diseases. However, vaccines for respiratory viral infections such ... Along with the rest of the vaccine field, people working on universal vaccines have experimented with vaccine adjuvants to ...
... vaccines; skin contact with chemicals (e.g. p-phenylenediamine, thiomersal, and cladribine); viral, bacterial, fungal, and ... Lympoid cells at the bite site may also express the EBV1 viral gene, BZLF1; this gene promotes the lyses of its infected cell ...
"Vaccine-induced enhancement of viral infections". Vaccine. 27 (4): 505-512. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.10.087. PMC 7131326. ... but the article was promoted and twisted by anti-vaccine groups to raise doubt about vaccine safety. Anti-vaccine activists ... COVID-19 vaccine misinformation and hesitancy, COVID-19 vaccines, COVID-19 misinformation, Vaccine hesitancy). ... COVID-19 misinformation Vaccine misinformation Died Suddenly, an anti-vaccine documentary that promotes false claims about ...
"What are viral vector-based vaccines and how could they be used against COVID-19?". Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance (GAVI). 2020. ... These vaccines are examples of non-replicating viral vector vaccines using an adenovirus shell containing DNA that encodes a ... Moderna began human testing of an mRNA vaccine in 2015. Viral vector vaccines were also developed for the COVID‑19 pandemic ... Despite the extremely rapid development of effective mRNA and viral vector vaccines, vaccine equity has not been achieved. The ...
Bull JJ, Smithson MW, Nuismer SL (January 2018). "Transmissible Viral Vaccines". Trends in Microbiology. 26 (1): 6-15. doi: ... Another approach is to use vectors to create novel vaccines for diseases that have no vaccines available or the vaccines that ... dengue fever and viral hepatitis by using a proven safe vaccine virus, such as adenovirus, and modify its genome to have genes ... Vaccine. 34 (50): 6436-6448. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.06.059. PMC 7115478. PMID 28029542. Gallagher, James (16 December 2012 ...
Bull JJ, Smithson MW, Nuismer SL (January 2018). "Transmissible Viral Vaccines". Trends in Microbiology. 26 (1): 6-15. doi: ... Consequently, proposed applications of viral immuno-contraception, transmissible vaccines, and agricultural field transient ... August 2001). "First field trial of a transmissible recombinant vaccine against myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease". ... Vaccine. 19 (31): 4536-43. doi:10.1016/S0264-410X(01)00184-0. hdl:20.500.12792/4539. PMID 11483281. O'Neill G (2002). "Virus ...
Traditionally, inactivated viral vaccine and live attenuated virus vaccine have been approved. Inactivated viral vaccine is ... The inactivated viral vaccine is injected parentally. Meanwhile, the live attenuated virus vaccine usually comes in trivalent ... The inactivated vaccine and the live attenuated virus vaccine are the two major types of vaccines authorised currently. The ... Primarily, inactivated viral vaccines are used as prevention of influenza in the United States. When producing the strand of ...
Subunit vaccines, Vaccines, Viral respiratory tract infections). ... Types of vaccines in research include particle-based vaccines, ... attenuated vaccines, mRNA vaccines, protein subunit vaccines, and vector-based vaccines. In 2013, a study was published ... A respiratory syncytial virus vaccine, or RSV vaccine, is a vaccine which protects against infection by respiratory syncytial ... The vaccine's antigen is a stabilized version of the RSV F protein, which was developed using structure-based vaccine design. ...
Viral Terror". Wired. v t e v t e (CS1 maint: archived copy as title, Vaccines, Live vaccines, Food industry, Genetically ... Department of Defense grant to develop a plant expressed vaccine made from tobacco. While egg-based vaccines typically take ... Plant expressed vaccine or project GreenVax In 2005 DARPA's Accelerated Manufacture of Pharmaceuticals (AMP) program was ... McIntosh, Dwayne D. Kirk and Kim (2006-01-24). "Social Acceptance of Plant-Made Vaccines: Indications from a Public Survey". ...
... used as a booster vaccine. The vaccine is designed to target both the spike protein of the SARS‑CoV‑2 virus, and viral proteins ... mRNA vaccines offer specific advantages over traditional vaccines. Because mRNA vaccines are not constructed from an active ... In addition to sharing the advantages of theoretical DNA vaccines over established traditional vaccines, mRNA vaccines also ... An mRNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a copy of a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA) to produce an immune response. ...
doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02192-w. Anderson, Jenny (13 October 2020). "She Hunts Viral Rumors About Real Viruses". The New York ... Stuck: How Vaccine Rumors Start and Why They Don't Go Away was published by Oxford University Press in 2020, and written by the ... Stuck: How Vaccine Rumors Start and Why They Don't Go Away (2020), published by Oxford University Press and written by the ... Heidi Larson on her book Stuck: How Vaccine Rumors Start - and Why They Don't Go Away (2020) on YouTube (Articles with short ...
Anderson, Jenny (13 October 2020). "She Hunts Viral Rumors About Real Viruses". New York Times. Archived from the original on ... "The Vaccine Confidence Project Partners & Funders". The Vaccine Confidence Project. Retrieved 22 February 2021. "The Vaccine ... It is a member of the Vaccine Safety Net, a project led by the World Health Organization. The vaccine confidence project was ... Van Beusekom, Mary (11 September 2020). "Rising vaccine wariness in some nations doesn't bode well for COVID vaccines". CIDRAP ...
No vaccines are available. The cooked garbage policy in the United States should prevent its reappearance. Pigs should not be ... The 5'-end of the genome has a viral protein genome-linked (VPg). The 3'-terminus has a poly (A) tract. The genome encodes ... viral structural proteins. Lipids are not reported. By itself, the genomic nucleic acid is infectious. ...
Viral pathogenesis • Preventive and therapeutic vaccines. 11: 63-9. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2015.02.002. PMC 4827424. PMID ... In addition, glycosylation is often used by viruses to shield the underlying viral protein from immune recognition. A ... Crispin M, Doores KJ (April 2015). "Targeting host-derived glycans on enveloped viruses for antibody-based vaccine design". ...
Recombinant trimeric viral spikes are promising vaccine candidates as they display less non-neutralising epitopes than ... Viral pathogenesis • Preventive and therapeutic vaccines. 11: 63-9. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2015.02.002. PMC 4827424. PMID ... Viral structural proteins are encoded by long ORFs, whereas smaller ORFs encode regulators of the viral life cycle: attachment ... Rev is important for the synthesis of major viral proteins and is hence essential for viral replication.[citation needed] vpr ( ...
Viral pathogenesis • Preventive and therapeutic vaccines. 11: 63-69. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2015.02.002. PMC 4827424. PMID ... Vaccine. 27 (34): 4704-4708. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.05.063. PMID 19520203. Lenger, Stacy M.; Bradley, Megan S.; Thomas, ... Crispin, Max; Doores, Katie J (2015-04-01). "Targeting host-derived glycans on enveloped viruses for antibody-based vaccine ... immunodeficiency virus displays considerable amount of mannose residues due to the tight clustering of glycans in its viral ...
Viral pathogenesis • Preventive and therapeutic vaccines. 11: 63-69. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2015.02.002. PMC 4827424. PMID ... The viral spike of the human immunodeficiency virus is heavily glycosylated. Approximately half the mass of the spike is ... Crispin M, Doores KJ (April 2015). "Targeting host-derived glycans on enveloped viruses for antibody-based vaccine design". ... Glycoprotein-41 (gp41) and glycoprotein-120 (gp120) are HIV viral coat proteins. Soluble glycoproteins often show a high ...
Vaccines are available to prevent over fourteen viral infections of humans and more are used to prevent viral infections of ... Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine. These vaccines are safer because they can never cause the disease. ... Vaccines may consist of either live or killed viruses. Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, but these vaccines ... Burakova Y, Madera R, McVey S, Schlup JR, Shi J (2018). "Adjuvants for Animal Vaccines". Viral Immunology. 31 (1): 11-22. doi: ...
