Peripheral, autonomic, and cranial nerve disorders that are associated with DIABETES MELLITUS. These conditions usually result from diabetic microvascular injury involving small blood vessels that supply nerves (VASA NERVORUM). Relatively common conditions which may be associated with diabetic neuropathy include third nerve palsy (see OCULOMOTOR NERVE DISEASES); MONONEUROPATHY; mononeuropathy multiplex; diabetic amyotrophy; a painful POLYNEUROPATHY; autonomic neuropathy; and thoracoabdominal neuropathy. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1325)
The propagation of the NERVE IMPULSE along the nerve away from the site of an excitation stimulus.
Diabetes mellitus induced experimentally by administration of various diabetogenic agents or by PANCREATECTOMY.
A branch of the tibial nerve which supplies sensory innervation to parts of the lower leg and foot.
Diseases of the peripheral nerves external to the brain and spinal cord, which includes diseases of the nerve roots, ganglia, plexi, autonomic nerves, sensory nerves, and motor nerves.
A nerve which originates in the lumbar and sacral spinal cord (L4 to S3) and supplies motor and sensory innervation to the lower extremity. The sciatic nerve, which is the main continuation of the sacral plexus, is the largest nerve in the body. It has two major branches, the TIBIAL NERVE and the PERONEAL NERVE.
Disease of the RETINA as a complication of DIABETES MELLITUS. It is characterized by the progressive microvascular complications, such as ANEURYSM, interretinal EDEMA, and intraocular PATHOLOGIC NEOVASCULARIZATION.
KIDNEY injuries associated with diabetes mellitus and affecting KIDNEY GLOMERULUS; ARTERIOLES; KIDNEY TUBULES; and the interstitium. Clinical signs include persistent PROTEINURIA, from microalbuminuria progressing to ALBUMINURIA of greater than 300 mg/24 h, leading to reduced GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE and END-STAGE RENAL DISEASE.
Common foot problems in persons with DIABETES MELLITUS, caused by any combination of factors such as DIABETIC NEUROPATHIES; PERIPHERAL VASCULAR DISEASES; and INFECTION. With the loss of sensation and poor circulation, injuries and infections often lead to severe foot ulceration, GANGRENE and AMPUTATION.
Blood vessels supplying the nerves.
An antibiotic that is produced by Stretomyces achromogenes. It is used as an antineoplastic agent and to induce diabetes in experimental animals.
A subtype of DIABETES MELLITUS that is characterized by INSULIN deficiency. It is manifested by the sudden onset of severe HYPERGLYCEMIA, rapid progression to DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS, and DEATH unless treated with insulin. The disease may occur at any age, but is most common in childhood or adolescence.
The nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord, including the autonomic, cranial, and spinal nerves. Peripheral nerves contain non-neuronal cells and connective tissue as well as axons. The connective tissue layers include, from the outside to the inside, the epineurium, the perineurium, and the endoneurium.
A subclass of DIABETES MELLITUS that is not INSULIN-responsive or dependent (NIDDM). It is characterized initially by INSULIN RESISTANCE and HYPERINSULINEMIA; and eventually by GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HYPERGLYCEMIA; and overt diabetes. Type II diabetes mellitus is no longer considered a disease exclusively found in adults. Patients seldom develop KETOSIS but often exhibit OBESITY.
Diseases of multiple peripheral nerves simultaneously. Polyneuropathies usually are characterized by symmetrical, bilateral distal motor and sensory impairment with a graded increase in severity distally. The pathological processes affecting peripheral nerves include degeneration of the axon, myelin or both. The various forms of polyneuropathy are categorized by the type of nerve affected (e.g., sensory, motor, or autonomic), by the distribution of nerve injury (e.g., distal vs. proximal), by nerve component primarily affected (e.g., demyelinating vs. axonal), by etiology, or by pattern of inheritance.
Rhodanine is an organic compound with the formula S(=O)(-CH=C(SH)N(-C2H4S)) that is used as a reagent in the determination of sulfide and in the synthesis of certain types of chelating agents, but it does not have any inherent medical use or application itself.
A group of slowly progressive inherited disorders affecting motor and sensory peripheral nerves. Subtypes include HMSNs I-VII. HMSN I and II both refer to CHARCOT-MARIE-TOOTH DISEASE. HMSN III refers to hypertrophic neuropathy of infancy. HMSN IV refers to REFSUM DISEASE. HMSN V refers to a condition marked by a hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy associated with spastic paraplegia (see SPASTIC PARAPLEGIA, HEREDITARY). HMSN VI refers to HMSN associated with an inherited optic atrophy (OPTIC ATROPHIES, HEREDITARY), and HMSN VII refers to HMSN associated with retinitis pigmentosa. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1343)
An enzyme that catalyzes reversibly the oxidation of an aldose to an alditol. It possesses broad specificity for many aldoses. EC 1.1.1.21.
Diseases of the parasympathetic or sympathetic divisions of the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; which has components located in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM and PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Autonomic dysfunction may be associated with HYPOTHALAMIC DISEASES; BRAIN STEM disorders; SPINAL CORD DISEASES; and PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES. Manifestations include impairments of vegetative functions including the maintenance of BLOOD PRESSURE; HEART RATE; pupil function; SWEATING; REPRODUCTIVE AND URINARY PHYSIOLOGY; and DIGESTION.
VASCULAR DISEASES that are associated with DIABETES MELLITUS.
Sensory ganglia located on the dorsal spinal roots within the vertebral column. The spinal ganglion cells are pseudounipolar. The single primary branch bifurcates sending a peripheral process to carry sensory information from the periphery and a central branch which relays that information to the spinal cord or brain.
Lesion on the surface of the skin of the foot, usually accompanied by inflammation. The lesion may become infected or necrotic and is frequently associated with diabetes or leprosy.
Slender processes of NEURONS, including the AXONS and their glial envelopes (MYELIN SHEATH). Nerve fibers conduct nerve impulses to and from the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
A strain of Rattus norvegicus which is a model for spontaneous insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, INSULIN-DEPENDENT).
A polyhydric alcohol with about half the sweetness of sucrose. Sorbitol occurs naturally and is also produced synthetically from glucose. It was formerly used as a diuretic and may still be used as a laxative and in irrigating solutions for some surgical procedures. It is also used in many manufacturing processes, as a pharmaceutical aid, and in several research applications.
A group of inherited disorders characterized by degeneration of dorsal root and autonomic ganglion cells, and clinically by loss of sensation and autonomic dysfunction. There are five subtypes. Type I features autosomal dominant inheritance and distal sensory involvement. Type II is characterized by autosomal inheritance and distal and proximal sensory loss. Type III is DYSAUTONOMIA, FAMILIAL. Type IV features insensitivity to pain, heat intolerance, and mental deficiency. Type V is characterized by a selective loss of pain with intact light touch and vibratory sensation. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1995, Ch51, pp142-4)
The lateral of the two terminal branches of the sciatic nerve. The peroneal (or fibular) nerve provides motor and sensory innervation to parts of the leg and foot.
The distal extremity of the leg in vertebrates, consisting of the tarsus (ANKLE); METATARSUS; phalanges; and the soft tissues surrounding these bones.
Glucose in blood.
Ischemic injury to the OPTIC NERVE which usually affects the OPTIC DISK (optic neuropathy, anterior ischemic) and less frequently the retrobulbar portion of the nerve (optic neuropathy, posterior ischemic). The injury results from occlusion of arterial blood supply which may result from TEMPORAL ARTERITIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; COLLAGEN DISEASES; EMBOLISM; DIABETES MELLITUS; and other conditions. The disease primarily occurs in the sixth decade or later and presents with the sudden onset of painless and usually severe monocular visual loss. Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy also features optic disk edema with microhemorrhages. The optic disk appears normal in posterior ischemic optic neuropathy. (Glaser, Neuro-Ophthalmology, 2nd ed, p135)
The medial terminal branch of the sciatic nerve. The tibial nerve fibers originate in lumbar and sacral spinal segments (L4 to S2). They supply motor and sensory innervation to parts of the calf and foot.
Abnormally high BLOOD GLUCOSE level.
Methods and procedures for the diagnosis of diseases of the nervous system, central and peripheral, or demonstration of neurologic function or dysfunction.
Diagnosis of disease states by recording the spontaneous electrical activity of tissues or organs or by the response to stimulation of electrically excitable tissue.
An octanoic acid bridged with two sulfurs so that it is sometimes also called a pentanoic acid in some naming schemes. It is biosynthesized by cleavage of LINOLEIC ACID and is a coenzyme of oxoglutarate dehydrogenase (KETOGLUTARATE DEHYDROGENASE COMPLEX). It is used in DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS.
Intense or aching pain that occurs along the course or distribution of a peripheral or cranial nerve.
Specialized afferent neurons capable of transducing sensory stimuli into NERVE IMPULSES to be transmitted to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Sometimes sensory receptors for external stimuli are called exteroceptors; for internal stimuli are called interoceptors and proprioceptors.
An increased sensation of pain or discomfort produced by mimimally noxious stimuli due to damage to soft tissue containing NOCICEPTORS or injury to a peripheral nerve.
Scales, questionnaires, tests, and other methods used to assess pain severity and duration in patients or experimental animals to aid in diagnosis, therapy, and physiological studies.
The magnetic stimulation of specific target tissues or areas of the body for therapeutic purposes via the application of magnetic fields generated by MAGNETS or ELECTROMAGNETS.
A heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by HYPERGLYCEMIA and GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE.
An unpleasant sensation induced by noxious stimuli which are detected by NERVE ENDINGS of NOCICEPTIVE NEURONS.
Cyclohexanecarboxylic acids are organic compounds consisting of a cyclohexane ring substituted with a carboxylic acid group, typically represented by the structural formula C6H11COOH.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
The minimum amount of stimulus energy necessary to elicit a sensory response.
Minor hemoglobin components of human erythrocytes designated A1a, A1b, and A1c. Hemoglobin A1c is most important since its sugar moiety is glucose covalently bound to the terminal amino acid of the beta chain. Since normal glycohemoglobin concentrations exclude marked blood glucose fluctuations over the preceding three to four weeks, the concentration of glycosylated hemoglobin A is a more reliable index of the blood sugar average over a long period of time.
Conditions or pathological processes associated with the disease of diabetes mellitus. Due to the impaired control of BLOOD GLUCOSE level in diabetic patients, pathological processes develop in numerous tissues and organs including the EYE, the KIDNEY, the BLOOD VESSELS, and the NERVE TISSUE.
A continuing periodic change in displacement with respect to a fixed reference. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
An acetic acid ester of CARNITINE that facilitates movement of ACETYL COA into the matrices of mammalian MITOCHONDRIA during the oxidation of FATTY ACIDS.
The state of PREGNANCY in women with DIABETES MELLITUS. This does not include either symptomatic diabetes or GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE induced by pregnancy (DIABETES, GESTATIONAL) which resolves at the end of pregnancy.
A plant genus best known for edible underground tubers. Yam may also refer to a moist variety of sweet potato, IPOMOEA BATATAS.
Neuroglial cells of the peripheral nervous system which form the insulating myelin sheaths of peripheral axons.
Assessment of sensory and motor responses and reflexes that is used to determine impairment of the nervous system.
The process in which specialized SENSORY RECEPTOR CELLS transduce peripheral stimuli (physical or chemical) into NERVE IMPULSES which are then transmitted to the various sensory centers in the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Disorders of sensory information received from superficial and deep regions of the body. The somatosensory system conveys neural impulses which pertain to proprioception, tactile sensation, thermal sensation, pressure sensation, and pain. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; SPINAL CORD DISEASES; and BRAIN DISEASES may be associated with impaired or abnormal somatic sensation.
Nerve fibers that are capable of rapidly conducting impulses away from the neuron cell body.
Disease involving the ULNAR NERVE from its origin in the BRACHIAL PLEXUS to its termination in the hand. Clinical manifestations may include PARESIS or PARALYSIS of wrist flexion, finger flexion, thumb adduction, finger abduction, and finger adduction. Sensation over the medial palm, fifth finger, and ulnar aspect of the ring finger may also be impaired. Common sites of injury include the AXILLA, cubital tunnel at the ELBOW, and Guyon's canal at the wrist. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1995, Ch51 pp43-5)
A hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy transmitted most often as an autosomal dominant trait and characterized by progressive distal wasting and loss of reflexes in the muscles of the legs (and occasionally involving the arms). Onset is usually in the second to fourth decade of life. This condition has been divided into two subtypes, hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy (HMSN) types I and II. HMSN I is associated with abnormal nerve conduction velocities and nerve hypertrophy, features not seen in HMSN II. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1343)
A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).
The sensation of cold, heat, coolness, and warmth as detected by THERMORECEPTORS.
A class of nerve fibers as defined by their structure, specifically the nerve sheath arrangement. The AXONS of the myelinated nerve fibers are completely encased in a MYELIN SHEATH. They are fibers of relatively large and varied diameters. Their NEURAL CONDUCTION rates are faster than those of the unmyelinated nerve fibers (NERVE FIBERS, UNMYELINATED). Myelinated nerve fibers are present in somatic and autonomic nerves.
Compounds based on reduced IMIDAZOLINES which contain no double bonds in the ring.
Tricyclic antidepressant with anticholinergic and sedative properties. It appears to prevent the re-uptake of norepinephrine and serotonin at nerve terminals, thus potentiating the action of these neurotransmitters. Amitriptyline also appears to antagonize cholinergic and alpha-1 adrenergic responses to bioactive amines.
Thiophenes are aromatic heterocyclic organic compounds containing a five-membered ring with four carbon atoms and one sulfur atom, which are found in various natural substances and synthesized for use in pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals.
Compounds capable of relieving pain without the loss of CONSCIOUSNESS.
The outer covering of the body that protects it from the environment. It is composed of the DERMIS and the EPIDERMIS.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
A condition where damage to the peripheral nervous system (including the peripheral elements of the autonomic nervous system) is associated with chronic ingestion of alcoholic beverages. The disorder may be caused by a direct effect of alcohol, an associated nutritional deficiency, or a combination of factors. Clinical manifestations include variable degrees of weakness; ATROPHY; PARESTHESIAS; pain; loss of reflexes; sensory loss; diaphoresis; and postural hypotension. (From Arch Neurol 1995;52(1):45-51; Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1146)
Neurons which conduct NERVE IMPULSES to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Neurons which activate MUSCLE CELLS.
A group of compounds derived from ammonia by substituting organic radicals for the hydrogens. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Conditions characterized by impaired transmission of impulses at the NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION. This may result from disorders that affect receptor function, pre- or postsynaptic membrane function, or ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE activity. The majority of diseases in this category are associated with autoimmune, toxic, or inherited conditions.
Substances which lower blood glucose levels.
A state in which attention is largely directed outward from the self.
A nicotinic antagonist that has been used as a ganglionic blocker in hypertension, as an adjunct to anesthesia, and to induce hypotension during surgery.
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
Approximate, quantitative reasoning that is concerned with the linguistic ambiguity which exists in natural or synthetic language. At its core are variables such as good, bad, and young as well as modifiers such as more, less, and very. These ordinary terms represent fuzzy sets in a particular problem. Fuzzy logic plays a key role in many medical expert systems.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
Disease involving the femoral nerve. The femoral nerve may be injured by ISCHEMIA (e.g., in association with DIABETIC NEUROPATHIES), nerve compression, trauma, COLLAGEN DISEASES, and other disease processes. Clinical features include MUSCLE WEAKNESS or PARALYSIS of hip flexion and knee extension, ATROPHY of the QUADRICEPS MUSCLE, reduced or absent patellar reflex, and impaired sensation over the anterior and medial thigh.
A disturbance in the prooxidant-antioxidant balance in favor of the former, leading to potential damage. Indicators of oxidative stress include damaged DNA bases, protein oxidation products, and lipid peroxidation products (Sies, Oxidative Stress, 1991, pxv-xvi).
The ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; and SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM taken together. Generally speaking, the autonomic nervous system regulates the internal environment during both peaceful activity and physical or emotional stress. Autonomic activity is controlled and integrated by the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM, especially the HYPOTHALAMUS and the SOLITARY NUCLEUS, which receive information relayed from VISCERAL AFFERENTS.
A maternally linked genetic disorder that presents in mid-life as acute or subacute central vision loss leading to central scotoma and blindness. The disease has been associated with missense mutations in the mtDNA, in genes for Complex I, III, and IV polypeptides, that can act autonomously or in association with each other to cause the disease. (from Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Omim/, MIM#535000 (April 17, 2001))
Diabetes complications in which VENTRICULAR REMODELING in the absence of CORONARY ATHEROSCLEROSIS and hypertension results in cardiac dysfunctions, typically LEFT VENTRICULAR DYSFUNCTION. The changes also result in myocardial hypertrophy, myocardial necrosis and fibrosis, and collagen deposition due to impaired glucose tolerance.
Conditions which produce injury or dysfunction of the second cranial or optic nerve, which is generally considered a component of the central nervous system. Damage to optic nerve fibers may occur at or near their origin in the retina, at the optic disk, or in the nerve, optic chiasm, optic tract, or lateral geniculate nuclei. Clinical manifestations may include decreased visual acuity and contrast sensitivity, impaired color vision, and an afferent pupillary defect.
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
Disease involving the median nerve, from its origin at the BRACHIAL PLEXUS to its termination in the hand. Clinical features include weakness of wrist and finger flexion, forearm pronation, thenar abduction, and loss of sensation over the lateral palm, first three fingers, and radial half of the ring finger. Common sites of injury include the elbow, where the nerve passes through the two heads of the pronator teres muscle (pronator syndrome) and in the carpal tunnel (CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME).
A method of non-invasive, continuous measurement of MICROCIRCULATION. The technique is based on the values of the DOPPLER EFFECT of low-power laser light scattered randomly by static structures and moving tissue particulates.
Disorders of the peripheral nervous system associated with the deposition of AMYLOID in nerve tissue. Familial, primary (nonfamilial), and secondary forms have been described. Some familial subtypes demonstrate an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. Clinical manifestations include sensory loss, mild weakness, autonomic dysfunction, and CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1349)
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
An isomer of glucose that has traditionally been considered to be a B vitamin although it has an uncertain status as a vitamin and a deficiency syndrome has not been identified in man. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p1379) Inositol phospholipids are important in signal transduction.
Recording of the changes in electric potential of muscle by means of surface or needle electrodes.
A heterogenous group of transient or low voltage activated type CALCIUM CHANNELS. They are found in cardiac myocyte membranes, the sinoatrial node, Purkinje cells of the heart and the central nervous system.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Loss of functional activity and trophic degeneration of nerve axons and their terminal arborizations following the destruction of their cells of origin or interruption of their continuity with these cells. The pathology is characteristic of neurodegenerative diseases. Often the process of nerve degeneration is studied in research on neuroanatomical localization and correlation of the neurophysiology of neural pathways.
Type III intermediate filament proteins that assemble into neurofilaments, the major cytoskeletal element in nerve axons and dendrites. They consist of three distinct polypeptides, the neurofilament triplet. Types I, II, and IV intermediate filament proteins form other cytoskeletal elements such as keratins and lamins. It appears that the metabolism of neurofilaments is disturbed in Alzheimer's disease, as indicated by the presence of neurofilament epitopes in the neurofibrillary tangles, as well as by the severe reduction of the expression of the gene for the light neurofilament subunit of the neurofilament triplet in brains of Alzheimer's patients. (Can J Neurol Sci 1990 Aug;17(3):302)
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
Reduced (protonated) form of THIAZOLES. They can be oxidized to THIAZOLIDINEDIONES.
Peripheral AFFERENT NEURONS which are sensitive to injuries or pain, usually caused by extreme thermal exposures, mechanical forces, or other noxious stimuli. Their cell bodies reside in the DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA. Their peripheral terminals (NERVE ENDINGS) innervate target tissues and transduce noxious stimuli via axons to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
An enzyme that catalyzes the active transport system of sodium and potassium ions across the cell wall. Sodium and potassium ions are closely coupled with membrane ATPase which undergoes phosphorylation and dephosphorylation, thereby providing energy for transport of these ions against concentration gradients.
Hereditary conditions that feature progressive visual loss in association with optic atrophy. Relatively common forms include autosomal dominant optic atrophy (OPTIC ATROPHY, AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT) and Leber hereditary optic atrophy (OPTIC ATROPHY, HEREDITARY, LEBER).
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.

