Tuberculosis resistant to chemotherapy with two or more ANTITUBERCULAR AGENTS, including at least ISONIAZID and RIFAMPICIN. The problem of resistance is particularly troublesome in tuberculous OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTIONS associated with HIV INFECTIONS. It requires the use of second line drugs which are more toxic than the first line regimens. TB with isolates that have developed further resistance to at least three of the six classes of second line drugs is defined as EXTENSIVELY DRUG-RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS.
Drugs used in the treatment of tuberculosis. They are divided into two main classes: "first-line" agents, those with the greatest efficacy and acceptable degrees of toxicity used successfully in the great majority of cases; and "second-line" drugs used in drug-resistant cases or those in which some other patient-related condition has compromised the effectiveness of primary therapy.
Tuberculosis resistant to ISONIAZID and RIFAMPIN and at least three of the six main classes of second-line drugs (AMINOGLYCOSIDES; polypeptide agents; FLUOROQUINOLONES; THIOAMIDES; CYCLOSERINE; and PARA-AMINOSALICYLIC ACID) as defined by the CDC.
A species of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria that produces TUBERCULOSIS in humans, other primates, CATTLE; DOGS; and some other animals which have contact with humans. Growth tends to be in serpentine, cordlike masses in which the bacilli show a parallel orientation.
MYCOBACTERIUM infections of the lung.
Any of the infectious diseases of man and other animals caused by species of MYCOBACTERIUM.
Antibacterial agent used primarily as a tuberculostatic. It remains the treatment of choice for tuberculosis.
A semisynthetic antibiotic produced from Streptomyces mediterranei. It has a broad antibacterial spectrum, including activity against several forms of Mycobacterium. In susceptible organisms it inhibits DNA-dependent RNA polymerase activity by forming a stable complex with the enzyme. It thus suppresses the initiation of RNA synthesis. Rifampin is bactericidal, and acts on both intracellular and extracellular organisms. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1160)
Material coughed up from the lungs and expectorated via the mouth. It contains MUCUS, cellular debris, and microorganisms. It may also contain blood or pus.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
Substances obtained from various species of microorganisms that are, alone or in combination with other agents, of use in treating various forms of tuberculosis; most of these agents are merely bacteriostatic, induce resistance in the organisms, and may be toxic.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to several structurally and functionally distinct drugs simultaneously. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
A treatment method in which patients are under direct observation when they take their medication or receive their treatment. This method is designed to reduce the risk of treatment interruption and to ensure patient compliance.
An antitubercular agent that inhibits the transfer of mycolic acids into the cell wall of the tubercle bacillus. It may also inhibit the synthesis of spermidine in mycobacteria. The action is usually bactericidal, and the drug can penetrate human cell membranes to exert its lethal effect. (From Smith and Reynard, Textbook of Pharmacology, 1992, p863)
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term that can be defined in a medical context. It is a geographical location, referring to the Republic of India, a country in South Asia. If you have any questions related to medical topics or definitions, I would be happy to help with those!
A republic in southern Africa, the southernmost part of Africa. It has three capitals: Pretoria (administrative), Cape Town (legislative), and Bloemfontein (judicial). Officially the Republic of South Africa since 1960, it was called the Union of South Africa 1910-1960.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Peru" is not a medical term or concept, it is a country located in South America, known officially as the Republic of Peru. If you have any questions about medical topics that I can help clarify, please let me know!
Diminished or failed response of an organism, disease or tissue to the intended effectiveness of a chemical or drug. It should be differentiated from DRUG TOLERANCE which is the progressive diminution of the susceptibility of a human or animal to the effects of a drug, as a result of continued administration.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent or treat TUBERCULOSIS.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
An acute form of TUBERCULOSIS in which minute tubercles are formed in a number of organs of the body due to dissemination of the bacilli through the blood stream.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Simultaneous resistance to several structurally and functionally distinct drugs.
The dormant form of TUBERCULOSIS where the person shows no obvious symptoms and no sign of the causative agent (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in the SPUTUM despite being positive for tuberculosis infection skin test.
Infection of the lymph nodes by tuberculosis. Tuberculous infection of the cervical lymph nodes is scrofula.
A pyrazine that is used therapeutically as an antitubercular agent.
Tuberculosis of the bones or joints.
TUBERCULOSIS that involves any region of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, mostly in the distal ILEUM and the CECUM. In most cases, MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS is the pathogen. Clinical features include ABDOMINAL PAIN; FEVER; and palpable mass in the ileocecal area.
Osteitis or caries of the vertebrae, usually occurring as a complication of tuberculosis of the lungs.
An infection of cattle caused by MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS. It is transmissible to man and other animals.
Tuberculosis of the skin. It includes scrofuloderma and tuberculid, but not LUPUS VULGARIS.
One of several skin tests to determine past or present tuberculosis infection. A purified protein derivative of the tubercle bacilli, called tuberculin, is introduced into the skin by scratch, puncture, or interdermal injection.
Resistance or diminished response of a neoplasm to an antineoplastic agent in humans, animals, or cell or tissue cultures.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