... are a new form of vaccines that are mostly being used for viral infections and various types of cancers. A ... Therapeutic vaccines are mostly used against viral infections. Patients affected with chronic viral infections are administered ... A therapeutic vaccine differs from a prophylactic vaccine in that prophylactic vaccines are administered to individuals as a ... The specific type of therapeutic vaccines include antigen vaccines. In case of antigen vaccines, the body is introduced to a ...
Galili, Uri (2018). "Anti-Gal-Mediated Amplification of Viral Vaccine Efficacy". The Natural Anti-Gal Antibody as Foe Turned ... Texans for Vaccine Choice (TFVC) is an anti-vaccine Facebook group turned political action committee in Texas which advocates ... Texans for Vaccine Choice also helps parents apply for vaccine exemptions for their children, placing them at the epicenter of ... since there is compelling evidence that vaccines do not cause autism. Vaccine hesitancy Vaccination policy Novack, Sophie ( ...
"Antibody therapies for the prevention and treatment of viral infections". npj Vaccines. 2 (1): 19. doi:10.1038/s41541-017-0019- ... thereby improving recognition of viral particles. Conserved parts of viral proteins that play a central role in viral function ... "Generation of therapeutic antisera for emerging viral infections". npj Vaccines. 3 (1): 42. doi:10.1038/s41541-018-0082-4. PMC ... Viral genomes mutate at a high rate. Mutations that allow viruses to evade a neutralizing antibody will be selected for, and ...
Vaccine-Preventable Diseases: Viral. CDC Yellow Book 2024. Travel-Associated Infections & Diseases ... For the list of influenza vaccines licensed for use in the United States, see: Vaccines Licensed for Use in the United States. ... IPOL - Poliovirus Vaccine Inactivated (Monkey Kidney Cell). Polio ACIP Vaccine Recommendations. Polio: For Travelers ... Measles, Mumps and Rubella Virus Vaccine Live. MMR ACIP Vaccine Recommendations (Measles, Mumps and Rubella) ...
Viral Vector (Janssen [Johnson and Johnson]): learn about side effects, dosage, special precautions, and more on MedlinePlus ... COVID-19 Vaccine, Viral Vector (Johnson and Johnson/Janssen) is no longer commercially available in the U.S and the Emergency ... Report vaccine side effects to FDA/CDC Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS). The VAERS toll-free number is 1-800-822- ... What should you tell the person who is giving the vaccine? *What are the benefits of the Janssen (Johnson and Johnson) vaccine ...
Vaccines, Inactivated, Viral. Class Summary. The 9-valent HPV vaccine is indicated for prevention of HPV-associated neoplasias ... The HPV 9-valent (Gardasil 9) is the only HPV vaccine available in the United States. The HPV 2-valent vaccine (Cervarix), ... 2010fluad-quadrivalent-influenza-virus-vaccine-quadrivalent-adjuvanted-4000082Drugs. Drugs influenza virus vaccine quadrivalent ... HPV vaccine against anal HPV infection and anal intraepithelial neoplasia. N Engl J Med. 2011 Oct 27. 365(17):1576-85. [QxMD ...
A viral vector vaccine is a vaccine that uses a viral vector to deliver genetic material (DNA) that can be transcribed by the ... As of April 2021[update], six viral vector vaccines, four COVID-19 vaccines and two Ebola vaccines, have been authorized for ... Travieso T, Li J, Mahesh S, Mello JD, Blasi M (July 2022). "The use of viral vectors in vaccine development". npj Vaccines. 7 ( ... Ura T, Okuda K, Shimada M (July 2014). "Developments in Viral Vector-Based Vaccines". Vaccines. 2 (3): 624-641. doi:10.3390/ ...
Recent updates are briefly described in the status of mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, influenza virus, and other viral ... Here, we review the structural elements required for designing mRNA vaccine constructs for effective in vitro synthetic ... The unprecedently speedy development of mRNA vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was ... Unique features of mRNA vaccine platforms and future perspectives are discussed. ...
... has brought the vaccine debate back to the national spot ... "clean vaccines" or single dose vaccines (rather than the triple ... Those who question vaccines are not all invested in an all-or-nothing stance. Few may question the polio vaccines, especially ... And vaccines. Lets not forget. Another major issue is that the health of young people is horrific these days. When did the ... Do certain vaccines even work? Are the strains even relevant? All that usually is demonstrated in studies is that the body ...
Vaccines and Viral Immunology. Viral infections are responsible for many human diseases, from common diseases like the flu to ... immune system works to prevent and remove viral infections is essential for anyone working to develop or distribute vaccines ... leading Harvard Medical School faculty about cutting-edge developments in the creation of vaccines to protect against viral ...
Researchers have now generated an efficient algorithm to develop vaccines that cope with the diversity of HIV or other variable ... of genetic diversity and acquire mutations to escape immune pressures contributes to our difficulties in producing a vaccine. ... Working Toward A Vaccine To Cope With Viral Diversity In HIV. Date:. April 30, 2007. Source:. Public Library of Science. ... "Working Toward A Vaccine To Cope With Viral Diversity In HIV." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com. /. releases. /. 2007. /. 04 ...
While both vaccine injections and nasal vaccines increased levels of antibodies in the blood of mice, only the nasal vaccine ... Nasal Vaccine May Aid Fight Against New Viral Variants December 11, 2021. December 11, 2021. Eurasia Review 0 Comments ... If the nasal vaccines prove to be safe and efficient in humans, Iwasaki envisions them being used in conjunction with current ... Nasal vaccines, but not the shot, also induced antibodies that protected the animals against a variety of flu strains, not just ...
Alltop Viral. Welcome to Alltop Viral where we find and break down the most important news of the day. ... AllTop Viral!. The most viral news stories that you need to know about. ... Even though Fox News hosts have harshly criticized the concept of vaccine passports and claimed asking about vaccine status ... Masks and vaccines will be required in more places in the coming months, as Delta surges around the country. CVS is requiring ...
Shop our Pregnancy Viral Vaccines or check out Valley Vet on TikTok or Youtube. ...
... and Other Vaccines for Oral Healthcare Personnel dental CE course & enrich your knowledge in oral healthcare field. Take course ... Learn about Hepatitis A Viral Infection from Mandated, Highly Recommended, ... Active Immunization: Hepatitis A Vaccine 4,6,20. There are two inactivated hepatitis A whole-virus vaccines (Vaqta, Havrix) and ... Hepatitis A Viral Infection. The hepatitis A virus (HAV) is primarily transmitted by the fecal-oral route, either by person-to- ...
Viral Load Dynamics. A viral load was measured at screening and at visits 2 and 6-11 by real-time PCR analysis. Transient viral ... The magnitude of viral blips, the number of viral increases as well as the number of patients with viral increases were ... The studied vaccine contains Nef protein which has been shown to have an ability to induce viral reactivation. It was ... Mothe, B. Viral control induced by HIVconsv vaccines & romidepsin in early treated individuals. In Proceedings of the CROI 2017 ...
A viral TikTok makes vaccine science understandable and pretty funny (its a horror film parody). NPR caught up with creator ... Explaining how vaccines work can be especially tricky. Explaining the new technology used in COVID-19 vaccines can be trickier ... So I was doing a lot of research on the vaccine, and the key component to it was the spike protein. There was a fork on my ... I am working on a video about why two doses are needed for the mRNA vaccine. Im also trying to make a skit in support of # ...
A New Kind Of Vaccine Could Change How We Fight Disease ... Vaccines. Viral Vector Vaccines. GE Healthcare Life Sciences. ... "Innovative vaccines are taking advantage of this trend," Donati says.. The promise of viral vector vaccines is that they could ... the Ebola vaccine is a so-called viral vector vaccine. Researchers bioengineer them by taking common, mostly harmless viruses ... Donati says that viral vectors used for vaccines can cause only mild coldlike symptoms, at worst, but their virulence - the ...