Diabetic peripheral neuropathy and quality of life. (1/1279)

The quality of life (QOL) of 79 people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes and 37 non-diabetic controls was assessed using the Nottingham Health Profile (NHP). The NHP consists of six domains assessing energy, sleep, pain, physical mobility, emotional reactions and social isolation. Symptomatic diabetic neuropathy was present in 41 of the patients. The neuropathy patients had significantly higher scores (impaired QOL) in 5/6 NHP domains than either the other diabetic patients (p < 0.01) or the non-diabetic (p < 0.001) controls. These were: emotional reaction, energy, pain, physical mobility and sleep. The diabetic patients without neuropathy also had significantly impaired QOL for 4/6 NHP domains compared with the non-diabetic control group (p < 0.05) (energy, pain, physical mobility and sleep). This quantification of the detrimental effect on QOL of diabetes, and in particular of chronic symptomatic peripheral diabetic neuropathy, emphasizes the need for further research into effective management of these patients.  (+info)

System identification of closed-loop cardiovascular control mechanisms: diabetic autonomic neuropathy. (2/1279)

We applied cardiovascular system identification (CSI) to characterize closed-loop cardiovascular regulation in patients with diabetic autonomic neuropathy (DAN). The CSI method quantitatively analyzes beat-to-beat fluctuations in noninvasively measured heart rate, arterial blood pressure (ABP), and instantaneous lung volume (ILV) to characterize four physiological coupling mechanisms, two of which are autonomically mediated (the heart rate baroreflex and the coupling of respiration, measured in terms of ILV, to heart rate) and two of which are mechanically mediated (the coupling of ventricular contraction to the generation of the ABP wavelet and the coupling of respiration to ABP). We studied 37 control and 60 diabetic subjects who were classified as having minimal, moderate, or severe DAN on the basis of standard autonomic tests. The autonomically mediated couplings progressively decreased with increasing severity of DAN, whereas the mechanically mediated couplings were essentially unchanged. CSI identified differences between the minimal DAN and control groups, which were indistinguishable based on the standard autonomic tests. CSI may provide a powerful tool for assessing DAN.  (+info)

Heterogeneous cardiac sympathetic denervation and decreased myocardial nerve growth factor in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats: implications for cardiac sympathetic dysinnervation complicating diabetes. (3/1279)

Heterogeneous myocardial sympathetic denervation complicating diabetes has been invoked as a factor contributing to sudden unexplained cardiac death. In subjects with diabetic autonomic neuropathy (DAN), distal left ventricular (LV) denervation contrasts with preservation of islands of proximal innervation, which exhibit impaired vascular responsiveness. The aims of this study were to determine whether this heterogeneous pattern of myocardial sympathetic denervation occurs in a rat model of diabetes and to explore a potential association with regional fluctuations in myocardial nerve growth factor (NGF) protein. Myocardial sympathetic denervation was characterized scintigraphically using the sympathetic neurotransmitter analog C-11 hydroxyephedrine ([11C]HED) and compared with regional changes in myocardial NGF protein abundance and norepinephrine content after 6 and 9 months in nondiabetic (ND) and streptozotocin-induced diabetic (STZ-D) rats. In ND rats, no difference in [11C]HED retention or norepinephrine content was detected in the proximal versus distal myocardium. After 6 months, compared with ND rats, myocardial [11C]HED retention had declined in the proximal segments of STZ-D rats by only 9% (NS) compared with a 33% decrease in the distal myocardium (P < 0.05). Myocardial norepinephrine content was similar in both ND and STZ-D rats. At 6 months, LV myocardial NGF protein content in STZ-D rats decreased by 52% in the proximal myocardial segments (P < 0.01 vs. ND rats) and by 82% distally (P < 0.01 vs. ND rats, P < 0.05 vs. proximal segments). By 9 months, [11C]HED retention had declined in both the proximal and distal myocardial segments of the STZ-D rats by 42% (P < 0.01 vs. ND rats), and LV norepinephrine content and NGF protein were decreased in parallel. Therefore, 6 months of STZ-induced diabetes results in heterogeneous cardiac sympathetic denervation in the rat, with maximal denervation occurring distally, and is associated with a proximal-to-distal gradient of LV NGF protein depletion. It is tempting to speculate that regional fluctuations of NGF protein in the diabetic myocardium contribute to heterogeneous cardiac sympathetic denervation complicating diabetes.  (+info)

Noninvasive exploration of cardiac autonomic neuropathy. Four reliable methods for diabetes? (4/1279)

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this work was to assess relevant information that could be provided by various mathematical analyses of spontaneous blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) variabilities in diabetic cardiovascular neuropathy. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: There were 10 healthy volunteers and 11 diabetic subjects included in the study. Diabetic patients were selected for nonsymptomatic orthostatic hypotension in an assessment of their cardiovascular autonomic impairment. Cardiac autonomic function was scored according to Ewing's methodology adapted to the use of a Finapres device. The spontaneous beat-to-beat BP and HR variabilities were then analyzed on a 1-h recording in supine subjects. The global variabilities were assessed by standard deviation, fractal dimension, and spectral power. The cardiac baroreflex function was estimated by cross-spectral sequences and Z analyses. RESULTS: In diabetic patients, Ewing's scores ranged from 1 to 4.5, confirming cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction. In these diabetic patients, global indices of variabilities were consistently lower than in healthy subjects. Furthermore, some of them (standard deviation and fractal dimension of HR, spectral power of systolic blood pressure and HR) were significantly correlated with the Ewing's scores. The Z methods and the spectral analysis found that the cardiac baroreflex was less effective in diabetic subjects. However, the baroreflex sensitivity could not be reliably assessed in all the patients. The sequence method pointed out a decreased number of baroreflex sequences in diabetic subjects that was correlated to the Ewing's score. CONCLUSIONS: Indices of HR spontaneous beat-to-beat variability are consistently related to the degree of cardiac autonomic dysfunction, according to Ewing's methodology. The Z method and spectral analysis confirmed that the cardiac baroreflex was impaired in diabetic patients. These methods might be clinically relevant for use in detecting incipient neuropathy in diabetic patients.  (+info)

Skin collagen glycation, glycoxidation, and crosslinking are lower in subjects with long-term intensive versus conventional therapy of type 1 diabetes: relevance of glycated collagen products versus HbA1c as markers of diabetic complications. DCCT Skin Collagen Ancillary Study Group. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. (5/1279)

The relationships between long-term intensive control of glycemia and indicators of skin collagen glycation (furosine), glycoxidation (pentosidine and N(epsilon)-[carboxymethyl]-lysine [CML]), and crosslinking (acid and pepsin solubility) were examined in 216 patients with type 1 diabetes from the primary prevention and secondary intervention cohorts of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. By comparison with conventional treatment, 5 years of intensive treatment was associated with 30-32% lower furosine, 9% lower pentosidine, 9-13% lower CML, 24% higher acid-soluble collagen, and 50% higher pepsin-soluble collagen. All of these differences were statistically significant in the subjects of the primary prevention cohort (P < 0.006-0.001) and also of the secondary intervention cohort (P < 0.015-0.001) with the exception of CML and acid-soluble collagen. Age- and duration-adjusted collagen variables were significantly associated with the HbA1c value nearest the biopsy and with cumulative prior HbA1c values. Multiple logistic regression analyses with six nonredundant collagen parameters as independent variables and various expressions of retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy outcomes as dependent variables showed that the complications were significantly associated with the full set of collagen variables. Surprisingly, the percentage of total variance (R2) in complications explained by the collagen variables ranged from 19 to 36% with the intensive treatment and from 14 to 51% with conventional treatment. These associations generally remained significant even after adjustment for HbA1c, and, most unexpectedly, in conventionally treated subjects, glycated collagen was the parameter most consistently associated with diabetic complications. Continued monitoring of these subjects may determine whether glycation products in the skin, and especially the early Amadori product (furosine), have the potential to be predictors of the future risk of developing complications, and perhaps be even better predictors than glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c).  (+info)

Aberrant neurofilament phosphorylation in sensory neurons of rats with diabetic neuropathy. (6/1279)

Aberrant neurofilament phosphorylation occurs in many neurodegenerative diseases, and in this study, two animal models of type 1 diabetes--the spontaneously diabetic BB rat and the streptozocin-induced diabetic rat--have been used to determine whether such a phenomenon is involved in the etiology of the symmetrical sensory polyneuropathy commonly associated with diabetes. There was a two- to threefold (P < 0.05) elevation of neurofilament phosphorylation in lumbar dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of diabetic rats that was localized to perikarya of medium to large neurons using immunocytochemistry. Additionally, diabetes enhanced neurofilament M phosphorylation by 2.5-fold (P < 0.001) in sural nerve of BB rats. Neurofilaments are substrates of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) family, which includes c-jun NH2-terminal kinase (JNK) or stress-activated protein kinase (SAPK1) and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs) 1 and 2. Diabetes induced a significant three- to fourfold (P < 0.05) increase in phosphorylation of a 54-kDa isoform of JNK in DRG and sural nerve, and this correlated with elevated c-Jun and neurofilament phosphorylation. In diabetes, ERK phosphorylation was also increased in the DRG, but not in sural nerve. Immunocytochemistry showed that JNK was present in sensory neuron perikarya and axons. Motoneuron perikarya and peroneal nerve of diabetic rats showed no evidence of increased neurofilament phosphorylation and failed to exhibit phosphorylation of JNK. It is hypothesized that in sensory neurons of diabetic rats, aberrant phosphorylation of neurofilament may contribute to the distal sensory axonopathy observed in diabetes.  (+info)

Possible sources of discrepancies in the use of the Semmes-Weinstein monofilament. Impact on prevalence of insensate foot and workload requirements. (7/1279)

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of different testing sites and buckling strengths on the sensitivity and specificity of using the Semmes-Weinstein monofilament to detect patients with insensate foot. The impact on workload required to educate and follow up these high-risk individuals was estimated by modeling in our patient population with a documented status of neuropathy. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Using the 5.07/10-g monofilament, one observer tested 132 randomly selected subjects with diabetes at five sites on the right foot. The sensitivity and specificity of each site and combinations of sites in detecting vibration perception threshold > 40 was calculated. In addition, two monofilaments, one with a buckling force of 5 g and the other with a force of 15 g, were compared by testing 200 randomly selected patients. An estimate of the prevalence of insensate foot and workload was made by modeling the findings to the 5,270 patients with neuropathy status registered on our computerized database. RESULTS: Specificity of the 5.07/10-g monofilament to detect insensate foot at each of the five sites is high, at approximately 90%, but there is considerably more variation and lower sensitivity, ranging from 44-71%. Data derived from the use of different combinations of sites showed that more stringent criteria are associated with lower sensitivity but higher specificity. If the foot is considered insensate when either of sites 3 and 4 (plantar aspect of the first and fifth metatarsal heads, respectively) cannot feel the monofilament, there is reasonable sensitivity and specificity (80-86%, respectively). By modeling on our diabetes center population, it can be demonstrated that the choice of different methodologies leads to different conclusions about the prevalence of severe neuropathy, ranging from 3.4 to 29.3%. CONCLUSIONS: Using a combination of sites 3 and 4 for monofilament testing gives a reasonable compromise for time, sensitivity, and specificity. Minor changes in sensitivity and specificity can lead to major changes in the prevalence of neuropathy, with implications for workload.  (+info)

Antinociceptive effect of Gosha-jinki-gan, a Kampo medicine, in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. (8/1279)

We evaluated the antinociceptive effect of Gosha-jinki-gan, a Kampo medicine including processed Aconiti tuber, and its mechanism in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice. Gosha-jinki-gan (0.1-1.0 g/kg, p.o.) showed a more potent antinociceptive effect in diabetic mice than in non-diabetic mice. The antinociceptive effect of Gosha-jinki-gan (0.3 g/kg, p.o.) in diabetic mice was inhibited by administration of either anti-dynorphin antiserum (5 microg, i.t.) or nor-binaltorphimine (10 mg/kg, s.c.), a kappa-opioid antagonist. The antinociceptive activity of Gosha-jinki-gan (0.3, 1.0 g/kg, p.o.) was decreased by excluding processed Aconiti tuber. Furthermore, the antinociceptive effect of processed Aconiti tuber (0.03, 0.1 g/kg, p.o.) was also shown to be enhanced in diabetic mice. These results suggest that the increased antinociceptive effect of Gosha-jinki-gan in diabetic mice is partly derived from the action of processed Aconiti tuber and that it is based on stimulation of spinal kappa-opioid receptors via dynorphin release. Gosha-jinki-gan was considered useful for treating painful diabetic neuropathy.  (+info)

Diabetic neuropathies refer to a group of nerve disorders that are caused by diabetes. High blood sugar levels can injure nerves throughout the body, but diabetic neuropathies most commonly affect the nerves in the legs and feet.

There are four main types of diabetic neuropathies:

1. Peripheral neuropathy: This is the most common type of diabetic neuropathy. It affects the nerves in the legs and feet, causing symptoms such as numbness, tingling, burning, or shooting pain.
2. Autonomic neuropathy: This type of neuropathy affects the autonomic nerves, which control involuntary functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and bladder function. Symptoms may include dizziness, fainting, digestive problems, sexual dysfunction, and difficulty regulating body temperature.
3. Proximal neuropathy: Also known as diabetic amyotrophy, this type of neuropathy affects the nerves in the hips, thighs, or buttocks, causing weakness, pain, and difficulty walking.
4. Focal neuropathy: This type of neuropathy affects a single nerve or group of nerves, causing symptoms such as weakness, numbness, or pain in the affected area. Focal neuropathies can occur anywhere in the body, but they are most common in the head, torso, and legs.

The risk of developing diabetic neuropathies increases with the duration of diabetes and poor blood sugar control. Other factors that may contribute to the development of diabetic neuropathies include genetics, age, smoking, and alcohol consumption.

Neural conduction is the process by which electrical signals, known as action potentials, are transmitted along the axon of a neuron (nerve cell) to transmit information between different parts of the nervous system. This electrical impulse is generated by the movement of ions across the neuronal membrane, and it propagates down the length of the axon until it reaches the synapse, where it can then stimulate the release of neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons or target cells. The speed of neural conduction can vary depending on factors such as the diameter of the axon, the presence of myelin sheaths (which act as insulation and allow for faster conduction), and the temperature of the environment.

I couldn't find a medical definition specifically for "Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental." However, I can provide you with information about experimental diabetes research and its relevance to understanding the disease.

Experimental diabetes models are used in biomedical research to study the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus and to test potential therapies or treatments. These models can be broadly categorized into two types: chemically-induced and genetically modified.

1. Chemically-induced diabetes models: These involve administering chemicals, such as alloxan or streptozotocin, to animals (commonly mice or rats) to destroy their pancreatic β-cells, which produce insulin. This results in hyperglycemia and symptoms similar to those seen in type 1 diabetes in humans.
2. Genetically modified diabetes models: These involve altering the genes of animals (commonly mice) to create a diabetes phenotype. Examples include non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, which develop an autoimmune form of diabetes similar to human type 1 diabetes, and various strains of obese mice with insulin resistance, such as ob/ob or db/db mice, which model aspects of type 2 diabetes.

These experimental models help researchers better understand the mechanisms behind diabetes development and progression, identify new therapeutic targets, and test potential treatments before moving on to human clinical trials. However, it's essential to recognize that these models may not fully replicate all aspects of human diabetes, so findings from animal studies should be interpreted with caution.

The sural nerve is a purely sensory peripheral nerve in the lower leg and foot. It provides sensation to the outer ( lateral) aspect of the little toe and the adjacent side of the fourth toe, as well as a small portion of the skin on the back of the leg between the ankle and knee joints.

The sural nerve is formed by the union of branches from the tibial and common fibular nerves (branches of the sciatic nerve) in the lower leg. It runs down the calf, behind the lateral malleolus (the bony prominence on the outside of the ankle), and into the foot.

The sural nerve is often used as a donor nerve during nerve grafting procedures due to its consistent anatomy and relatively low risk for morbidity at the donor site.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) diseases, also known as Peripheral Neuropathies, refer to conditions that affect the functioning of the peripheral nervous system, which includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. These nerves transmit signals between the central nervous system (CNS) and the rest of the body, controlling sensations, movements, and automatic functions such as heart rate and digestion.