The ability of viruses to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents or antiviral agents. This resistance is acquired through gene mutation.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
The ability of microorganisms, especially bacteria, to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
The bovine variety of the tubercle bacillus. It is called also Mycobacterium tuberculosis var. bovis.
Tuberculosis of the serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and surrounding the lungs.
A general term for MYCOBACTERIUM infections of any part of the UROGENITAL SYSTEM in either the male or the female.
A second-line antitubercular agent that inhibits mycolic acid synthesis.
An active immunizing agent and a viable avirulent attenuated strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, var. bovis, which confers immunity to mycobacterial infections. It is used also in immunotherapy of neoplasms due to its stimulation of antibodies and non-specific immunity.
A form of bacterial meningitis caused by MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS or rarely MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS. The organism seeds the meninges and forms microtuberculomas which subsequently rupture. The clinical course tends to be subacute, with progressions occurring over a period of several days or longer. Headache and meningeal irritation may be followed by SEIZURES, cranial neuropathies, focal neurologic deficits, somnolence, and eventually COMA. The illness may occur in immunocompetent individuals or as an OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION in the ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME and other immunodeficiency syndromes. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp717-9)
A species of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria that acts as both a human and plant pathogen.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
An antibiotic produced by the soil actinomycete Streptomyces griseus. It acts by inhibiting the initiation and elongation processes during protein synthesis.
A plant genus of the family ARACEAE that contains pinellian (an acidic polysaccharide). The plant is an ingredient of some traditional Asian medicinal mixtures including sho-saiko-to, saiko-keishi-to, and banxia houpu decoction.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Azerbaijan" is not a medical concept or condition that has a defined meaning within the medical field. It is the name of a country located in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. If you have any questions related to geography, history, or culture, I would be happy to try and help with those instead!
Tuberculous infection of the eye, primarily the iris, ciliary body, and choroid.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Infection of the spleen with species of MYCOBACTERIUM.
A genus of gram-positive, aerobic bacteria. Most species are free-living in soil and water, but the major habitat for some is the diseased tissue of warm-blooded hosts.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Infection of the LIVER with species of MYCOBACTERIUM, most often MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS. It is characterized by localized small tuberculous miliary lesions or tumor-like mass (TUBERCULOMA), and abnormalities in liver function tests.
MYCOBACTERIUM infections of the female reproductive tract (GENITALIA, FEMALE).
Includes the spectrum of human immunodeficiency virus infections that range from asymptomatic seropositivity, thru AIDS-related complex (ARC), to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
A rapid-growing, nonphotochromogenic species of MYCOBACTERIUM originally isolated from human smegma and found also in soil and water. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
A 170-kDa transmembrane glycoprotein from the superfamily of ATP-BINDING CASSETTE TRANSPORTERS. It serves as an ATP-dependent efflux pump for a variety of chemicals, including many ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS. Overexpression of this glycoprotein is associated with multidrug resistance (see DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE).
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Agents used in the treatment of malaria. They are usually classified on the basis of their action against plasmodia at different stages in their life cycle in the human. (From AMA, Drug Evaluations Annual, 1992, p1585)
Infection of the ENDOCRINE GLANDS with species of MYCOBACTERIUM, most often MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS.
Tuberculosis of the brain, spinal cord, or meninges (TUBERCULOSIS, MENINGEAL), most often caused by MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS and rarely by MYCOBACTERIUM BOVIS. The infection may be limited to the nervous system or coexist in other organs (e.g., TUBERCULOSIS, PULMONARY). The organism tends to seed the meninges causing a diffuse meningitis and leads to the formation of TUBERCULOMA, which may occur within the brain, spinal cord, or perimeningeal spaces. Tuberculous involvement of the vertebral column (TUBERCULOSIS, SPINAL) may result in nerve root or spinal cord compression. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp717-20)
Tuberculosis involving the larynx, producing ulceration of the VOCAL CORDS and the LARYNGEAL MUCOSA.
Antineoplastic antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces peucetius. It is a hydroxy derivative of DAUNORUBICIN.
Procedures for identifying types and strains of bacteria. The most frequently employed typing systems are BACTERIOPHAGE TYPING and SEROTYPING as well as bacteriocin typing and biotyping.
Infection of the KIDNEY with species of MYCOBACTERIUM.
Variation occurring within a species in the presence or length of DNA fragment generated by a specific endonuclease at a specific site in the genome. Such variations are generated by mutations that create or abolish recognition sites for these enzymes or change the length of the fragment.
The application of molecular biology to the answering of epidemiological questions. The examination of patterns of changes in DNA to implicate particular carcinogens and the use of molecular markers to predict which individuals are at highest risk for a disease are common examples.
A method where a culturing surface inoculated with microbe is exposed to small disks containing known amounts of a chemical agent resulting in a zone of inhibition (usually in millimeters) of growth of the microbe corresponding to the susceptibility of the strain to the agent.

