Pathologic partial or complete loss of the ability to recall past experiences (AMNESIA, RETROGRADE) or to form new memories (AMNESIA, ANTEROGRADE). This condition may be of organic or psychologic origin. Organic forms of amnesia are usually associated with dysfunction of the DIENCEPHALON or HIPPOCAMPUS. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp426-7)
Loss of the ability to recall information that had been previously encoded in memory prior to a specified or approximate point in time. This process may be organic or psychogenic in origin. Organic forms may be associated with CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS; SEIZURES; DEMENTIA; and a wide variety of other conditions that impair cerebral function. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp426-9)
Loss of the ability to form new memories beyond a certain point in time. This condition may be organic or psychogenic in origin. Organically induced anterograde amnesia may follow CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; SEIZURES; ANOXIA; and other conditions which adversely affect neural structures associated with memory formation (e.g., the HIPPOCAMPUS; FORNIX (BRAIN); MAMMILLARY BODIES; and ANTERIOR THALAMIC NUCLEI). (From Memory 1997 Jan-Mar;5(1-2):49-71)
A syndrome characterized by a transient loss of the ability to form new memories. It primarily occurs in middle aged or elderly individuals, and episodes may last from minutes to hours. During the period of amnesia, immediate and recent memory abilities are impaired, but the level of consciousness and ability to perform other intellectual tasks are preserved. The condition is related to bilateral dysfunction of the medial portions of each TEMPORAL LOBE. Complete recovery normally occurs, and recurrences are unusual. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp429-30)
The directed transport of ORGANELLES and molecules along nerve cell AXONS. Transport can be anterograde (from the cell body) or retrograde (toward the cell body). (Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 3d ed, pG3)
An acquired cognitive disorder characterized by inattentiveness and the inability to form short term memories. This disorder is frequently associated with chronic ALCOHOLISM; but it may also result from dietary deficiencies; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; NEOPLASMS; CEREBROVASCULAR DISORDERS; ENCEPHALITIS; EPILEPSY; and other conditions. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1139)
Complex mental function having four distinct phases: (1) memorizing or learning, (2) retention, (3) recall, and (4) recognition. Clinically, it is usually subdivided into immediate, recent, and remote memory.
A mental disorder associated with chronic ethanol abuse (ALCOHOLISM) and nutritional deficiencies characterized by short term memory loss, confabulations, and disturbances of attention. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1139)
The persistence to perform a learned behavior (facts or experiences) after an interval has elapsed in which there has been no performance or practice of the behavior.
The process whereby a representation of past experience is elicited.
A microtubule-associated mechanical adenosine triphosphatase, that uses the energy of ATP hydrolysis to move organelles along microtubules toward the plus end of the microtubule. The protein is found in squid axoplasm, optic lobes, and in bovine brain. Bovine kinesin is a heterotetramer composed of two heavy (120 kDa) and two light (62 kDa) chains. EC 3.6.1.-.
Tests designed to assess neurological function associated with certain behaviors. They are used in diagnosing brain dysfunction or damage and central nervous system disorders or injury.
A response to a cue that is instrumental in avoiding a noxious experience.
A thiamine antagonist due to its inhibition of thiamine pyrophosphorylation. It is used to produce thiamine deficiency.
The life of a person written by himself or herself. (Harrod's Librarians' Glossary, 7th ed)
The paired caudal parts of the PROSENCEPHALON from which the THALAMUS; HYPOTHALAMUS; EPITHALAMUS; and SUBTHALAMUS are derived.
Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron cell body.
A curved elevation of GRAY MATTER extending the entire length of the floor of the TEMPORAL HORN of the LATERAL VENTRICLE (see also TEMPORAL LOBE). The hippocampus proper, subiculum, and DENTATE GYRUS constitute the hippocampal formation. Sometimes authors include the ENTORHINAL CORTEX in the hippocampal formation.
Lower lateral part of the cerebral hemisphere responsible for auditory, olfactory, and semantic processing. It is located inferior to the lateral fissure and anterior to the OCCIPITAL LOBE.
An alkaloid from SOLANACEAE, especially DATURA and SCOPOLIA. Scopolamine and its quaternary derivatives act as antimuscarinics like ATROPINE, but may have more central nervous system effects. Among the many uses are as an anesthetic premedication, in URINARY INCONTINENCE, in MOTION SICKNESS, as an antispasmodic, and as a mydriatic and cycloplegic.
A pair of nuclei and associated gray matter in the interpeduncular space rostral to the posterior perforated substance in the posterior hypothalamus.
A short-acting hypnotic-sedative drug with anxiolytic and amnestic properties. It is used in dentistry, cardiac surgery, endoscopic procedures, as preanesthetic medication, and as an adjunct to local anesthesia. The short duration and cardiorespiratory stability makes it useful in poor-risk, elderly, and cardiac patients. It is water-soluble at pH less than 4 and lipid-soluble at physiological pH.
A mental state characterized by bewilderment, emotional disturbance, lack of clear thinking, and perceptual disorientation.
Loss of the ability to maintain awareness of self and environment combined with markedly reduced responsiveness to environmental stimuli. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp344-5)
Drugs administered before an anesthetic to decrease a patient's anxiety and control the effects of that anesthetic.
Substances used to identify the location and to characterize the types of NEURAL PATHWAYS.
Disturbances in registering an impression, in the retention of an acquired impression, or in the recall of an impression. Memory impairments are associated with DEMENTIA; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; ENCEPHALITIS; ALCOHOLISM (see also ALCOHOL AMNESTIC DISORDER); SCHIZOPHRENIA; and other conditions.
Neural tracts connecting one part of the nervous system with another.
A small nodular mass of specialized muscle fibers located in the interatrial septum near the opening of the coronary sinus. It gives rise to the atrioventricular bundle of the conduction system of the heart.
The largest of the medial nuclei of the thalamus. It makes extensive connections with most of the other thalamic nuclei.
A stack of flattened vesicles that functions in posttranslational processing and sorting of proteins, receiving them from the rough ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM and directing them to secretory vesicles, LYSOSOMES, or the CELL MEMBRANE. The movement of proteins takes place by transfer vesicles that bud off from the rough endoplasmic reticulum or Golgi apparatus and fuse with the Golgi, lysosomes or cell membrane. (From Glick, Glossary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 1990)
The lectin wheatgerm agglutinin conjugated to the enzyme HORSERADISH PEROXIDASE. It is widely used for tracing neural pathways.
Disorders of the centrally located thalamus, which integrates a wide range of cortical and subcortical information. Manifestations include sensory loss, MOVEMENT DISORDERS; ATAXIA, pain syndromes, visual disorders, a variety of neuropsychological conditions, and COMA. Relatively common etiologies include CEREBROVASCULAR DISORDERS; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; BRAIN NEOPLASMS; BRAIN HYPOXIA; INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGES; and infectious processes.
Relatively permanent change in behavior that is the result of past experience or practice. The concept includes the acquisition of knowledge.
The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.
Traumatic injuries involving the cranium and intracranial structures (i.e., BRAIN; CRANIAL NERVES; MENINGES; and other structures). Injuries may be classified by whether or not the skull is penetrated (i.e., penetrating vs. nonpenetrating) or whether there is an associated hemorrhage.
Heavily myelinated fiber bundle of the TELENCEPHALON projecting from the hippocampal formation to the HYPOTHALAMUS. Some authorities consider the fornix part of the LIMBIC SYSTEM. The fimbria starts as a flattened band of axons arising from the subiculum and HIPPOCAMPUS, which then thickens to form the fornix.
STILBENES with AMIDINES attached.
Methods used to label and follow the course of NEURAL PATHWAYS by AXONAL TRANSPORT of injected NEURONAL TRACT-TRACERS.
A protein complex comprised of COATOMER PROTEIN and ADP RIBOSYLATION FACTOR 1. It is involved in transport of vesicles between the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM and the GOLGI APPARATUS.
A group of glucose polymers made by certain bacteria. Dextrans are used therapeutically as plasma volume expanders and anticoagulants. They are also commonly used in biological experimentation and in industry for a wide variety of purposes.
Several groups of nuclei in the thalamus that serve as the major relay centers for sensory impulses in the brain.
A group of conditions in which HEART VENTRICLE activation by the atrial impulse is faster than the normal impulse conduction from the SINOATRIAL NODE. In these pre-excitation syndromes, atrial impulses often bypass the ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE delay and travel via ACCESSORY CONDUCTING PATHWAYS connecting the atrium directly to the BUNDLE OF HIS.
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Abnormally rapid heartbeats caused by reentry of atrial impulse into the dual (fast and slow) pathways of ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE. The common type involves a blocked atrial impulse in the slow pathway which reenters the fast pathway in a retrograde direction and simultaneously conducts to the atria and the ventricles leading to rapid HEART RATE of 150-250 beats per minute.
A 700-kDa cytosolic protein complex consisting of seven equimolar subunits (alpha, beta, beta', gamma, delta, epsilon and zeta). COATOMER PROTEIN and ADP-RIBOSYLATION FACTOR 1 are principle components of COAT PROTEIN COMPLEX I and are involved in vesicle transport between the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM and the GOLGI APPARATUS.
A species of VARICELLOVIRUS producing a respiratory infection (PSEUDORABIES) in swine, its natural host. It also produces an usually fatal ENCEPHALOMYELITIS in cattle, sheep, dogs, cats, foxes, and mink.
Nerve structures through which impulses are conducted from a nerve center toward a peripheral site. Such impulses are conducted via efferent neurons (NEURONS, EFFERENT), such as MOTOR NEURONS, autonomic neurons, and hypophyseal neurons.
An antibiotic isolated from various Streptomyces species. It interferes with protein and DNA synthesis by inhibiting peptidyl transferase or the 80S ribosome system.
Paired bodies containing mostly GRAY MATTER and forming part of the lateral wall of the THIRD VENTRICLE of the brain.
A form of ventricular pre-excitation characterized by a short PR interval and a long QRS interval with a delta wave. In this syndrome, atrial impulses are abnormally conducted to the HEART VENTRICLES via an ACCESSORY CONDUCTING PATHWAY that is located between the wall of the right or left atria and the ventricles, also known as a BUNDLE OF KENT. The inherited form can be caused by mutation of PRKAG2 gene encoding a gamma-2 regulatory subunit of AMP-activated protein kinase.
Learning in which the subject must respond with one word or syllable when presented with another word or syllable.
Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
Nerve structures through which impulses are conducted from a peripheral part toward a nerve center.
A water-soluble, enzyme co-factor present in minute amounts in every living cell. It occurs mainly bound to proteins or polypeptides and is abundant in liver, kidney, pancreas, yeast, and milk.
A neurotoxic isoxazole (similar to KAINIC ACID and MUSCIMOL) found in AMANITA mushrooms. It causes motor depression, ataxia, and changes in mood, perceptions and feelings, and is a potent excitatory amino acid agonist.
A nutritional condition produced by a deficiency of THIAMINE in the diet, characterized by anorexia, irritability, and weight loss. Later, patients experience weakness, peripheral neuropathy, headache, and tachycardia. In addition to being caused by a poor diet, thiamine deficiency in the United States most commonly occurs as a result of alcoholism, since ethanol interferes with thiamine absorption. In countries relying on polished rice as a dietary staple, BERIBERI prevalence is very high. (From Cecil Textbook of Medicine, 19th ed, p1171)
Almond-shaped group of basal nuclei anterior to the INFERIOR HORN OF THE LATERAL VENTRICLE of the TEMPORAL LOBE. The amygdala is part of the limbic system.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
The movement of materials (including biochemical substances and drugs) through a biological system at the cellular level. The transport can be across cell membranes and epithelial layers. It also can occur within intracellular compartments and extracellular compartments.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
A subfamily of HERPESVIRIDAE characterized by a short replication cycle. The genera include: SIMPLEXVIRUS; VARICELLOVIRUS; MAREK'S DISEASE-LIKE VIRUSES; and ILTOVIRUS.
The knowledge or perception that someone or something present has been previously encountered.
Learning to respond verbally to a verbal stimulus cue.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Three nuclei located beneath the dorsal surface of the most rostral part of the thalamus. The group includes the anterodorsal nucleus, anteromedial nucleus, and anteroventral nucleus. All receive connections from the MAMILLARY BODY and BRAIN FORNIX, and project fibers to the CINGULATE BODY.
A dissociative disorder in which the individual adopts two or more distinct personalities. Each personality is a fully integrated and complex unit with memories, behavior patterns and social friendships. Transition from one personality to another is sudden.
The recording of wavelike motions or undulations. It is usually used on arteries to detect variations in blood pressure.
A condition characterized by long-standing brain dysfunction or damage, usually of three months duration or longer. Potential etiologies include BRAIN INFARCTION; certain NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; ANOXIA, BRAIN; ENCEPHALITIS; certain NEUROTOXICITY SYNDROMES; metabolic disorders (see BRAIN DISEASES, METABOLIC); and other conditions.
The anterior pair of the quadrigeminal bodies which coordinate the general behavioral orienting responses to visual stimuli, such as whole-body turning, and reaching.