PNS diseases can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, toxins, metabolic disorders, trauma, or autoimmune conditions. The symptoms of PNS diseases depend on the type and extent of nerve damage but often include:

1. Numbness, tingling, or pain in the hands and feet
2. Muscle weakness or cramps
3. Loss of reflexes
4. Decreased sensation to touch, temperature, or vibration
5. Coordination problems and difficulty with balance
6. Sexual dysfunction
7. Digestive issues, such as constipation or diarrhea
8. Dizziness or fainting due to changes in blood pressure

Examples of PNS diseases include Guillain-Barre syndrome, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease, diabetic neuropathy, and peripheral nerve injuries. Treatment for these conditions varies depending on the underlying cause but may involve medications, physical therapy, lifestyle changes, or surgery.

The sciatic nerve is the largest and longest nerve in the human body, running from the lower back through the buttocks and down the legs to the feet. It is formed by the union of the ventral rami (branches) of the L4 to S3 spinal nerves. The sciatic nerve provides motor and sensory innervation to various muscles and skin areas in the lower limbs, including the hamstrings, calf muscles, and the sole of the foot. Sciatic nerve disorders or injuries can result in symptoms such as pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness in the lower back, hips, legs, and feet, known as sciatica.

Diabetic retinopathy is a diabetes complication that affects the eyes. It's caused by damage to the blood vessels of the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye (retina).

At first, diabetic retinopathy may cause no symptoms or only mild vision problems. Eventually, it can cause blindness. The condition usually affects both eyes.

There are two main stages of diabetic retinopathy:

1. Early diabetic retinopathy. This is when the blood vessels in the eye start to leak fluid or bleed. You might not notice any changes in your vision at this stage, but it's still important to get treatment because it can prevent the condition from getting worse.
2. Advanced diabetic retinopathy. This is when new, abnormal blood vessels grow on the surface of the retina. These vessels can leak fluid and cause severe vision problems, including blindness.

Diabetic retinopathy can be treated with laser surgery, injections of medication into the eye, or a vitrectomy (a surgical procedure to remove the gel-like substance that fills the center of the eye). It's important to get regular eye exams to detect diabetic retinopathy early and get treatment before it causes serious vision problems.

Diabetic nephropathy is a kidney disease that occurs as a complication of diabetes. It is also known as diabetic kidney disease (DKD). This condition affects the ability of the kidneys to filter waste and excess fluids from the blood, leading to their accumulation in the body.

Diabetic nephropathy is caused by damage to the small blood vessels in the kidneys, which can occur over time due to high levels of glucose in the blood. This damage can lead to scarring and thickening of the kidney's filtering membranes, reducing their ability to function properly.

Symptoms of diabetic nephropathy may include proteinuria (the presence of protein in the urine), edema (swelling in the legs, ankles, or feet due to fluid retention), and hypertension (high blood pressure). Over time, if left untreated, diabetic nephropathy can progress to end-stage kidney disease, which requires dialysis or a kidney transplant.

Preventing or delaying the onset of diabetic nephropathy involves maintaining good control of blood sugar levels, keeping blood pressure under control, and making lifestyle changes such as quitting smoking, eating a healthy diet, and getting regular exercise. Regular monitoring of kidney function through urine tests and blood tests is also important for early detection and treatment of this condition.

The term "diabetic foot" refers to a condition that affects the feet of people with diabetes, particularly when the disease is not well-controlled. It is characterized by a combination of nerve damage (neuropathy) and poor circulation (peripheral artery disease) in the feet and lower legs.

Neuropathy can cause numbness, tingling, or pain in the feet, making it difficult for people with diabetes to feel injuries, cuts, blisters, or other foot problems. Poor circulation makes it harder for wounds to heal and increases the risk of infection.

Diabetic foot ulcers are a common complication of diabetic neuropathy and can lead to serious infections, hospitalization, and even amputation if not treated promptly and effectively. Preventive care, including regular foot exams, proper footwear, and good blood glucose control, is essential for people with diabetes to prevent or manage diabetic foot problems.

"Vasa nervorum" is a term used in anatomical and medical contexts to refer to the blood vessels that supply nerves with oxygen and nutrients. The term comes from Latin, where "vasa" means "vessels" or "ducts," and "nervorum" refers to "of the nerves."

These tiny blood vessels run within the nerve fascicles, which are bundles of nerve fibers surrounded by a layer of connective tissue. The vasa nervorum supply the nerve fibers, the supporting cells (such as Schwann cells), and the surrounding connective tissues with oxygen and nutrients. They also help remove waste products generated by normal cellular metabolism.

The health and functionality of the vasa nervorum are crucial for maintaining proper nerve function. Conditions that affect blood flow in these vessels, such as vasculitis or diabetes, can lead to nerve damage and various neurological disorders.

Streptozocin is an antibiotic and antineoplastic agent, which is primarily used in the treatment of metastatic pancreatic islet cell carcinoma (a type of pancreatic cancer). It is a naturally occurring compound produced by the bacterium Streptomyces achromogenes.

Medically, streptozocin is classified as an alkylating agent due to its ability to interact with DNA and RNA, disrupting the growth and multiplication of malignant cells. However, it can also have adverse effects on non-cancerous cells, particularly in the kidneys and pancreas, leading to potential side effects such as nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) and hyperglycemia (high blood sugar).

It is essential that streptozocin be administered under the supervision of a healthcare professional, who can monitor its effectiveness and potential side effects. The drug is typically given through intravenous infusion, with the dosage and duration tailored to individual patient needs and treatment responses.

Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to an absolute deficiency of insulin. This results in an inability to regulate blood glucose levels, causing hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). Type 1 diabetes typically presents in childhood or early adulthood, although it can develop at any age. It is usually managed with regular insulin injections or the use of an insulin pump, along with monitoring of blood glucose levels and adjustments to diet and physical activity. Uncontrolled type 1 diabetes can lead to serious complications such as kidney damage, nerve damage, blindness, and cardiovascular disease.

Peripheral nerves are nerve fibers that transmit signals between the central nervous system (CNS, consisting of the brain and spinal cord) and the rest of the body. These nerves convey motor, sensory, and autonomic information, enabling us to move, feel, and respond to changes in our environment. They form a complex network that extends from the CNS to muscles, glands, skin, and internal organs, allowing for coordinated responses and functions throughout the body. Damage or injury to peripheral nerves can result in various neurological symptoms, such as numbness, weakness, or pain, depending on the type and severity of the damage.

Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose (or sugar) levels resulting from the body's inability to produce sufficient amounts of insulin or effectively use the insulin it produces. This form of diabetes usually develops gradually over several years and is often associated with older age, obesity, physical inactivity, family history of diabetes, and certain ethnicities.

In Type 2 diabetes, the body's cells become resistant to insulin, meaning they don't respond properly to the hormone. As a result, the pancreas produces more insulin to help glucose enter the cells. Over time, the pancreas can't keep up with the increased demand, leading to high blood glucose levels and diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes is managed through lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, regular exercise, and a healthy diet. Medications, including insulin therapy, may also be necessary to control blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications associated with the disease, such as heart disease, nerve damage, kidney damage, and vision loss.

Polyneuropathy is a medical condition that refers to the damage or dysfunction of peripheral nerves (nerves outside the brain and spinal cord) in multiple areas of the body. These nerves are responsible for transmitting sensory, motor, and autonomic signals between the central nervous system and the rest of the body.

In polyneuropathies, this communication is disrupted, leading to various symptoms depending on the type and extent of nerve damage. Commonly reported symptoms include:

1. Numbness or tingling in the hands and feet
2. Muscle weakness and cramps
3. Loss of reflexes
4. Burning or stabbing pain
5. Balance and coordination issues
6. Increased sensitivity to touch
7. Autonomic dysfunction, such as bowel, bladder, or digestive problems, and changes in blood pressure

Polyneuropathies can be caused by various factors, including diabetes, alcohol abuse, nutritional deficiencies, autoimmune disorders, infections, toxins, inherited genetic conditions, or idiopathic (unknown) causes. The treatment for polyneuropathy depends on the underlying cause and may involve managing underlying medical conditions, physical therapy, pain management, and lifestyle modifications.

Rhodanine is not a medical term itself, but it is a chemical compound with the formula R-SC(=S)NH-C(=O)NH-R', where R and R' are organic groups. It is used in the synthesis of certain types of chelating agents, which are compounds that can form stable complexes with metal ions.

In a medical context, rhodanine derivatives have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications, particularly as antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory agents. For example, some rhodanine derivatives have shown activity against bacteria, fungi, and parasites, including those that are resistant to other antibiotics.

However, it is important to note that while rhodanine itself has potential therapeutic applications, most of the research in this area focuses on its derivatives rather than the compound itself. Therefore, any medical definition would more accurately refer to specific rhodanine derivatives and their uses, rather than the compound itself.

Hereditary Sensory and Motor Neuropathy (HSMN) is a group of inherited disorders that affect the peripheral nerves, which are the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. These nerves transmit information between the brain and muscles, as well as sensations such as touch, pain, heat, and cold.

HSMN is characterized by progressive degeneration of these peripheral nerves, leading to muscle weakness, numbness, and tingling sensations, particularly in the hands and feet. The condition can also affect the autonomic nervous system, which controls involuntary functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.

HSMN is caused by genetic mutations that are inherited from one or both parents. There are several types of HSMN, each with its own specific symptoms, severity, and pattern of inheritance. The most common form is Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT), which affects both motor and sensory nerves.

Treatment for HSMN typically focuses on managing the symptoms and preventing complications. This may include physical therapy, bracing or orthopedic surgery to support weakened muscles, pain management, and lifestyle modifications such as avoiding activities that aggravate symptoms. There is currently no cure for HSMN, but ongoing research is aimed at developing new treatments and therapies to slow or halt the progression of the disease.

Aldehyde reductase is an enzyme that belongs to the family of alcohol dehydrogenases. Its primary function is to catalyze the reduction of a wide variety of aldehydes into their corresponding alcohols, using NADPH as a cofactor. This enzyme plays a crucial role in the detoxification of aldehydes generated from various metabolic processes, such as lipid peroxidation and alcohol metabolism. It is widely distributed in different tissues, including the liver, kidney, and brain. In addition to its detoxifying function, aldehyde reductase has been implicated in several physiological and pathophysiological processes, such as neuroprotection, cancer, and diabetes.

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a part of the nervous system that controls involuntary actions, such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. It consists of two subdivisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which generally have opposing effects and maintain homeostasis in the body.

Autonomic Nervous System Diseases (also known as Autonomic Disorders or Autonomic Neuropathies) refer to a group of conditions that affect the functioning of the autonomic nervous system. These diseases can cause damage to the nerves that control automatic functions, leading to various symptoms and complications.

Autonomic Nervous System Diseases can be classified into two main categories:

1. Primary Autonomic Nervous System Disorders: These are conditions that primarily affect the autonomic nervous system without any underlying cause. Examples include:
* Pure Autonomic Failure (PAF): A rare disorder characterized by progressive loss of autonomic nerve function, leading to symptoms such as orthostatic hypotension, urinary retention, and constipation.
* Multiple System Atrophy (MSA): A degenerative neurological disorder that affects both the autonomic nervous system and movement coordination. Symptoms may include orthostatic hypotension, urinary incontinence, sexual dysfunction, and Parkinsonian features like stiffness and slowness of movements.
* Autonomic Neuropathy associated with Parkinson's Disease: Some individuals with Parkinson's disease develop autonomic symptoms such as orthostatic hypotension, constipation, and urinary dysfunction due to the degeneration of autonomic nerves.
2. Secondary Autonomic Nervous System Disorders: These are conditions that affect the autonomic nervous system as a result of an underlying cause or disease. Examples include:
* Diabetic Autonomic Neuropathy: A complication of diabetes mellitus that affects the autonomic nerves, leading to symptoms such as orthostatic hypotension, gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying), and sexual dysfunction.
* Autoimmune-mediated Autonomic Neuropathies: Conditions like Guillain-Barré syndrome or autoimmune autonomic ganglionopathy can cause autonomic symptoms due to the immune system attacking the autonomic nerves.
* Infectious Autonomic Neuropathies: Certain infections, such as HIV or Lyme disease, can lead to autonomic dysfunction as a result of nerve damage.
* Toxin-induced Autonomic Neuropathy: Exposure to certain toxins, like heavy metals or organophosphate pesticides, can cause autonomic neuropathy.

Autonomic nervous system disorders can significantly impact a person's quality of life and daily functioning. Proper diagnosis and management are crucial for improving symptoms and preventing complications. Treatment options may include lifestyle modifications, medications, and in some cases, devices or surgical interventions.

Diabetic angiopathies refer to a group of vascular complications that occur due to diabetes mellitus. Prolonged exposure to high blood sugar levels can damage the blood vessels, leading to various types of angiopathies such as:

1. Diabetic retinopathy: This is a condition where the small blood vessels in the retina get damaged due to diabetes, leading to vision loss or blindness if left untreated.
2. Diabetic nephropathy: In this condition, the kidneys' glomeruli (the filtering units) become damaged due to diabetes, leading to protein leakage and eventually kidney failure if not managed properly.
3. Diabetic neuropathy: This is a type of nerve damage caused by diabetes that can affect various parts of the body, including the legs, feet, and hands, causing numbness, tingling, or pain.
4. Diabetic cardiomyopathy: This is a condition where the heart muscle becomes damaged due to diabetes, leading to heart failure.
5. Diabetic peripheral arterial disease (PAD): In this condition, the blood vessels that supply the legs and feet become narrowed or blocked due to diabetes, leading to pain, cramping, or even gangrene in severe cases.

Overall, diabetic angiopathies are serious complications of diabetes that can significantly impact a person's quality of life and overall health. Therefore, it is crucial for individuals with diabetes to manage their blood sugar levels effectively and undergo regular check-ups to detect any early signs of these complications.

Spinal ganglia, also known as dorsal root ganglia, are clusters of nerve cell bodies located in the peripheral nervous system. They are situated along the length of the spinal cord and are responsible for transmitting sensory information from the body to the brain. Each spinal ganglion contains numerous neurons, or nerve cells, with long processes called axons that extend into the periphery and innervate various tissues and organs. The cell bodies within the spinal ganglia receive sensory input from these axons and transmit this information to the central nervous system via the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves. This allows the brain to interpret and respond to a wide range of sensory stimuli, including touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (the sense of the position and movement of one's body).

A foot ulcer is a wound or sore on the foot that occurs most commonly in people with diabetes, but can also affect other individuals with poor circulation or nerve damage. These ulcers can be challenging to heal and are prone to infection, making it essential for individuals with foot ulcers to seek medical attention promptly.

Foot ulcers typically develop due to prolonged pressure on bony prominences of the foot, leading to breakdown of the skin and underlying tissues. The development of foot ulcers can be attributed to several factors, including:

1. Neuropathy (nerve damage): This condition causes a loss of sensation in the feet, making it difficult for individuals to feel pain or discomfort associated with pressure points, leading to the formation of ulcers.
2. Peripheral artery disease (PAD): Reduced blood flow to the lower extremities can impair wound healing and make the body more susceptible to infection.
3. Deformities: Structural foot abnormalities, such as bunions or hammertoes, can cause increased pressure on specific areas of the foot, increasing the risk of ulcer formation.
4. Poorly fitting shoes: Shoes that are too tight, narrow, or ill-fitting can create friction and pressure points, contributing to the development of foot ulcers.
5. Trauma: Injuries or trauma to the feet can lead to the formation of ulcers, particularly in individuals with neuropathy who may not feel the initial pain associated with the injury.
6. Foot care neglect: Failure to inspect and care for the feet regularly can result in undetected wounds or sores that progress into ulcers.

Foot ulcers are classified based on their depth, severity, and extent of tissue involvement. Proper assessment, treatment, and prevention strategies are crucial in managing foot ulcers and minimizing the risk of complications such as infection, gangrene, and amputation.

Nerve fibers are specialized structures that constitute the long, slender processes (axons) of neurons (nerve cells). They are responsible for conducting electrical impulses, known as action potentials, away from the cell body and transmitting them to other neurons or effector organs such as muscles and glands. Nerve fibers are often surrounded by supportive cells called glial cells and are grouped together to form nerve bundles or nerves. These fibers can be myelinated (covered with a fatty insulating sheath called myelin) or unmyelinated, which influences the speed of impulse transmission.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Rats, Inbred BB" is not a widely recognized medical term or abbreviation in human or veterinary medicine. The term "inbred" is used in genetics to describe an organism that has resulted from many generations of mating between closely related individuals, which can lead to a higher incidence of homozygosity (the same allele inherited from both parents) and expression of recessive traits.

The "BB" strain could refer to a specific inbred rat strain, but without more context, it's difficult to provide a precise definition. The BB Wistar rat strain is sometimes used in research, and it has been used as a model for studying various medical conditions such as diabetes and hypertension.

If you are looking for information about a specific scientific study or medical condition related to an "Inbred BB" rat strain, I would be happy to help you if you could provide more context or details.

Sorbitol is a type of sugar alcohol used as a sweetener in food and drinks, with about half the calories of table sugar. In a medical context, sorbitol is often used as a laxative to treat constipation, or as a sugar substitute for people with diabetes. It's also used as a bulk sweetener and humectant (a substance that helps retain moisture) in various pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.

When consumed in large amounts, sorbitol can have a laxative effect because it's not fully absorbed by the body and draws water into the intestines, which can lead to diarrhea. It's important for people with certain digestive disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome or fructose intolerance, to avoid sorbitol and other sugar alcohols, as they can cause gastrointestinal symptoms like bloating, gas, and diarrhea.

Hereditary Sensory and Autonomic Neuropathies (HSANs) are a group of inherited disorders that affect the sensory and autonomic nerves. These nerves are responsible for transmitting information about senses such as touch, pain, temperature, and vibration to the brain, as well as controlling automatic functions like blood pressure, heart rate, and digestion.