... reduction in viral infections among vaccinees as well as induction of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and vaccine- ... The RV144 HIV-1 vaccine trial results showed moderate ... Protein-based, but not viral vector alone, HIV vaccine boosting ... The RV144 HIV-1 vaccine trial results showed moderate reduction in viral infections among vaccinees as well as induction of ... The companion vaccine trial RV305 was designed to permit the evaluation of the immunologic impact of late boosting with either ...
A new universal influenza vaccine that targets the stalk portion of influenza virus surface protein rather than the head ... New universal flu vaccine targets conserved region of viral surface protein. By Samantha Black, PhD, ScienceBoard editor in ... Most current influenza vaccines target the immunodominant head domain of the viral HA and therefore antibodies produced by ... "Our chimeric hemagglutinin vaccine is a major advance over conventional vaccines which are often mismatched to the circulating ...
Join us for an expert Q&A with NVHR Patient and Provider Advocates on the COVID-19 vaccine. ... Building COVID-19 Vaccine Confidence in the Viral Hepatitis Community. March 2, 2021 ... Panelists will share their experiences with the vaccine and ways theyre helping build vaccine confidence in their communities ... Join us for an expert Q&A with NVHR Patient and Provider Advocates on the COVID-19 vaccine. ...
Envelope protein immunogens may improve DNA or live-vectored HIV vaccines by complementing antiviral cellular responses with ... Gp120-alum boosting of a Gag-Pol-Env DNA/MVA AIDS vaccine: poorer control of a pathogenic viral challenge AIDS Res Hum ... However, the plus-gp120 group had less consistent control of viremia and higher levels of plasma viral RNA for the first year ... Envelope protein immunogens may improve DNA or live-vectored HIV vaccines by complementing antiviral cellular responses with ...
For Lassa fever, CEPI is one of the worlds leading vaccine R&D funders, investing in six potential vaccine candidates to date ... CEPI is supporting the development of a new vaccine candidate against Junin virus using a vaccine platform developed by the ... The Viral Most Wanted: The Arenaviruses The Arenavirus family includes some of the most lethal haemorrhagic fevers known. All ... The vaccines use is limited, however, because it is not recommended for children younger than 15, or for pregnant women or ...
As U.S. battles latest viral surge, GOP targets military vaccine mandate. December 13, 2022. by Patrick Malone ... As U.S. battles latest viral surge, GOP targets military vaccine mandate ... Officials say the vaccine for the 2022 seasonal flu is proving to be an excellent match for circulating strains, making the ... Despite cajoling by public health officials and others for regular folks to get flu and coronavirus shots, vaccine uptake has ...
New Science Points Toward HIV Vaccine; Sons Daphne Costume Goes Viral; Hope Youre Enjoying Intercourse (Beer). by Lorna D. ... Sex & Society » Hiv aids, Acceptance, Sex positivity: New Science Points Toward HIV Vaccine; Sons Daphne Costume Goes Viral; ... Its not a vaccine yet, but its a great start. "Weve got a clearer indication of why people can survive in the face of HIV, ... Scientists have been studying people who resist HIV, and new information has come out that may lead to a vaccine that can ...
This article explores the advantages and limitations of Viral Vectored Vaccines. ... Viral vectored vaccines are also a relatively new type of vaccine. The only licensed vaccine of this type is the Ebola vaccine ... Viral Vectored Vaccines This article explores the advantages and limitations of Viral Vectored Vaccines. ... Finding a Vaccine for COVID-19 and Future Pandemics / Viral Vectored Vaccines ...
CEPI will invest $25 million in the development of early prototypes of viral vector and mRNA vaccines against the Junin virus, ... Research Roundup: New gonorrhea treatment, Arenavirus vaccine development, Study sheds light on viral infection. Read time: ... Research Roundup: New gonorrhea treatment, Arenavirus vaccine development, Study sheds light on viral infection ... part of the broader partnership between CEPI and Oxford to support vaccine development for a variety of viral families with ...
Viral Surveillance. Approximately 350 public health and clinical laboratories in the United States report influenza test ... The vaccine viruses recommended for inclusion in the 2016-17 Northern Hemisphere influenza vaccines are the same vaccine ... Although vaccine effectiveness field studies must be conducted to determine how well a vaccine is working, these laboratory ... Composition of the 2016-17 Influenza Vaccine. The Food and Drug Administrations Vaccines and Related Biological Products ...
Anthrax Vaccine -- posts by Meryl Nass, M.D. This blog began in 2007, focusing on anthrax vaccine, and later expanded to other ... Military Vaccine Flattens GI. *Questions Mount Over Anthrax Shot. *Vaccine Epidemic--From the Wilderness Michael Kane. ... and a letter to the FDA and its vaccine advisory committee regarding the many reasons the vaccines are not suitable for ... Viral Shedding Continues Up to 6 Weeks After Coronavirus Symptom Onset (Reuters Health) - Patients may continue to shed the ...
VaccinationArbovirusesFlavivirusesDNA vaccinesOral vaccinesIntranasal medicationJapanese B encephalitis vaccineViral ...
Vaccines, Viral, Prevention. Class Summary. Hepatitis B vaccine is used for active immunization against disease caused by HBV. ... Hepatitis A vaccine, inactivated, and hepatitis B vaccine (Twinrix). *View full drug information ... It inhibits hepatitis B viral DNA polymerase. It is indicated in patients with evidence of ongoing hepatitis B viral ... This vaccine is used for immunization against infection caused by all known subtypes of hepatitis B virus. ...
Viral vaccines and antiviral drugs : report of a WHO scientific group [meeting held in London from 5 to 9 July 1982] by WHO ... Text; Format: print Publication details: Genève : Organisation mondiale de la Santé, 1983Title translated: Viral vaccines and ... Human viral and rickettsial vaccines : report of a WHO Scientific Group [meeting held in Geneva from 4 to 9 October 1965] by ... by WHO Scientific Group on Viral Vaccines and Antiviral Drugs.. Series: Organisation mondiale de la Santé. Série de rapports ...