Anterograde and retrograde amnesia after lesions to frontal cortex in rats. (1/47)

A socially acquired food-preference test was used to assess effects of lesions to the frontal cortex on anterograde and retrograde memory in rats. In Experiment 1, there was no effect of lesion when rats were administered a two-choice test in which the target food was to be selected in the presence of a single distractor. In Experiment 2, a three-choice memory test was administered in which the target food was presented along with two equally palatable alternatives. In the latter test, lesioned groups displayed anterograde amnesia that increased with the length of the interval between postoperative acquisition and test, and a severe retrograde amnesia that extended equally over the entire range of intervals between preoperative acquisition and test. This outcome, which contrasted with the pattern of memory loss previously observed in rats with hippocampal lesions on this test, was interpreted as evidence for the strategic role of the frontal lobes in directing response selection and retrieval processes in memory.  (+info)

Brain correlates of memory dysfunction in alcoholic Korsakoff's syndrome. (2/47)

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the relation between anterograde amnesia and atrophy of brain structures involved in memory processing in alcoholic Korsakoff's syndrome. METHODS: The volume of brain structures involved in memory processing was measured with MRI from 13 subjects with Korsakoff's syndrome, 13 subjects with chronic alcoholism without Korsakoff's syndrome, and 13 control subjects. The brain structures analysed were the hippocampus, the parahippocampal gyrus, the mamillary bodies, the third ventricle, and the thalamus. Brain volumes were correlated with the delayed recall of a verbal learning test. RESULTS: Compared with subjects with chronic alcoholism and control subjects, subjects with Korsakoff's syndrome had a reduced volume of the hippocampus, the mamillary bodies, and the thalamus, and enlargement of the third ventricle. The impairment of delayed recall correlated with the volume of the third ventricle (r=-0.55, p=0.05) in the Korsakoff group. CONCLUSIONS: Anterograde amnesia in alcoholic Korsakoff's syndrome is associated with atrophy of the nuclei in the midline of the thalamus, but not with atrophy of the mamillary bodies, the hippocampus, or the parahippocampal gyrus.  (+info)

Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic analysis of mnesic effects of lorazepam in healthy volunteers. (3/47)

AIMS: To describe the pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling of the psychomotor and mnesic effects of a single 2 mg oral dose of lorazepam in healthy volunteers. METHODS: This was a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled two-way cross-over study. The effect of lorazepam was examined with the following tasks: choice reaction time, immediate and delayed cued recall of paired words and immediate and delayed free recall and recognition of pictures. RESULTS: The mean calculated EC50 values derived from the PK/PD modelling of the different tests ranged from 12.2 to 15.3 ng ml-1. On the basis of the statistical comparison of the EC50 values, the delayed recall trials seemed to be more impaired than the immediate recall trials; similar observations were made concerning the recognition vs recall tasks. CONCLUSIONS: The parameter values derived from PK/PD modelling, and especially the EC50 values, may provide sensitive indices that can be used, rather than the raw data derived from pharmacodynamic measurements, to compare CNS effects of benzodiazepines.  (+info)

Amnesia due to fornix infarction. (4/47)

Background and Purpose-The fornix connects various structures involved in memory. We report a patient with anterograde amnesia after an acute ischemic infarct in the anterior fornix. Case Description-A 71-year-old female with acute-onset amnesia had neuroimaging studies showing ischemic infarction of both columns and the body of the fornix and the genu of the corpus callosum. Neuropsychological evaluation revealed anterograde amnesia without evidence of callosal disconnection. The patient showed marked improvement in her memory function on the follow-up visit. Conclusions-Amnesia in this case is likely due to infarction of the anterior fornix structures.  (+info)

Bilateral astrocytoma involving the limbic system precipitating disabling amnesia and seizures. (5/47)

Astrocytomas involving the limbic system are usually unilateral in nature. We report a very unusual case where a low-grade astrocytoma originating in the left temporal lobe spread to the right hippocampus through the hippocampal commissure to cause disabling amnesia and seizures. Some improvement in the memory deficit was facilitated by identification of complex partial status epilepticus. EEG should be performed in all patients with lesions of the limbic system and neuropsychological problems if ongoing seizure activity is not to be missed.  (+info)

Focal autobiographical amnesia in association with transient epileptic amnesia. (6/47)

Although problems with remembering significant events from the past (e.g. holidays, weddings, etc.) have been reported previously in patients with transient epileptic amnesia (TEA), to date there have been no detailed studies of autobiographical memory in patients with this disorder. To investigate this issue, a 68-year-old right-handed man (R.G.) who suffered from TEA and reported significant autobiographical memory problems was tested on a battery of neuropsychological tests of anterograde and remote memory. Tests of autobiographical memory revealed that R.G. was unable to evoke detailed autobiographical recollections from a substantial part of his life. By contrast, he performed well on tests of new learning and general knowledge and possessed good personal semantic information about his past. In summary, a distinct form of autobiographical amnesia, which is characterized by loss of experiential remembering of significant events, may be associated with TEA. It is proposed that the autobiographical memory deficit seen in the disorder may result from the progressive erasure of cortically based memory representations. This case adds to growing evidence for a dissociation between mechanisms subserving anterograde memory and those required to evoke remote episodic memories.  (+info)

Cognitive impairment after small-dose ketamine isomers in comparison to equianalgesic racemic ketamine in human volunteers. (7/47)

BACKGROUND: Ketamine is increasingly used in pain therapy but may impair brain functions. Mood and cognitive capacities were compared after equianalgesic small-dose S(+)-, R(-)-, and racemic ketamine in healthy volunteers. METHODS: Twenty-four subjects received intravenous 0.5 mg/kg racemic, 0.25 mg/kg S(+)-, and 1.0 mg/kg R(-)-ketamine in a prospective, randomized, double-blind, crossover study. Hemodynamic variables, mood, and cognitive capacities were assessed for 60 min. RESULTS: Transient increases in blood pressure, heart rate, and catecholamines were similar after administration of all drugs. At 20 min after injection, subjects felt less decline in concentration and were more brave after S(+)- than racemic ketamine. They reported being less lethargic but more out-of-control after R(-)- than racemic ketamine. Ketamine isomers induced less drowsiness, less lethargy, and less impairment in clustered subjective cognitive capacity than racemic ketamine for the 60-min study. Objective concentration capacity [test time, S(+): 25.4 +/- 15.2 s, R(-): 34.8 +/- 18.4 s, racemic ketamine: 40.8 +/- 20.8 s, mean +/- SD] and retention in primary memory [test time, S(+): 4.6 +/- 1.2 s, R(-): 4.2 +/- 1.4 s, racemic ketamine: 4.0 +/- 1.4 s, mean +/- SD] declined less after S(+)- than either R(-)- or racemic ketamine at 1 min. At 5 min, immediate recall, anterograde amnesia, retention in primary memory, short-term storage capacity, and intelligence quotient were less reduced after the isomers than racemic ketamine. Speed reading and central information flow decreased less after S(+)- than racemic ketamine. CONCLUSIONS: Early after injection, ketamine isomers induce less tiredness and cognitive impairment than equianalgesic small-dose racemic ketamine. In addition, S(+)-ketamine causes less decline in concentration capacity and primary memory. The differences in drug effects cannot be explained by stereoselective action on one given receptor.  (+info)

Isoflurane causes anterograde but not retrograde amnesia for pavlovian fear conditioning. (8/47)

BACKGROUND: Production of retrograde amnesia by anesthetics would indicate that these drugs can disrupt mechanisms that stabilize memory. Such disruption would allow suppression of memory of previous untoward events. The authors examined whether isoflurane provides retrograde amnesia for classic (Pavlovian) fear conditioning. METHODS: Rats were trained to fear tone by applying three (three-trial) or one (one-trial) tone-shock pairs while breathing various constant concentrations of isoflurane. Immediately after training, isoflurane administration was either discontinued, maintained unchanged, or rapidly increased to 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration for 1 h longer. Groups of rats were similarly trained to fear context while breathing isoflurane by applying shocks (without tones) in a distinctive environment. The next day, memory for the conditioned stimuli was determined by presenting the tone or context (without shock) and measuring the proportion of time each rat froze (appeared immobile). For each conditioning procedure, the effects of the three posttraining isoflurane treatments were compared. RESULTS: Rapid increases in posttraining isoflurane administration did not suppress conditioned fear for any of the training procedures. In contrast, isoflurane administration during conditioning dose-dependently suppressed conditioning (P < 0.05). Training to tone was more resistant to the effects of isoflurane than training to context (P < 0.05), and the three-trial learning procedure was more was more resistant than the one-trial procedure (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Isoflurane provided intense dose-dependent anterograde but not retrograde amnesia for classic fear conditioning. Isoflurane appears to disrupt memory processes that occur at or within a few minutes of the conditioning procedure.  (+info)

Amnesia is a condition characterized by memory loss, which can be temporary or permanent. It may result from brain damage or disease, and it can affect various aspects of memory, such as the ability to recall past events (retrograde amnesia), the ability to form new memories (anterograde amnesia), or both. Amnesia can also affect a person's sense of identity and their ability to learn new skills.

There are several types of amnesia, including:

1. Anterograde amnesia: This type of amnesia affects the ability to form new memories after an injury or trauma. People with anterograde amnesia may have difficulty learning new information and remembering recent events.
2. Retrograde amnesia: Retrograde amnesia affects the ability to recall memories that were formed before an injury or trauma. People with retrograde amnesia may have trouble remembering events, people, or facts from their past.
3. Transient global amnesia: This is a temporary form of amnesia that usually lasts for less than 24 hours. It is often caused by a lack of blood flow to the brain, and it can be triggered by emotional stress, physical exertion, or other factors.
4. Korsakoff's syndrome: This is a type of amnesia that is caused by alcohol abuse and malnutrition. It is characterized by severe memory loss, confusion, and disorientation.
5. Dissociative amnesia: This type of amnesia is caused by psychological factors, such as trauma or stress. People with dissociative amnesia may have trouble remembering important personal information or events that are emotionally charged.

The treatment for amnesia depends on the underlying cause. In some cases, memory may improve over time, while in other cases, it may be permanent. Treatment may involve medication, therapy, or rehabilitation to help people with amnesia cope with their memory loss and develop new skills to compensate for their memory impairments.

Retrograde amnesia is a form of memory loss where an individual cannot recall information, events, or facts from their personal past before a specific point in time. This type of amnesia is caused by damage to the brain, often as a result of head injury, stroke, infection, or certain medical conditions. The extent and duration of retrograde amnesia can vary widely, depending on the severity and location of the brain injury. In some cases, memory function may return over time as the brain heals, while in other cases the memory loss may be permanent.

Anterograde amnesia is a specific type of memory loss where a person has difficulty forming new memories or learning and retaining new information after the onset of the amnesia. It is often caused by damage to certain parts of the brain, such as the hippocampus and surrounding structures, which play a crucial role in the formation of new memories.

In anterograde amnesia, people may have trouble remembering events that occurred after the onset of their memory impairment, while their ability to recall remote memories or those that were formed before the onset of the amnesia is typically preserved. The severity of anterograde amnesia can vary widely, from mild difficulty with learning new information to a complete inability to form any new memories.

Anterograde amnesia can be caused by various factors, including brain injury, infection, stroke, alcohol or drug abuse, seizures, and certain medical conditions such as Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, which is often associated with chronic alcoholism. Treatment for anterograde amnesia depends on the underlying cause and may involve medication, rehabilitation, or other interventions to help improve memory function.

Transient global amnesia (TGA) is a sudden, temporary episode of memory loss that cannot be explained by a more common neurological or medical condition. It is characterized by an inability to form new memories (anterograde amnesia) and to recall past events or personal information (retrograde amnesia). These memory gaps typically last for several hours, but may persist for up to 24 hours.

TGA usually affects people over the age of 50 and is more common in men than women. The exact cause of TGA is not known, although it has been associated with various triggers such as emotional stress, physical exertion, sudden immersion in cold water, sexual activity, and medical procedures.

During a TGA episode, individuals often repeat the same questions or statements due to their inability to form new memories. They may also appear confused or disoriented, but they typically remain conscious and maintain their ability to perform familiar tasks. Most people with TGA do not experience any long-term memory loss or other neurological symptoms after the episode resolves.

The diagnosis of TGA is based on the characteristic symptoms, a normal physical examination, and the exclusion of other potential causes of amnesia through medical testing. Treatment for TGA is generally supportive, focusing on reassuring the individual and providing a safe environment during the episode. Recurrent episodes of TGA are uncommon but can occur in some individuals.

Axonal transport is the controlled movement of materials and organelles within axons, which are the nerve fibers of neurons (nerve cells). This intracellular transport system is essential for maintaining the structural and functional integrity of axons, particularly in neurons with long axonal processes. There are two types of axonal transport: anterograde transport, which moves materials from the cell body toward the synaptic terminals, and retrograde transport, which transports materials from the synaptic terminals back to the cell body. Anterograde transport is typically slower than retrograde transport and can be divided into fast and slow components based on velocity. Fast anterograde transport moves vesicles containing neurotransmitters and their receptors, as well as mitochondria and other organelles, at speeds of up to 400 mm/day. Slow anterograde transport moves cytoskeletal elements, proteins, and RNA at speeds of 1-10 mm/day. Retrograde transport is primarily responsible for recycling membrane components, removing damaged organelles, and transmitting signals from the axon terminal to the cell body. Dysfunctions in axonal transport have been implicated in various neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

Korsakoff syndrome is a neuropsychiatric disorder typically caused by alcohol abuse, specifically thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency in the brain. It's often associated with Wernicke encephalopathy, and the two together are referred to as Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.