Clinical and operational value of the extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis definition. (1/139)

Currently, no information is available on the effect of resistance/susceptibility to first-line drugs different from isoniazid and rifampicin in determining the outcome of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) patients, and whether being XDR-TB is a more accurate indicator of poor clinical outcome than being resistant to all first-line anti-tuberculosis (TB) drugs. To investigate this issue, a large series of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) and XDR-TB cases diagnosed in Estonia, Germany, Italy and the Russian Federation during the period 1999-2006 were analysed. Drug-susceptibility testing for first- and second-line anti-TB drugs, quality assurance and treatment delivery was performed according to World Health Organization recommendations in all study sites. Out of 4,583 culture-positive TB cases analysed, 361 (7.9%) were MDR and 64 (1.4%) were XDR. XDR-TB cases had a relative risk (RR) of 1.58 to have an unfavourable outcome compared with MDR-TB cases resistant to all first-line drugs (isoniazid, rifampicin ethambutol, streptomycin and, when tested, pyrazinamide), and an RR of 2.61 compared with "other" MDR-TB cases (those susceptible to at least one first-line anti-TB drug among ethambutol, pyrazinamide and streptomycin, regardless of resistance to the second-line drugs not defining XDR-TB). The emergence of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis confirms that problems in tuberculosis management are still present in Europe. While waiting for new tools which will facilitate management of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis, accessibility to quality diagnostic and treatment services should be urgently ensured and adequate public health policies should be rapidly implemented to prevent further development of drug resistance.  (+info)

Evolution of the extensively drug-resistant F15/LAM4/KZN strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. (2/139)

BACKGROUND: Although several hot spots of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis have been identified on the African continent, extensive drug resistance (XDR) has not been reported until recently, when a large number of XDR cases were identified in KwaZulu-Natal. The majority of the patients involved were infected with the same strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (F15/LAM4/KZN). We report this strain's development from multidrug resistance to XDR. METHODS: We searched databases for studies performed during the period 1994-2005 that involved the resistance patterns of isolates of M. tuberculosis with the F15/LAM4/KZN strain fingerprint. RESULTS: As early as 1994, the F15/LAM4/KZN strain was responsible for a number of cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis, indicating the ability of the strain to cause cases of primary resistant tuberculosis. Some of the isolates were also resistant to streptomycin. From 1994 onwards, multidrug-resistant isolates with resistance to additional drugs were found, and the first XDR isolate was discovered in 2001. CONCLUSIONS: Drug resistance to as many as 7 drugs developed in a local strain of M. tuberculosis in slightly more than a decade. This coincided with the introduction of the directly observed therapy-based and directly observed therapy-plus-based tuberculosis-control programs. It is postulated that the introduction of these programs in the absence of susceptibility testing or drug resistance surveillance has been instrumental in the development of XDR in this highly transmissible F15/LAM4/KZN strain. The expanding pool of human immunodeficiency virus-infected, tuberculosis-susceptible individuals has likely contributed to this development.  (+info)

Colorimetric detection of multidrug-resistant or extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis by use of malachite green indicator dye. (3/139)

The malachite green microtube (MGMT) susceptibility assay was performed directly on sputum specimens (n = 80) and indirectly on Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates (n = 60). The technique is based on the malachite green dye, which changes color in response to M. tuberculosis growth. The MGMT assay is simple and rapid and does not require expensive instruments.  (+info)

Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in South Korea: risk factors and treatment outcomes among patients at a tertiary referral hospital. (4/139)

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Multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: implications for the HIV epidemic and antiretroviral therapy rollout in South Africa. (5/139)

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Extensively drug-resistant (XDR) tuberculosis: an old and new threat. (6/139)