  • a single primary dose to people 18 years and older who are unable to receive or unwilling to receive other FDA-authorized or -approved COVID-19 vaccines. (medlineplus.gov)
  • a single booster dose at least 2 months after the first dose of the Janssen (Johnson and Johnson) COVID-19 vaccine for people 18 years and older who are unable to receive or unwilling to receive other FDA-authorized or -approved COVID-19 vaccines. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Given these concerns, two main questions have arisen: Will existing COVID-19 vaccines be able to match these emerging variants? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Millions of people have received the vaccine under EUA since February 27, 2021. (medlineplus.gov)
  • As of April 2021[update], six viral vector vaccines, four COVID-19 vaccines and two Ebola vaccines, have been authorized for use in humans. (wikipedia.org)
  • As of April 2021, four adenovirus vector vaccines for COVID-19 have been authorized in at least one country: The Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine uses the modified chimpanzee adenovirus ChAdOx1. (wikipedia.org)
  • Dec. 9, 2021 An experimental HIV vaccine based on mRNA -- the same platform technology used in two highly effective COVID-19 vaccines -- shows promise in mice and non-human primates, according to scientists. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Nevertheless, in an interview for the BMJ from January 2021, Prof. Andrew Pollard, Director of the Oxford Vaccine Group and one of the leaders of the Oxford vaccine trials, explained that it would not be difficult to modify both mRNA and viral vector vaccines - of which the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine is one - to match emerging variants. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The White House announced that vaccines will be required for international travelers coming into the United States, with an effective date of November 8, 2021. (cdc.gov)
  • A coronavirus vaccine could be rolled out before 2021, the health secretary said, and a report claimed health staff could be jabbed before the new year. (yahoo.com)
  • Both Moderna and Pfizer have updated their vaccine formula to focus on the omicron strain of the virus, whose many subvariants have been dominant in the U.S. since December 2021. (wtrf.com)
  • Viral vector vaccines do not cause infection with either the virus used as the vector or the source of the antigen. (wikipedia.org)
  • If the nasal vaccines prove to be safe and efficient in humans, Iwasaki envisions them being used in conjunction with current vaccines and boosters that work system wide in order to add immune system reinforcements at the source of infection. (eurasiareview.com)
  • These data suggest that the addition of a late protein boost alone is sufficient to increase functionally potent vaccine-specific antibodies previously associated with reduced risk of infection with HIV. (nih.gov)
  • She had been sick for two weeks with shooting fevers, bad throat and mouth, aching, not responding to antibiotics-a viral infection. (gavi.org)
  • Lentiviral vector-based dendritic cell vaccines induce protective T cell responses against viral infection and cancer in animal models. (jci.org)
  • Biologic interferons are proteins produced by host cells in response to viral infection. (medscape.com)
  • Ideally, candidates for interferon therapy have evidence of ongoing viral replication (presence of hepatitis e antigen [HBeAg] or HBV DNA) for at least 6 months and either persistently increased serum aminotransferase activity or evidence of chronic hepatitis B infection on liver biopsy findings. (medscape.com)
  • In fact, two COVID-19 vaccines developed by Pfizer and Moderna, are 95% and 94.1% effective, respectively, at preventing an infection with the novel coronavirus causing COVID-19. (livescience.com)
  • Monkeypox is what we call a viral zoonotic infection, which means that one of the reservoirs [of the virus] is in animals, and it can be transmitted to humans through interactions with those animals. (aamc.org)
  • A sub-group analysis of data from the Oxford-AstraZeneca vaccine trial showed that the vaccine only had an efficacy of 10.4 % against COVID-19 in people who had an infection with B.1.351. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • It is recommended that mRNA COVID-19 vaccines should be offered to individuals 6 months of age and older with previous SARS-CoV-2 infection without contraindications to the vaccine. (canada.ca)
  • The viral load in persons who experience rebound is at the same level as acute infection. (substack.com)
  • Getting the vaccine increases your ROS levels to such an extent that it takes the body more time to get back to base levels than with natural infection. (substack.com)
  • This helps explain a few different aspects of why the vaccine is "so much worse" than the viral infection when it comes to adverse effects and the development of any sort of disease short and long-term. (substack.com)
  • The average number of viral particles needed to establish an infection is known as the infectious dose. (newscientist.com)
  • Immunosuppressives may diminish therapeutic effects of vaccines and increase risk of adverse effects (increased risk of infection). (medscape.com)
  • Annually, it causes 20 million infections and 70 000 deaths, with recent outbreaks of infection reported in Uganda, Sudan and Chad.2 Viral hepatitis is also an increasing cause of morbidity and mortality among people living with HIV.3 It is estimated that chronic hepatitis B virus infection affects 5-20% of people living with HIV. (who.int)
  • Control of viral hepatitis infection in Africa: Are we dreaming? (who.int)
  • It is mainly caused by viral infection. (who.int)
  • Acute viral hepatitis is inflammation of the liver, generally meaning inflammation caused by infection with one of the five hepatitis viruses. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Over the objections of Pentagon brass and the White House, GOP members threatened to torpedo an $858 billion military spending bill unless the nation rolled back a requirement for U.S. troops to receive the coronavirus vaccine to serve. (patrickmalonelaw.com)
  • How soon will we have a coronavirus vaccine? (newscientist.com)
  • While their respective health officials insist the preventitive cure will become a common public good, there's room for ambition and prestige in the underclared race to unveil the world's first CoronaVirus vaccine. (jacknjillscute.com)
  • The Janssen (Johnson and Johnson) COVID-19 vaccine vaccination is given as a one-time dose. (medlineplus.gov)
  • a single booster dose at least two months after completion of the primary vaccination of Janssen (Johnson and Johnson) COVID-19 vaccine. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The incorporation of several viruses in vaccination schemes has been investigated since the vaccinia virus was created in 1984 as a vaccine vector. (wikipedia.org)
  • Even though Fox News hosts have harshly criticized the concept of vaccine passports and claimed asking about vaccine status constituted a violation of privacy, the media company is now demanding that all employees disclose their vaccination status . (alltop.com)
  • The team found that a single vaccination with adjuvanted, inactivated cHA vaccines induced remarkably high anti-stalk antibody titers. (scienceboard.net)
  • Eight months after vaccination, all animals were challenged intrarectally with the related, yet serologically distinct, SHIV-89.6P. The gp120 immunizations raised binding, but not neutralizing antibody for the challenge virus, and allowed testing of whether gp120 vaccines that fail to raise neutralizing antibody can improve protection. (nih.gov)
  • Keenan, who was sporting a polka-dot cardigan over a festive shirt, was given the first dose of a two-dose vaccine at the University Hospital Coventry in England, setting off the first mass vaccination effort against a virus that has now infected at least 70 million people worldwide and killed 1.5 million. (livescience.com)
  • Also known as the triple viral vaccine, it is part of the vaccination schedule for children between 12-15 months of age. (medmesafe.com)
  • The mRNA from the vaccines is broken down within a few days after vaccination and discarded from the body. (cdc.gov)
  • When applied to the vaccination site starting on day 7, PIO reduced viral shedding without altering the immune response . (bvsalud.org)
  • Piers Morgan interrupted by viral vaccination star Martin Kenyon asking 'Who are you? (yahoo.com)
  • Once that happens, the updated vaccines will be available at local pharmacies and vaccination sites in as soon as 48 hours, according to CNN . (wtrf.com)
  • The World Health Assembly, through various resolutions,5,6,7 has urged Member States to adopt a comprehensive approach to the prevention and control of viral hepatitis, integrate hepatitis B vaccine into national immunization programmes and immunize health workers against hepatitis B. By the end of 2013, hepatitis B vaccine had been introduced into routine childhood vaccination schedules in 46 countries in the African Region. (who.int)
  • Vaccinia virus and adenovirus are the most commonly used viral vectors because of robust immune response it induces. (wikipedia.org)
  • The majority of viral vectors lack the required genes, making them unable to replicate. (wikipedia.org)
  • Additionally, viral vectors can be produced in high quantities at relatively low costs, which enables use in low-income countries. (wikipedia.org)
  • Adenovirus vectors have the advantage of high transduction efficiency, transgene expression, and broad viral tropism, and can infect both dividing and non-dividing cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Most Adenovirus vectors are replication-defective because of the deletion of the E1A and E1B viral gene region. (wikipedia.org)