The main features of Korsakoff syndrome include severe memory impairment, particularly anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories), confabulation (making up stories due to gaps in memory), and a lack of insight into their condition. Other cognitive functions like intelligence and perception are usually preserved.

The syndrome is believed to result from damage to the mammillary bodies and other structures in the diencephalon, particularly the thalamus. Treatment involves abstinence from alcohol, thiamine replacement, and a balanced diet. The prognosis varies but often includes some degree of permanent memory impairment.

In the context of medical and clinical neuroscience, memory is defined as the brain's ability to encode, store, retain, and recall information or experiences. Memory is a complex cognitive process that involves several interconnected regions of the brain and can be categorized into different types based on various factors such as duration and the nature of the information being remembered.

The major types of memory include:

1. Sensory memory: The shortest form of memory, responsible for holding incoming sensory information for a brief period (less than a second to several seconds) before it is either transferred to short-term memory or discarded.
2. Short-term memory (also called working memory): A temporary storage system that allows the brain to hold and manipulate information for approximately 20-30 seconds, although this duration can be extended through rehearsal strategies. Short-term memory has a limited capacity, typically thought to be around 7±2 items.
3. Long-term memory: The memory system responsible for storing large amounts of information over extended periods, ranging from minutes to a lifetime. Long-term memory has a much larger capacity compared to short-term memory and is divided into two main categories: explicit (declarative) memory and implicit (non-declarative) memory.

Explicit (declarative) memory can be further divided into episodic memory, which involves the recollection of specific events or episodes, including their temporal and spatial contexts, and semantic memory, which refers to the storage and retrieval of general knowledge, facts, concepts, and vocabulary, independent of personal experience or context.

Implicit (non-declarative) memory encompasses various forms of learning that do not require conscious awareness or intention, such as procedural memory (skills and habits), priming (facilitated processing of related stimuli), classical conditioning (associative learning), and habituation (reduced responsiveness to repeated stimuli).

Memory is a crucial aspect of human cognition and plays a significant role in various aspects of daily life, including learning, problem-solving, decision-making, social interactions, and personal identity. Memory dysfunction can result from various neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as dementia, Alzheimer's disease, stroke, traumatic brain injury, and depression.

Alcohol Amnestic Disorder is not listed as a separate disorder in the current edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which is used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental conditions. However, it was previously included in earlier editions as a subtype of Amnestic Disorder due to the effects of substance use or exposure to toxins.

Alcohol Amnestic Disorder is characterized by significant memory impairment that is directly caused by alcohol consumption. This disorder can result in anterograde amnesia, which is the inability to form new memories after drinking, and/or retrograde amnesia, which involves forgetting previously learned information or personal experiences.

The diagnosis of Alcohol Amnestic Disorder typically requires a comprehensive medical and neuropsychological evaluation to determine the extent and nature of memory impairment, as well as to rule out other potential causes for cognitive decline. Treatment usually involves a combination of abstinence from alcohol, pharmacotherapy, and psychosocial interventions to address substance use disorder and any co-occurring mental health conditions.

"Mental recall," also known as "memory recall," refers to the ability to retrieve or bring information from your memory storage into your conscious mind, so you can think about, use, or apply it. This process involves accessing and retrieving stored memories in response to certain cues or prompts. It is a fundamental cognitive function that allows individuals to remember and recognize people, places, events, facts, and experiences.

In the context of medical terminology, mental recall may be used to assess an individual's cognitive abilities, particularly in relation to memory function. Impairments in memory recall can be indicative of various neurological or psychological conditions, such as dementia, Alzheimer's disease, or amnesia.

Kinesin is not a medical term per se, but a term from the field of cellular biology. However, understanding how kinesins work is important in the context of medical and cellular research.

Kinesins are a family of motor proteins that play a crucial role in transporting various cargoes within cells, such as vesicles, organelles, and chromosomes. They move along microtubule filaments, using the energy derived from ATP hydrolysis to generate mechanical force and motion. This process is essential for several cellular functions, including intracellular transport, mitosis, and meiosis.

In a medical context, understanding kinesin function can provide insights into various diseases and conditions related to impaired intracellular transport, such as neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease) and certain genetic disorders affecting motor neurons. Research on kinesins can potentially lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies targeting these conditions.

Neuropsychological tests are a type of psychological assessment that measures cognitive functions, such as attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and perception. These tests are used to help diagnose and understand the cognitive impact of neurological conditions, including dementia, traumatic brain injury, stroke, Parkinson's disease, and other disorders that affect the brain.

The tests are typically administered by a trained neuropsychologist and can take several hours to complete. They may involve paper-and-pencil tasks, computerized tasks, or interactive activities. The results of the tests are compared to normative data to help identify any areas of cognitive weakness or strength.

Neuropsychological testing can provide valuable information for treatment planning, rehabilitation, and assessing response to treatment. It can also be used in research to better understand the neural basis of cognition and the impact of neurological conditions on cognitive function.

Avoidance learning is a type of conditioning in which an individual learns to act in a certain way to avoid experiencing an unpleasant or aversive stimulus. It is a form of learning that occurs when an organism changes its behavior to avoid a negative outcome or situation. This can be seen in both animals and humans, and it is often studied in the field of psychology and neuroscience.

In avoidance learning, the individual learns to associate a particular cue or stimulus with the unpleasant experience. Over time, they learn to perform an action to escape or avoid the cue, thereby preventing the negative outcome from occurring. For example, if a rat receives an electric shock every time it hears a certain tone, it may eventually learn to press a lever to turn off the tone and avoid the shock.

Avoidance learning can be adaptive in some situations, as it allows individuals to avoid dangerous or harmful stimuli. However, it can also become maladaptive if it leads to excessive fear or anxiety, or if it interferes with an individual's ability to function in daily life. For example, a person who has been attacked may develop a phobia of public places and avoid them altogether, even though this limits their ability to engage in social activities and live a normal life.

In summary, avoidance learning is a type of conditioning in which an individual learns to act in a certain way to avoid experiencing an unpleasant or aversive stimulus. It can be adaptive in some situations but can also become maladaptive if it leads to excessive fear or anxiety or interferes with daily functioning.

Pyrithiamine is not typically considered a medical term, but it is a chemical compound that has been used in scientific research. It's an antivitamin, specifically an analog of thiamine (vitamin B1), which means it can interfere with the metabolism of thiamine in the body.

Here's a more specific definition from a biochemical perspective:

Pyrithiamine is a synthetic organic compound with the formula C6H7N2O2S. It is an analog of thiamine, where the aminomethyl group of thiamine is replaced by a pyridine ring. This structural modification makes pyrithiamine unable to act as a vitamin, but it can still interact with the enzymes and transport proteins involved in thiamine metabolism. As a result, pyrithiamine has been used as a tool to study thiamine deficiency and its effects on various organisms, including mammals.

Please note that pyrithiamine is not a term commonly used in clinical medicine or patient care. If you have any concerns about vitamins, nutrition, or health-related topics, it's best to consult a healthcare professional for accurate information and advice tailored to your specific situation.

An autobiography is a type of literature that describes the personal life experiences of an individual, written by that individual. It typically includes details about their upbringing, education, career, relationships, and other significant events in their life. The author may also reflect on their thoughts, feelings, and motivations during these experiences, providing insight into their personality and character.

Autobiographies can serve various purposes, such as sharing one's story with others, leaving a legacy for future generations, or exploring one's personal growth and development. They can be written in different styles, from straightforward and factual to introspective and reflective.

It is important to note that autobiographies are not always entirely accurate, as memory can be selective or distorted. Additionally, some individuals may choose to embellish or exaggerate certain aspects of their lives for dramatic effect or to protect the privacy of others. Nonetheless, autobiographies remain a valuable source of information about an individual's life and experiences.

The diencephalon is a term used in anatomy to refer to the part of the brain that lies between the cerebrum and the midbrain. It includes several important structures, such as the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus.

The thalamus is a major relay station for sensory information, receiving input from all senses except smell and sending it to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sleep-wake cycles. It also produces hormones that regulate mood, growth, and development.

The epithalamus contains the pineal gland, which produces melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate sleep-wake cycles. The subthalamus is involved in motor control and coordination.

Overall, the diencephalon plays a critical role in integrating sensory information, regulating autonomic functions, and modulating behavior and emotion.

An axon is a long, slender extension of a neuron (a type of nerve cell) that conducts electrical impulses (nerve impulses) away from the cell body to target cells, such as other neurons or muscle cells. Axons can vary in length from a few micrometers to over a meter long and are typically surrounded by a myelin sheath, which helps to insulate and protect the axon and allows for faster transmission of nerve impulses.

Axons play a critical role in the functioning of the nervous system, as they provide the means by which neurons communicate with one another and with other cells in the body. Damage to axons can result in serious neurological problems, such as those seen in spinal cord injuries or neurodegenerative diseases like multiple sclerosis.

The hippocampus is a complex, curved formation in the brain that resembles a seahorse (hence its name, from the Greek word "hippos" meaning horse and "kampos" meaning sea monster). It's part of the limbic system and plays crucial roles in the formation of memories, particularly long-term ones.

This region is involved in spatial navigation and cognitive maps, allowing us to recognize locations and remember how to get to them. Additionally, it's one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer's disease, which often results in memory loss as an early symptom.

Anatomically, it consists of two main parts: the Ammon's horn (or cornu ammonis) and the dentate gyrus. These structures are made up of distinct types of neurons that contribute to different aspects of learning and memory.

The temporal lobe is one of the four main lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain, located on each side of the head roughly level with the ears. It plays a major role in auditory processing, memory, and emotion. The temporal lobe contains several key structures including the primary auditory cortex, which is responsible for analyzing sounds, and the hippocampus, which is crucial for forming new memories. Damage to the temporal lobe can result in various neurological symptoms such as hearing loss, memory impairment, and changes in emotional behavior.

Scopolamine hydrobromide is a synthetic anticholinergic drug, which means it blocks the action of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter in the nervous system. It is primarily used for its anti-motion sickness and anti-nausea effects. It can also be used to help with symptoms of Parkinson's disease, such as muscle stiffness and tremors.

In medical settings, scopolamine hydrobromide may be administered as a transdermal patch, which is placed behind the ear to allow for slow release into the body over several days. It can also be given as an injection or taken orally in the form of tablets or liquid solutions.

It's important to note that scopolamine hydrobromide can have various side effects, including dry mouth, blurred vision, dizziness, and drowsiness. It may also cause confusion, especially in older adults, and should be used with caution in patients with glaucoma, enlarged prostate, or certain heart conditions.

The mamillary bodies are a pair of small, round structures located in the hypothalamus region of the brain. They play a crucial role in the limbic system, which is involved in emotions, memory, and learning. Specifically, the mamillary bodies are part of the circuit that forms the Papez circuit, a neural network responsible for memory and cognitive functions.

The mamillary bodies receive inputs from several brain regions, including the hippocampus, anterior thalamic nuclei, and cingulate gyrus. They then project this information to the thalamus, which in turn sends it to the cerebral cortex for further processing.

Damage to the mamillary bodies can result in memory impairment, as seen in patients with Korsakoff's syndrome, a condition often associated with chronic alcohol abuse.

Midazolam is a medication from the class of drugs known as benzodiazepines. It works by enhancing the effect of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which has a calming effect on the brain and nervous system. Midazolam is often used for its sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties.

Medically, midazolam is used for various purposes, including:

1. Preoperative medication (sedation before surgery)
2. Procedural sedation (for minor surgical or diagnostic procedures)
3. Treatment of seizures (status epilepticus)
4. Sedation in critically ill patients
5. As an adjunct to anesthesia during surgeries
6. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal symptoms
7. To induce amnesia for certain medical or dental procedures

Midazolam is available in various forms, such as tablets, intravenous (IV) solutions, and intranasal sprays. It has a rapid onset of action and a short duration, making it suitable for brief, intermittent procedures. However, midazolam can cause side effects like drowsiness, confusion, respiratory depression, and memory impairment. Therefore, its use should be carefully monitored by healthcare professionals.

Confusion is a state of bewilderment or disorientation in which a person has difficulty processing information, understanding their surroundings, and making clear decisions. It can be caused by various medical conditions such as infections, brain injury, stroke, dementia, alcohol or drug intoxication or withdrawal, and certain medications. Confusion can also occur in older adults due to age-related changes in the brain.

In medical terms, confusion is often referred to as "acute confusional state" or "delirium." It is characterized by symptoms such as difficulty paying attention, memory loss, disorientation, hallucinations, and delusions. Confusion can be a serious medical condition that requires immediate evaluation and treatment by a healthcare professional.

Unconsciousness is a state of complete awareness where a person is not responsive to stimuli and cannot be awakened. It is often caused by severe trauma, illness, or lack of oxygen supply to the brain. In medical terms, it is defined as a lack of response to verbal commands, pain, or other stimuli, indicating that the person's brain is not functioning at a level necessary to maintain wakefulness and awareness.

Unconsciousness can be described as having different levels, ranging from drowsiness to deep coma. The causes of unconsciousness can vary widely, including head injury, seizure, stroke, infection, drug overdose, or lack of oxygen supply to the brain. Depending on the cause and severity, unconsciousness may last for a few seconds or continue for an extended period, requiring medical intervention and treatment.