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a worldwide emergency (8 million new cases per year, 2 million deaths annually) mostly affecting poor countries. To this old, persistent threat, a new emergency is adding further challenge, i.e., the multidrug-resistant TB, which in its extreme and highly lethal form is called XDR TB (extensively drug-resistant TB). How to fight XDR TB is a high research and public health priority.  (+info)

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. (7/139)

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High frequency of resistance to the drugs isoniazid and rifampicin among tuberculosis cases in the city of Cabo de Santo Agostinho, an urban area in Northeastern Brazil. (8/139)

The objective of the present study was to investigate the frequency and risk factors for developing multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Cabo de Santo Agostinho, PE. This was a prospective study conducted from 2000 to 2003, in which suspected cases were investigated using bacilloscopy and culturing. Out of 232 confirmed cases of tuberculosis, culturing and antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed on 174. Thirty-five of the 174 cultures showed resistance to all drugs. The frequencies of primary and acquired resistance to any drug were 14% and 50% respectively, while the frequencies of primary and acquired multidrug resistance were 8.3% and 40%. Previous tuberculosis treatment and abandonment of treatment were risk factors for drug resistance. The high levels of primary and acquired resistance to the combination of isoniazid and rifampicin contributed towards the difficulties in controlling tuberculosis transmission in the city.  (+info)

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a form of tuberculosis (TB) infection caused by bacteria that are resistant to at least two of the first-line anti-TB drugs, isoniazid and rifampin. This makes MDR-TB more difficult and expensive to treat, requiring longer treatment durations and the use of second-line medications, which can have more severe side effects.

MDR-TB can occur when there are errors in prescribing or taking anti-TB drugs, or when people with TB do not complete their full course of treatment. It is a significant global health concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where TB is more prevalent and resources for diagnosis and treatment may be limited.

MDR-TB can spread from person to person through the air when someone with the infection coughs, speaks, or sneezes. People at higher risk of contracting MDR-TB include those who have been in close contact with someone with MDR-TB, people with weakened immune systems, and healthcare workers who treat TB patients.

Preventing the spread of MDR-TB involves early detection and prompt treatment, as well as infection control measures such as wearing masks, improving ventilation, and separating infected individuals from others. It is also important to ensure that anti-TB drugs are used correctly and that patients complete their full course of treatment to prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

Antitubercular agents, also known as anti-tuberculosis drugs or simply TB drugs, are a category of medications specifically used for the treatment and prevention of tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These drugs target various stages of the bacteria's growth and replication process to eradicate it from the body or prevent its spread.

There are several first-line antitubercular agents, including:

1. Isoniazid (INH): This is a bactericidal drug that inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acids, essential components of the mycobacterial cell wall. It is primarily active against actively growing bacilli.
2. Rifampin (RIF) or Rifampicin: A bactericidal drug that inhibits DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing the transcription of genetic information into mRNA. This results in the interruption of protein synthesis and ultimately leads to the death of the bacteria.
3. Ethambutol (EMB): A bacteriostatic drug that inhibits the arabinosyl transferase enzyme, which is responsible for the synthesis of arabinan, a crucial component of the mycobacterial cell wall. It is primarily active against actively growing bacilli.
4. Pyrazinamide (PZA): A bactericidal drug that inhibits the synthesis of fatty acids and mycolic acids in the mycobacterial cell wall, particularly under acidic conditions. PZA is most effective during the initial phase of treatment when the bacteria are in a dormant or slow-growing state.

These first-line antitubercular agents are often used together in a combination therapy to ensure complete eradication of the bacteria and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains. Treatment duration typically lasts for at least six months, with the initial phase consisting of daily doses of INH, RIF, EMB, and PZA for two months, followed by a continuation phase of INH and RIF for four months.

Second-line antitubercular agents are used when patients have drug-resistant TB or cannot tolerate first-line drugs. These include drugs like aminoglycosides (e.g., streptomycin, amikacin), fluoroquinolones (e.g., ofloxacin, moxifloxacin), and injectable bacteriostatic agents (e.g., capreomycin, ethionamide).

It is essential to closely monitor patients undergoing antitubercular therapy for potential side effects and ensure adherence to the treatment regimen to achieve optimal outcomes and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is a term used to describe a rare, severe form of tuberculosis (TB) that is resistant to the majority of available drugs used to treat TB. This means that the bacteria that cause TB have developed resistance to at least four of the core anti-TB drugs, including isoniazid and rifampin, as well as any fluoroquinolone and at least one of the three injectable second-line drugs (amikacin, capreomycin, or kanamycin).