  • Once in the body, some viral vectors can be modified to multiply in a harmless way. (futurelearn.com)
  • These properties have made lentiviral vectors advantageous for use in dendritic cell (DC) vaccines. (jci.org)
  • For the RNA vaccines and the viral vectors, it's relatively straightforward because you just have to synthesize a new bit of DNA in our case - or RNA in [the Pfizer and Moderna] cases - and then insert that into the new vaccine. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Companies in Germany are increasing clinical trials using viral vectors. (inkwoodresearch.com)
  • German-based, Sartorius announced in January 2018 of the new production facility, opening in France for the GMP manufacturing of viral vectors from non-adherent cell cultures to bring viral vector products from the laboratory to the patients. (inkwoodresearch.com)
  • Viral vectors are increasingly being adopted by livestock producers to minimize livestock deaths due to diseases. (inkwoodresearch.com)
  • Europe Viral Vector Vaccines Manufacturing Market by Types 2019-2027 (Adenoviral Vectors, Retroviral Vectors, Lent Viral Vectors, Adeno-associated Viral Vectors, Poxvirus, Cytomegalovirus, Other Viral Vectors) by Application (Multivalent, Multipathogen) by Diseases (Human Diseases, Veterinary Diseases) by Geography. (inkwoodresearch.com)
  • We developed a candidate DNA vaccine called "DNA-4"consisting of 4 plasmid DNAs encoding Nef, Gag, Pol(rt), and gp140 HIV-1 proteins. (mdpi.com)
  • The technology to display other viral proteins on measles virus is faster and avoids the production of pathogenic viruses. (acib.at)
  • BioVaxys has developed its vaccine technology platforms based on the established immunological concept that modifying proteins with simple chemicals called haptens makes them more visible to the immune system. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • Not only from a viral evolutionary perspective but from a long-term damage one, since most proteins in this virus have multiple purposes and can induce long-term changes. (substack.com)
  • The haptenization of viral proteins imparts BioVaxys with the flexibility of a 'cassette-type' approach not possible with other vaccines, where they can "drop in" or "swap" the appropriate viral antigen(s) for haptenization and the creation of a new vaccine, potentially allowing for faster development timelines relative to other vaccine approaches. (pressvn.com)
  • The Company is in preliminary discussions with third parties on potential collaborations under which BioVaxys would create new vaccines for a range of viral diseases based on haptenizing different viral proteins. (pressvn.com)
  • Created artificially, the vaccine proteins replicate those of COVID-19 and trigger "an immune response similar to that caused by the CoronaVirus itself," Tarasov revealed. (jacknjillscute.com)
  • A recombinant viral vector was first used when a hepatitis B surface antigen gene was inserted into a vaccinia virus. (wikipedia.org)
  • We will now find out more about the final type of vaccine - recombinant protein/subunit vaccines and the use of virus-like particles. (futurelearn.com)
  • A non-live, recombinant influenza virus vaccine not requiring isolation or growth in hen's eggs was licensed in 2013. (cdc.gov)
  • A viral vector vaccine is a vaccine that uses a viral vector to deliver genetic material (DNA) that can be transcribed by the recipient's host cells as mRNA coding for a desired protein, or antigen, to elicit an immune response. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pall was honored to have the opportunity to participate in this consortium to develop and deploy a full manufacturing process for the viral vector vaccine candidate (CHAdOx1nCov-19/AZD1222) under development by the University of Oxford and AstraZeneca. (pall.com)
  • The viral vector vaccine manufacturing market in the European region is expected to grow at a CAGR of 18.23% during the forecast period of 2019-2027. (inkwoodresearch.com)
  • A growing number of clinical trial discovery programs in the region is adding to the growth in the viral vector vaccine manufacturing market. (inkwoodresearch.com)
  • J&J/Janssen COVID-19 vaccine, a viral vector vaccine has expired and is no longer available for use in the United States as of May 6, 2023. (cdc.gov)
  • So my heart filled with joy and delight when I saw Vick Krishna's TikTok explaining how the vaccines made by Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna work. (wunc.org)
  • During this COCA call, clinicians will receive an update on COVID-19 vaccine safety and effectiveness for the Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna vaccines, including data on COVID-19 vaccine safety in pregnancy. (cdc.gov)
  • Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines which are mRNA vaccines. (cdc.gov)
  • Viral vector vaccines enable antigen expression within cells and induce a robust cytotoxic T cell response, unlike subunit vaccines which only confer humoral immunity. (wikipedia.org)
  • The companion vaccine trial RV305 was designed to permit the evaluation of the immunologic impact of late boosting with either the boosting protein antigen alone, the canarypox viral vector ALVAC alone, or a combination of both. (nih.gov)
  • Alternatively, the DCs are transduced with a viral vector that expresses the antigen. (jci.org)
  • Vancouver, BC - December 21, 2020 - BioVaxys Technology Corp. (CSE: BIOV, FRA:5LB, OTC:LMNGF) ("BioVaxys") announced today that further analysis of the data from a preclinical animal study (also known as the "murine model study") of its haptenized viral protein vaccine technology show that BVX-0320, its Covid-19 vaccine candidate based on the Company's haptenized viral protein platform, elicits a robust T-cell response against SARS-CoV-2. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • James Passin, the CEO of BioVaxys, stated, "The outstanding results from the Murine Model Study of BVX-0320, including robust T cell and antibody results and an excellent safety and manufacturing profile, evidences the value of our haptenized viral protein vaccine technology platform and should support ongoing discussions with potential pharmaceutical partners. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • The preclinical data also supports our corporate strategy of expanding this haptenized viral protein vaccine platform across a range of viral diseases, which we are actively pursuing. (pressvn.com)
  • Two Ebola vaccines that used viral vector technology were used to combat Ebola outbreaks in West Africa (2013-2016), and in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (2018-2020). (wikipedia.org)
  • By the middle of March 2020, the pandemic was in full swing across the globe and the University of Oxford, funded by the UK government, pulled together a consortium of organizations to work on the large-scale manufacturing of the vaccine. (pall.com)
  • December 7, 2020 -- A new universal influenza vaccine has been developed that targets the stalk portion of the influenza virus surface protein rather than the head portion. (scienceboard.net)
  • Margaret Keenan, 90, is applauded by staff as she returns to her ward after becoming the first person in the U.K. to receive the Pfizer/BioNtech COVID-19 vaccine on Dec. 8, 2020. (livescience.com)
  • Several vaccines for COVID-19 had been authorized for use in Canada since December 2020. (canada.ca)
  • But how did it make a vaccine so fast, given that the CoronaVirus, or its deadly, crown-shaped SARS-CoV-2 strain, wasn't known to scientists before 2020? (jacknjillscute.com)
  • The Division of Viral Diseases' (DVD) mission is to prevent disease, disability, and death from viral diseases through immunization and other prevention measures. (cdc.gov)
  • 5 Resolution WHA45.17: Immunization and vaccine quality. (who.int)
  • Remítase a los Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Vaccine Recommendations and Guidelines for the most updated vaccine-specific recommendations. (cdc.gov)
  • COVID-19 Vaccine, Viral Vector (Johnson and Johnson/Janssen) is no longer commercially available in the U.S and the Emergency Use Authorization has been revoked as of 6/1/2023. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Unlike vaccines which elicit a system-wide immune response, IgA antibodies work locally on mucosal surfaces found in the nose, stomach, and lungs. (eurasiareview.com)
  • Nasal vaccines, but not the shot, also induced antibodies that protected the animals against a variety of flu strains, not just against the strain the vaccine was meant to protect against. (eurasiareview.com)
  • While both vaccine injections and nasal vaccines increased levels of antibodies in the blood of mice, only the nasal vaccine enabled IgA secretion into the lungs, where respiratory viruses need to lodge to infect the host, Iwasaki said. (eurasiareview.com)
  • Most current influenza vaccines target the immunodominant head domain of the viral HA and therefore antibodies produced by these vaccines are strain specific. (scienceboard.net)
  • Envelope protein immunogens may improve DNA or live-vectored HIV vaccines by complementing antiviral cellular responses with Env antibodies. (nih.gov)
  • The majority of viruses characterized this season were antigenically similar to the reference viruses representing the recommended components of the 2015-16 Northern Hemisphere influenza vaccine ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Prevention efforts targeted toward livestock farmworkers, including increased access to seasonal influenza vaccine, risk reduction training, various forms of personal protection, and work place sanitation, are needed. (cdc.gov)
  • The first live, attenuated influenza vaccine was licensed in 2003. (cdc.gov)