Preanesthetic medication, also known as premedication, refers to the administration of medications before anesthesia to help prepare the patient for the upcoming procedure. These medications can serve various purposes, such as:

1. Anxiolysis: Reducing anxiety and promoting relaxation in patients before surgery.
2. Amnesia: Causing temporary memory loss to help patients forget the events leading up to the surgery.
3. Analgesia: Providing pain relief to minimize discomfort during and after the procedure.
4. Antisialagogue: Decreasing saliva production to reduce the risk of aspiration during intubation.
5. Bronchodilation: Relaxing bronchial smooth muscles, which can help improve respiratory function in patients with obstructive lung diseases.
6. Antiemetic: Preventing or reducing the likelihood of postoperative nausea and vomiting.
7. Sedation: Inducing a state of calmness and drowsiness to facilitate a smooth induction of anesthesia.

Common preanesthetic medications include benzodiazepines (e.g., midazolam), opioids (e.g., fentanyl), anticholinergics (e.g., glycopyrrolate), and H1-antihistamines (e.g., diphenhydramine). The choice of preanesthetic medication depends on the patient's medical history, comorbidities, and the type of anesthesia to be administered.

Neuronal tract-tracers are specialized tools used in neuroscience to map the connections and pathways between neurons (nerve cells) in the brain or other parts of the nervous system. These tracers are typically injected into a specific region of the brain, where they are taken up by nearby nerve terminals. The tracers then travel along the length of the neuron's axon, allowing researchers to visualize and track the connections between different brain regions.

There are several types of tract-tracers available, including radioactive tracers, fluorescent tracers, and biotinylated tracers. Each type has its own advantages and limitations, depending on the specific research question being addressed. For example, radioactive tracers can provide high-resolution images of neuronal connections, but they require specialized equipment to detect and may have safety concerns due to their radioactivity. Fluorescent tracers, on the other hand, are safer and easier to use, but they may not provide as high a resolution as radioactive tracers.

Tract-tracing is an important tool in neuroscience research, as it allows researchers to understand the complex circuitry of the brain and how different regions communicate with each other. This knowledge can help shed light on the neural basis of various cognitive processes, emotions, and behaviors, as well as neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and stroke.

Memory disorders are a category of cognitive impairments that affect an individual's ability to acquire, store, retain, and retrieve memories. These disorders can be caused by various underlying medical conditions, including neurological disorders, psychiatric illnesses, substance abuse, or even normal aging processes. Some common memory disorders include:

1. Alzheimer's disease: A progressive neurodegenerative disorder that primarily affects older adults and is characterized by a decline in cognitive abilities, including memory, language, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.
2. Dementia: A broader term used to describe a group of symptoms associated with a decline in cognitive function severe enough to interfere with daily life. Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia, but other causes include vascular dementia, Lewy body dementia, and frontotemporal dementia.
3. Amnesia: A memory disorder characterized by difficulties in forming new memories or recalling previously learned information due to brain damage or disease. Amnesia can be temporary or permanent and may result from head trauma, stroke, infection, or substance abuse.
4. Mild cognitive impairment (MCI): A condition where an individual experiences mild but noticeable memory or cognitive difficulties that are greater than expected for their age and education level. While some individuals with MCI may progress to dementia, others may remain stable or even improve over time.
5. Korsakoff's syndrome: A memory disorder often caused by alcohol abuse and thiamine deficiency, characterized by severe short-term memory loss, confabulation (making up stories to fill in memory gaps), and disorientation.

It is essential to consult a healthcare professional if you or someone you know experiences persistent memory difficulties, as early diagnosis and intervention can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

Neural pathways, also known as nerve tracts or fasciculi, refer to the highly organized and specialized routes through which nerve impulses travel within the nervous system. These pathways are formed by groups of neurons (nerve cells) that are connected in a series, creating a continuous communication network for electrical signals to transmit information between different regions of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

Neural pathways can be classified into two main types: sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent). Sensory neural pathways carry sensory information from various receptors in the body (such as those for touch, temperature, pain, and vision) to the brain for processing. Motor neural pathways, on the other hand, transmit signals from the brain to the muscles and glands, controlling movements and other effector functions.

The formation of these neural pathways is crucial for normal nervous system function, as it enables efficient communication between different parts of the body and allows for complex behaviors, cognitive processes, and adaptive responses to internal and external stimuli.

The atrioventricular (AV) node is a critical part of the electrical conduction system of the heart. It is a small cluster of specialized cardiac muscle cells located in the lower interatrial septum, near the opening of the coronary sinus. The AV node receives electrical impulses from the sinoatrial node (the heart's natural pacemaker) via the internodal pathways and delays their transmission for a brief period before transmitting them to the bundle of His and then to the ventricles. This delay allows the atria to contract and empty their contents into the ventricles before the ventricles themselves contract, ensuring efficient pumping of blood throughout the body.

The AV node plays an essential role in maintaining a normal heart rhythm, as it can also function as a backup pacemaker if the sinoatrial node fails to generate impulses. However, certain heart conditions or medications can affect the AV node's function and lead to abnormal heart rhythms, such as atrioventricular block or atrial tachycardia.

The mediodorsal thalamic nucleus (MDTN) is a collection of neurons located in the dorsal part of the thalamus, a region of the brain that serves as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. The MDTN is primarily involved in cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and emotion regulation.

The MDTN receives inputs from various regions of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus, and projects to the same areas of the cerebral cortex. It has been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and depression.

Anatomically, the MDTN is divided into several subnuclei, including the parvocellular, magnocellular, and intermediate parts, each with distinct connectivity patterns and functions. Overall, the MDTN plays a crucial role in integrating information from different brain regions to facilitate higher-order cognitive processes.

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex or simply the Golgi, is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells. It plays a crucial role in the processing, sorting, and packaging of proteins and lipids for transport to their final destinations within the cell or for secretion outside the cell.

The Golgi apparatus consists of a series of flattened, disc-shaped sacs called cisternae, which are stacked together in a parallel arrangement. These stacks are often interconnected by tubular structures called tubules or vesicles. The Golgi apparatus has two main faces: the cis face, which is closest to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and receives proteins and lipids directly from the ER; and the trans face, which is responsible for sorting and dispatching these molecules to their final destinations.

The Golgi apparatus performs several essential functions in the cell:

1. Protein processing: After proteins are synthesized in the ER, they are transported to the cis face of the Golgi apparatus, where they undergo various post-translational modifications, such as glycosylation (the addition of sugar molecules) and sulfation. These modifications help determine the protein's final structure, function, and targeting.
2. Lipid modification: The Golgi apparatus also modifies lipids by adding or removing different functional groups, which can influence their properties and localization within the cell.
3. Protein sorting and packaging: Once proteins and lipids have been processed, they are sorted and packaged into vesicles at the trans face of the Golgi apparatus. These vesicles then transport their cargo to various destinations, such as lysosomes, plasma membrane, or extracellular space.
4. Intracellular transport: The Golgi apparatus serves as a central hub for intracellular trafficking, coordinating the movement of vesicles and other transport carriers between different organelles and cellular compartments.
5. Cell-cell communication: Some proteins that are processed and packaged in the Golgi apparatus are destined for secretion, playing crucial roles in cell-cell communication and maintaining tissue homeostasis.

In summary, the Golgi apparatus is a vital organelle involved in various cellular processes, including post-translational modification, sorting, packaging, and intracellular transport of proteins and lipids. Its proper functioning is essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and overall organismal health.

Wheat Germ Agglutinin (WGA) is a lectin protein found in wheat germ, which binds specifically to certain sugars on the surface of cells. Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP) is an enzyme derived from horseradish that catalyzes the conversion of certain substrates, producing a chemiluminescent or colorimetric signal.

A WGA-HRP conjugate refers to the formation of a covalent bond between WGA and HRP, creating an immunoconjugate. This complex is often used as a detection tool in various assays, such as ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay) or Western blotting, where it can bind to specific carbohydrates on the target molecule and catalyze a colorimetric or chemiluminescent reaction, allowing for the visualization of the target.

Thalamic diseases refer to conditions that affect the thalamus, which is a part of the brain that acts as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. The thalamus plays a crucial role in regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness. Thalamic diseases can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the specific area of the thalamus that is affected. These symptoms may include sensory disturbances, motor impairment, cognitive changes, and altered levels of consciousness. Examples of thalamic diseases include stroke, tumors, multiple sclerosis, infections, and degenerative disorders such as dementia and Parkinson's disease. Treatment for thalamic diseases depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or rehabilitation therapy.

In the context of medicine and healthcare, learning is often discussed in relation to learning abilities or disabilities that may impact an individual's capacity to acquire, process, retain, and apply new information or skills. Learning can be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, understanding, behaviors, and skills through experience, instruction, or observation.

Learning disorders, also known as learning disabilities, are a type of neurodevelopmental disorder that affects an individual's ability to learn and process information in one or more areas, such as reading, writing, mathematics, or reasoning. These disorders are not related to intelligence or motivation but rather result from differences in the way the brain processes information.

It is important to note that learning can also be influenced by various factors, including age, cognitive abilities, physical and mental health status, cultural background, and educational experiences. Therefore, a comprehensive assessment of an individual's learning abilities and needs should take into account these various factors to provide appropriate support and interventions.

Protein transport, in the context of cellular biology, refers to the process by which proteins are actively moved from one location to another within or between cells. This is a crucial mechanism for maintaining proper cell function and regulation.

Intracellular protein transport involves the movement of proteins within a single cell. Proteins can be transported across membranes (such as the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, or plasma membrane) via specialized transport systems like vesicles and transport channels.

Intercellular protein transport refers to the movement of proteins from one cell to another, often facilitated by exocytosis (release of proteins in vesicles) and endocytosis (uptake of extracellular substances via membrane-bound vesicles). This is essential for communication between cells, immune response, and other physiological processes.

It's important to note that any disruption in protein transport can lead to various diseases, including neurological disorders, cancer, and metabolic conditions.

Craniocerebral trauma, also known as traumatic brain injury (TBI), is a type of injury that occurs to the head and brain. It can result from a variety of causes, including motor vehicle accidents, falls, sports injuries, violence, or other types of trauma. Craniocerebral trauma can range in severity from mild concussions to severe injuries that cause permanent disability or death.

The injury typically occurs when there is a sudden impact to the head, causing the brain to move within the skull and collide with the inside of the skull. This can result in bruising, bleeding, swelling, or tearing of brain tissue, as well as damage to blood vessels and nerves. In severe cases, the skull may be fractured or penetrated, leading to direct injury to the brain.

Symptoms of craniocerebral trauma can vary widely depending on the severity and location of the injury. They may include headache, dizziness, confusion, memory loss, difficulty speaking or understanding speech, changes in vision or hearing, weakness or numbness in the limbs, balance problems, and behavioral or emotional changes. In severe cases, the person may lose consciousness or fall into a coma.

Treatment for craniocerebral trauma depends on the severity of the injury. Mild injuries may be treated with rest, pain medication, and close monitoring, while more severe injuries may require surgery, intensive care, and rehabilitation. Prevention is key to reducing the incidence of craniocerebral trauma, including measures such as wearing seat belts and helmets, preventing falls, and avoiding violent situations.

The fornix, in the context of brain anatomy, is a bundle of nerve fibers that arises from the hippocampus, a major component of the limbic system associated with memory and spatial navigation. The fornix plays a crucial role in conveying information between different parts of the brain.

The fornix has two primary divisions: the precommissural fornix and the postcommissural fornix. The precommissural fornix contains fibers that originate from the hippocampus and the subiculum, while the postcommissural fornix consists of fibers that originate from the septal nuclei and other structures in the limbic system.

The two divisions of the fornix join together to form a structure called the body of the fornix, which then curves around the thalamus and continues as the crura (plural of crus) of the fornix. The crura split into two columns that pass through the interventricular foramen and terminate in the hypothalamus, specifically at the mammillary bodies.

The fornix is an essential structure for memory function, particularly episodic memory (memory of specific events or episodes). Damage to the fornix can result in various cognitive impairments, including memory loss and difficulties with spatial navigation.

Stilbamidines are a class of chemical compounds that are primarily used as veterinary medicines, specifically as parasiticides for the treatment and prevention of ectoparasites such as ticks and lice in livestock animals. Stilbamidines belong to the family of chemicals known as formamidines, which are known to have insecticidal and acaricidal properties.

The most common stilbamidine compound is chlorphentermine, which has been used as an appetite suppressant in human medicine. However, its use as a weight loss drug was discontinued due to its addictive properties and potential for serious side effects.

It's important to note that Stilbamidines are not approved for use in humans and should only be used under the supervision of a veterinarian for the intended purpose of treating and preventing ectoparasites in animals.

Neuroanatomical tract-tracing techniques are a set of neuroanatomical methods used to map the connections and pathways between different neurons, neural nuclei, or brain regions. These techniques involve introducing a tracer substance into a specific population of neurons, which is then transported through the axons and dendrites to other connected cells. The distribution of the tracer can be visualized and analyzed to determine the pattern of connectivity between different brain areas.

There are two main types of neuroanatomical tract-tracing techniques: anterograde and retrograde. Anterograde tracing involves introducing a tracer into the cell body or dendrites of a neuron, which is then transported to the axon terminals in target areas. Retrograde tracing, on the other hand, involves introducing a tracer into the axon terminals of a neuron, which is then transported back to the cell body and dendrites.