XDR-TB can be challenging to diagnose and treat due to its resistance to multiple drugs. It is also more likely to cause severe illness, spread from person to person, and result in poor treatment outcomes compared to drug-susceptible TB. XDR-TB is a public health concern, particularly in areas with high rates of TB and limited access to effective treatments.

It's important to note that XDR-TB should not be confused with Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR-TB), which refers to TB that is resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampin, but not necessarily to the other second-line drugs.

'Mycobacterium tuberculosis' is a species of slow-growing, aerobic, gram-positive bacteria that demonstrates acid-fastness. It is the primary causative agent of tuberculosis (TB) in humans. This bacterium has a complex cell wall rich in lipids, including mycolic acids, which provides a hydrophobic barrier and makes it resistant to many conventional antibiotics. The ability of M. tuberculosis to survive within host macrophages and resist the immune response contributes to its pathogenicity and the difficulty in treating TB infections.

M. tuberculosis is typically transmitted through inhalation of infectious droplets containing the bacteria, which primarily targets the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body (extrapulmonary TB). The infection may result in a spectrum of clinical manifestations, ranging from latent TB infection (LTBI) to active disease. LTBI represents a dormant state where individuals are infected with M. tuberculosis but do not show symptoms and cannot transmit the bacteria. However, they remain at risk of developing active TB throughout their lifetime, especially if their immune system becomes compromised.

Effective prevention and control strategies for TB rely on early detection, treatment, and public health interventions to limit transmission. The current first-line treatments for drug-susceptible TB include a combination of isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for at least six months. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) strains of M. tuberculosis present significant challenges in TB control and require more complex treatment regimens.

Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs and can spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. The infection typically enters the body when a person inhales droplets containing the bacteria, which are released into the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

The symptoms of pulmonary TB can vary but often include:

* Persistent cough that lasts for more than three weeks and may produce phlegm or blood-tinged sputum
* Chest pain or discomfort, particularly when breathing deeply or coughing
* Fatigue and weakness
* Unexplained weight loss
* Fever and night sweats
* Loss of appetite

Pulmonary TB can cause serious complications if left untreated, including damage to the lungs, respiratory failure, and spread of the infection to other parts of the body. Treatment typically involves a course of antibiotics that can last several months, and it is essential for patients to complete the full treatment regimen to ensure that the infection is fully eradicated.

Preventive measures include vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine, which can provide some protection against severe forms of TB in children, and measures to prevent the spread of the disease, such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, wearing a mask in public places, and avoiding close contact with people who have active TB.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It primarily affects the lungs but can also involve other organs and tissues in the body. The infection is usually spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

The symptoms of pulmonary TB include persistent cough, chest pain, coughing up blood, fatigue, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, chest X-ray, and microbiological tests such as sputum smear microscopy and culture. In some cases, molecular tests like polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may be used for rapid diagnosis.

Treatment usually consists of a standard six-month course of multiple antibiotics, including isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. In some cases, longer treatment durations or different drug regimens might be necessary due to drug resistance or other factors. Preventive measures include vaccination with the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine and early detection and treatment of infected individuals to prevent transmission.

Isoniazid is an antimicrobial medication used for the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis (TB). It is a first-line medication, often used in combination with other TB drugs, to kill the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria that cause TB. Isoniazid works by inhibiting the synthesis of mycolic acids, which are essential components of the bacterial cell wall. This leads to bacterial death and helps to control the spread of TB.

Isoniazid is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquid solutions. It can be taken orally or given by injection. The medication is generally well-tolerated, but it can cause side effects such as peripheral neuropathy, hepatitis, and skin rashes. Regular monitoring of liver function tests and supplementation with pyridoxine (vitamin B6) may be necessary to prevent or manage these side effects.

It is important to note that Isoniazid is not effective against drug-resistant strains of TB, and its use should be guided by the results of drug susceptibility testing. Additionally, it is essential to complete the full course of treatment as prescribed to ensure the successful eradication of the bacteria and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

Rifampin is an antibiotic medication that belongs to the class of drugs known as rifamycins. It works by inhibiting bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, thereby preventing bacterial growth and multiplication. Rifampin is used to treat a variety of infections caused by bacteria, including tuberculosis, Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Legionella pneumophila. It is also used to prevent meningococcal disease in people who have been exposed to the bacteria.

Rifampin is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and injectable solutions. The medication is usually taken two to four times a day, depending on the type and severity of the infection being treated. Rifampin may be given alone or in combination with other antibiotics.