  • Eighteen months prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, Pall had already begun developing standard but flexible process platforms based on customer needs, including one for viral vector manufacturing. (pall.com)
  • In a pandemic setting, vaccine matching and development could take up to six months, during which time the population is vulnerable. (scienceboard.net)
  • An influenza virus vaccine that results in broad immunity would likely protect against any emerging influenza virus subtype or strain and would significantly enhance our pandemic preparedness, avoiding future problems with influenza pandemics as we see them now with COVID-19," said author Florian Krammer, PhD, professor of microbiology at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, in a statement. (scienceboard.net)
  • The swift, unprecedented breakthrough that saw the creation of multiple, safe, and highly effective vaccines occurred during the administration of a Republican president, who, otherwise, was assailed for a bungled, shambolic pandemic response. (patrickmalonelaw.com)
  • CEPI will invest $25 million in the development of early prototypes of viral vector and mRNA vaccines against the Junin virus, as well as the improvement of the ChAdOx viral vector technology, part of the broader partnership between CEPI and Oxford to support vaccine development for a variety of viral families with future epidemic or pandemic potential. (ghtcoalition.org)
  • The COVID-19 pandemic served as an unexpected proof of concept for mRNA vaccines. (livescience.com)
  • But the COVID-19 pandemic served as an unexpected proof of concept for mRNA vaccines, which, experts told Live Science, have the potential to dramatically reshape vaccine production in the future. (livescience.com)
  • On Thursday (Dec. 10), a panel of experts voted and recommended that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) grant emergency approval to Pfizer's vaccine, or permission for it to be distributed prior to full approval under emergency situations like a pandemic . (livescience.com)
  • The importance of the fast development, production and release of new vaccines against infectious diseases could be seen during the Covid-19 pandemic. (acib.at)
  • Six Months into the pandemic, Russia's first COVID-19 vaccine is in its final development stages, already proven safe. (jacknjillscute.com)
  • Recent updates are briefly described in the status of mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2, influenza virus, and other viral pathogens. (mdpi.com)
  • Researchers have now generated an efficient algorithm to develop vaccines that cope with the diversity of HIV or other variable pathogens. (sciencedaily.com)
  • David Nickle et al present here an efficient algorithm to develop vaccines that cope with the diversity of HIV or other variable pathogens. (sciencedaily.com)
  • The project is aimed at kickstarting the broader development of vaccines for arenaviruses, which include the virus that causes Lassa fever, one of CEPI's priority pathogens. (ghtcoalition.org)
  • COVID-19 has really "laid the foundation" for rapid production of new vaccines, such as mRNA vaccines, to fight future pathogens, said Maitreyi Shivkumar, a virologist and senior lecturer in molecular biology at De Montfort University in Leicester, England. (livescience.com)
  • The U.S. Department of Defense's research agency, DARPA, is also funding experimentation to determine if lab-modified self-spreading animal vaccines can prevent the spillover of pathogens to U.S. military personnel in areas where they operate. (mpg.de)
  • CD4 + T-cells are crucial in achieving a regulated effective immune response to viral pathogens, and are central to adaptive immune responses. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • Human clinical trials were conducted for viral vector vaccines against several infectious diseases including Zika virus, influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, HIV, and malaria, before the vaccines that target SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19. (wikipedia.org)
  • With the success of COVID-19 vaccines, newly created mRNA vaccines against other infectious diseases are beginning to emerge. (mdpi.com)
  • DC vaccines have been developed for cancer and infectious diseases. (jci.org)
  • I am working on a video about why two doses are needed for the mRNA vaccine. (wunc.org)
  • Ensure that the process could be scaled and deployed across sites to produce millions of doses of the vaccine when ready - This includes securing the supply of the equipment and consumables for manufacturing of the actual vaccine to the broad range of contract manufacturing organizations (CMOs) implementing the process that was developed. (pall.com)
  • COVID-19 vaccine doses and timing are different for people who are moderately or severely immunocompromised. (cdc.gov)
  • Speaking at a public forum, he said Sri Lanka had made a payment for 1.5 million doses of COVISHIELD vaccine. (dailymirror.lk)
  • Coverage with three doses of hepatitis B vaccine was 72% at the end of 2012. (who.int)
  • These antigens compress the variation found in many viral strains into lengths suitable for vaccine immunogens. (sciencedaily.com)
  • By genetic modification, it is possible to insert additional genes into the attenuated measles virus so that it can display vaccine antigens against a new emerging virus on its surface. (acib.at)
  • Understanding how the immune system works to prevent and remove viral infections is essential for anyone working to develop or distribute vaccines that can protect against these diseases. (masslifesciences.com)
  • The ability of HIV-1 to develop high levels of genetic diversity and acquire mutations to escape immune pressures contributes to our difficulties in producing a vaccine. (sciencedaily.com)
  • These immunogens should elicit immune responses against high frequency viral strains as well as against most mutant forms of the virus. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Working with researchers at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York, they tested a protein-based vaccine designed to jump start an IgA immune response, administering it to mice through injections, as is commonly done with systemic immunizations, and also intranasally. (eurasiareview.com)
  • To redirect immune responses from the head to the stalk, researchers from Mount Sinai have developed a sequential chimeric HA (cHA) vaccine. (scienceboard.net)
  • This increases the amount of 'vaccine' available and stimulates the immune system in their own right, enhancing the overall response to the vaccine. (futurelearn.com)
  • This relatively new tech, which relies on a synthetic strand of genetic code called messenger RNA (mRNA) to prime the immune system, had not yet been approved for any previous vaccine in the world. (livescience.com)
  • After the body produces an immune response, it discards all of the vaccine ingredients, just as it would discard any substance that cells no longer need. (cdc.gov)
  • mRNA vaccines use mRNA created in a laboratory to teach our cells how to make a protein-or even just a piece of a protein-that triggers an immune response inside our bodies. (cdc.gov)
  • Smallpox vaccine, ACAM2000: Sites and duration of viral shedding and effect of povidone iodine on scarification site shedding and immune response. (bvsalud.org)
  • Generated following an immune response, memory 'helper' CD4+ T-cells retain information about the virus, which enables them to respond rapidly after viral exposure. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • Can a dog be immune to the parvo/distemper vaccine? (vetinfo.com)
  • Have you ever heard of any dogs being immune to the parvo/distemper vaccines? (vetinfo.com)
  • If the blood work your veterinarian is performing is a vaccine titer, these are rough measurements of immune response at best. (vetinfo.com)
  • The medical community, human and veterinary, is still unsure of exactly what information vaccine titers can give us about the immune status of the patient. (vetinfo.com)
  • This genetic change, or shift, in the virus results in immunity to only specific strains of the influenza virus, requiring frequent re-formulation and re-administration of seasonal vaccines. (scienceboard.net)
  • The single dose of this vaccine provides lifetime immunity to whoever receives it. (medmesafe.com)
  • However, antibody levels can quickly become undetectable after just a few months, leading to the conclusion that anti-viral immunity has waned. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • We are excited to continue to leverage this scientific momentum, as well as to continue advancing our novel Covid-19 T-cell diagnostic, a low cost and scalable tool which may assist public health authorities in the distribution of scarce vaccine resources, as it should not be a priority to immunize individuals presenting T cell immunity to SARS-CoV-2. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • The researchers conducted a randomized, multicenter, observer-blind, placebo-controlled phase I clinical trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of the group 1 cHA-based vaccine (a live attenuated or inactive influenza virus vaccine expressing a cH8/1 HA and an N1 NA with a backbone from a master donor stain) in 65 participants in the U.S. (scienceboard.net)
  • Live-attenuated vaccines should be avoided for at least 3 mo after cessation of immunosuppressive therapy. (medscape.com)
  • Stony Brook, NY - November 30, 2016 - Stony Brook University, through the Research Foundation for the State of New York, has entered into an exclusive licensing agreement with Codagenix, Inc., to commercialize a platform technology to develop a pipeline of live attenuated vaccines against viral infections in people and animals. (stonybrook.edu)
  • Here, we review the structural elements required for designing mRNA vaccine constructs for effective in vitro synthetic transcription reactions. (mdpi.com)