Examples of neuroanatomical tract-tracing techniques include the use of horseradish peroxidase (HRP), fluorescent tracers, radioactive tracers, and viral vectors. These techniques have been instrumental in advancing our understanding of brain circuitry and function, and continue to be an important tool in neuroscience research.

Coat Protein Complex I (CPCI or COPI) is a protein complex involved in the intracellular transport of proteins within eukaryotic cells. It functions primarily in the retrograde transport of proteins from the Golgi apparatus to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The complex is composed of seven subunits, known as alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, and eta COPs (coat proteins), which form a cage-like structure around transport vesicles. This coat assists in the selection of cargo proteins, vesicle budding, and subsequent fusion with target membranes during the recycling of ER-derived proteins.

Dextrans are a type of complex glucose polymers that are formed by the action of certain bacteria on sucrose. They are branched polysaccharides consisting of linear chains of α-1,6 linked D-glucopyranosyl units with occasional α-1,3 branches.

Dextrans have a wide range of applications in medicine and industry. In medicine, dextrans are used as plasma substitutes, volume expanders, and anticoagulants. They are also used as carriers for drugs and diagnostic agents, and in the manufacture of immunoadsorbents for the removal of toxins and pathogens from blood.

Dextrans can be derived from various bacterial sources, but the most common commercial source is Leuconostoc mesenteroides B-512(F) or L. dextranicum. The molecular weight of dextrans can vary widely, ranging from a few thousand to several million Daltons, depending on the method of preparation and purification.

Dextrans are generally biocompatible and non-toxic, but they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals. Therefore, their use as medical products requires careful monitoring and testing for safety and efficacy.

Thalamic nuclei refer to specific groupings of neurons within the thalamus, a key relay station in the brain that receives sensory information from various parts of the body and transmits it to the cerebral cortex for processing. The thalamus is divided into several distinct nuclei, each with its own unique functions and connections. These nuclei can be broadly categorized into three groups:

1. Sensory relay nuclei: These nuclei receive sensory information from different modalities such as vision, audition, touch, and taste, and project this information to specific areas of the cerebral cortex for further processing. Examples include the lateral geniculate nucleus (vision), medial geniculate nucleus (audition), and ventral posterior nucleus (touch and taste).
2. Association nuclei: These nuclei are involved in higher-order cognitive functions, such as attention, memory, and executive control. They receive inputs from various cortical areas and project back to those same areas, forming closed loops that facilitate information processing and integration. Examples include the mediodorsal nucleus and pulvinar.
3. Motor relay nuclei: These nuclei are involved in motor control and coordination. They receive inputs from the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia and project to the brainstem and spinal cord, helping to regulate movement and posture. Examples include the ventral anterior and ventral lateral nuclei.

Overall, thalamic nuclei play a crucial role in integrating sensory, motor, and cognitive information, allowing for adaptive behavior and conscious experience.

Pre-excitation syndromes are a group of cardiac conditions characterized by the presence of an accessory electrical pathway between the atria and ventricles of the heart. This pathway allows electrical impulses to bypass the normal conduction system, leading to early activation (pre-excitation) of a portion of the ventricular muscle. The most common pre-excitation syndrome is Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, but other types include Lown-Ganong-Levine syndrome and Mahaim syndrome. These conditions can potentially lead to tachyarrhythmias or abnormally fast heart rhythms, which in some cases can be life-threatening if not properly managed.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

Atrioventricular (AV) nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is a type of supraventricular tachycardia (SVT), which is a rapid heart rhythm originating at or above the atrioventricular node. In AVNRT, an abnormal electrical circuit in or near the AV node creates a reentry pathway that allows for rapid heart rates, typically greater than 150-250 beats per minute.

In normal conduction, the electrical impulse travels from the atria to the ventricles through the AV node and then continues down the bundle branches to the Purkinje fibers, resulting in a coordinated contraction of the heart. In AVNRT, an extra electrical pathway exists that allows for the reentry of the electrical impulse back into the atria, creating a rapid and abnormal circuit.

AVNRT is classified based on the direction of the reentry circuit:

1. Typical or common AVNRT: The most common form, accounting for 90% of cases. In this type, the reentry circuit involves an "anterior" and a "posterior" loop in or near the AV node. The anterior loop has slower conduction velocity than the posterior loop, creating a "short" reentry circuit that is responsible for the rapid heart rate.
2. Atypical AVNRT: Less common, accounting for 10% of cases. In this type, the reentry circuit involves an "outer" and an "inner" loop around the AV node. The outer loop has slower conduction velocity than the inner loop, creating a "long" reentry circuit that is responsible for the rapid heart rate.

AVNRT can present with symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, lightheadedness, shortness of breath, chest discomfort, or syncope (fainting). Treatment options include observation, vagal maneuvers, medications, and catheter ablation. Catheter ablation is a curative treatment that involves the destruction of the abnormal electrical pathway using radiofrequency energy or cryotherapy.

Coatomer is a protein complex that plays a role in the formation of transport vesicles within cells. These vesicles are responsible for carrying proteins and other cargo between different cellular compartments. Coatomer gets its name from the coat-like structure it forms on the surface of budding vesicles. It is composed of several individual protein subunits, known as α-COP, β-COP, γ-COP, δ-COP, ε-COP, ζ-COP, and η-COP. These subunits work together to help recognize and bind to specific proteins, curvature the membrane, and ultimately pinch off the vesicle from the donor compartment.

Coatomer protein is primarily involved in transport between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus, but it also plays a role in other intracellular transport processes. Mutations or dysfunction in coatomer proteins have been linked to various diseases, including neurological disorders and cancer.

Herpesvirus 1, Suid (Suid Herpesvirus 1 or SHV-1), also known as Pseudorabies Virus (PrV), is a species of the genus Varicellovirus in the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae of the family Herpesviridae. It is a double-stranded DNA virus that primarily infects members of the Suidae family, including domestic pigs and wild boars. The virus can cause a range of symptoms known as Aujeszky's disease in these animals, which may include respiratory distress, neurological issues, and reproductive failures.

SHV-1 is highly contagious and can be transmitted through direct contact with infected animals or their secretions, as well as through aerosol transmission. Although it does not typically infect humans, there have been rare cases of human infection, usually resulting from exposure to infected pigs or their tissues. In these instances, the virus may cause mild flu-like symptoms or more severe neurological issues.

SHV-1 is an important pathogen in the swine industry and has significant economic implications due to its impact on animal health and production. Vaccination programs are widely used to control the spread of the virus and protect susceptible pig populations.

Efferent pathways refer to the neural connections that carry signals from the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, to the peripheral effectors such as muscles and glands. These pathways are responsible for the initiation and control of motor responses, as well as regulating various autonomic functions.

Efferent pathways can be divided into two main types:

1. Somatic efferent pathways: These pathways carry signals from the CNS to the skeletal muscles, enabling voluntary movements and postural control. The final common pathway for somatic motor innervation is the alpha-motor neuron, which synapses directly onto skeletal muscle fibers.
2. Autonomic efferent pathways: These pathways regulate the function of internal organs, smooth muscles, and glands. They are further divided into two subtypes: sympathetic and parasympathetic. The sympathetic system is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response, while the parasympathetic system promotes rest and digestion. Both systems use a two-neuron chain to transmit signals from the CNS to the effector organs. The preganglionic neuron has its cell body in the CNS and synapses with the postganglionic neuron in an autonomic ganglion located near the effector organ. The postganglionic neuron then innervates the target organ or tissue.

In summary, efferent pathways are the neural connections that carry signals from the CNS to peripheral effectors, enabling motor responses and regulating various autonomic functions. They can be divided into somatic and autonomic efferent pathways, with further subdivisions within the autonomic system.

Anisomycin is an antibiotic derived from the bacterium Streptomyces griseolus. It is a potent inhibitor of protein synthesis and has been found to have antitumor, antiviral, and immunosuppressive properties. In medicine, it has been used experimentally in the treatment of some types of cancer, but its use is limited due to its significant side effects, including neurotoxicity.

In a medical or scientific context, 'anisomycin' refers specifically to this antibiotic compound and not to any general concept related to aniso- (meaning "unequal" or "asymmetrical") or -mycin (suffix indicating a bacterial antibiotic).

The thalamus is a large, paired structure in the brain that serves as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. It is located in the dorsal part of the diencephalon and is made up of two symmetrical halves, each connected to the corresponding cerebral hemisphere.

The thalamus receives inputs from almost all senses, except for the olfactory system, and processes them before sending them to specific areas in the cortex. It also plays a role in regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness. Additionally, the thalamus is involved in motor control by relaying information between the cerebellum and the motor cortex.

The thalamus is divided into several nuclei, each with distinct connections and functions. Some of these nuclei are involved in sensory processing, while others are involved in motor function or regulation of emotions and cognition. Overall, the thalamus plays a critical role in integrating information from various brain regions and modulating cognitive and emotional processes.

Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) Syndrome is a heart condition characterized by the presence of an accessory pathway or abnormal electrical connection between the atria (the upper chambers of the heart) and ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). This accessory pathway allows electrical impulses to bypass the normal conduction system, leading to a shorter PR interval and a "delta wave" on the electrocardiogram (ECG), which is the hallmark of WPW Syndrome.

Individuals with WPW Syndrome may experience no symptoms or may have palpitations, rapid heartbeat (tachycardia), or episodes of atrial fibrillation. In some cases, WPW Syndrome can lead to more serious heart rhythm disturbances and may require treatment, such as medication, catheter ablation, or in rare cases, surgery.

It is important to note that not all individuals with WPW Syndrome will experience symptoms or complications, and many people with this condition can lead normal, active lives with appropriate monitoring and management.

Paired-associate learning is a form of implicit or non-declarative memory task that involves learning and remembering the association between two unrelated items, such as a word and an object, or a taste and a sound. In this type of learning, the individual learns to respond appropriately when presented with one member of the pair, due to its association with the other member. This process is often used in various fields including cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and education to study memory, learning, and brain function.

Medical Definition:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed cross-sectional or three-dimensional images of the internal structures of the body. The patient lies within a large, cylindrical magnet, and the scanner detects changes in the direction of the magnetic field caused by protons in the body. These changes are then converted into detailed images that help medical professionals to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as tumors, injuries, or diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, joints, and other internal organs. MRI does not use radiation like computed tomography (CT) scans.

Afferent pathways, also known as sensory pathways, refer to the neural connections that transmit sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system (CNS), specifically to the brain and spinal cord. These pathways are responsible for carrying various types of sensory information, such as touch, temperature, pain, pressure, vibration, hearing, vision, and taste, to the CNS for processing and interpretation.

The afferent pathways begin with sensory receptors located throughout the body, which detect changes in the environment and convert them into electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted via afferent neurons, also known as sensory neurons, to the spinal cord or brainstem. Within the CNS, the information is further processed and integrated with other neural inputs before being relayed to higher cognitive centers for conscious awareness and response.

Understanding the anatomy and physiology of afferent pathways is essential for diagnosing and treating various neurological conditions that affect sensory function, such as neuropathies, spinal cord injuries, and brain disorders.

Biotin is a water-soluble vitamin, also known as Vitamin B7 or Vitamin H. It is a cofactor for several enzymes involved in metabolism, particularly in the synthesis and breakdown of fatty acids, amino acids, and carbohydrates. Biotin plays a crucial role in maintaining healthy skin, hair, nails, nerves, and liver function. It is found in various foods such as nuts, seeds, whole grains, milk, and vegetables. Biotin deficiency is rare but can occur in people with malnutrition, alcoholism, pregnancy, or certain genetic disorders.

Ibotenic acid is a naturally occurring neurotoxin that can be found in certain species of mushrooms, including the Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina. It is a type of glutamate receptor agonist, which means it binds to and activates certain receptors in the brain called N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors.

Ibotenic acid has been used in scientific research as a tool for studying the brain and nervous system. It can cause excitotoxicity, which is a process of excessive stimulation of nerve cells leading to their damage or death. This property has been exploited in studies involving neurodegenerative disorders, where ibotenic acid is used to selectively destroy specific populations of neurons to understand the functional consequences and potential therapeutic interventions for these conditions.

However, it's important to note that ibotenic acid is not used as a treatment or therapy in humans due to its neurotoxic effects. It should only be handled and used by trained professionals in controlled laboratory settings for research purposes.

Thiamine deficiency, also known as beriberi, is a condition that results from inadequate intake or impaired absorption of thiamine (vitamin B1), which is essential for energy metabolism and nerve function. This deficiency can lead to various symptoms such as peripheral neuropathy, muscle weakness, heart failure, and in severe cases, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, a neurological disorder associated with alcoholism. Thiamine deficiency is commonly found in populations with poor nutrition, alcohol dependence, and gastrointestinal disorders affecting nutrient absorption.

The amygdala is an almond-shaped group of nuclei located deep within the temporal lobe of the brain, specifically in the anterior portion of the temporal lobes and near the hippocampus. It forms a key component of the limbic system and plays a crucial role in processing emotions, particularly fear and anxiety. The amygdala is involved in the integration of sensory information with emotional responses, memory formation, and decision-making processes.