HSANs are caused by genetic mutations that result in damage to the peripheral nerves. There are several types of HSANs, each with its own specific symptoms and patterns of inheritance. Some common features include:

* Loss of sensation in the hands and feet
* Pain insensitivity
* Absent or reduced reflexes
* Autonomic dysfunction, such as abnormal sweating, blood pressure regulation, and digestive problems

The severity and progression of HSANs can vary widely depending on the specific type and individual factors. Treatment is generally focused on managing symptoms and preventing complications, such as injuries from lack of pain sensation or falls due to balance problems. Early diagnosis and intervention are important for optimizing outcomes.

The Peroneal nerve, also known as the common fibular nerve, is a branch of the sciatic nerve that supplies the muscles of the lower leg and provides sensation to the skin on the outer part of the lower leg and the top of the foot. It winds around the neck of the fibula (calf bone) and can be vulnerable to injury in this area, leading to symptoms such as weakness or numbness in the foot and leg.

In medical terms, the foot is the part of the lower limb that is distal to the leg and below the ankle, extending from the tarsus to the toes. It is primarily responsible for supporting body weight and facilitating movement through push-off during walking or running. The foot is a complex structure made up of 26 bones, 33 joints, and numerous muscles, tendons, ligaments, and nerves that work together to provide stability, balance, and flexibility. It can be divided into three main parts: the hindfoot, which contains the talus and calcaneus (heel) bones; the midfoot, which includes the navicular, cuboid, and cuneiform bones; and the forefoot, which consists of the metatarsals and phalanges that form the toes.

Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.

The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.

Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.

Ischemic optic neuropathy (ION) is a medical condition that refers to the damage or death of the optic nerve due to insufficient blood supply. The optic nerve is responsible for transmitting visual information from the eye to the brain.

In ION, the blood vessels that supply the optic nerve become blocked or narrowed, leading to decreased blood flow and oxygen delivery to the nerve fibers. This results in inflammation, swelling, and ultimately, damage to the optic nerve. The damage can cause sudden, painless vision loss, often noticed upon waking up in the morning.

There are two types of ION: anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION) and posterior ischemic optic neuropathy (PION). AION affects the front part of the optic nerve, while PION affects the back part of the nerve. AION is further classified into arteritic and non-arteritic types, depending on whether it is caused by giant cell arteritis or not.

Risk factors for ION include age (most commonly occurring in people over 50), hypertension, diabetes, smoking, sleep apnea, and other cardiovascular diseases. Treatment options depend on the type and cause of ION and may include controlling underlying medical conditions, administering corticosteroids, or undergoing surgical procedures to improve blood flow.

The Tibial nerve is a major branch of the sciatic nerve that originates in the lower back and runs through the buttock and leg. It provides motor (nerve impulses that control muscle movement) and sensory (nerve impulses that convey information about touch, temperature, and pain) innervation to several muscles and skin regions in the lower limb.

More specifically, the Tibial nerve supplies the following structures:

1. Motor Innervation: The Tibial nerve provides motor innervation to the muscles in the back of the leg (posterior compartment), including the calf muscles (gastrocnemius and soleus) and the small muscles in the foot (intrinsic muscles). These muscles are responsible for plantarflexion (pointing the foot downward) and inversion (turning the foot inward) of the foot.
2. Sensory Innervation: The Tibial nerve provides sensory innervation to the skin on the sole of the foot, as well as the heel and some parts of the lower leg.

The Tibial nerve travels down the leg, passing behind the knee and through the calf, where it eventually joins with the common fibular (peroneal) nerve to form the tibial-fibular trunk. This trunk then divides into several smaller nerves that innervate the foot's intrinsic muscles and skin.

Damage or injury to the Tibial nerve can result in various symptoms, such as weakness or paralysis of the calf and foot muscles, numbness or tingling sensations in the sole of the foot, and difficulty walking or standing on tiptoes.

Hyperglycemia is a medical term that refers to an abnormally high level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Fasting hyperglycemia is defined as a fasting blood glucose level greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter) on two separate occasions. Alternatively, a random blood glucose level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL in combination with symptoms of hyperglycemia (such as increased thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, and fatigue) can also indicate hyperglycemia.

Hyperglycemia is often associated with diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels due to insulin resistance or insufficient insulin production. However, hyperglycemia can also occur in other conditions such as stress, surgery, infection, certain medications, and hormonal imbalances.

Prolonged or untreated hyperglycemia can lead to serious complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), and long-term damage to various organs such as the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and blood vessels. Therefore, it is essential to monitor blood glucose levels regularly and maintain them within normal ranges through proper diet, exercise, medication, and lifestyle modifications.

Neurological diagnostic techniques are medical tests and examinations used to identify and diagnose conditions related to the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles. These techniques can be divided into several categories:

1. Clinical Examination: A thorough physical examination, including a neurological evaluation, is often the first step in diagnosing neurological conditions. This may involve assessing a person's mental status, muscle strength, coordination, reflexes, sensation, and gait.

2. Imaging Techniques: These are used to produce detailed images of the brain and nervous system. Common imaging techniques include:

- Computed Tomography (CT): This uses X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain and other parts of the body.
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): This uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain and other internal structures.
- Functional MRI (fMRI): This is a type of MRI that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
- Positron Emission Tomography (PET): This uses small amounts of radioactive material to produce detailed images of brain function.
- Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT): This is a type of nuclear medicine imaging that uses a gamma camera and a computer to produce detailed images of brain function.

3. Electrophysiological Tests: These are used to measure the electrical activity of the brain and nervous system. Common electrophysiological tests include:

- Electroencephalography (EEG): This measures the electrical activity of the brain.
- Evoked Potentials (EPs): These measure the electrical response of the brain and nervous system to sensory stimuli, such as sound or light.
- Nerve Conduction Studies (NCS): These measure the speed and strength of nerve impulses.
- Electromyography (EMG): This measures the electrical activity of muscles.

4. Laboratory Tests: These are used to analyze blood, cerebrospinal fluid, and other bodily fluids for signs of neurological conditions. Common laboratory tests include:

- Complete Blood Count (CBC): This measures the number and type of white and red blood cells in the body.
- Blood Chemistry Tests: These measure the levels of various chemicals in the blood.
- Lumbar Puncture (Spinal Tap): This is used to collect cerebrospinal fluid for analysis.
- Genetic Testing: This is used to identify genetic mutations associated with neurological conditions.

5. Imaging Studies: These are used to produce detailed images of the brain and nervous system. Common imaging studies include:

- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): This uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to produce detailed images of the brain and nervous system.
- Computed Tomography (CT): This uses X-rays to produce detailed images of the brain and nervous system.
- Functional MRI (fMRI): This measures changes in blood flow in the brain during cognitive tasks.
- Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): This is used to assess white matter integrity in the brain.
- Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS): This is used to measure chemical levels in the brain.

Electrodiagnosis, also known as electromyography (EMG), is a medical diagnostic procedure that evaluates the health and function of muscles and nerves. It measures the electrical activity of skeletal muscles at rest and during contraction, as well as the conduction of electrical signals along nerves.

The test involves inserting a thin needle electrode into the muscle to record its electrical activity. The physician will ask the patient to contract and relax the muscle while the electrical activity is recorded. The resulting data can help diagnose various neuromuscular disorders, such as nerve damage or muscle diseases, by identifying abnormalities in the electrical signals.

Electrodiagnosis can be used to diagnose conditions such as carpal tunnel syndrome, peripheral neuropathy, muscular dystrophy, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), among others. It is a valuable tool in the diagnosis and management of neuromuscular disorders, helping physicians to develop appropriate treatment plans for their patients.

Thioctic acid is also known as alpha-lipoic acid. It is a vitamin-like chemical compound that is made naturally in the body and is found in small amounts in some foods like spinach, broccoli, and potatoes. Thioctic acid is an antioxidant that helps to protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. It also plays a role in energy production in the cells and has been studied for its potential benefits in the treatment of diabetes and nerve-related symptoms of diabetes such as pain, burning, itching, and numbness. Thioctic acid is available as a dietary supplement.

Medical Definition: Thioctic acid (also known as alpha-lipoic acid) is a vitamin-like antioxidant that is made naturally in the body and is found in small amounts in some foods. It plays a role in energy production in the cells, and has been studied for its potential benefits in the treatment of diabetes and nerve-related symptoms of diabetes such as pain, burning, itching, and numbness. Thioctic acid is also available as a dietary supplement.

Neuralgia is a type of pain that occurs along the pathway of a nerve, often caused by damage or irritation to the nerve. It is typically described as a sharp, stabbing, burning, or electric-shock like pain that can be severe and debilitating. Neuralgia can affect any nerve in the body, but it most commonly occurs in the facial area (trigeminal neuralgia) or in the nerves related to the spine (postherpetic neuralgia). The pain associated with neuralgia can be intermittent or constant and may be worsened by certain triggers such as touch, temperature changes, or movement. Treatment for neuralgia typically involves medications to manage pain, as well as other therapies such as nerve blocks, surgery, or lifestyle modifications.

Sensory receptor cells are specialized structures that convert physical stimuli from our environment into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain for interpretation. These receptors can be found in various tissues throughout the body and are responsible for detecting sensations such as touch, pressure, temperature, taste, and smell. They can be classified into two main types: exteroceptors, which respond to stimuli from the external environment, and interoceptors, which react to internal conditions within the body. Examples of sensory receptor cells include hair cells in the inner ear, photoreceptors in the eye, and taste buds on the tongue.

Hyperalgesia is a medical term that describes an increased sensitivity to pain. It occurs when the nervous system, specifically the nociceptors (pain receptors), become excessively sensitive to stimuli. This means that a person experiences pain from a stimulus that normally wouldn't cause pain or experiences pain that is more intense than usual. Hyperalgesia can be a result of various conditions such as nerve damage, inflammation, or certain medications. It's an important symptom to monitor in patients with chronic pain conditions, as it may indicate the development of tolerance or addiction to pain medication.

Pain measurement, in a medical context, refers to the quantification or evaluation of the intensity and/or unpleasantness of a patient's subjective pain experience. This is typically accomplished through the use of standardized self-report measures such as numerical rating scales (NRS), visual analog scales (VAS), or categorical scales (mild, moderate, severe). In some cases, physiological measures like heart rate, blood pressure, and facial expressions may also be used to supplement self-reported pain ratings. The goal of pain measurement is to help healthcare providers better understand the nature and severity of a patient's pain in order to develop an effective treatment plan.

Magnetic field therapy, also known as magnet therapy, is a form of complementary and alternative medicine that uses magnets to treat various health conditions. The therapy is based on the idea that external magnetic fields can influence the body's internal magnetic fields and electromagnetic signals, which in turn can affect physiological processes and promote healing.

Proponents of magnetic field therapy claim that it can help alleviate pain, reduce inflammation, improve circulation, enhance immune function, and promote relaxation. However, there is limited scientific evidence to support these claims, and the therapy remains controversial within the medical community.

Magnetic field therapy devices typically consist of magnets of various strengths and sizes that are applied to specific areas of the body, often through the use of magnetic wraps, bands, or pads. Some devices generate static magnetic fields, while others produce pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMF) or alternating magnetic fields (AMF).

While magnetic field therapy is generally considered safe, it can have potential risks and side effects, such as skin irritation, allergic reactions, and interference with medical devices like pacemakers. Therefore, it is important to consult with a healthcare provider before using magnetic field therapy, especially if you have any underlying health conditions or are taking medication.

Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) due to absolute or relative deficiency in insulin secretion and/or insulin action. There are two main types: Type 1 diabetes, which results from the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to insulin deficiency, and Type 2 diabetes, which is associated with insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.

Type 1 diabetes typically presents in childhood or young adulthood, while Type 2 diabetes tends to occur later in life, often in association with obesity and physical inactivity. Both types of diabetes can lead to long-term complications such as damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and cardiovascular system if left untreated or not well controlled.

The diagnosis of diabetes is usually made based on fasting plasma glucose levels, oral glucose tolerance tests, or hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels. Treatment typically involves lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise, along with medications to lower blood glucose levels and manage associated conditions.

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage. It is a complex phenomenon that can result from various stimuli, such as thermal, mechanical, or chemical irritation, and it can be acute or chronic. The perception of pain involves the activation of specialized nerve cells called nociceptors, which transmit signals to the brain via the spinal cord. These signals are then processed in different regions of the brain, leading to the conscious experience of pain. It's important to note that pain is a highly individual and subjective experience, and its perception can vary widely among individuals.

Cyclohexanecarboxylic acids are a type of organic compound that consists of a cyclohexane ring, which is a six-carbon saturated hydrocarbon, substituted with a carboxylic acid group (-COOH). This group contains a carbon atom double bonded to an oxygen atom and single bonded to a hydroxyl group (-OH).

The cyclohexane ring can be in various forms, including the chair, boat, or twist-boat conformations, depending on the orientation of its constituent atoms. The carboxylic acid group can ionize to form a carboxylate anion, which is negatively charged and has a deprotonated hydroxyl group.

Cyclohexanecarboxylic acids have various applications in industry and research, including as intermediates in the synthesis of other chemicals, solvents, and pharmaceuticals. They can also be found naturally in some plants and microorganisms.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Sensory thresholds are the minimum levels of stimulation that are required to produce a sensation in an individual, as determined through psychophysical testing. These tests measure the point at which a person can just barely detect the presence of a stimulus, such as a sound, light, touch, or smell.

There are two types of sensory thresholds: absolute and difference. Absolute threshold is the minimum level of intensity required to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. Difference threshold, also known as just noticeable difference (JND), is the smallest change in intensity that can be detected between two stimuli.

Sensory thresholds can vary between individuals and are influenced by factors such as age, attention, motivation, and expectations. They are often used in clinical settings to assess sensory function and diagnose conditions such as hearing or vision loss.

Glycosylated Hemoglobin A, also known as Hemoglobin A1c or HbA1c, is a form of hemoglobin that is bound to glucose. It is formed in a non-enzymatic glycation reaction with glucose in the blood. The amount of this hemoglobin present in the blood is proportional to the average plasma glucose concentration over the previous 8-12 weeks, making it a useful indicator for monitoring long-term blood glucose control in people with diabetes mellitus.

In other words, HbA1c reflects the integrated effects of glucose regulation over time and is an important clinical marker for assessing glycemic control and risk of diabetic complications. The normal range for HbA1c in individuals without diabetes is typically less than 5.7%, while a value greater than 6.5% is indicative of diabetes.

Diabetes complications refer to a range of health issues that can develop as a result of poorly managed diabetes over time. These complications can affect various parts of the body and can be classified into two main categories: macrovascular and microvascular.

Macrovascular complications include:

* Cardiovascular disease (CVD): People with diabetes are at an increased risk of developing CVD, including coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, and stroke.
* Peripheral arterial disease (PAD): This condition affects the blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the limbs, particularly the legs. PAD can cause pain, numbness, or weakness in the legs and may increase the risk of amputation.

Microvascular complications include:

* Diabetic neuropathy: This is a type of nerve damage that can occur due to prolonged high blood sugar levels. It commonly affects the feet and legs, causing symptoms such as numbness, tingling, or pain.
* Diabetic retinopathy: This condition affects the blood vessels in the eye and can cause vision loss or blindness if left untreated.
* Diabetic nephropathy: This is a type of kidney damage that can occur due to diabetes. It can lead to kidney failure if not managed properly.

Other complications of diabetes include:

* Increased risk of infections, particularly skin and urinary tract infections.
* Slow healing of wounds, which can increase the risk of infection and amputation.
* Gum disease and other oral health problems.
* Hearing impairment.
* Sexual dysfunction.

Preventing or managing diabetes complications involves maintaining good blood sugar control, regular monitoring of blood glucose levels, following a healthy lifestyle, and receiving routine medical care.

In the context of medicine and physiology, vibration refers to the mechanical oscillation of a physical body or substance with a periodic back-and-forth motion around an equilibrium point. This motion can be produced by external forces or internal processes within the body.

Vibration is often measured in terms of frequency (the number of cycles per second) and amplitude (the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position). In clinical settings, vibration perception tests are used to assess peripheral nerve function and diagnose conditions such as neuropathy.

Prolonged exposure to whole-body vibration or hand-transmitted vibration in certain occupational settings can also have adverse health effects, including hearing loss, musculoskeletal disorders, and vascular damage.

Acetyl-L-carnitine, also known as ALCAR, is a form of the amino acid carnitine. It is a naturally occurring substance in the body that plays a crucial role in energy production in cells, particularly within mitochondria, the "powerhouses" of the cell.

Acetyl-L-carnitine is involved in the transport of fatty acids into the mitochondria, where they can be broken down to produce energy. It also functions as an antioxidant, helping to protect cells from damage caused by free radicals.

This compound has been studied for its potential benefits in various medical conditions, including neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and liver diseases. Some research suggests that Acetyl-L-carnitine may help improve cognitive function, reduce fatigue, and alleviate pain. However, more studies are needed to confirm these findings and establish the optimal dosage and safety profiles for different medical conditions.

It is important to note that while Acetyl-L-carnitine is available as a dietary supplement, its use should be discussed with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen, especially if you have a medical condition or are taking medication.

'Pregnancy in Diabetics' refers to the condition where an individual with pre-existing diabetes mellitus becomes pregnant. This can be further categorized into two types:

1. Pre-gestational diabetes: This is when a woman is diagnosed with diabetes before she becomes pregnant. It includes both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. Proper control of blood sugar levels prior to conception and during pregnancy is crucial to reduce the risk of complications for both the mother and the baby.

2. Gestational diabetes: This is when a woman develops high blood sugar levels during pregnancy, typically in the second or third trimester. While it usually resolves after delivery, women with gestational diabetes have a higher risk of developing Type 2 diabetes later in life. Proper management of gestational diabetes is essential to ensure a healthy pregnancy and reduce the risk of complications for both the mother and the baby.

'Dioscorea' is the medical term for a genus of plants commonly known as yams. These plants belong to the family Dioscoreaceae and are native to tropical and warm temperate regions of the world. The tubers or roots of some species of Dioscorea are edible and are an important food source in many parts of the world, particularly in Africa and Asia. Some species of Dioscorea contain steroidal saponins, which have been used in traditional medicine for their anti-inflammatory and other properties. However, it is important to note that some species of Dioscorea are toxic and should not be consumed without proper preparation and knowledge.