  • Unique features of mRNA vaccine platforms and future perspectives are discussed. (mdpi.com)
  • Information from clinical trials is available at this time to support the use of Janssen (Johnson and Johnson) COVID-19 vaccine to prevent COVID-19. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In clinical trials, approximately 21,895 individuals 18 years of age and older have received the Janssen (Johnson and Johnson) COVID-19 vaccine. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The vaccine was found to be safe and immunogenic in a phase I clinical trial. (mdpi.com)
  • This vaccine, which is capable of neutralizing diverse strains of influenza, was evaluated in a phase I clinical study whose results were published in Nature Medicine on December 7. (scienceboard.net)
  • Days before her 91st birthday, Margaret Keenan became the first person in the world to receive the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine outside of clinical trials. (livescience.com)
  • To date, 12 COVID-19 vaccines have received authorization for use in at least one country, and many more vaccine candidates are undergoing clinical trials to test their safety and efficacy. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • When vaccine developers set out the conditions of their clinical trials, they work closely with regulatory authorities, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), to ensure they answer the most important questions. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • For most experimental COVID-19 vaccines, the primary endpoints, or the main questions that a clinical trial asks, were the prevention of COVID-19. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A new, highly flexible and reproducible purification process for a vaccine via the measles virus platform was introduced shortly: The process can be used in small laboratory scale for research purposes as well as in a larger scale to produce vaccines for clinical trials and even the market. (acib.at)
  • In Phase I and Phase II clinical studies previously conducted by BioVaxys, co-founder and Chief Medical Officer, Dr. David Berd, using an earlier generation of the BioVaxys cancer vaccine on nearly 500 patients with melanoma or ovarian cancer, the haptenized cell platform showed significant clinical promise. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • The lead indication for vaccine development generated is a vaccine against Seasonal Influenza slated for Phase I human clinical trials in 2017. (stonybrook.edu)
  • This month, Moscow's fames Sechenov University announced that the first phase of clinical trials for a vaccine had been a success. (jacknjillscute.com)
  • In addition, clinical differentiation of the types of viral hepatitis (A to E) is not possible and the capacity for serological differentiation is lacking in many settings. (who.int)
  • On Sept. 13, DeSantis and Florida's Surgeon General Dr. Joseph Ladapo told Floridians the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Food and Drug Administration were trying to use them "as guinea pigs" to test the new COVID vaccine that "has not been proven to be safe or effective. (yahoo.com)
  • The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention say most people who require only one dose per flu season, they should get the vaccine in September or October, but added that providers should offer the vaccine as long as the influenza viruses are still circulating. (cbs42.com)
  • NEXSTAR) - A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention panel of experts recommended Tuesday that the updated COVID-19 vaccines be available to nearly all Americans to help combat the spread of the virus heading into fall. (wtrf.com)
  • This document highlights the situation of viral hepatitis in the African Region, identifies the issues and challenges and proposes actions for its prevention and control. (who.int)
  • 4 WHO: Guidance on prevention of viral hepatitis B and C among people who inject drugs. (who.int)
  • Zabdeno, the first dose of the Zabdeno/Mvabea Ebola vaccine, is derived from human adenovirus serotype 26, expressing the glycoprotein of the Ebola virus Mayinga variant. (wikipedia.org)
  • The Biden-Harris administration is also taking the outbreak seriously, increasing its stockpiles of the antiviral Tecovirimat and the two available vaccines - ACAM2000 (a live replicating virus delivered through the skin) and JYNNEOS (a two-dose nonreplicating virus delivered via injection four weeks apart). (aamc.org)
  • Vaccine recommendations are based on age, time since last dose, and in some cases, the first vaccine received. (cdc.gov)
  • COVID-19 vaccine dose amounts can vary depending on the type of vaccine being given, or due to the recipient's age. (cdc.gov)
  • A complete primary series with an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine may be offered to children 6 months to less than 5 years of age and should be offered to children 5 to 11 years of age without contraindications to the authorized vaccine, with a dosing interval of at least 8 weeks between the first and second dose. (canada.ca)
  • A first booster dose of mRNA COVID-19 vaccine should be offered to adults 18 years of age and older and select children and adolescents 5 to 17 years of age. (canada.ca)
  • Does a high viral load or infectious dose make covid-19 worse? (newscientist.com)
  • The viral load is a measure of how bright the fire is burning in an individual, whereas the infectious dose is the spark that gets that fire going," says Edward Parker at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. (newscientist.com)
  • This re-coding process makes viruses extremely weak and thus ideal candidates as ultra-low dose attenuated vaccines. (stonybrook.edu)
  • The licensing agreement enables Codgenix to develop and potentially market next generation vaccines using software-based gene design and whole viral synthesis to create low-dose, attenuated virus vaccines. (stonybrook.edu)
  • Novavax COVID-19 vaccine which is a protein subunit vaccine. (cdc.gov)
  • These include messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) vaccines, protein subunit and virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines, and non-replicating viral vector vaccines. (canada.ca)
  • It is recommended that an authorized protein subunit COVID-19 vaccine (Novavax Nuvaxovid) should be offered to individuals in the authorized age groups without contraindications to the vaccine who are not able or willing to receive an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. (canada.ca)
  • Viral infections are responsible for many human diseases, from common diseases like the flu to emerging infections such as Zika virus and SARS-CoV-2. (masslifesciences.com)
  • This advanced course offers a unique way for professionals to learn from leading Harvard Medical School faculty about cutting-edge developments in the creation of vaccines to protect against viral infections. (masslifesciences.com)
  • The RV144 HIV-1 vaccine trial results showed moderate reduction in viral infections among vaccinees as well as induction of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and vaccine-specific IgG and IgG3 responses directed at variable loop regions 1 and 2 of the HIV envelope protein. (nih.gov)
  • The only licensed vaccine of this type is the Ebola vaccine, rVSV-ZEBOV, which uses a vesicular stomatitis virus which is a virus that causes infections in cattle. (futurelearn.com)
  • This discovery could eventually lead to new antiviral drugs for Ebola and Marburg, among other viral infections. (ghtcoalition.org)
  • Antigenic and genetic characterization showed that most circulating viruses were well-matched to the 2015-16 Northern Hemisphere vaccine. (cdc.gov)
  • In order to facilitate such immediate reaction to new viruses, so-called platform processes are required for the production of vaccines. (acib.at)
  • With one single technology vaccines for different viruses can be produced and in contrast to a conventional strategy there is no need to produce pathogenic virus for a so-called inactivated vaccine or attenuated viral vaccine in which the pathogenicity is weakened by cultivation in the laboratory. (acib.at)
  • The technology relies on software to re-design the genomes of potentially harmful viruses to make them safe and effective vaccines. (stonybrook.edu)
  • Viral hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver, caused by five distinct hepatitis viruses (A, B, C, D, and E) whose routes of transmission, risk groups, courses of disease and control are summarized in the Annex. (who.int)
  • Other viruses can also cause acute viral hepatitis. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Thus, increasing prevalence of outbreak of these diseases is supplementing the growth of viral vector vaccines market in the continent. (inkwoodresearch.com)
  • There is a growing need for vaccines that work and that can be made rapidly, as evident by the Zika epidemic and other diseases," COO J. Robert Coleman said. (stonybrook.edu)
  • These short-length immunogens are potentially useable in a vaccine, as they reflect the diversity of features in HIV-1 strains. (sciencedaily.com)
  • The Yale team is currently testing nasal vaccine strains against COVID strains in animal models. (eurasiareview.com)
  • When developing influenza vaccines, researchers are forced to predict the genetic makeup of the virus some months in advance, and mismatches occur relatively frequently as strains become antigenically diverse. (scienceboard.net)
  • This makes it more difficult to match strains to vaccines. (scienceboard.net)
  • Our chimeric HA vaccine, by contrast, is directed at the proximal part of the HA protein -- the stalk domain -- which has been shown to broadly neutralize diverse influenza virus strains in both animal models and humans. (scienceboard.net)