In response to emotionally charged stimuli, the amygdala can modulate various physiological functions, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and stress hormone release, via its connections to the hypothalamus and brainstem. Additionally, it contributes to social behaviors, including recognizing emotional facial expressions and responding appropriately to social cues. Dysfunctions in amygdala function have been implicated in several psychiatric and neurological conditions, such as anxiety disorders, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Biological transport refers to the movement of molecules, ions, or solutes across biological membranes or through cells in living organisms. This process is essential for maintaining homeostasis, regulating cellular functions, and enabling communication between cells. There are two main types of biological transport: passive transport and active transport.

Passive transport does not require the input of energy and includes:

1. Diffusion: The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached.
2. Osmosis: The diffusion of solvent molecules (usually water) across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
3. Facilitated diffusion: The assisted passage of polar or charged substances through protein channels or carriers in the cell membrane, which increases the rate of diffusion without consuming energy.

Active transport requires the input of energy (in the form of ATP) and includes:

1. Primary active transport: The direct use of ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient, often driven by specific transport proteins called pumps.
2. Secondary active transport: The coupling of the movement of one substance down its electrochemical gradient with the uphill transport of another substance, mediated by a shared transport protein. This process is also known as co-transport or counter-transport.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

'Alphaherpesvirinae' is a subfamily of viruses within the family Herpesviridae. These viruses are characterized by their ability to establish latency in neurons and undergo rapid replication. The subfamily includes several human pathogens, such as:

1. Human herpesvirus 1 (HHV-1, or HSV-1): also known as herpes simplex virus type 1, it primarily causes oral herpes (cold sores) but can also cause genital herpes.
2. Human herpesvirus 2 (HHV-2, or HSV-2): also known as herpes simplex virus type 2, it mainly causes genital herpes, although it can also cause oral herpes.
3. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV, or HHV-3): responsible for causing both chickenpox (varicella) and shingles (zoster) infections.

After the initial infection, these viruses can remain dormant in the nervous system and reactivate later, leading to recurrent symptoms.

Verbal learning is a type of learning that involves the acquisition, processing, and retrieval of information presented in a verbal or written form. It is often assessed through tasks such as list learning, where an individual is asked to remember a list of words or sentences after a single presentation or multiple repetitions. Verbal learning is an important aspect of cognitive functioning and is commonly evaluated in neuropsychological assessments to help identify any memory or learning impairments.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

The anterior thalamic nuclei are a group of nuclei in the thalamus, which is a part of the brain. The thalamus serves as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex. The anterior thalamic nuclei, specifically, are involved in various functions such as memory, navigation, and arousal. They receive inputs from the hippocampus and other limbic structures and project to the cingulate gyrus and other areas of the cerebral cortex. The anterior thalamic nuclei have been implicated in several neurological and psychiatric conditions, including epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, and schizophrenia.

Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD) is currently referred to as Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). It's a complex dissociative disorder involving the presence of two or more distinct identities or personality states that recurrently take control of an individual's behavior.

In DID, each identity, or 'alter', may have its own unique name, personal history, characteristics, and mannerisms. The switching between these identities is often triggered by stressful situations or traumatic memories.

This disorder typically develops as a coping mechanism in response to severe, prolonged trauma during early childhood, such as emotional, physical, or sexual abuse. It's important to note that this condition should be diagnosed and managed by mental health professionals with expertise in dissociative disorders.

Kymography is a medical imaging technique used to visualize and analyze the movement or motion of structures, such as muscles, blood vessels, or intestines, over time. It involves capturing a series of images at high temporal resolution and then displaying them in a way that emphasizes changes in intensity along a single line or region of interest.

In kymography, a moving stripe or band is created on the image display, representing the movement of the structure being studied. The resulting image shows the velocity, direction, and patterns of motion of the structure, which can be useful for diagnostic purposes or for research in physiology and biomechanics.

Kymography is often used in conjunction with other imaging techniques, such as ultrasound or fluoroscopy, to provide more detailed information about the function and behavior of different tissues and organs.

Chronic brain damage is a condition characterized by long-term, persistent injury to the brain that results in cognitive, physical, and behavioral impairments. It can be caused by various factors such as trauma, hypoxia (lack of oxygen), infection, toxic exposure, or degenerative diseases. The effects of chronic brain damage may not be immediately apparent and can worsen over time, leading to significant disability and reduced quality of life.

The symptoms of chronic brain damage can vary widely depending on the severity and location of the injury. They may include:

* Cognitive impairments such as memory loss, difficulty concentrating, trouble with problem-solving and decision-making, and decreased learning ability
* Motor impairments such as weakness, tremors, poor coordination, and balance problems
* Sensory impairments such as hearing or vision loss, numbness, tingling, or altered sense of touch
* Speech and language difficulties such as aphasia (problems with understanding or producing speech) or dysarthria (slurred or slow speech)
* Behavioral changes such as irritability, mood swings, depression, anxiety, and personality changes

Chronic brain damage can be diagnosed through a combination of medical history, physical examination, neurological evaluation, and imaging studies such as MRI or CT scans. Treatment typically focuses on managing symptoms and maximizing function through rehabilitation therapies such as occupational therapy, speech therapy, and physical therapy. In some cases, medication or surgery may be necessary to address specific symptoms or underlying causes of the brain damage.

The superior colliculi are a pair of prominent eminences located on the dorsal surface of the midbrain, forming part of the tectum or roof of the midbrain. They play a crucial role in the integration and coordination of visual, auditory, and somatosensory information for the purpose of directing spatial attention and ocular movements. Essentially, they are involved in the reflexive orienting of the head and eyes towards novel or significant stimuli in the environment.

In a more detailed medical definition, the superior colliculi are two rounded, convex mounds of gray matter that are situated on the roof of the midbrain, specifically at the level of the rostral mesencephalic tegmentum. Each superior colliculus has a stratified laminated structure, consisting of several layers that process different types of sensory information and control specific motor outputs.

The superficial layers of the superior colliculi primarily receive and process visual input from the retina, lateral geniculate nucleus, and other visual areas in the brain. These layers are responsible for generating spatial maps of the visual field, which allow for the localization and identification of visual stimuli.

The intermediate and deep layers of the superior colliculi receive and process auditory and somatosensory information from various sources, including the inferior colliculus, medial geniculate nucleus, and ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus. These layers are involved in the localization and identification of auditory and tactile stimuli, as well as the coordination of head and eye movements towards these stimuli.

The superior colliculi also contain a population of neurons called "motor command neurons" that directly control the muscles responsible for orienting the eyes, head, and body towards novel or significant sensory events. These motor command neurons are activated in response to specific patterns of activity in the sensory layers of the superior colliculus, allowing for the rapid and automatic orientation of attention and gaze towards salient stimuli.

In summary, the superior colliculi are a pair of structures located on the dorsal surface of the midbrain that play a critical role in the integration and coordination of visual, auditory, and somatosensory information for the purpose of orienting attention and gaze towards salient stimuli. They contain sensory layers that generate spatial maps of the environment, as well as motor command neurons that directly control the muscles responsible for orienting the eyes, head, and body.