Schwann cells, also known as neurolemmocytes, are a type of glial cell that form the myelin sheath around peripheral nervous system (PNS) axons, allowing for the rapid and efficient transmission of nerve impulses. These cells play a crucial role in the maintenance and function of the PNS.

Schwann cells originate from the neural crest during embryonic development and migrate to the developing nerves. They wrap around the axons in a spiral fashion, forming multiple layers of myelin, which insulates the nerve fibers and increases the speed of electrical impulse transmission. Each Schwann cell is responsible for myelinating a single segment of an axon, with the gaps between these segments called nodes of Ranvier.

Schwann cells also provide structural support to the neurons and contribute to the regeneration of injured peripheral nerves by helping to guide the regrowth of axons to their targets. Additionally, Schwann cells can participate in immune responses within the PNS, such as releasing cytokines and chemokines to recruit immune cells during injury or infection.

A neurological examination is a series of tests used to evaluate the functioning of the nervous system, including both the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body). It is typically performed by a healthcare professional such as a neurologist or a primary care physician with specialized training in neurology.

During a neurological examination, the healthcare provider will assess various aspects of neurological function, including:

1. Mental status: This involves evaluating a person's level of consciousness, orientation, memory, and cognitive abilities.
2. Cranial nerves: There are 12 cranial nerves that control functions such as vision, hearing, smell, taste, and movement of the face and neck. The healthcare provider will test each of these nerves to ensure they are functioning properly.
3. Motor function: This involves assessing muscle strength, tone, coordination, and reflexes. The healthcare provider may ask the person to perform certain movements or tasks to evaluate these functions.
4. Sensory function: The healthcare provider will test a person's ability to feel different types of sensations, such as touch, pain, temperature, vibration, and proprioception (the sense of where your body is in space).
5. Coordination and balance: The healthcare provider may assess a person's ability to perform coordinated movements, such as touching their finger to their nose or walking heel-to-toe.
6. Reflexes: The healthcare provider will test various reflexes throughout the body using a reflex hammer.

The results of a neurological examination can help healthcare providers diagnose and monitor conditions that affect the nervous system, such as stroke, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, or peripheral neuropathy.

In medical terms, sensation refers to the ability to perceive and interpret various stimuli from our environment through specialized receptor cells located throughout the body. These receptors convert physical stimuli such as light, sound, temperature, pressure, and chemicals into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain via nerves. The brain then interprets these signals, allowing us to experience sensations like sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell.

There are two main types of sensations: exteroceptive and interoceptive. Exteroceptive sensations involve stimuli from outside the body, such as light, sound, and touch. Interoceptive sensations, on the other hand, refer to the perception of internal bodily sensations, such as hunger, thirst, heartbeat, or emotions.

Disorders in sensation can result from damage to the nervous system, including peripheral nerves, spinal cord, or brain. Examples include numbness, tingling, pain, or loss of sensation in specific body parts, which can significantly impact a person's quality of life and ability to perform daily activities.

Somatosensory disorders are a category of neurological conditions that affect the somatosensory system, which is responsible for receiving and processing sensory information from the body. These disorders can result in abnormal or distorted perception of touch, temperature, pain, vibration, position, movement, and pressure.

Somatosensory disorders can be caused by damage to or dysfunction of the peripheral nerves, spinal cord, or brain. They can manifest as a variety of symptoms, including numbness, tingling, burning sensations, hypersensitivity to touch, loss of sensation, and difficulty with coordination and balance.

Examples of somatosensory disorders include peripheral neuropathy, complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), and dysesthesias. Treatment for these conditions may involve medication, physical therapy, or other interventions aimed at managing symptoms and improving quality of life.

An axon is a long, slender extension of a neuron (a type of nerve cell) that conducts electrical impulses (nerve impulses) away from the cell body to target cells, such as other neurons or muscle cells. Axons can vary in length from a few micrometers to over a meter long and are typically surrounded by a myelin sheath, which helps to insulate and protect the axon and allows for faster transmission of nerve impulses.

Axons play a critical role in the functioning of the nervous system, as they provide the means by which neurons communicate with one another and with other cells in the body. Damage to axons can result in serious neurological problems, such as those seen in spinal cord injuries or neurodegenerative diseases like multiple sclerosis.

Ulnar neuropathies refer to conditions that cause damage or dysfunction to the ulnar nerve, which is one of the major nerves in the arm. The ulnar nerve runs down the forearm and through the wrist to the hand, where it provides sensation to the pinky finger and half of the ring finger, as well as motor function to the muscles that control finger movements.

Ulnar neuropathies can result from various causes, including trauma, compression, entrapment, or inflammation. Common symptoms include numbness, tingling, or weakness in the hand and fingers, particularly in the pinky and ring fingers. In more severe cases, muscle wasting and loss of dexterity may occur.

There are several types of ulnar neuropathies, depending on the location and cause of the nerve damage. For example, cubital tunnel syndrome is a type of ulnar neuropathy that results from compression of the ulnar nerve at the elbow, while ulnar nerve entrapment at the wrist (also known as Guyon's canal syndrome) can also cause ulnar neuropathies. Treatment options for ulnar neuropathies may include physical therapy, medication, or surgery, depending on the severity and underlying cause of the condition.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT) is a group of inherited disorders that cause nerve damage, primarily affecting the peripheral nerves. These are the nerves that transmit signals between the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body. CMT affects both motor and sensory nerves, leading to muscle weakness and atrophy, as well as numbness or tingling in the hands and feet.

The disease is named after the three physicians who first described it: Jean-Martin Charcot, Pierre Marie, and Howard Henry Tooth. CMT is characterized by its progressive nature, meaning symptoms typically worsen over time, although the rate of progression can vary significantly among individuals.

There are several types of CMT, classified based on their genetic causes and patterns of inheritance. The two most common forms are CMT1 and CMT2:

1. CMT1: This form is caused by mutations in the genes responsible for the myelin sheath, which insulates peripheral nerves and allows for efficient signal transmission. As a result, demyelination occurs, slowing down nerve impulses and causing muscle weakness, particularly in the lower limbs. Symptoms usually begin in childhood or adolescence and include foot drop, high arches, and hammertoes.
2. CMT2: This form is caused by mutations in the genes responsible for the axons, the nerve fibers that transmit signals within peripheral nerves. As a result, axonal degeneration occurs, leading to muscle weakness and atrophy. Symptoms usually begin in early adulthood and progress more slowly than CMT1. They primarily affect the lower limbs but can also involve the hands and arms.

Diagnosis of CMT typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, family history, nerve conduction studies, and genetic testing. While there is no cure for CMT, treatment focuses on managing symptoms and maintaining mobility and function through physical therapy, bracing, orthopedic surgery, and pain management.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.

Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.

Thermosensing refers to the ability of living organisms to detect and respond to changes in temperature. This is achieved through specialized proteins called thermosensors, which are capable of converting thermal energy into chemical or electrical signals that can be interpreted by the organism's nervous system. Thermosensing plays a critical role in regulating various physiological processes, such as body temperature, metabolism, and development. In medicine, understanding thermosensing mechanisms can provide insights into the treatment of conditions associated with impaired temperature regulation, such as fever or hypothermia.

Myelinated nerve fibers are neuronal processes that are surrounded by a myelin sheath, a fatty insulating substance that is produced by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system and oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system. This myelin sheath helps to increase the speed of electrical impulse transmission, also known as action potentials, along the nerve fiber. The myelin sheath has gaps called nodes of Ranvier where the electrical impulses can jump from one node to the next, which also contributes to the rapid conduction of signals. Myelinated nerve fibers are typically found in the peripheral nerves and the optic nerve, but not in the central nervous system (CNS) tracts that are located within the brain and spinal cord.

Imidazolidines are a class of heterocyclic organic compounds that contain a four-membered ring with two nitrogen atoms and two carbon atoms. The nitrogen atoms are adjacent to each other in the ring structure. These compounds have various applications, including as building blocks for pharmaceuticals and other organic materials. However, I couldn't find a specific medical definition related to disease or pathology for "imidazolidines." If you have any further questions or need information about a specific imidazolidine derivative with medicinal properties, please let me know!

Amitriptyline is a type of medication known as a tricyclic antidepressant (TCA). It is primarily used to treat depression, but it also has other therapeutic uses such as managing chronic pain, migraine prevention, and treating anxiety disorders. Amitriptyline works by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) in the brain, such as serotonin and norepinephrine, which help to regulate mood and alleviate pain.

The medication is available in various forms, including tablets and liquid solutions, and it is typically taken orally. The dosage of amitriptyline may vary depending on the individual's age, medical condition, and response to treatment. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully when taking this medication.

Common side effects of amitriptyline include drowsiness, dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, and weight gain. In some cases, it may cause more severe side effects such as orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure upon standing), cardiac arrhythmias, and seizures. It is crucial to inform the healthcare provider of any pre-existing medical conditions or current medications before starting amitriptyline therapy, as these factors can influence its safety and efficacy.

Amitriptyline has a well-established history in clinical practice, but it may not be suitable for everyone due to its potential side effects and drug interactions. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional before using this medication.

Thiophenes are organic compounds that contain a heterocyclic ring made up of four carbon atoms and one sulfur atom. The structure of thiophene is similar to benzene, with the benzene ring being replaced by a thiophene ring. Thiophenes are aromatic compounds, which means they have a stable, planar ring structure and delocalized electrons.

Thiophenes can be found in various natural sources such as coal tar, crude oil, and some foods like onions and garlic. They also occur in certain medications, dyes, and pesticides. Some thiophene derivatives have been synthesized and studied for their potential therapeutic uses, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antitumor activities.

In the medical field, thiophenes are used in some pharmaceuticals as building blocks to create drugs with various therapeutic effects. For example, tipepidine, a cough suppressant, contains a thiophene ring. Additionally, some anesthetics and antipsychotic medications also contain thiophene moieties.

It is important to note that while thiophenes themselves are not typically considered medical terms, they play a role in the chemistry of various pharmaceuticals and other medical-related compounds.

Analgesics are a class of drugs that are used to relieve pain. They work by blocking the transmission of pain signals in the nervous system, allowing individuals to manage their pain levels more effectively. There are many different types of analgesics available, including both prescription and over-the-counter options. Some common examples include acetaminophen (Tylenol), ibuprofen (Advil or Motrin), and opioids such as morphine or oxycodone.

The choice of analgesic will depend on several factors, including the type and severity of pain being experienced, any underlying medical conditions, potential drug interactions, and individual patient preferences. It is important to use these medications as directed by a healthcare provider, as misuse or overuse can lead to serious side effects and potential addiction.

In addition to their pain-relieving properties, some analgesics may also have additional benefits such as reducing inflammation (like in the case of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or NSAIDs) or causing sedation (as with certain opioids). However, it is essential to weigh these potential benefits against the risks and side effects associated with each medication.

When used appropriately, analgesics can significantly improve a person's quality of life by helping them manage their pain effectively and allowing them to engage in daily activities more comfortably.

In medical terms, the skin is the largest organ of the human body. It consists of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer), as well as accessory structures like hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands. The skin plays a crucial role in protecting us from external factors such as bacteria, viruses, and environmental hazards, while also regulating body temperature and enabling the sense of touch.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Alcoholic neuropathy is a type of nerve damage that occurs due to excessive alcohol consumption. It's caused by the toxic effects of alcohol and its byproducts on nerves throughout the body, particularly in the peripheral nervous system. The condition typically develops over time, with symptoms becoming more severe as alcohol abuse continues.

The symptoms of alcoholic neuropathy can vary widely depending on which nerves are affected. However, common symptoms include:

1. Numbness or tingling in the arms and legs
2. Muscle weakness and cramps
3. Loss of reflexes
4. Difficulty with balance and coordination
5. Pain or burning sensations in the extremities
6. Heat intolerance
7. Bladder and bowel dysfunction
8. Sexual dysfunction

Treatment for alcoholic neuropathy typically involves addressing the underlying alcohol abuse, as well as managing symptoms with medications and physical therapy. In severe cases, hospitalization may be necessary to monitor and manage complications. It's important to note that abstaining from alcohol is the only way to prevent further nerve damage and improve symptoms over time.

Afferent neurons, also known as sensory neurons, are a type of nerve cell that conducts impulses or signals from peripheral receptors towards the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord. These neurons are responsible for transmitting sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain, sound, and light to the CNS for processing and interpretation. Afferent neurons have specialized receptor endings that detect changes in the environment and convert them into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the CNS via synapses with other neurons. Once the signals reach the CNS, they are processed and integrated with other information to produce a response or reaction to the stimulus.

Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that play a crucial role in controlling voluntary muscle movements. They transmit electrical signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling us to perform actions such as walking, talking, and swallowing. There are two types of motor neurons: upper motor neurons, which originate in the brain's motor cortex and travel down to the brainstem and spinal cord; and lower motor neurons, which extend from the brainstem and spinal cord to the muscles. Damage or degeneration of these motor neurons can lead to various neurological disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).

Amines are organic compounds that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons. They are derived from ammonia (NH3) by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. The nomenclature of amines follows the substitutive type, where the parent compound is named as an aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbon, and the functional group "amine" is designated as a suffix or prefix.

Amines are classified into three types based on the number of carbon atoms attached to the nitrogen atom:

1. Primary (1°) amines: One alkyl or aryl group is attached to the nitrogen atom.
2. Secondary (2°) amines: Two alkyl or aryl groups are attached to the nitrogen atom.
3. Tertiary (3°) amines: Three alkyl or aryl groups are attached to the nitrogen atom.

Quaternary ammonium salts have four organic groups attached to the nitrogen atom and a positive charge, with anions balancing the charge.

Amines have a wide range of applications in the chemical industry, including pharmaceuticals, dyes, polymers, and solvents. They also play a significant role in biological systems as neurotransmitters, hormones, and cell membrane components.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Neuromuscular junction diseases are a group of disorders that affect the functioning of the neuromuscular junction, which is the site where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles. These diseases are characterized by muscle weakness and fatigue, and can be caused by various factors such as autoimmune disorders, genetic mutations, or toxins.

Examples of neuromuscular junction diseases include myasthenia gravis, Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome (LEMS), congenital myasthenic syndromes (CMS), and botulism. Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack the receptors in the neuromuscular junction, leading to muscle weakness and fatigue. LEMS is a rare autoimmune disorder that affects the nerve endings at the neuromuscular junction, causing muscle weakness and decreased reflexes.

Congenital myasthenic syndromes are genetic disorders that affect the functioning of the neuromuscular junction from birth, leading to muscle weakness and fatigue. Botulism is a rare but serious condition caused by the ingestion of botulinum toxin, which can lead to paralysis of the muscles due to interference with nerve impulse transmission at the neuromuscular junction.

Treatment for neuromuscular junction diseases may include medications such as cholinesterase inhibitors, immunosuppressive drugs, or plasma exchange therapy, depending on the specific diagnosis and severity of the condition.

Hypoglycemic agents are a class of medications that are used to lower blood glucose levels in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. These medications work by increasing insulin sensitivity, stimulating insulin release from the pancreas, or inhibiting glucose production in the liver. Examples of hypoglycemic agents include sulfonylureas, meglitinides, biguanides, thiazolidinediones, DPP-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists. It's important to note that the term "hypoglycemic" refers to a condition of abnormally low blood glucose levels, but in this context, the term is used to describe agents that are used to treat high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) associated with diabetes.

Trimethaphan is a ganglionic blocker drug that is used primarily in the treatment of hypertensive emergencies. It works by blocking the transmission of nerve impulses at the ganglionic synapse, leading to decreased sympathetic and parasympathetic tone. This results in a decrease in peripheral vascular resistance, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Trimethaphan is administered intravenously and its effects are rapid in onset but also short-lived, typically lasting only 5-10 minutes after discontinuation of the infusion. It is therefore necessary to continuously monitor blood pressure during administration and adjust the dose as needed to maintain a stable blood pressure.

Common side effects of trimethaphan include flushing, diaphoresis, dizziness, headache, and blurred vision. More serious side effects can include bronchospasm, myocardial ischemia, and anaphylaxis. Trimethaphan should be used with caution in patients with preexisting respiratory or cardiovascular disease.

Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.

The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.

It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Fuzzy Logic" is actually a term from the field of mathematics and computer science, not medicine. It is a form of many-valued logic that deals with reasoning that is approximate rather than fixed and exact. In contrast to traditional logic, where binary sets have distinct boundaries (true or false, 0 or 1, etc.), fuzzy logic allows for continuous values between 0 and 1, making it particularly useful in areas where precise definitions are difficult, such as medical diagnosis or robotics.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

Femoral neuropathy is a medical condition that affects the femoral nerve, which is one of the largest nerves in the body. It originates from the lumbar plexus in the lower back and supplies sensation to the front of the thigh and controls the muscles that help straighten the leg and move the knee.

Femoral neuropathy can result from various causes, including nerve compression, trauma, diabetes, tumors, or surgical injury. The symptoms of femoral neuropathy may include numbness, tingling, or weakness in the thigh, difficulty lifting the leg or walking, and decreased knee reflexes.

Diagnosis of femoral neuropathy typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as nerve conduction studies or an MRI to identify any underlying causes. Treatment for femoral neuropathy depends on the cause but may include physical therapy, pain management, and in some cases, surgery.

Oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) and the body's ability to detoxify them or repair the damage they cause. This imbalance can lead to cellular damage, oxidation of proteins, lipids, and DNA, disruption of cellular functions, and activation of inflammatory responses. Prolonged or excessive oxidative stress has been linked to various health conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging-related diseases.

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is a part of the peripheral nervous system that operates largely below the level of consciousness and controls visceral functions. It is divided into two main subdivisions: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, which generally have opposing effects and maintain homeostasis in the body.

The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response. It increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and metabolic rate, while also decreasing digestive activity. This response helps the body respond quickly to perceived threats.

The Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS), on the other hand, promotes the "rest and digest" state, allowing the body to conserve energy and restore itself after the stress response has subsided. It decreases heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate, while increasing digestive activity and promoting relaxation.

These two systems work together to maintain balance in the body by adjusting various functions based on internal and external demands. Disorders of the Autonomic Nervous System can lead to a variety of symptoms, such as orthostatic hypotension, gastroparesis, and cardiac arrhythmias, among others.