  • Our chimeric hemagglutinin vaccine is a major advance over conventional vaccines which are often mismatched to the circulating strains of virus, impacting their effectiveness. (scienceboard.net)
  • In a letter sent on Friday, Mayor Dan Gelber of Miami Beach laid into presidential hopeful Ron DeSantis , saying the governor's advice to Florida residents under 65 to avoid the newly available COVID vaccine is "entirely based on the politics of the Republican primary and not on what's best for [his] Florida constituents. (yahoo.com)
  • The second consignment of 500,000 COVISHIELD vaccines from the Serum Institute of India is expected to arrive in Sri Lanka within the next two weeks, Principal Advisor to the President and the Chief of the Presidential Task Force on the Procurement of COVID Vaccine, Lalith Weeratunga said today. (dailymirror.lk)
  • A Centers for Disease Control scientist extracting viral RNA from samples of poliovirus genetic material for molecular testing. (substack.com)
  • The new vaccines will be available at pharmacies, health centers and some doctor offices. (wtrf.com)
  • Both are smallpox vaccines that have been shown to be about 85% effective in preventing monkeypox and may also provide some protection against severe disease in those already infected. (aamc.org)
  • The U.S. Department of Defense vaccinates personnel deployed to high- risk areas with the vaccinia virus (VACV)-based smallpox vaccine . (bvsalud.org)
  • These objectives were tested in 60 individuals scheduled to receive smallpox vaccine . (bvsalud.org)
  • If, as is argued, self-spreading vaccines are potentially transformational in a wide array of agricultural, medical and conservation uses, then developers and funders should commit to address needs within their own borders, rather than continue to propose equatorial nations for field testing. (mpg.de)
  • BioVaxys Co-Founder, President and Chief Operating Officer Kenneth Kovan says "This is an exciting development not only in the COVID-19 vaccine field, but potentially for other viral vaccines. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • The unprecedently speedy development of mRNA vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was enabled with previous innovations in nucleoside modifications during in vitro transcription and lipid nanoparticle delivery materials of mRNA. (mdpi.com)
  • They found that mice which had received vaccine intranasally were much better protected against the respiratory influenza than those that received injections. (eurasiareview.com)
  • Viral vectored vaccines are also a relatively new type of vaccine. (futurelearn.com)
  • With this in mind, and while the global vaccine rollout is currently underway, scientists and the public alike have raised a key concern: How will available vaccines and vaccine candidates hold up against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • An important part of the vaccine production is the purification of the virus in order to remove impurities that remain from the production process and would cause adverse effects if present in the final vaccine product. (acib.at)
  • See also Overview of Acute Viral Hepatitis and Overview of Chronic Hepatitis. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Acute viral hepatitis is common throughout the world. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Healthcare workers and vulnerable individuals in the U.S. could receive the Pfizer vaccine as early as next week. (livescience.com)
  • Most functional responses increased upon protein boosting, regardless of the viral vector-priming agent incorporation. (nih.gov)
  • Is protection against adenovirus type 2 as effective a a bordetella vaccine? (vetinfo.com)
  • The technology behind the Russian vaccine in question is based upon adenovirus, the common cold. (jacknjillscute.com)
  • Oral enteric vaccines : report on a WHO working group, Frankfurt, 11-12 May 1981. (who.int)
  • By now any reader of my Substack is fairly and deeply aware of how much high viral loads can and do become a problem. (substack.com)
  • If you have a high viral load, you are more likely to infect other people, because you may be shedding more virus particles. (newscientist.com)
  • Worldwide, recommendations for using hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccine will vary in accordance with local patterns of HBV transmission. (cdc.gov)
  • People who are moderately or severely immunocompromised have specific recommendations for COVID-19 vaccines. (cdc.gov)
  • Vaccine-specific recommendations may be outdated. (cdc.gov)
  • According to a recent study , real-world data from Israel suggest that this vaccine is highly effective in preventing COVID-19, including severe disease. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Side effects after a COVID-19 vaccine are common, however severe allergic reactions after getting a COVID-19 vaccine are rare . (cdc.gov)
  • However, in the case of covid-19, it doesn't necessarily follow that a higher viral load will lead to more severe symptoms. (newscientist.com)
  • Similarly, when doctors at the Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital in China took repeated throat swabs from 94 covid-19 patients, starting on the day they became ill and finishing when they cleared the virus, they found no obvious difference in viral load between milder cases and those who developed more severe symptoms. (newscientist.com)
  • The Janssen (Johnson and Johnson) coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccine is currently being studied to prevent coronavirus disease 2019 caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The first viral vector was introduced in 1972 through genetic engineering of the SV40 virus. (wikipedia.org)
  • In order to transfer a nucleic acid coding for a specific protein to a cell, the vaccines employ a variant of a virus as its vector. (wikipedia.org)
  • Viral vector vaccines have benefits over other forms of vaccinations depending on the virus which they produced thanks to their qualities of immunogenicity, immunogenic stability, and safety. (wikipedia.org)
  • There are two inactivated hepatitis A whole-virus vaccines ( Vaqta, Havrix ) and a combination hepatitis A and B vaccine ( Twinrix ) available (Table 10). (dentalcare.com)
  • Therefore, the development of a universal influenza virus vaccine is desirable. (scienceboard.net)
  • The vaccine consists of group 1 or group 2 stalk domains in combination with head domains from avian influenza virus subtypes. (scienceboard.net)
  • Genetic material from the infectious agent for which a vaccine is required is incorporated into an unrelated virus which then acts as carrier or vector of the genetic material. (futurelearn.com)
  • Last week, the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations (CEPI) and the University of Oxford announced the launch of a new project to develop prototype vaccines against an arenavirus called Junin virus, which causes Argentine hemorrhagic fever. (ghtcoalition.org)
  • Last Thursday, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced its approval of the first vaccine to prevent the disease caused by the chikungunya virus. (ghtcoalition.org)
  • The Ixchiq vaccine, developed by Valenva, is approved for adults at increased risk of exposure to the virus. (ghtcoalition.org)
  • This report summarizes influenza activity in the United States during the 2015-16 influenza season (October 4, 2015-May 21, 2016) § and reports the vaccine virus components recommended for the 2016-17 Northern Hemisphere influenza vaccines. (cdc.gov)
  • Cancer has been conquered : the Hasumi cancer virus vaccines (based upon virus causation theory of cancer / Kiichiro Hasumi. (who.int)
  • Any vaccine raised against any virus or viral derivative that causes hepatitis. (childrensmercy.org)
  • Since the first lab-modified virus capable of replication was generated in 1974, an evidence-based consensus has emerged that many changes introduced into viral genomes are likely to prove unstable if released into the environment. (mpg.de)
  • As the SARS-CoV-2 virus continues to evolve, we explore what vaccine developers are doing to ensure their vaccines work against emerging variants and whether we need specifically adapted vaccines. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • One of such platform processes for the production of vaccines relies on the measles virus. (acib.at)
  • Normally, the vaccine is sterile filtered at the end of the process, which is not possible for the measles virus due to its relatively large size. (acib.at)
  • CD8+ T cells have the capacity to kill cells infected by the virus, thereby stopping viral replication in those cells. (financialnewsmedia.com)
  • certolizumab pegol decreases effects of influenza virus vaccine quadrivalent, intranasal by pharmacodynamic antagonism. (medscape.com)
  • The advantage to our strategy and technology behind it is that we can design virus vaccine candidates quickly," said Dr. Wimmer. (stonybrook.edu)
  • Rutherford added that even if you feel like you might already be sick with a virus of some kind, you shouldn't let that stop you from getting the vaccine. (cbs42.com)
  • This consists of stimulating T-cells obtained from the same mice with viral peptides and measuring the degree of T-cell activation using the established analytical method of flow cytometry and the production of cytokines, including IL-2 and gamma interferon. (pressvn.com)
  • Access1 to safe, effective and quality medicines and vaccines for all is one of the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals.2 Achieving universal health coverage requires access to safe, effective, quality and affordable essential medicines and vaccines. (who.int)
  • The SUNY-RF 'disruptive' genome recoding technology shakes up the way vaccines are currently made, and the approach provides a rational means to designing vaccines against multiple targets. (stonybrook.edu)