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Pure Anterograde Amnesia on YouTube Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia at Discogs Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia at ... Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia (stylized as "Theoretically pure anterograde amnesia") is the fourth studio album by the ... Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia received praise from music critics, who felt it improved the Caretaker's style. Writing ... It's a Desert Out There.... Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia was met with general praise from music critics, who felt it ...
... whereas other types of amnesia suffer from a "storage" deficit (e.g. Anterograde amnesia). post-hypnotic amnesia has been ... Two types of posthypnotic amnesia: Recall amnesia and source amnesia. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental ... Suggested post-hypnotic amnesia can be induced and left for long periods of time, depending on if the amnesia is significant in ... Suggested amnesia has been found to result in a more significant memory loss than spontaneous amnesia, regardless of the order ...
Amnesia Anterograde amnesia Dissociative amnesia Scott Bolzan - One of the most severe cases of retrograde amnesia on record ... Other forms of amnesia exist and may be confused with RA. For instance, anterograde amnesia (AA) is the inability to learn new ... An absence of anterograde amnesia (AA) characterizes pure forms of RA, which fall into three main categories: focal, isolated, ... RA differs from a similar condition called anterograde amnesia (AA), which is the inability to form new memories following ...
There are two main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is the inability to ... Research has shown that there could be selectivity with amnesia when posthypnotic amnesia occurs. Lacunar amnesia is the loss ... Korsakoff's syndrome is unique because it involves both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. Drug-induced amnesia is ... Retrograde and anterograde amnesia is more often seen from events like this, an exact example of a cause of the two would be ...
In the film, Sanjay Ramaswamy (Suriya), once an eminent businessman, develops anterograde amnesia due to a head injury he got ... Sanjay is suffering from anterograde amnesia; he loses his memory every 15 minutes and uses a system of photographs, notes, and ... a notable Chennai-based businessman who is reported to have anterograde amnesia. Her professor denies access to Sanjay's ... amnesia patient Rajini (Ali) runs into a nurse and the song "Hrudayam Ekkadunnadi" (Suttum Vizhi) plays in the background. The ...
However, Kirby later moved on to explore memory loss through Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia (2005). Shifting record ... McKeating, Scott (3 January 2006). "The Caretaker - Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia - Review". Stylus Magazine. Archived ... The album featured a change in concept from previous records; rather than amnesia, it depicts Alzheimer's disease. Along with ...
His albums under the moniker manipulate big band records to reflect disorders such as anterograde amnesia and Alzheimer's ... McKeating, Scott (3 January 2006). "The Caretaker - Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia - Review". Stylus Magazine. ...
His subsequent total anterograde amnesia and partial retrograde amnesia provided the first evidence for the localization of ... One form of evidence cited in favor of the existence of a short-term store comes from anterograde amnesia, the inability to ... Aggleton, John P (2008). "Understanding anterograde amnesia: Disconnections and hidden lesions". The Quarterly Journal of ... Patients with this form of amnesia have an intact ability to retain small amounts of information over short time scales (up to ...
"Theoretically pure anterograde amnesia, by The Caretaker". The Caretaker. Retrieved 5 October 2020. "Deleted scenes, forgotten ... Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia was released in 2005 as a series of 72 free MP3 downloads. The release found much ... Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia invokes sites that have deteriorated into total dereliction, where every unidentified ... Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia (2005) Additional Amnesiac Memories (2006) Deleted Scenes / Forgotten Dreams (2007) ...
This started with Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia (2005), which explored the disorder of same name. The Caretaker's ... McKeating, Scott (3 January 2006). "The Caretaker - Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia - Review". Stylus Magazine. ...
McKeating, Scott (3 January 2006). "The Caretaker - Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia - Review". Stylus Magazine. ... Jeanes, Matthew (10 October 2006). "Brainwashed - The Caretaker, "Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia"". Brainwashed. ... mp3 files titled Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia (2005). It was a drone album, featuring six CDs with 72 tracks titled " ... less abstract than Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia. It uses looping to depict emotions related with recalling at an old ...
Like benzodiazepines, they can cause anterograde amnesia. Nonbenzodiazepines should not be discontinued abruptly if taken for ... rarely amnesia, confusion, depression, hallucinations, nightmares; very rarely light headedness, incoordination, paradoxical ...
As a result, he experienced severe anterograde amnesia. Several disorders or impairments have been found to disrupt an ... Milner, B. (1966). Amnesia following operation on the temporal lobes. In C.W.M. Whitty & O.L. Zangwill(Eds), Amnesia, (109-133 ... "Sustained experience of emotion after loss of memory in patients with amnesia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ...
Jae-Kyung is devastated and develops temporary anterograde amnesia. Feeling responsible for her, Jin-Ho is forced to break up ... The series focuses on a relationship between a guy and his older sister who gets amnesia. "Infinity Studios, LLC Explores ...
ECT is associated with both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. Studies utilizing objective measures of assessing anterograde ... Patients may also experience permanent amnesia. Psychiatry has greatly benefitted by advances in pharmacotherapy.: 110-112 ... amnesia have consistently demonstrated that any such abnormalities disappear within several months following completion of an ...
... a man named Earl has anterograde amnesia. Because of his inability to remember things for more than a few minutes, he uses ... His wife was raped and killed while Earl suffered severe head injuries, resulting in his amnesia. The story jumps between two ...
His performance on standard tests of anterograde memory was normal." Autobiographical amnesia may be caused by repeated ... Studying this 'autobiographical amnesia' or 'focal retrograde amnesia' or 'delayed onset amnesia' has been challenging because ... anterograde amnesia), or of events in the hours before the onset of the attack, and even memories of important events in recent ... topographical amnesia), discussed below. Transient amnesia can be the principal manifestation of epilepsy. This diagnosis, ...
This may appear as lack of concentration, confusion and anterograde amnesia-the inability to create memories while under the ... Flunitrazepam is known to induce anterograde amnesia in sufficient doses; individuals are unable to remember certain events ...
Mira suffers from anterograde amnesia caused by a car accident. She is also an alcoholic, which doesn't exactly help the memory ... It was she who crashed the jeep into Mira and Shekhar, causing Mira to lose her baby and get amnesia. It's Dalbir who later ...
Foreman thinks he might have Munchausens, but House thinks it might be a rare form of anterograde amnesia known as Giovannini ... The role switching was in addition to anterograde amnesia and anosognosia. The researchers stated that the patient "seems to ...
Hung DZ, Tsai WJ, Deng JF (July 1992). "Anterograde amnesia in triazolam overdose despite flumazenil treatment: a case report ... anterograde amnesia, ataxia, and slurred speech. Most patients with pure benzodiazepine overdose will usually only exhibit ...
This may appear as lack of concentration, confusion and anterograde amnesia. It can be described as a hangover-like effect ...
... and other benzodiazepines can produce anterograde amnesia, but not retrograde amnesia. It means information learned ... Benzodiazepines such as diazepam can cause anterograde amnesia, confusion, and sedation. The elderly are more prone to ... It is also used as a premedication for inducing sedation, anxiolysis, or amnesia before certain medical procedures (e.g., ... anxiolysis or amnesia (e.g., before endoscopic or surgical procedures) Treatment of complications with stimulant overdoses and ...
Lorazepam is one such pharmacological agent that can cause anterograde amnesia. Intensive care unit patients who receive higher ... and the amnesia produced by the drug makes it difficult for police to interrogate them if they are caught. Hypnotic ... Sedatives can sometimes leave the patient with long-term or short-term amnesia. ...
He played the role of a businessman suffering from anterograde amnesia. Ghajini emerged as a blockbuster at the box office and ... he played a man suffering from anterograde amnesia in the 2005 blockbuster Ghajini. He rose to stardom with dual roles of a ...
The amnesic symptoms of WKS include both retrograde and anterograde amnesia. The retrograde deficit has been demonstrated ... and Korsakoff's psychosis with anterograde and retrograde amnesia and confabulation upon relevant lines of questioning. ... The retrograde amnesia that accompanies WKS can extend as far back as twenty to thirty years, and there is generally a temporal ... The amnesia that is associated with this syndrome is a result of the atrophy in the structures of the diencephalon (the ...
Anterograde amnesia may also develop, as may respiratory depression in higher doses. A 2009 meta-analysis found a 44% higher ...
"2020, Neuropsychology, Wakeful rest benefits before and after encoding in anterograde amnesia". Cowan, N.; Saults, J. S.; Blume ... amnesia, and alcoholic intoxication, as explained further on his web site and CV. For example, the work on amnesia indicates ...
... anterograde amnesia). There was an absence of clouding of consciousness or other cognitive impairment other than amnesia. There ... Amnesia Dissociative amnesia Logan, W; Sherman, D (1983). "Transient global amnesia". Stroke. 14 (6): 1005-7. doi:10.1161/01. ... Both TGA and anterograde amnesia deal with disruptions of short-term memory. However, a TGA episode generally lasts no more ... Bauer, G.; Benke, T; Unterberger, I; Schmutzhard, E; Trinka, E (2005). "Transient global amnesia or transient epileptic amnesia ...
... giving rise to anterograde amnesia. Patients with anterograde amnesia may have episodic, semantic, or both types of explicit ... In neurology, anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories after an event that caused amnesia, leading to a ... Some with severe cases have a combined form of anterograde and retrograde amnesia, sometimes called global amnesia. In the case ... Anterograde amnesia can also be caused by alcohol intoxication, a phenomenon commonly known as a blackout. Studies show rapid ...
CA3 SUBFIELD VOLUME PREDICTS ANTEROGRADE AUTOBI- OGRAPHICAL MEMORY LOSS IN ORGANIC AMNESIA ... CA3 SUBFIELD VOLUME PREDICTS ANTEROGRADE AUTOBI- OGRAPHICAL MEMORY LOSS IN ORGANIC AMNESIA ...
Anterograde amnesia - characterized by an inability to create new memories. ...
Anterograde Amnesia. January 7, 2023. January 7, 2023. JoemAdmin Thus, injury or damage to one of its structures, the ... anterograde amnesia. On the other hand, although still far from fully understanding the biophysical and biochemical bases of ...
Anterograde amnesia refers to a decreased ability to store new information. This could affect your daily activities. ... Proactive, anterograde, and retrograde amnesia. Anterograde amnesia is one of the two main features of amnesia. People with ... WHAT IS ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA?. Anterograde amnesia refers to a decreased ability to store new information. This could affect ... Anterograde amnesia is a part of amnesia. In such cases, amnesia (memory loss) has already happened. It is caused by damage to ...
Anterograde amnesia can be referred to as a decreased ability to hold new information. This condition can affect an ... Proactive, Anterograde, and Retrograde Amnesia. Anterograde amnesia is one of the two main features of amnesia. Individuals ... Anterograde amnesia is a subsection of amnesia. It is caused by damage to the part of the brain responsible for memory-making. ... Amnesia may become permanent. This means that the symptoms of anterograde amnesia could get worse as time goes on. Despite this ...
Amnesia, Anterograde; Amnesias, Anterograde; Anterograde Amnesia; Anterograde Amnesias; Anterograde Memory Loss; Anterograde ... Memory Losses; Memory Loss, Anterograde; Memory Losses, Anterograde. SNOMED CT: Antegrade amnesia (88822006); Anterograde ... Effects of magnetic seizure therapy on anterograde and retrograde amnesia in treatment-resistant depression. ... Effects of magnetic seizure therapy on anterograde and retrograde amnesia in treatment-resistant depression. ...
anterograde amnesia (pathology). memory abnormality: Organic disorders: …events) the defect is termed anterograde amnesia. ... anterograde degeneration (pathology). human nervous system: Functions of the human nervous system: This phenomenon is called ... anterograde degeneration. In retrograde degeneration, similar changes may occur in neurons that have lost the main recipient of ...
Anterograde amnesia * Derealization - almot all patients * Disinhibited behavior - hyperphagia (57%) and hypersexuality (43%-53 ...
Preoperative Sedation, Anxiety Relief, & Anterograde Amnesia. 0.05 mg/kg IM for 1 dose; 2 hours before surgery; not to exceed 4 ...
Amnesia is a form of memory loss. Discover multiple types, such as anterograde amnesia. Also learn about treatments, get nine ... Dissociative amnesia. This is a type of memory loss - beyond forgetfulness - thats not associated with a medical condition. ... Dissociative fugue. A dissociative fugue is an episode of amnesia that involves not having memory of certain personal ... Along with dissociative amnesia and depersonalization-derealization disorder, its one of the three major dissociative ...
... retrograde amnesia). Nor are they able to store new information (anterograde amnesia). This type of amnesia may be caused by ... Whether amnesia is caused by an accident or stress, the idea that patients would cease to have any knowledge of who they are, ... Complete and generalized amnesia is rare, and is usually part of a fugue.... If this is the case, the disorder should be ... Nor is it at all clear whether her amnesia was staged or was in fact caused by stress or some organic disorder. With regard to ...
Anterograde amnesia is the failure to encode and remember new episodic memories. Anterograde amnesiacs can learn from single ... Anterograde amnesiacs can learn fear, learn new skills, and gain new conceptual knowledge. Normal humans also gain knowledge ... If you meet an anterograde amnesiac, leave the room, and return after 10 minutes, youll remember having met the individual, ...
Memory disorders include: memory impairment, amnesia, anterograde amnesia.. Infections and Infestations. Nasopharyngitis. 6. 4 ...
May also be called Anterograde Amnesia.. post-traumatic dementia - a condition marked by mental deterioration and emotional ... anterograde amnesia - inability to consolidate information about ongoing events. Difficulty with new learning. ... retrograde amnesia - inability to recall events that occurred prior to the accident; may be a specific span of time or type of ... post-traumatic amnesia - a state of acute confusion due to a traumatic brain injury, marked by difficulty with perception, ...
... anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories) must be present; no other cognitive impairment or loss of personal ... Transient global amnesia involves the sudden loss of memory of recent events and a transient inability to retain new ... Brown J. ED evaluation of transient global amnesia. Ann Emerg Med. October 1997;30:522-6:Ann Emerg Med. ... There is no increased incidence of vascular deaths or epilepsy in patients with an episode of transient global amnesia, but a ...
SenseCam as a rehabilitation tool in a child with anterograde amnesia. . Memory ... The Amnesia Atlas.. An immersive SenseCam Interface as memory-prosthesis. International Conference on Virtual Systems & ...
In these instances, anterograde amnesia can be quite handy. This type of amnesia is the inability to create new memories. With ... 3: Induces Temporary Amnesia. Many individuals who are fearful of the dentist have negative memories of a traumatic experience ...
Riccio DC; Richardson R; Guanowsky V, 1983, Is anterograde amnesia a special case of retrograde amnesia?, Behavioral ... Riccio DC; Richardson R; Guanowsky V, 1983, Is anterograde amnesia a special case of retrograde amnesia?, Behavioral ... Richardson R; Riccio DC, 1986, An examination of a contextual component of memory following recovery from anterograde amnesia ... Santucci AC; Kasenow PM; Riccio DC; Richardson R, 1987, Hypothermia-induced anterograde amnesia: Is memory loss attributable ...
A subset of patients with Wernicke encephalopathy develops profound anterograde amnesia called Korsakoff psychosis. MRI reveals ...
Individuals diagnosed with Korsakoffs syndrome usually have symptoms of severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia, as well as ... However, the amnesia and brain damage caused by the disease does not respond to thiamine replacement therapy. In some cases, ... The Merck Manual: Function And Dysfunction Of The Cerebral Lobes - Amnesias - Korsakoffs syndrome ...
Although the surgery was successful in controlling his seizures it left him with anterograde amnesia. Milners experiments with ... It may sound like hes inducing amnesia, but psychology professor Tom Beckers is actually testing the possibility of targeting ... Suparna Rajarams research focuses on memory and amnesia, particularly how we recall past experiences and acquire and retain new ...
Anterograde amnesia is a real condition in which the afflicted is unable to produce new memories. Writing about the theoretical ... Theoretically pure anterograde amnesia finds a dementia. The young have become like the very old, living in a past that they ... seems to be a younger generations reaction against the hauntological notion of Theoretically Pure Anterograde Amnesia, which ...
... might have anterograde amnesia symptoms on a permanent basis. Patients with Alzheimers disease often suffer from anterograde ... A patient with anterograde amnesia has trouble forming new memories or storing new information, and therefore loses information ... This would be a mixture of anterograde and retrograde amnesia, as the patient would have lost memories from both before and ... Basically, there are two kinds of amnesia... anterograde and retrograde. A patient may suffer from one or both, depending on ...
The second one is called anterograde amnesia. It is the loss of the ability to form new memories after a traumatic event. It ... Post-traumatic amnesia lasts for less than an hour in 6% of the cases, while 7% of those surveyed experienced memory loss for ... Lastly, retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember events before a traumatic head injury. This happens when there is ... The most common is the post-traumatic amnesia, wherein the person cant remember the events immediately after the traumatic ...