It is important to note that rifampin can interact with several other medications, including oral contraceptives, anticoagulants, and anti-seizure drugs, among others. Therefore, it is essential to inform your healthcare provider about all the medications you are taking before starting treatment with rifampin.

Rifampin may cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, headache, and changes in the color of urine, tears, sweat, and saliva to a reddish-orange color. These side effects are usually mild and go away on their own. However, if they persist or become bothersome, it is important to consult your healthcare provider.

In summary, rifampin is an antibiotic medication used to treat various bacterial infections and prevent meningococcal disease. It works by inhibiting bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing bacterial growth and multiplication. Rifampin may interact with several other medications, and it can cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dizziness, headache, and changes in the color of body fluids.

Sputum is defined as a mixture of saliva and phlegm that is expelled from the respiratory tract during coughing, sneezing or deep breathing. It can be clear, mucoid, or purulent (containing pus) depending on the underlying cause of the respiratory issue. Examination of sputum can help diagnose various respiratory conditions such as infections, inflammation, or other lung diseases.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

Antitubercular antibiotics are a class of medications specifically used to treat tuberculosis (TB) and other mycobacterial infections. Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which can affect various organs, primarily the lungs.

There are several antitubercular antibiotics available, with different mechanisms of action that target the unique cell wall structure and metabolism of mycobacteria. Some commonly prescribed antitubercular antibiotics include:

1. Isoniazid (INH): This is a first-line medication for treating TB. It inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acids, a crucial component of the mycobacterial cell wall. Isoniazid can be bactericidal or bacteriostatic depending on the concentration and duration of treatment.
2. Rifampin (RIF): Also known as rifampicin, this antibiotic inhibits bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing the transcription of genetic information into mRNA. It is a potent bactericidal agent against mycobacteria and is often used in combination with other antitubercular drugs.
3. Ethambutol (EMB): This antibiotic inhibits the synthesis of arabinogalactan and mycolic acids, both essential components of the mycobacterial cell wall. Ethambutol is primarily bacteriostatic but can be bactericidal at higher concentrations.
4. Pyrazinamide (PZA): This medication is active against dormant or slow-growing mycobacteria, making it an essential component of TB treatment regimens. Its mechanism of action involves the inhibition of fatty acid synthesis and the disruption of bacterial membrane potential.
5. Streptomycin: An aminoglycoside antibiotic that binds to the 30S ribosomal subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis in mycobacteria. It is primarily used as a second-line treatment for drug-resistant TB.
6. Fluoroquinolones: These are a class of antibiotics that inhibit DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, essential enzymes involved in bacterial DNA replication. Examples include ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and levofloxacin, which can be used as second-line treatments for drug-resistant TB.

These antitubercular drugs are often used in combination to prevent the development of drug resistance and improve treatment outcomes. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a standardized regimen consisting of isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for the initial two months, followed by isoniazid and rifampicin for an additional four to seven months. However, treatment regimens may vary depending on the patient's clinical presentation, drug susceptibility patterns, and local guidelines.

Multiple bacterial drug resistance (MDR) is a medical term that refers to the resistance of multiple strains of bacteria to several antibiotics or antimicrobial agents. This means that these bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive and multiply despite being exposed to drugs that were previously effective in treating infections caused by them.

MDR is a significant public health concern because it limits the treatment options available for bacterial infections, making them more difficult and expensive to treat. In some cases, MDR bacteria may cause severe or life-threatening infections that are resistant to all available antibiotics, leaving doctors with few or no effective therapeutic options.

MDR can arise due to various mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that inactivate antibiotics, changes in bacterial cell membrane permeability that prevent antibiotics from entering the bacteria, and the development of efflux pumps that expel antibiotics out of the bacteria. The misuse or overuse of antibiotics is a significant contributor to the emergence and spread of MDR bacteria.

Preventing and controlling the spread of MDR bacteria requires a multifaceted approach, including the judicious use of antibiotics, infection control measures, surveillance, and research into new antimicrobial agents.

Directly Observed Therapy (DOT) is a treatment strategy in which a healthcare professional directly observes the patient taking each dose of their medication, typically used in the context of tuberculosis (TB) treatment. The goal of DOT is to ensure adherence to the prescribed treatment regimen and improve treatment outcomes by reducing the likelihood of missed doses or irregular medication-taking behaviors that can contribute to drug resistance and disease relapse.

In a DOT setting, the healthcare provider, which could be a nurse, community health worker, or other designated individual, directly observes the patient swallowing the medication. This can occur in various settings, such as a clinic, hospital, or even the patient's home, depending on the program and resources available. The frequency of observations may vary based on the specific treatment plan and clinical context.