Hereditary Optic Atrophy, Leber type (LOA) is a mitochondrial DNA-associated inherited condition that primarily affects the optic nerve and leads to vision loss. It is characterized by the degeneration of retinal ganglion cells and their axons, which make up the optic nerve. This results in bilateral, painless, and progressive visual deterioration, typically beginning in young adulthood (14-35 years).

Leber's hereditary optic atrophy is caused by mutations in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) gene MT-ND4 or MT-ND6. The condition follows a maternal pattern of inheritance, meaning that it is passed down through the mother's lineage.

The onset of LOA usually occurs in one eye first, followed by the second eye within weeks to months. Central vision is initially affected, leading to blurriness and loss of visual acuity. Color vision may also be impaired. The progression of the condition generally stabilizes after a few months, but complete recovery of vision is unlikely.

Currently, there is no cure for Leber's hereditary optic atrophy. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and providing visual rehabilitation to help affected individuals adapt to their visual impairment.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy is a specific type of heart disease that occurs in people with diabetes. It is characterized by structural and functional changes in the heart muscle (myocardium), which can lead to impaired heart function and, ultimately, heart failure.

The exact mechanisms underlying diabetic cardiomyopathy are not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to a combination of metabolic abnormalities, inflammation, oxidative stress, and microvascular dysfunction that occur in diabetes. These factors can lead to changes in the heart muscle cells, including increased stiffness, altered contractility, and cell death, as well as interstitial fibrosis and remodeling of the extracellular matrix.

Diabetic cardiomyopathy is often asymptomatic in its early stages but can lead to symptoms such as shortness of breath, fatigue, fluid retention, and irregular heart rhythms as it progresses. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, electrocardiogram (ECG), echocardiography, and other imaging tests, as well as laboratory tests to assess cardiac function and metabolic status.

Treatment of diabetic cardiomyopathy typically involves managing underlying diabetes and associated risk factors such as hypertension, dyslipidemia, and obesity. Medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), beta-blockers, and diuretics may also be used to improve heart function and reduce symptoms. Lifestyle modifications such as regular exercise, smoking cessation, and a healthy diet are also important components of management.

Optic nerve diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the optic nerve, which transmits visual information from the eye to the brain. These diseases can cause various symptoms such as vision loss, decreased visual acuity, changes in color vision, and visual field defects. Examples of optic nerve diseases include optic neuritis (inflammation of the optic nerve), glaucoma (damage to the optic nerve due to high eye pressure), optic nerve damage from trauma or injury, ischemic optic neuropathy (lack of blood flow to the optic nerve), and optic nerve tumors. Treatment for optic nerve diseases varies depending on the specific condition and may include medications, surgery, or lifestyle changes.

Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.

In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.

Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.

Median neuropathy, also known as Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, is a common entrapment neuropathy caused by compression of the median nerve at the wrist level. The median nerve provides sensation to the palm side of the thumb, index finger, middle finger, and half of the ring finger. It also innervates some of the muscles that control movement of the fingers and thumb.

In median neuropathy, the compression of the median nerve can cause symptoms such as numbness, tingling, and weakness in the affected hand and fingers. These symptoms may be worse at night or upon waking up in the morning, and can be exacerbated by activities that involve repetitive motion of the wrist, such as typing or using tools. If left untreated, median neuropathy can lead to permanent nerve damage and muscle wasting in the hand.

Laser-Doppler flowmetry (LDF) is a non-invasive, investigative technique used to measure microcirculatory blood flow in real time. It is based on the principle of the Doppler effect, which describes the change in frequency or wavelength of light or sound waves as they encounter a moving object or reflect off a moving surface.

In LDF, a low-power laser beam is directed at the skin or other transparent tissue. The light penetrates the tissue and scatters off the moving red blood cells within the microvasculature. As the light scatters, it undergoes a slight frequency shift due to the movement of the red blood cells. This frequency shift is then detected by a photodetector, which converts it into an electrical signal. The magnitude of this signal is directly proportional to the speed and concentration of the moving red blood cells, providing a measure of microcirculatory blood flow.

LDF has various clinical applications, including the assessment of skin perfusion in patients with peripheral arterial disease, burn injuries, and flaps used in reconstructive surgery. It can also be used to study the effects of drugs or other interventions on microcirculation in research settings.

Amyloid neuropathies are a group of peripheral nerve disorders caused by the abnormal accumulation of amyloid proteins in the nerves. Amyloid is a protein that can be produced in various diseases and can deposit in different organs, including nerves. When this occurs in the nerves, it can lead to damage and dysfunction, resulting in symptoms such as numbness, tingling, pain, and weakness in the affected limbs.

There are several types of amyloid neuropathies, with the two most common being:

1. Transthyretin (TTR)-related hereditary amyloidosis: This is an inherited disorder caused by mutations in the TTR gene, which leads to the production of abnormal TTR protein that can form amyloid deposits in various organs, including nerves.
2. Immunoglobulin light chain (AL) amyloidosis: This is a disorder in which abnormal plasma cells produce excessive amounts of immunoglobulin light chains, which can form amyloid deposits in various organs, including nerves.

The diagnosis of amyloid neuropathies typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, nerve conduction studies, and tissue biopsy to confirm the presence of amyloid deposits. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause of the disorder and may include medications, chemotherapy, stem cell transplantation, or supportive care to manage symptoms.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Inositol is not considered a true "vitamin" because it can be created by the body from glucose. However, it is an important nutrient and is sometimes referred to as vitamin B8. It is a type of sugar alcohol that is found in both animals and plants. Inositol is involved in various biological processes, including:

1. Signal transduction: Inositol phospholipids are key components of cell membranes and play a crucial role in intracellular signaling pathways. They act as secondary messengers in response to hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors.
2. Insulin sensitivity: Inositol and its derivatives, such as myo-inositol and D-chiro-inositol, are involved in insulin signal transduction. Abnormalities in inositol metabolism have been linked to insulin resistance and conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
3. Cerebral and ocular functions: Inositol is essential for the proper functioning of neurons and has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and bipolar disorder. It also plays a role in maintaining eye health.
4. Lipid metabolism: Inositol participates in the breakdown and transport of fats within the body.
5. Gene expression: Inositol and its derivatives are involved in regulating gene expression through epigenetic modifications.

Inositol can be found in various foods, including fruits, beans, grains, nuts, and vegetables. It is also available as a dietary supplement for those who wish to increase their intake.

Electromyography (EMG) is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures the electrical activity of skeletal muscles during contraction and at rest. It involves inserting a thin needle electrode into the muscle to record the electrical signals generated by the muscle fibers. These signals are then displayed on an oscilloscope and may be heard through a speaker.

EMG can help diagnose various neuromuscular disorders, such as muscle weakness, numbness, or pain, and can distinguish between muscle and nerve disorders. It is often used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests, such as nerve conduction studies, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the nervous system.

EMG is typically performed by a neurologist or a physiatrist, and the procedure may cause some discomfort or pain, although this is usually minimal. The results of an EMG can help guide treatment decisions and monitor the progression of neuromuscular conditions over time.

T-type calcium channels are a type of voltage-gated calcium channel that play a role in the regulation of excitable cells, such as neurons and cardiac myocytes. These channels are characterized by their low voltage activation threshold and rapid activation and inactivation kinetics. They are involved in various physiological processes, including neuronal excitability, gene expression, hormone secretion, and heart rhythm. Abnormal functioning of T-type calcium channels has been implicated in several diseases, such as epilepsy, chronic pain, and cardiac arrhythmias.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Nerve degeneration, also known as neurodegeneration, is the progressive loss of structure and function of neurons, which can lead to cognitive decline, motor impairment, and various other symptoms. This process occurs due to a variety of factors, including genetics, environmental influences, and aging. It is a key feature in several neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. The degeneration can affect any part of the nervous system, leading to different symptoms depending on the location and extent of the damage.

Neurofilament proteins (NFs) are type IV intermediate filament proteins that are specific to neurons. They are the major structural components of the neuronal cytoskeleton and play crucial roles in maintaining the structural integrity, stability, and diameter of axons. Neurofilaments are composed of three subunits: light (NFL), medium (NFM), and heavy (NFH) neurofilament proteins, which differ in their molecular weights. These subunits assemble into heteropolymers to form the neurofilament core, while the C-terminal tails of NFH and NFM extend outward from the core, interacting with other cellular components and participating in various neuronal functions. Increased levels of neurofilament proteins, particularly NFL, in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood are considered biomarkers for axonal damage and neurodegeneration in several neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and multiple sclerosis (MS).

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

Thiazolidinediones (TZDs), also known as glitazones, are a class of drugs used in the management of type 2 diabetes. They function as insulin sensitizers, improving the body's response to insulin, particularly in muscle, fat, and liver tissues. This helps to lower blood sugar levels.

Examples of TZDs include pioglitazone (Actos) and rosiglitazone (Avandia). While effective at controlling blood sugar, these medications have been associated with serious side effects such as an increased risk of heart failure, fractures, and bladder cancer. Therefore, their use is typically reserved for patients who cannot achieve good glucose control with other medications and who do not have a history of heart failure or bladder cancer.

It's important to note that the medical community continues to evaluate and re-evaluate the risks and benefits of thiazolidinediones, and their use may change based on new research findings. As always, patients should consult with their healthcare providers for personalized medical advice regarding their diabetes treatment plan.

Nociceptors are specialized peripheral sensory neurons that detect and transmit signals indicating potentially harmful stimuli in the form of pain. They are activated by various noxious stimuli such as extreme temperatures, intense pressure, or chemical irritants. Once activated, nociceptors transmit these signals to the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain) where they are interpreted as painful sensations, leading to protective responses like withdrawing from the harmful stimulus or seeking medical attention. Nociceptors play a crucial role in our perception of pain and help protect the body from further harm.

Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase (also known as Na+/K+ ATPase) is a type of active transporter found in the cell membrane of many types of cells. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the electrochemical gradient and membrane potential of animal cells by pumping sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and potassium ions (K+) into the cell, using energy derived from ATP hydrolysis.

This transporter is composed of two main subunits: a catalytic α-subunit that contains the binding sites for Na+, K+, and ATP, and a regulatory β-subunit that helps in the proper targeting and functioning of the pump. The Na+/K+ ATPase plays a critical role in various physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and kidney function.

In summary, Sodium-Potassium-Exchanging ATPase is an essential membrane protein that uses energy from ATP to transport sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane, thereby maintaining ionic gradients and membrane potentials necessary for normal cellular function.

Hereditary optic atrophies (HOAs) are a group of genetic disorders that cause degeneration of the optic nerve, leading to vision loss. The optic nerve is responsible for transmitting visual information from the eye to the brain. In HOAs, this nerve degenerates over time, resulting in decreased visual acuity, color vision deficits, and sometimes visual field defects.

There are several types of HOAs, including dominant optic atrophy (DOA), Leber hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON), autosomal recessive optic atrophy (AROA), and Wolfram syndrome. Each type has a different inheritance pattern and is caused by mutations in different genes.

DOA is the most common form of HOA and is characterized by progressive vision loss that typically begins in childhood or early adulthood. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that a child has a 50% chance of inheriting the disease-causing mutation from an affected parent.

LHON is a mitochondrial disorder that primarily affects males and is characterized by sudden, severe vision loss that typically occurs in young adulthood. It is caused by mutations in the mitochondrial DNA and is inherited maternally.

AROA is a rare form of HOA that is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, meaning that both copies of the gene must be mutated to cause the disease. It typically presents in infancy or early childhood with progressive vision loss.

Wolfram syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that affects multiple organs, including the eyes, ears, and endocrine system. It is characterized by diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, optic atrophy, and hearing loss. It is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.

There is currently no cure for HOAs, but treatments such as low-vision aids and rehabilitation may help to manage the symptoms. Research is ongoing to develop new therapies for these disorders.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