He had anterograde amnesia. His episodes lasted less than 24 hours. There was no evidence of epilepsy or head injury. There was ... The attacks should be witnessed by an observer, should be accompanied by clear-cut anterograde amnesia, should not be ... Transient global amnesia was first described in the late 1950s. Episodes of global amnesia that are transient have since been ... Amnesia with benzodiazepines is different to a statin-related amnesia in that all users of benzodiazepines have very clear and ...
... a condition known as anterograde amnesia. He also had difficulty recollecting his long-term past - partial retrograde amnesia. ... His resulting amnesia and willingness to be tested have given us unprecedented insights into where memories are formed and ...
Anterograde Amnesia Linked to Benzodiazepines. Nurse Practitioner 1992; 17: 44-50. Melander A, Bergdahl U, Hansson HB, Kaij L, ... Anterograde Amnesia with Oral Lorazepam. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1985; 46: 137-138. MacDonald TM. Association of Road- ... Anterograde Amnesia Following Triazolam Use in Two Emergency Physicians. Journal of Emergency Medicine 1989; 7: 153-155. Hughes ... Malamed SF, Nikchevich D, Block J. Anterograde Amnesia as a Possible Postoperative Complication of Midazolam as an Agent for ...
I also have anterograde amnesia - the loss of the ability to create new memories. ... I have amnesia. Over 20 years of my life are missing. Most of the memory of my life with my husband is gone. ...
  • This is in contrast to retrograde amnesia, where memories created prior to the event are lost while new memories can still be created. (wikipedia.org)
  • Some with severe cases have a combined form of anterograde and retrograde amnesia, sometimes called global amnesia. (wikipedia.org)
  • The other feature is known as retrograde amnesia . (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • Such symptoms differ from those of retrograde amnesia, which might include forgetting information you already knew before the amnesia. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • The other feature is known as retrograde amnesia, refers to the lack of ability to remember people, places, and events from your past. (healthtian.com)
  • Retrograde amnesia can also cause a person to forget substantial daily information, like what time you have to resume work. (healthtian.com)
  • These symptoms are different from symptoms of retrograde amnesia, which includes forgetting valuable information you already know before the amnesia. (healthtian.com)
  • Effects of magnetic seizure therapy on anterograde and retrograde amnesia in treatment-resistant depression. (nih.gov)
  • Is it possible that Christie suffered from what is called retrograde amnesia as a result of an automobile accident and was no longer capable of remembering the event? (scientificamerican.com)
  • Although affected persons may be as attentive and awake as ever, their access to previously acquired memories may be disturbed (retrograde amnesia). (scientificamerican.com)
  • Individuals diagnosed with Korsakoff's syndrome usually have symptoms of severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia, as well as confabulation. (englishgratis.com)
  • How would a doctor diagnose retrograde amnesia and how would a patient act or think with this type of amnesia? (blogspot.com)
  • A patient with retrograde amnesia has lost memories or information from before the insulting event. (blogspot.com)
  • This would be a mixture of anterograde and retrograde amnesia, as the patient would have lost memories from both before and after the event. (blogspot.com)
  • Patients with Alzheimer's disease often suffer from anterograde amnesia symptoms, becoming less and less able to make new memories, and then moving into retrograde amnesia and losing past memories as well. (blogspot.com)
  • Regarding your question of a pure retrograde amnesia, this suggests the common plot device in movies and television stories where the victim suffers a head injury and suddenly forgets everything about their own pasts, including their identities. (blogspot.com)
  • Even patients with devastating retrograde amnesia generally maintain their sense of identity. (blogspot.com)
  • In reality, retrograde amnesia is typically limited to a relatively brief period immediately before whatever insult caused the loss of memory (which could be a brain injury-- either through head trauma, or oxygen deprivation, a seizure, drug and/or alcohol exposure, and any experience that could cause loss of consciousness). (blogspot.com)
  • Lastly, retrograde amnesia is the inability to remember events before a traumatic head injury. (jeffhurtblog.com)
  • He also had difficulty recollecting his long-term past - partial retrograde amnesia. (newscientist.com)
  • See also anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, post-traumatic amnesia. (casperdetoledo.com)
  • Transient global amnesia is characterized by sudden-onset anterograde and retrograde amnesia that typically lasts up to 24 hours. (msdmanuals.com)
  • But a less severe retrograde amnesia may be the presenting symptom. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Known as transient global amnesia, temporary memory loss might improve after an injury or illness. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • Many cases of amnesia are momentary, and this is referred to as transient global amnesia. (healthtian.com)
  • Transient global amnesia. (nih.gov)
  • In addition, short-term memory lapses such as transient global amnesia lasting no more than 24 hours are known to occur. (scientificamerican.com)
  • Transient global amnesia involves the sudden loss of memory of recent events and a transient inability to retain new information. (aafp.org)
  • The patient with transient global amnesia may be disoriented, but behavior is otherwise normal. (aafp.org)
  • Brown conducted a literature review and presents criteria for emergency diagnosis of patients with transient global amnesia. (aafp.org)
  • Most cases of transient global amnesia are preceded by an emotional stress, intense pain or cold, or strenuous physical activity. (aafp.org)
  • Most patients with transient global amnesia are disoriented to time and place and exhibit repetitive questioning that may last throughout the attack. (aafp.org)
  • When diagnostic criteria are properly applied, transient global amnesia is not difficult to diagnose because it is a unique entity. (aafp.org)
  • However, several disorders may be misdiagnosed as transient global amnesia. (aafp.org)
  • These include acute confusional states such as toxin-induced memory loss, psychogenic amnesia and transient complex partial seizures that present in the postictal state. (aafp.org)
  • Detailed work-ups are unproductive in patients who have all of the features of transient global amnesia unless other clinical indications are present. (aafp.org)
  • There is no increased incidence of vascular deaths or epilepsy in patients with an episode of transient global amnesia, but a significantly greater proportion of persons with recurrent episodes of transient global amnesia go on to experience epilepsy than do control subjects. (aafp.org)
  • Stroke morbidity is not increased in patients with transient global amnesia, and the risk of a recurrent attack of transient global amnesia within five years ranges from 3 to 20 percent. (aafp.org)
  • The authors conclude that transient global amnesia is a benign syndrome with a low risk of subsequent neurologic or vascular disease. (aafp.org)
  • The annual incidence of transient global amnesia is between 3.4 and 10.4/100 000. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Acute-onset amnesia: Transient global amnesia and other causes. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The etiology of transient global amnesia is not clear. (msdmanuals.com)
  • In cases of pure anterograde amnesia, patients have recollections of events prior to the injury, but cannot recall day-to-day information or new facts presented to them after the injury occurred. (wikipedia.org)
  • Isn't, in fact, theoretically pure anterograde amnesia the postmodern condition par excellence? (popdust.com)
  • Symptoms of anterograde amnesia mainly affect short-term memory processing. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • Also, the symptoms of anterograde amnesia occur after you have already started experiencing memory loss. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • Anterograde amnesia tends to happen after you start experiencing some symptoms of the disease, like short-term memory loss. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • This means that symptoms of anterograde amnesia could worsen over time. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • The symptoms of anterograde amnesia manifest after a person's already experiencing memory loss. (healthtian.com)
  • This means that the symptoms of anterograde amnesia could get worse as time goes on. (healthtian.com)
  • Someone with a significant traumatic brain injury, might have anterograde amnesia symptoms on a permanent basis. (blogspot.com)
  • After discovering a cluster of individuals suffering from a new type of amnesia, doctors are concerned that there may be a link between narcotic painkiller abuse and the onset of the memory loss symptoms. (aboutlawsuits.com)
  • Fourteen patients in Massachusetts experienced sudden-onset amnesia symptoms, including changes to the brain confirmed by abnormal MRI scans. (aboutlawsuits.com)
  • In neurology, anterograde amnesia is the inability to create new memories after an event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. (wikipedia.org)
  • To a large degree, anterograde amnesia remains a mysterious ailment because the precise mechanism of storing memories is not yet well understood, although it is known that the regions of the brain involved are certain sites in the temporal cortex, especially in the hippocampus and nearby subcortical regions. (wikipedia.org)
  • Damage to specific areas can result in reduced or eliminated ability to encode new explicit memories, giving rise to anterograde amnesia. (wikipedia.org)
  • Anterograde amnesia can also interfere with social events as well as work due to the challenges of retaining or creating new memories. (healthtian.com)
  • Anterograde amnesia is the failure to encode and remember new episodic memories. (psychologytoday.com)
  • This type of amnesia is the inability to create new memories. (albuquerquedentist.org)
  • It may sound like he's inducing amnesia, but psychology professor Tom Beckers is actually testing the possibility of targeting and muffling psychologically crippling memories. (psychologicalscience.org)
  • A patient with anterograde amnesia has trouble forming new memories or storing new information, and therefore loses information from after the insulting event. (blogspot.com)
  • His resulting amnesia and willingness to be tested have given us unprecedented insights into where memories are formed and stored in the brain. (newscientist.com)
  • As a result, Molaison's epilepsy became manageable, but he could not form any new memories, a condition known as anterograde amnesia . (newscientist.com)
  • This speculation was sparked by two seemingly key coincidences of one, timing when this protein synthesis stage occurs coincides with the patient's forgetting at 90 minutes or thereabouts, and two, both 'episodic' and 'procedural' memories appear to require successful protein synthesis to occur for long-term memory permanence, and the patient cannot retain any new either episodic or procedural memories -- and this is unusual compared to traditional cases of amnesia. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Most of the individuals had a striking anterograde amnesia, or an inability to form new memories. (aboutlawsuits.com)
  • Neuropsychological testing revealed anterograde amnesia with relative preservation of more remote, premorbid memories. (bvsalud.org)
  • The most common is the post-traumatic amnesia, wherein the person can't remember the events immediately after the traumatic incident occurs. (jeffhurtblog.com)
  • Post-traumatic amnesia lasts for less than an hour in 6% of the cases, while 7% of those surveyed experienced memory loss for an hour to a day. (jeffhurtblog.com)
  • Patients with anterograde amnesia may have episodic, semantic, or both types of explicit memory impaired for events after the trauma that caused the amnesia. (wikipedia.org)
  • This argument, however, is less than cogent because we know today that partial amnesia can occur and that it can affect certain memory systems such as episodic memory (of events) while leaving semantic (factual) memory intact. (scientificamerican.com)
  • I raised the possibility of a statin-induced global amnesia. (rxisk.org)
  • There are currently no treatments that could essentially cure amnesia, but instead, treatments concentrate on condition management. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • Since amnesia is caused by brain damage caused by trauma, there are presently no treatments that can basically cure amnesia. (healthtian.com)
  • Dr Burgess added: "Amongst our allied health professions, what we did know about from decades of research and hundreds of case studies, is that bilateral damage to the hippocampal and/or diencephalon structures causes profound amnesia, and in the absence of apparent structural damage to these structures, it left an explanation widely open to speculation. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Though the surgery was a success as far as controlling the epilepsy went, Molaison was left with profound amnesia. (listverse.com)
  • This type of amnesia may be caused by severe emotional stress, but in such cases, people almost always retain knowledge of who they are and of those with whom they are close. (scientificamerican.com)
  • These tests can help rule out other possible causes of the amnesia (eg, severe anemia, clotting disorders). (msdmanuals.com)
  • One extensively studied anterograde amnesiac patient, codenamed H.M., demonstrated that despite his amnesia preventing him from learning new declarative information, procedural memory consolidation was still possible, albeit severely reduced in power. (wikipedia.org)
  • If you meet an anterograde amnesiac, leave the room, and return after 10 minutes, you'll remember having met the individual, but the amnesiac won't remember having met you. (psychologytoday.com)
  • Proactive amnesia is typically referred to as anterograde amnesia. (healthtian.com)
  • One of the goals of emergency department (ED) procedural sedation (PS) is to induce amnesia for brief painful procedures, in addition to analgaesia. (bmj.com)
  • In the case of drug-induced amnesia, it may be short-lived and patients can recover from it. (wikipedia.org)
  • In most cases of anterograde amnesia, patients lose declarative memory, or the recollection of facts, but they retain nondeclarative memory, often called procedural memory. (wikipedia.org)
  • He, along with other patients with anterograde amnesia, were given the same maze to complete day after day. (wikipedia.org)
  • One 2010 study published in Neuropsychology found that seven out of ten patients with anterograde amnesia were capable of temporarily retaining new information. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • The new amnesia problem was first reported in November 2015 by a neurologist who noted the syndrome in four patients. (aboutlawsuits.com)
  • Patients with Alzheimer's disease characteristically show a profound anterograde amnesia that becomes evident during the early stages of the disease (1) . (ajnr.org)
  • In some cases, amnesia might be temporary, but in other cases, it might be permanent. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • Certain cases of amnesia are temporary. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • What Happens to a Person with Temporary Amnesia? (jeffhurtblog.com)
  • Where the amnesia appears to be temporary, an appropriate solution might be to defer trial for a reasonable period to see if the accused's memory improves. (ucmjdefense.com)
  • An MRI test or a CT scan could help your doctor diagnose the physical causes of anterograde amnesia. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • A CT scan it an MRI test that can help doctors diagnose the physical causes of anterograde amnesia. (healthtian.com)
  • This will help your doctor quickly diagnose the type of amnesia you have and plan for a better way to manage the condition. (healthtian.com)
  • For diagnosis of amnesia, the physician would primarily rely on the patient's history, as obtained by talking to the patient and his or her family and friends (if available), as well as simple tasks to evaluate the patient's ability to remember new things (such as giving the patient a string of numbers or a random trio of words to remember). (blogspot.com)
  • The problem is compounded by the onset of amnesia after ingestion of the drug, which causes the victim to be uncertain about the facts surrounding the rape. (passsalivadrugtest.com)
  • Fortunately, some therapies could help a person with anterograde amnesia cope with memory loss. (healthtian.com)
  • The amnesia typically remits spontaneously but may recur. (msdmanuals.com)
  • After an email alert was issued by the Massachusetts Board of Registration in Medicine, 10 more cases were found to be linked to the amnesia syndrome occurring between 2012 and 2016. (aboutlawsuits.com)
  • In rare cases, people have reported short-term memory problems and anterograde amnesia. (cornerstonesocal.com)
  • Thus, injury or damage to one of its structures, the hippocampus, leads to a loss of the ability to store information after the date of injury, keeping the memory of events that occurred before the injury - anterograde amnesia. (minsk-gallery.com)
  • amnesia - lack of memory about events occurring during a particular period of time. (brainline.org)
  • anterograde amnesia - inability to consolidate information about ongoing events. (brainline.org)
  • In such cases, amnesia (memory loss) has already happened. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • However, anterograde amnesia is most often related to permanent memory loss. (specialtycareclinics.com)
  • However, anterograde amnesia is generally linked with permanent memory loss. (healthtian.com)
  • As far as how the patient would act in this situation, this would widely depend on the extent of the memory loss and whether or not there was a co-existing anterograde component. (blogspot.com)
  • Lack of memory or amnesia resulting from drugs or alcohol has never constituted a complete defense . (ucmjdefense.com)
  • In United States v. Lopez-Malave , 15 C.M.R. 341 (C.M.A. 1954), the Court held that drug or alcohol induced amnesia in and of itself does not constitute a mental disease or defect which will excuse criminal conduct under the defense of lack of mental responsibility. (ucmjdefense.com)
  • A dissociative fugue is an episode of amnesia that involves not having memory of certain personal information. (healthline.com)
  • People with anterograde amnesic syndromes may present widely varying degrees of forgetfulness. (wikipedia.org)
  • This may be the first signs of a new type of amnesia that is caused by opioid drug use, which continues to increase in recent years. (aboutlawsuits.com)
  • In the latest edition of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report , neurologists in the Boston area have identified at least 14 people who experienced amnesia, reportedly caused by drug use, most likely opioids. (aboutlawsuits.com)
  • But for people with neurological conditions like amnesia, the loss of memory can prove utterly devastating and leave them with no clue as to the person that they are. (listverse.com)
  • Researchers say there is no other apparent evidence of another cause of the amnesia, other than substance abuse. (aboutlawsuits.com)