DOT has been shown to improve treatment completion rates and reduce the risk of TB transmission and drug resistance. It is an essential component of the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommended strategy for TB control and care.

Ethambutol is an antimycobacterial medication used for the treatment of tuberculosis (TB). It works by inhibiting the synthesis of mycobacterial cell walls, which leads to the death of the bacteria. Ethambutol is often used in combination with other TB drugs, such as isoniazid and rifampin, to prevent the development of drug-resistant strains of the bacteria.

The most common side effect of ethambutol is optic neuritis, which can cause visual disturbances such as decreased vision, color blindness, or blurred vision. This side effect is usually reversible if the medication is stopped promptly. Other potential side effects include skin rashes, joint pain, and gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea and vomiting.

Ethambutol is available in oral tablet and solution forms, and is typically taken once or twice daily. The dosage of ethambutol is based on the patient's weight, and it is important to follow the healthcare provider's instructions carefully to avoid toxicity. Regular monitoring of visual acuity and liver function is recommended during treatment with ethambutol.

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "India" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country in South Asia, the second-most populous country in the world, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and numerous contributions to various fields including medicine. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "South Africa" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located at the southernmost tip of the African continent. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Peru" is not a medical term. It is a country located in South America, known for its rich history, diverse culture, and beautiful landscapes. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help answer those!

Drug resistance, also known as antimicrobial resistance, is the ability of a microorganism (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand the effects of a drug that was originally designed to inhibit or kill it. This occurs when the microorganism undergoes genetic changes that allow it to survive in the presence of the drug. As a result, the drug becomes less effective or even completely ineffective at treating infections caused by these resistant organisms.

Drug resistance can develop through various mechanisms, including mutations in the genes responsible for producing the target protein of the drug, alteration of the drug's target site, modification or destruction of the drug by enzymes produced by the microorganism, and active efflux of the drug from the cell.

The emergence and spread of drug-resistant microorganisms pose significant challenges in medical treatment, as they can lead to increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. The overuse and misuse of antimicrobial agents, as well as poor infection control practices, contribute to the development and dissemination of drug-resistant strains. To address this issue, it is crucial to promote prudent use of antimicrobials, enhance surveillance and monitoring of resistance patterns, invest in research and development of new antimicrobial agents, and strengthen infection prevention and control measures.

A tuberculosis vaccine, also known as the BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine, is a type of immunization used to prevent tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The BCG vaccine contains a weakened strain of the bacteria that causes TB in cattle.

The BCG vaccine works by stimulating an immune response in the body, which helps to protect against severe forms of TB, such as TB meningitis and TB in children. However, it is not very effective at preventing pulmonary TB (TB that affects the lungs) in adults.

The BCG vaccine is not routinely recommended for use in the United States due to the low risk of TB infection in the general population. However, it may be given to people who are at high risk of exposure to TB, such as healthcare workers, laboratory personnel, and people traveling to countries with high rates of TB.

It is important to note that the BCG vaccine does not provide complete protection against TB and that other measures, such as testing and treatment for latent TB infection, are also important for controlling the spread of this disease.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Miliary tuberculosis is a disseminated form of tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The term "miliary" refers to the tiny millet-like size (2-5 microns in diameter) of the TB foci observed in the lungs or other organs during autopsy or on imaging studies. In military tuberculosis, these small granules are widespread throughout the body, affecting multiple organs such as the lungs, liver, spleen, bones, and brain. It can occur in people with weakened immune systems, including those with HIV/AIDS, or in individuals who have recently been infected with TB bacteria. Symptoms may include fever, night sweats, weight loss, fatigue, and cough. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial to prevent severe complications and improve outcomes.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

"Multiple drug resistance" (MDR) is a term used in medicine to describe the condition where a patient's infection becomes resistant to multiple antimicrobial drugs. This means that the bacteria, virus, fungus or parasite that is causing the infection has developed the ability to survive and multiply despite being exposed to medications that were originally designed to kill or inhibit its growth.

In particular, MDR occurs when an organism becomes resistant to at least one drug in three or more antimicrobial categories. This can happen due to genetic changes in the microorganism that allow it to survive in the presence of these drugs. The development of MDR is a significant concern for public health because it limits treatment options and can make infections harder, if not impossible, to treat.

MDR can develop through several mechanisms, including mutations in the genes that encode drug targets or enzymes involved in drug metabolism, as well as the acquisition of genetic elements such as plasmids and transposons that carry resistance genes. The overuse and misuse of antimicrobial drugs are major drivers of MDR, as they create selective pressure for the emergence and spread of resistant strains.