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Page JC, Chen EY (August 1997). "Management of painful diabetic neuropathy. A treatment algorithm". Journal of the American ... The administration of higher doses of pentoxifylline in hospitalization for complications of distal diabetic neuropathy is ... "Effect of pentoxifylline on diabetic distal polyneuropathy in type 2 diabetic patients: A randomized trial". Journal of ... dysfunction An interesting off-label indication of pentoxifylline is the supportive treatment of distal diabetic neuropathy, ...
Javed S, Petropoulos IN, Alam U, Malik RA (January 2015). "Treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy". Therapeutic Advances in ... However, in uncontrolled diabetics that have high blood glucose - more than the glycolysis pathway can handle - the reactions ... They are seen in the hemoglobin A1C tests performed on known diabetics to assess their levels of glucose control. While most ... Behl T, Kaur I, Kotwani A (2016). "Implication of oxidative stress in progression of diabetic retinopathy". Survey of ...
"Diabetic neuropathy - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30. Lim, Andy KH (2014-10-15). "Diabetic nephropathy ... Diabetic neuropathy. Hyperglycemia can eventually cause damage to nerves in the distal extremities (peripheral neuropathy), ... Individuals with diabetic neuropathy may not notice the damage and may develop gangrene (tissue necrosis due to inadequate ... "Diabetic retinopathy - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2019-08-30. "Diabetic Foot". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved ...
Other forms of diabetic angiopathy include diabetic neuropathy and diabetic cardiomyopathy. Diabetes mellitus is the most ... "Diabetic dermopathy" is a manifestation of diabetic angiopathy. It is often found on the shin.There is also neuropathy; also ... Calcutt NA (September 2020). "Diabetic neuropathy and neuropathic pain: a (con)fusion of pathogenic mechanisms?". Pain. 161 ( ... Calcutt NA (September 2020). "Diabetic neuropathy and neuropathic pain: a (con)fusion of pathogenic mechanisms?". Pain. 161 ( ...
"Diabetic Autonomic Neuropathy". "Safety Alerts for Human Medical Products - Balloon angioplasty devices to treat autonomic ... Vinik AI, Maser RE, Mitchell BD, Freeman R (May 2003). "Diabetic autonomic neuropathy". Diabetes Care. 26 (5): 1553-79. doi: ... MedlinePlus Encyclopedia: Autonomic neuropathy Kirk KA, Shoykhet M, Jeong JH, Tyler-Kabara EC, Henderson MJ, Bell MJ, Fink EL ( ... Therefore, if an autoimmune neuropathy is the case, then treatment with immunomodulatory therapies is done, or if diabetes ...
Veves A, Malik RA (February 1, 2008). Diabetic Neuropathy: Clinical Management. Springer. p. 401. ISBN 9781597453110. Retrieved ...
"Aldose reductase inhibitors for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy". In Rayaz A., Malik; Veves, Aristidis (eds.). Diabetic ... including diabetic neuropathy. Alrestat was first synthesized in 1969 and was the first aldose reductase inhibitor (ARI) with ... Striker, Gary E.; Gueriguian, John L. (1991). Diabetic complications: epidemiology and pathogenetic mechanisms. New York: Raven ... Neuropathy: Clinical Management. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. pp. 309-11. ISBN 978-1-59745-311-0. Retrieved 2013-02-13. Ayerst ...
Diabetic Neuropathy Study (1996). "Clinical investigation of epalrestat, an aldose reductase inhibitor, on diabetic neuropathy ... Aldose reductase is the key enzyme in the polyol pathway whose enhanced activity is the basis of diabetic neuropathy. Aldose ... It reduces the accumulation of intracellular sorbitol which is believed to be the cause of diabetic neuropathy, retinopathy and ... on diabetic neuropathy. Clinical benefit and indication for the drug assessed from the results of a placebo-controlled double- ...
... alleviates painful diabetic neuropathy. It is recommended by a variety of guidelines as a first or second line ... ISBN 978-0-7020-5516-4. Alam U, Sloan G, Tesfaye S (March 2020). "Treating Pain in Diabetic Neuropathy: Current and ... "Combination therapy for painful diabetic neuropathy is safe and effective". NIHR Evidence. 6 April 2023. doi:10.3310/ ... Amitriptyline is ineffective for HIV-associated neuropathy. In multiple sclerosis it is frequently used to treat painful ...
Horowitz SH (1984). "Ganglioside (Cronassial) Therapy in Diabetic Neuropathy". Ganglioside Structure, Function, and Biomedical ... peripheral neuropathies). Years later, some patients under treatment with Cronassial reported a severe neurological syndrome ( ...
... neuropathy (e.g., diabetic peripheral neuropathy); or atypical infections such as nocardiosis, sporotrichosis, or mycobacterial ...
Várkonyi T, Kempler P (February 2008). "Diabetic neuropathy: new strategies for treatment". Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism. 10 ... Diabetic cataract formation follows an increase in sugars in the lens. The excess sugar within the lens is reduced by aldose ... prospects for alleviating diabetic complications". Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 17 (4): 558-65. PMID 19114390. Raj PS, Prathapan A, ... causing osmotic damage which leads to retinopathy and neuropathy. Alrestatin Epalrestat Fidarestat Imirestat Lidorestat ...
Diabetic neuropathy is the most common cause of this pattern. In demyelinating polyneuropathies, the myelin sheath around axons ... autonomic neuropathy occurs alongside other forms of neuropathy, such as sensory neuropathy.[citation needed] Autonomic ... Zhou JY, Zhang Z, Qian GS (2016). "Mesenchymal stem cells to treat diabetic neuropathy: a long and strenuous way from bench to ... There is less evidence for efficacy of surgery for non-diabetic peripheral neuropathy of the legs and feet. One uncontrolled ...
Peripheral neuropathies (such as diabetic neuropathy) occasionally produce tonic pupils. Herpes zoster virus can attack the ... Adie syndrome is a fairly common, benign, idiopathic neuropathy that selectively affects the ciliary ganglion and the spinal ...
"Diabetic neuropathy - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 2017-12-12. (Articles with short ... High concentrations of glucose in the blood can injure nerve fibers, resulting in diabetic neuropathy. In most cases, the nerve ... disorder of these neurons is called peripheral neuropathy. Vibration examination can detect and localize disorders of the ...
"Dissociated sensory loss in diabetic autonomic neuropathy". Diabetic Medicine. 17 (6): 457-462. doi:10.1046/j.1464-5491.2000. ...
Diabetic peripheral neuropathy: current perspective and future directions. Pharmacological research, 80, pp.21-35. Cloonan SM, ... including painful polyneuropathy in diabetics and non-diabetics alike. Treatment of the depressive phase of bipolar affective ... Diabetic patients should have regular assessments of their blood-glucose-levels. The concomitant application with fluoxetine or ... A very small body of research has also explored the potential of maprotiline in treating diabetic kidney disease and it has ...
Brian Scipione, "For Diabetics, Ramadan a Time of Increased Vigilance for Neuropathy". arabnews.com. Retrieved 22 September ... Retrieved 22 September 2016.[permanent dead link] "Nerve decompression and diabetic neuropathy". lermagazine.com. Retrieved 22 ... preventing ulcers and amputations in diabetics with neuropathy and chronic nerve compression. A. Lee Dellon founded the Dellon ... "Changing the Natural History of Diabetic Neuropathy". diabetesincontrol.com. 31 May 2005. Retrieved 22 September 2016. Tom ...
"Pulsed Electromagnetic Field Therapy: Innovative Treatment for Diabetic Neuropathy". Strauch, Berish (2009). "Evidence-Based ...
"Denervation pseudohypertrophy of calf muscles associated with diabetic neuropathy". Radiology Case Reports. 12 (4): 815-820. ...
Brewster, Wendy J.; Fernyhough, Paul; Diemel, Lara T.; Mohiuddin, Liza; Tomlinson, David R. (1994). "Diabetic neuropathy, nerve ... studies A genome-wide association study identifies susceptibility loci for ovarian cancer at 2q31 and 8q24 Diabetic neuropathy ...
... chemotherapy-induced neuropathy, diabetic neuropathy, degenerative eye conditions, drug-induced Schwann cell, Charcot-Marie- ... November 2019). "Sarm1 Gene Deficiency Attenuates Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy in Mice". Diabetes. 68 (11): 2120-2130. doi: ... October 2022). "Macrophage depletion blocks congenital SARM1-dependent neuropathy". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 132 ... "Deletion of Sarm1 gene is neuroprotective in two models of peripheral neuropathy". Journal of the Peripheral Nervous System. 22 ...
Some rhodanine derivatives have pharmacological properties; for instance, epalrestat is used to treat diabetic neuropathy. ...
In some of the experiments, there are hypothesis about a possible diabetic neuropathy treatment. This one consists in an oral L ... "Lowering plasma 1-deoxysphingolipids improves neuropathy in diabetic rats". Diabetes. 64 (3): 1035-1045. doi:10.2337/db14-1325 ... In any case, its danger contributes to the development of several neuropathies and diseases. There are some diseases which ... autonomic neuropathy type 1 (HSAN1) and hereditary sensory have elevated number of this kind of sphingolipids in their plasma. ...
The female:male ratio is 1.3:1. Other diabetic complications such as nephropathy, neuropathy, retinopathy and hypertension are ... Diabetic myonecrosis is a complication of diabetes. It is caused by infarcted muscle tissue, usually in the thigh. The mean age ... Contrast enhancement is helpful but must be weighed against the risk of Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis as many diabetics have ... A large number of conditions may cause symptoms and signs similar to diabetic myonecrosis and include: deep vein thrombosis, ...
... the diabetic type of which is also known as diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) (most common presentation) Diabetic neuropathy ... is more and more indicated to assess early signs of diabetic neuropathy and autonomic neuropathy. Diabetic neuropathy ... Diabetic neuropathy is implicated in 50-75% of nontraumatic amputations. The main risk factor for diabetic neuropathy is ... Diabetic Neuropathy at WebMD Diabetic Polyneuropathy at Medscape Diabetic Nerve Problems. MedlinePlus extensive reference list ...
How much do you know about the workup of diabetic neuropathy? Test your knowledge with this quick quiz. ... Diabetic neuropathy can be asymptomatic or can lead to a range of symptoms from pain and numbness in the legs and feet to ... A thorough medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic workup are essential to identify diabetic neuropathy before it ... How much do you know about the workup of diabetic neuropathy? Test your knowledge with this quick quiz. ...
... and treatment of different types of diabetic neuropathy. Diabetic neuropathy is nerve damage that is caused by diabetes. ... Other focal neuropathies and proximal neuropathy are less common.. What are the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy?. Your symptoms ... Types of diabetic neuropathy include the following:. Peripheral neuropathy. Peripheral neuropathy is nerve damage that ... How common is diabetic neuropathy?. Although different types of diabetic neuropathy can affect people who have diabetes, ...
A widely accepted definition of diabetic peripheral neuropathy is ... Neuropathies are characterized by a progressive loss of nerve fiber function. ... Management of diabetic neuropathy. Key components of the management of diabetic neuropathy include the following:. * Foot care ... What is diabetic neuropathy?. Diabetic neuropathy is nerve damage caused by diabetes. In the United States, diabetes is one of ...
... burning and needle pains in the arms and legs can be initial hints of the diabetic neuropathy. It is the complication which is ... In the diabetic neuropathy damage occurs to the nerves of all over the body. Depending on the nerves affected, symptoms may ... Flax seeds (Alsi) - Flax seeds are also one of useful home remedy for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. They are rich ... Lifestyle and Home Remedies for Diabetic Neuropathy. Turmeric - Turmeric is the one of one most used spice in Indian kitchens. ...
The global Diabetic Neuropathy Market is bound to witness a CAGR worth satiating In Upcoming Years. In the era of cloud ... Types of diabetic neuropathy include peripheral neuropathy, autonomic neuropathy, proximal neuropathy, focal neuropathy, and ... Diabetic neuropathy refers to the nerve damage caused due to diabetes. Diabetic neuropathy most often damages nerves in the ... Proximal diabetic neuropathy affects thighs, hips, buttocks, and legs. Focal diabetic neuropathy affects the nerves, most often ...
... Diabet Med. 2009 Jul;26(7):686-92. doi: ... Aims: The aim of the present study was to determine the diagnostic accuracy of the Neuropad sudomotor test for diabetic ... cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) and diabetic polyneuropathy (DPN), the latter assessed using a multi-level diagnostic ... Methods: In 51 diabetic patients, CAN, symptoms and signs of DPN, vibration perception threshold (VPT), cold (CTT) and warm ...
This page contains abstracts about the use of GLA supplements for diabetic neuropathy http://www.chiro.org/nutrition/ABSTRACTS/ ... in Diabetic Neuropathy This section was compiled by Frank M. Painter, D.C.. Send all comments or additions to: [email protected] ... has been shown to reverse existing diabetic neuropathy in trials in seven centres. Diabetic animals and humans have a reduced ... EF4 is an entirely new approach to the management of diabetic neuropathy. EF4 (providing gamma-linolenic acid or gamolenic acid ...
Compared with nondiabetic mice, diabetic mice displayed a markedly higher level of CD11b immunofluorescence in the spinal cord ... Mechanical withdrawal thresholds were measured weekly to characterize neuropathy phenotype. Quantitative analysis of CD11b was ... The infiltration of blood MDMs in the spinal cord may promote the development of painful neuropathy in diabetes. ... i,Background and Objective,/i,. Diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) is a common complication associated with diabetes. Currently, ...
Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) occurs in more than 50% of people with diabetes and is an important risk factor for skin ... Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) occurs in more than 50% of people with diabetes and is an important risk factor for skin ... Physical Training and Activity in People With Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy: Paradigm Shift Phys Ther. 2017 Jan 1;97(1):31-43. ...
Learn about the most common diabetic eye diseases, their causes, and symptoms. ... Searching for diabetic retinopathy treatments or diabetic macular edema treatments? ... Home ConditionsDiabetic Retinopathy , En Español Diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema By Marilyn Haddrill; reviewed ... Diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema symptoms. You may first notice diabetic retinopathy (DR) or other eye problems ...
Conclusion: Ischaemicmonomelic neuropathy (IMN) is a rare but serious complication of vascular access for arteriovenous fistula ... Discussion: Ischaemicmonomelic neuropathy (IMN) has developed as a distinct clinical entity involving dysfunction of multiple ... Presentation: We report a case of IMN occurring in a patient with end stage diabetic nephropathy following brachio-basilic ... "Ischaemic Monomelic Neuropathy in a Diabetic Patient after Brachio-Basilic Arteriovenous Fistula Creation" written by Nicholas ...
Patients with diabetic neuropathy often cant feel injuries on their feet, which can lead to ulcers and amputation. Sirens ... Sensor-Embedded "Smart Socks" Help Patients With Diabetic Neuropathy May 30, 2020 by Nicholas St. John * ... Patients with diabetic neuropathy often cant feel injuries on their feet, which can lead to ulcers and amputation. Sirens ... The Mayo Clinic explains that diabetic neuropathy can cause nerve damage, most often in the legs and feet, resulting in less ...
Previous research has shown that intravenous ALA therapy can help to reduce pain and numbness due to diabetic neuropathy, but ... lessened pain in people with diabetic neuropathy, or nerve damage resulting from diabetes. ... Antioxidant ALA Eases Pain From Diabetic Neuropathy. By Tara Dairman , November 27, 2006. ... Previous research has shown that intravenous ALA therapy can help to reduce pain and numbness due to diabetic neuropathy, but ...
Is the investigational drug NRD135S.El effective in treating Painful Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy?. Basic Study Information. ... EN21-PP/01 Painful Diabetic peripheral Neuropathy Study. Research Question:. ...
... Journal Article Overview ... AIMS: We aimed to evaluate the contemporary prevalence of and risk factors for symptomatic diabetic autonomic neuropathy (DAN) ... Symptomatic DAN was associated with diabetic peripheral neuropathy (p < 0.0001), smoking (p = 0.002), cardiovascular disease (p ...
Frustratingly, disease-modifying treatments for diabetic neuropathy remain elusive. Glycaemic control has a robust effect on ... Given the emergence of obesity as a neuropathy risk factor, exercise and weight loss are potential interventions to treat and/ ... Obesity has emerged as the second most important metabolic risk factor for neuropathy (diabetes being the first) from consensus ... Clinical history and examination remain critical components of an accurate diagnosis of neuropathy. However, skin biopsies and ...
Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy (DPN) - East Greenwich RI. ClinicalConnection helps connect participants with clinical trials in ... A clinical research study for individuals 18 to 80 (inclusive) years of age with painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). ... the safety and effectiveness of an investigational drug in patients with chronic nerve pain from diabetic peripheral neuropathy ...
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No specific morphological findings in painful diabetic neuropathy. B.. Over 45% of diabetic patients complain of neuropathic ... The activity "Diabetic Neuropathy: A Global and Growing Problem" is currently unavailable. ... How confident are you in your ability to select treatment for patients with painful diabetic neuropathy? ... Loss of weight, burning pain, impotence, and depression are complications of which type of diabetic neuropathy? ...
Neuropathies are the most common complication of diabetes mellitus, affecting up to 50% of patients. Are you prepared to ... Fast Five Quiz: How Much Do You Know About Diabetic Neuropathy? - Medscape - Jul 13, 2016. ... Neuropathies severely decrease patients quality of life. Furthermore, while the primary symptoms of neuropathy can be highly ... Neuropathies are the most common complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), affecting up to 50% of patients with type 1 and type 2 ...
Find relief from neuropathy symptoms with KURUs best shoes for neuropathy feet offering cushioning, support, and a roomy toe ... Some of the best shoes for diabetics with neuropathy-or other neuropathy patients-include footwear with plenty of cushion and ... What is Neuropathy?. Neuropathy, also known as Peripheral Neuropathy, is damage to the nerves in one or more areas of the ... Neuropathy Facts and Stats. We take a look at some facts and stats you might not have known about neuropathy.. *More than 20 ...
Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy - Pipeline Review, H1 2015 - Diabetic Neuropathy - Pipeline Review, H1 2015 - Peripheral ... Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy - Pipeline Review, H2 2015. New Market Research Report: Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy - ... Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy - Pipeline Review, H2 2015, provides an overview of the Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathys ... Chemotherapy Induced Peripheral Neuropathy - Pipeline Review, H1 2015 - Diabetic Nephropathy - Pipeline Review, H1 2015 ...
ARC1938-03-24-Coding for Diabetes - Diabetic Neuropathy. #ARC1938-03-24-Coding for Diabetes - Diabetic Neuropathy. Former ...
There are several types of neuropathies but 90% of people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy have symmetric distal ... Diabetic peripheral neuropathy develops in up to half of all people with diabetes and is one of the main risk factors ... Assessing diabetic peripheral neuropathy in primary care. Peer group discussion based on the article that appeared in BPJ, June ... Skip Navigation LinksHome , Peer Group Discussions , Assessing diabetic peripheral neuropathy in primary care ...
Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is one of the most common complications of diabetes and has been associated with ... Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is the most prevalent neuropathy in diabetes and a common cause of morbidity. It leads to ... This suggests that the association between diabetic neuropathy and MI exceeds autonomic neuropathy. DPN had previously been ... Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is one of the most common complications of diabetes and has been associated with ...
Diabetic neuropathy is a form of nerve damage that may occur in people with diabetes, linked to heightened blood sugar levels. ... Heatholders keep diabetic feet warm 27/01/2016 No Comments The Heat Holders range of products keeps growing. As far as have ...
Severe clinical consequences of foot burn injuries of unusual etiology may occur in diabetic patients with neuropathy. To ... Material and Method:Patient 1, a 51-year-old type 2 diabetic patient, was observed with a burn injury of the digits I-V of the ... Patient 2, a 66-year-old type 2 diabetic patient, tried to treat a small dermal lesion caused by improper footwear by using a ... prevent severe foot burn injuries, continuous education should be provided for diabetic patients with sensory loss of the lower ...
Youll slow the conditions progression if you detect diabetic neuropathy early, so its important to know and watch for its ... Among its complications is neuropathy, or pain and numbness in the extremities. ... Diagnosing diabetic neuropathy depends mostly on viewing the mobility changes in your cat. When you bring these changes to your ... Youll slow the conditions progression if you detect diabetic neuropathy early, so its important to know and watch for its ...
Diabetic neuropathy (DN) is a painful, chronic ailment that affects a large segment of diabetic population worldwide. Current ... DDD-028: A Potent, Neuroprotective, Non-Opioid Compound for the Treatment of Diabetic Neuropathy.. ... DDD-028: A Potent, Neuroprotective, Non-Opioid Compound for the Treatment of Diabetic Neuropathy. ...
  • Peripheral neuropathy can lead to foot complications , such as sores, ulcers, and infections, because nerve damage can make you lose feeling in your feet. (nih.gov)
  • Increasing diabetic population and growing awareness among people about diabetes and related complications are some of the major factors that drive the diabetic neuropathy market. (medgadget.com)
  • Increasing prevalence of diabetes cases, growing, aging population, rise in healthcare expenditure for diabetes, growing awareness about diabetes and related nerve complications, and rise in R&D activities in drug discovery and developmemt are the key factors driving the global diabetic neuropathy market. (medgadget.com)
  • Furthermore, while the primary symptoms of neuropathy can be highly unpleasant, the secondary complications (eg, falls, foot ulcers, cardiac arrhythmias, and ileus) are even more serious and can lead to fractures, amputations, and even death in patients with DM. (medscape.com)
  • Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is one of the most common complications of diabetes and has been associated with cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of mortality in diabetes. (springer.com)
  • To prevent severe foot burn injuries, continuous education should be provided for diabetic patients with sensory loss of the lower extremities due to neuropathic complications. (medscimonit.com)
  • Among its complications is neuropathy, or pain and numbness in the extremities. (thenest.com)
  • Diabetic Neuropathy is one of the most common yet serious complications of Diabetes disease. (paperblog.com)
  • You may also have treatment for complications of diabetic neuropathy. (cedars-sinai.org)
  • What are possible complications of diabetic neuropathy? (cedars-sinai.org)
  • Several major complications arise due to metabolic dysfunction including cardiovascular disease, neuropathy, nephropathy, retinopathy and others 3. (soinneuroscience.com)
  • Of these complications, hyperglycemia mediated dysfunction of the microvasculature along neurological injury contribute to the development of peripheral diabetic neuropathy (PDN) 3, 4. (soinneuroscience.com)
  • Brownlee M. Glycation products and the pathogenesis of diabetic complications. (paom.pl)
  • Painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN) is among the most common complications in a patient with chronic Diabetes Mellitus (type 1 and 2). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathies are the most prevalent chronic complications of diabetes-and they are often devastating for the patient. (medscape.com)
  • To assess the association of rectus femoris mass index (RFMI) with diabetic peripheral neuropathy ( DPN ) in individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). (bvsalud.org)
  • The aim of the present study was to determine the diagnostic accuracy of the Neuropad sudomotor test for diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) and diabetic polyneuropathy (DPN), the latter assessed using a multi-level diagnostic approach. (nih.gov)
  • There are several types of neuropathies but 90% of people with diabetic peripheral neuropathy have symmetric distal polyneuropathy, often occurring in combination with autonomic neuropathy. (bpac.org.nz)
  • Due to the sensory loss in the lower extremities, accidental foot injuries may develop in diabetic patients with distal sensorimotor polyneuropathy. (medscimonit.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathy (DN) is the most common complication of diabetes and the symmetric distal polyneuropathy is its predominant form. (paom.pl)
  • Severity and staging of diabetic polyneuropathy. (paom.pl)
  • Symptomatic DAN was associated with diabetic peripheral neuropathy (p (healthpartners.com)
  • Low rectus femoris mass index is closely associated with diabetic peripheral neuropathy. (bvsalud.org)
  • Clinical history and examination remain critical components of an accurate diagnosis of neuropathy. (iasp-pain.org)
  • sometimes these patients already have neuropathy at the time of diagnosis. (medscape.com)
  • A positive diagnosis of diabetes combined with visual symptoms are a good indication your cat has diabetic neuropathy. (thenest.com)
  • Neuropathy is the most prevalent complication of diabetes. (medscape.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathy is the most common complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), affecting as many as 50% of patients with type 1 and type 2 DM. (medscape.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathy is a common complication of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. (medgadget.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) is a common complication associated with diabetes. (hindawi.com)
  • Neuropathies are the most common complication of diabetes mellitus (DM), affecting up to 50% of patients with type 1 and type 2 DM. (medscape.com)
  • Charcot foot is a severe complication to diabetes mellitus, associated with diabetic neuropathy. (ipodiatry.org)
  • Diabetic peripheral neuropathy is definitely a significant chronic diabetic complication. (sciencepop.org)
  • Diabetic neuropathy is various types of nerve damage associated with diabetes mellitus. (wikipedia.org)
  • What are the different types of diabetic neuropathy? (nih.gov)
  • Although different types of diabetic neuropathy can affect people who have diabetes, research suggests that up to one-half of people with diabetes have peripheral neuropathy. (nih.gov)
  • Types of diabetic neuropathy include peripheral neuropathy, autonomic neuropathy, proximal neuropathy, focal neuropathy, and other diabetic nerve damage. (medgadget.com)
  • There are different types of diabetic neuropathy. (diabeteshealthmatters.com)
  • Medscape: What types of diabetic neuropathy should PCPs be aware of, and how common are they? (medscape.com)
  • Proximal neuropathy is a rare and disabling type of nerve damage in your hip, buttock, or thigh. (nih.gov)
  • Proximal neuropathy often causes severe pain and may lead to significant weight loss. (nih.gov)
  • Other focal neuropathies and proximal neuropathy are less common. (nih.gov)
  • Diabetic proximal neuropathy affects nerves in the thighs, hips, or buttocks. (diabeteshealthmatters.com)
  • Other names for this type are diabetic amyotrophy, femoral neuropathy or proximal neuropathy. (diabeteshealthmatters.com)
  • This study aimed to predict the quality of life (QOL) in patients with Painful Diabetic Neuropathy (PDN) based on pain severity, pain catastrophizing, pain acceptance, depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbance. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Evidence-based guideline: treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy -- report of the American Association of Neuromuscular and Electrodiagnostic Medicine, the American Academy of Neurology, and the American Academy of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. (cdc.gov)
  • The objective of this report was to develop a scientifically sound and clinically relevant evidence-based guideline for the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN). (cdc.gov)
  • The growing market developments and increasing cases of diabetes among other factors are driving the global diabetic neuropathy market. (datamintelligence.com)
  • What are the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy? (nih.gov)
  • The symptoms of Diabetic Neuropathy may be mild in some cases, but painful or debilitating in others. (paperblog.com)
  • Some other symptoms of Diabetic Neuropathy, depending on the type of ailment, usually include problems related to the digestive system, urinary tract disorders, blood vessels, heart weight loss, pain in lower back or pelvis, chest/abdomen pain, eyesight problems, and paralysis on one side of the face. (paperblog.com)
  • A diet with an abundance of Omega-3 fatty acids can help you manage the symptoms of Diabetic Neuropathy naturally as they are important fats that can lower the risk of heart disorders. (paperblog.com)
  • The symptoms of diabetic neuropathy may be like other health conditions. (cedars-sinai.org)
  • In addition to DSPN, the autonomic neuropathies, such as cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy , are relevant to clinical practice. (medscape.com)
  • Autonomic neuropathies take years to develop and can be difficult to quantitate. (medscape.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathy can be asymptomatic or can lead to a range of symptoms from pain and numbness in the legs and feet to problems with the digestive system , urinary tract , blood vessels , and heart , depending on the affected nerves. (medscape.com)
  • Previous research has shown that intravenous ALA therapy can help to reduce pain and numbness due to diabetic neuropathy, but treatment with ALA in pill form has not been widely studied. (diabetesselfmanagement.com)
  • Researchers are investigating the nerve damage diabetic neuropathy that over time, can lead to pain and numbness in the feet peripheral neuropathy to problems with the functions of the heart autonomic neuropathy. (kikeletjogakozpont.hu)
  • The numbness caused by sensory neuropathy can make the patient unaware that this is happening. (doctorkatzman.com)
  • Cracked skin caused by autonomic neuropathy, combined with sensory neuropathy's numbness and problems associated with motor neuropathy can lead to developing a sore. (doctorkatzman.com)
  • Diabetic retinopathy - vision-threatening damage to the retina of the eye caused by diabetes - is the leading cause of blindness among working-age Americans. (allaboutvision.com)
  • The good news: Diabetic retinopathy can often be prevented with early detection, proper management of your diabetes and routine eye exams performed by your optometrist or ophthalmologist . (allaboutvision.com)
  • Between 12,000 and 24,000 new cases of blindness from diabetic retinopathy occur in the U.S. each year, according to CDC, and many could be prevented with early intervention. (allaboutvision.com)
  • The survey results also showed that only 18% of respondents were familiar with diabetic macular edema (DME), a term that refers to swelling of the macula associated with diabetic retinopathy, and nearly one third (30%) of respondents said they don't get annual dilated eye exams recommended by the National Eye Institute for people with diabetes, which could help protect against diabetes-related vision loss. (allaboutvision.com)
  • People who are most vulnerable to diabetic retinopathy, including the elderly and certain minorities, may not receive appropriate eye care because of lack of health insurance or access even to primary care physicians. (allaboutvision.com)
  • Generally, diabetics don't develop diabetic retinopathy until they have had diabetes for at least 10 years. (allaboutvision.com)
  • How does diabetes cause diabetic retinopathy? (allaboutvision.com)
  • The purpose of the NAVIGATOR Study is to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of an investigational drug in patients with chronic nerve pain from diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). (clinicalconnection.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathy (DN) is a painful, chronic ailment that affects a large segment of diabetic population worldwide. (iasp-pain.org)
  • The patient plays a vital role in minimizing the risk of developing diabetic peripheral neuropathy and in preventing its possible consequences. (doctorkatzman.com)
  • The Neuropathy Disability Score (NDS) was used to quantify DPN and abnormal ratio of the longest electrocardiographic RR interval between the 28th and 32nd beats, after standing to the shortest interval between the 13th and 17th beats (RR ratio) was used as an index of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN). (springer.com)
  • The most common type of focal neuropathy is carpal tunnel syndrome , in which a nerve in your wrist is compressed. (nih.gov)
  • Diabetic focal neuropathy affects a specific nerve or area at any site in the body. (diabeteshealthmatters.com)
  • Mononeuropathy, or focal neuropathy, is damage to a specific nerve in the face, middle of the body (torso) or leg. (diabeteshealthmatters.com)
  • Autonomic neuropathic dysfunction, with or without sensorimotor neuropathy, can involve the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, sudomotor (control of the sweat glands) and ocular systems. (bpac.org.nz)
  • AIMS: We aimed to evaluate the contemporary prevalence of and risk factors for symptomatic diabetic autonomic neuropathy (DAN) in participants with type 1 diabetes (T1D) enrolled in the T1D Exchange Clinic Registry. (healthpartners.com)
  • Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of diabetic neuropathies vary greatly, but several large observational cohorts and other studies suggest that they occur in at least 20% of people with type 1 diabetes after 20 years of disease. (medscape.com)
  • ABSTRACT Readmission of diabetic patients after discharge from hospital has potential value as a quality of care indicator. (who.int)
  • citation needed] When cranial nerves are affected, neuropathies of the oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve #3 or CNIII) are most common. (wikipedia.org)
  • Diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) is defined as pain caused by abnormalities in the peripheral somatosensory system [ 1 ], occurring in nearly 40% of type 1 diabetic patients [ 2 , 3 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Focal diabetic neuropathy affects the nerves, most often in the wrist, thigh, or foot. (medgadget.com)
  • Erectile dysfunction (ED). Neuropathy may cause ED if it affects the nerves that control erections. (cedars-sinai.org)
  • It is considered as the effective home remedy for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Fenugreek - Fenugreek (methi) is used as a spice in Indian kitchen and is an effective home remedy for treatment of diabetic neuropathy. (selfgrowth.com)
  • Flax seeds (Alsi) - Flax seeds are also one of useful home remedy for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy . (selfgrowth.com)
  • The treatment options for diabetic neuropathy include drugs, radiotherapy, and physiotherapy. (medgadget.com)
  • After five weeks of once-daily treatment, all three groups that had been taking ALA experienced reductions in total neuropathy symptoms, stabbing pain, and burning pain compared to the placebo group. (diabetesselfmanagement.com)
  • Management - The primary goal of treatment of diabetic neuropathy is resolution of the patient's symptoms and prevention of further nerve damage as there is no specific treatment that can reverse damage to the nervous system damage. (bpac.org.nz)
  • Patient 2, a 66-year-old type 2 diabetic patient, tried to treat a small dermal lesion caused by improper footwear by using a hot paraffin footbath, but during this unusual self-treatment a painless and unperceived burn injury developed. (medscimonit.com)
  • DDD-028: A Potent, Neuroprotective, Non-Opioid Compound for the Treatment of Diabetic Neuropathy. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Proper diet, healthy lifestyle, and tight blood sugar control form the core of Natural Treatment for Diabetic Neuropathy . (paperblog.com)
  • Objective: To analyze the clinical efficacy of alprostadil combined with beraprost sodium in the treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy. (aip.org)
  • The presence of stringent regulatory authority bodies approving the usage and commercialization of drugs or biologics employed in the treatment of the diabetic neuropathy market is hampering the global diabetic neuropathy market growth during the forecast period. (datamintelligence.com)
  • For instance, Loma Linda University Health, research study indicated that the Intraneural Facilitation (INF) treatment effectively restores blood flow to harmed nerves, reducing pain induced by diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). (datamintelligence.com)
  • Moreover, in January 2023, Abbott, an American global medical devices and healthcare corporation, received the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for its Proclaim XR spinal cord stimulation (SCS) system for the treatment of painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). (datamintelligence.com)
  • Results from Phase IIa clinical trials support the use of sodium nitrite for the treatment and prevention of peripheral artery disease, and as a non-addictive and cost-effective treatment for diabetic neuropathy. (soinneuroscience.com)
  • First and foremost, treatment of diabetic peripheral neuropathy centers on control of the patient's blood sugar level. (doctorkatzman.com)
  • Book An Appointment Minimally Invasive Treatment for Diabetic Neuropathy What is Diabetic Neuropathy? (painex.org)
  • Freeman R, Durso-Decruz E, Emir B. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of pregabalin treatment for painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: findings from seven randomized, controlled trials across a range of doses. (wikem.org)
  • Medscape: The position statement emphasizes that the key to treatment of diabetic neuropathy is to prevent it in the first place. (medscape.com)
  • What causes diabetic neuropathy? (nih.gov)
  • Research also suggests that certain genes may make people more likely to develop diabetic neuropathy. (nih.gov)
  • However, even diabetic patients who have excellent blood sugar (glucose) control can develop diabetic neuropathy. (doctorkatzman.com)
  • Severe clinical consequences of foot burn injuries of unusual etiology may occur in diabetic patients with neuropathy. (medscimonit.com)
  • Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy markedly ameliorates muscle weakness and severe pain in proximal diabetic neuropathy. (qxmd.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathy can affect different parts of the body, and symptoms can range from mild to severe. (diabeteshealthmatters.com)
  • Patients with diabetic neuropathy often can't feel injuries on their feet, which can lead to ulcers and amputation. (allaboutcircuits.com)
  • Siren says its Neurofabric has the potential to be about 87% more effective in treating diabetic foot ulcers than conventional methods. (allaboutcircuits.com)
  • Conclusion] Based on the results of this study, we consider that microcurrent electric stimulation of the foot may be helpful for preventing the pain and diabetic ulcers by increasing the foot blood circulation in diabetes patients. (go.jp)
  • This meta-analysis aimed to compare the plantar pressures of diabetes patients that had peripheral neuropathy and those with neuropathy with active or previous foot ulcers. (stir.ac.uk)
  • Observational studies reporting barefoot dynamic plantar pressure in adults with diabetic peripheral neuropathy, where at least one group had a history of plantar foot ulcers were included. (stir.ac.uk)
  • Sub-group analyses demonstrated no significant difference in MPP for those with neuropathy with active ulceration compared to those without ulcers. (stir.ac.uk)
  • As diabetic peripheral neuropathy progresses, various nerves are affected-and these damaged nerves can cause problems that encourage development of ulcers. (doctorkatzman.com)
  • In 51 diabetic patients, CAN, symptoms and signs of DPN, vibration perception threshold (VPT), cold (CTT) and warm thermal perception thresholds (WTT) were measured. (nih.gov)
  • This week, medical device company Siren raised $11.8 million in funding for a smart wearable on course to change the lives of patients with diabetic neuropathy. (allaboutcircuits.com)
  • Glycaemic control has a robust effect on preventing neuropathy in individuals with type 1 but not in those with type 2 diabetes, which constitute the vast majority of patients. (iasp-pain.org)
  • Neuropathies severely decrease patients' quality of life. (medscape.com)
  • Subjects] Twenty nine patients with diabetic neuropathy over the age of 60 were randomly divided into an experimental(16 patients, 67.9 ± 8.0 years) and a control group(13 patients, 70.4 ± 4.4 years). (go.jp)
  • Diabetic patients, in particular, can effectively Manage Diabetic Neuropathy, by keeping their blood sugar levels in check. (paperblog.com)
  • Fernando M, Crowther R, Pappas E, Lazzarini P, Cunningham M, Sangla K, Buttner P & Golledge J (2014) Plantar Pressure in Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy Patients with Active Foot Ulceration, Previous Ulceration and No History of Ulceration: A Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. (stir.ac.uk)
  • Aims: Elevated dynamic plantar pressures are a consistent finding in diabetes patients with peripheral neuropathy with implications for plantar foot ulceration. (stir.ac.uk)
  • Conclusions: Plantar pressures appear to be significantly higher in patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy with a history of foot ulceration compared to those with diabetic neuropathy without a history of ulceration. (stir.ac.uk)
  • Methods: From August 2014 to May 2018, 92 patients with diabetic peripheral neuropathy admitted to our hospital were randomly divided into two groups. (aip.org)
  • Taken together, it is clear that more effective therapeutic modalities are needed for patients suffering from peripheral diabetic neuropathy. (soinneuroscience.com)
  • In the second study, researchers showed that not only did PAD patients and diabetic patients with PAD have a significantly lower level of circulating nitrite than non-PAD patients, but that when these PAD patient groups exercised, no change in circulating nitrite levels were observed, unlike non-PAD patients where exercise induced a 25-30% increase in circulating nitrite levels. (soinneuroscience.com)
  • While diabetic patients without PAD had a higher level of resting nitrite levels in the blood, like PAD patients, exercise failed to promote the release of nitrite. (soinneuroscience.com)
  • The nerve damage that characterizes diabetic peripheral neuropathy is more common in patients with poorly managed diabetes. (doctorkatzman.com)
  • About 60 to 70% patients with diabetes end up having neuropathy. (painex.org)
  • Medscape spoke with the lead author, Rodica Pop-Busui, MD, PhD, about how these recommendations can assist primary care providers (PCPs) in the prevention, early recognition, and appropriate management of neuropathies in patients with diabetes. (medscape.com)
  • A couple of studies show that, especially for patients with prediabetes and neuropathy, exercise and some types of diets seem to have a beneficial effect in prevention and possibly even reversal. (medscape.com)
  • Medscape: According to the statement, enhanced glucose control is very effective in preventing diabetic peripheral neuropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes, but is less successful in those with type 2. (medscape.com)
  • All of these factors have been shown to be important in inducing nerve fiber damage, and may explain in part why glucose control alone has not been as effective in preventing diabetic neuropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes. (medscape.com)
  • It is thus likely that most of the patients included in interventional studies that looked specifically at glucose control, and captured some measures of neuropathy, may have been already in a more advanced stage of the disease. (medscape.com)
  • This retrospective cohort and case-control study aimed to determine the readmission rate for diabetic patients within 28 days after discharge and the association between quality of inpatient care and unplanned readmission. (who.int)
  • RÉSUMÉ La réadmission de patients diabétiques après leur sortie de l'hôpital peut être une information utile en tant qu'indicateur de la qualité des soins. (who.int)
  • La présente étude cas-témoin, de cohorte et rétrospective visait à déterminer le taux de réadmission des patients diabétiques dans les 28 jours suivant leur sortie de l'hôpital et la relation entre la qualité des soins en séjour hospitalier et une réadmission non programmée. (who.int)
  • Dia- study aimed to determine the 28-day sion among diabetic patients exposed betic patients may face problems in readmission rate for diabetic patients to substandard care was 2.24, and the controlling or managing blood sugar at a hospital in the Eastern province fraction of early unplanned readmis- levels. (who.int)
  • Diabetic neuropathy refers to the nerve damage caused due to diabetes. (medgadget.com)
  • We utilized nerve dysfunction Erlotinib HCl like a measure of amount of nerve damage caused by the peripheral neuropathy by measuring sensory nerve conduction velocity (SNCV) in these mice. (sciencepop.org)
  • Diabetic neuropathy is nerve damage caused by diabetes. (doctorkatzman.com)
  • Fast Five Quiz: Diabetic Neuropathy Workup - Medscape - Aug 02, 2023. (medscape.com)
  • The diabetic neuropathy market is expected to exhibit a CAGR of 6.7% during the forecast period (2023-2030). (datamintelligence.com)
  • Diabetic neuropathy can affect any peripheral nerves including sensory neurons, motor neurons, and the autonomic nervous system. (wikipedia.org)
  • Diabetic peripheral neuropathy refers to damage to peripheral nerves, most commonly the nerves of the feet and legs. (diabeteshealthmatters.com)
  • Recurrent diabetic nephropathy is observed as early as 2 years after KTA in a diabetic recipient or upon failure of the pancreas graft after SPK but has never been reported with a functioning SPK. (medscape.com)
  • Of 35 survivors with neurologic sequelae, 13 had migraine headache, 2 stroke, 2 peripheral sensory neuropathy, and 2 peripheral nerve lesions. (cdc.gov)
  • Neuropathy improves after both kidney and pancreas transplantation, suggesting that renal failure and diabetes contribute to the sensory neuropathy commonly observed at the time of transplantation. (medscape.com)
  • One commonly recognized autonomic dysfunction in diabetics is orthostatic hypotension, or becoming dizzy and possibly fainting when standing up due to a sudden drop in blood pressure. (wikipedia.org)
  • The global diabetic neuropathy market reached USD 3,775.4 million in 2022 and is projected to witness lucrative growth by reaching up to USD 6,298.1 million by 2030. (datamintelligence.com)
  • Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is the most prevalent neuropathy in diabetes and a common cause of morbidity. (springer.com)
  • Autonomic neuropathy is damage to nerves that control your internal organs. (nih.gov)
  • Neuropathy is damage to nerves, and diabetic neuropathy is damage to nerves that occurs as a result of diabetes. (diabeteshealthmatters.com)