MDR infections can occur in various settings, including hospitals, long-term care facilities, and communities. They can affect people of all ages and backgrounds, although certain populations may be at higher risk, such as those with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. Preventing the spread of MDR requires a multifaceted approach that includes surveillance, infection control, antimicrobial stewardship, and research into new therapies and diagnostics.

Latent Tuberculosis (TB) infection is defined as a state of persistent immune response to stimulation by Mycobacterium tuberculosis without evidence of clinically manifest active TB disease. The individuals with latent TB infection do not feel ill and are not infectious. However, they may develop active TB disease later in their lives, typically within the first 2 years after infection. It's estimated that about 5-10% of people with latent TB infection will develop active TB disease during their lifetime. The risk is higher in people who have weakened immune systems due to HIV infection, malnutrition, aging, or use of immunosuppressive medications. Diagnosis of latent TB infection is typically made through a tuberculin skin test or an interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA). Treatment of latent TB infection can reduce the risk of developing active TB disease.

Tuberculosis (TB) of the lymph node, also known as scrofula or tuberculous lymphadenitis, is a specific form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. It involves the infection and inflammation of the lymph nodes (lymph glands) by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium. The lymph nodes most commonly affected are the cervical (neck) and supraclavicular (above the collarbone) lymph nodes, but other sites can also be involved.

The infection typically spreads to the lymph nodes through the bloodstream or via nearby infected organs, such as the lungs or intestines. The affected lymph nodes may become enlarged, firm, and tender, forming masses called cold abscesses that can suppurate (form pus) and eventually rupture. In some cases, the lymph nodes may calcify, leaving hard, stone-like deposits.

Diagnosis of tuberculous lymphadenitis often involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as CT or MRI scans), and microbiological or histopathological examination of tissue samples obtained through fine-needle aspiration biopsy or surgical excision. Treatment typically consists of a standard anti-tuberculosis multi-drug regimen, which may include isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for at least six months. Surgical intervention might be necessary in cases with complications or treatment failure.

Pyrazinamide is an antituberculosis agent, a type of medication used to treat tuberculosis (TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is an antimicrobial drug that works by inhibiting the growth of the bacterium. Pyrazinamide is often used in combination with other TB drugs such as isoniazid, rifampin, and ethambutol.

The medical definition of Pyrazinamide is: a synthetic antituberculosis agent, C6H5N3O (a pyridine derivative), used in the treatment of tuberculosis, especially in combination with isoniazid and rifampin. It is converted in the body to its active form, pyrazinoic acid, which inhibits the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by interfering with bacterial cell wall synthesis.

It's important to note that Pyrazinamide should be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional and is usually prescribed for several months to ensure complete eradication of the TB bacteria. As with any medication, it can cause side effects, and individuals should report any unusual symptoms to their healthcare provider.

Osteoarticular tuberculosis is a form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB) that involves the bones and joints. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The infection can spread to the bones and joints through the bloodstream or from nearby infected organs, such as the lungs.

The most commonly affected sites are the spine (Pott's disease), hip, knee, wrist, and small bones of the hands and feet. Symptoms may include pain, swelling, stiffness, and decreased range of motion in the affected joint or bone. In some cases, the infection can lead to deformity, chronic disability, or even death if left untreated.

Diagnosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, imaging studies (such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI), and laboratory tests (such as blood tests, sputum cultures, or biopsy). Treatment usually consists of a long course of antibiotics (usually for at least six months) to kill the bacteria. Surgery may also be necessary in some cases to remove infected tissue or stabilize damaged joints.

Gastrointestinal tuberculosis (GTB) is a type of tuberculosis that affects the gastrointestinal tract, including the stomach, intestines, and associated organs such as the liver and spleen. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which typically infects the lungs (pulmonary TB) but can spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system.

In GTB, the bacteria invade the tissues of the gastrointestinal tract and cause inflammation, ulceration, and thickening of the intestinal wall. This can lead to a variety of symptoms, including abdominal pain, diarrhea (which may be bloody), weight loss, fever, and fatigue. GTB can also cause complications such as bowel obstruction, perforation, or fistula formation.

Diagnosis of GTB can be challenging, as the symptoms are non-specific and can mimic those of other gastrointestinal disorders. Diagnostic tests may include endoscopy, biopsy, culture, and molecular testing for the presence of M. tuberculosis. Treatment typically involves a prolonged course of multiple antibiotics, such as isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide, administered under the guidance of a healthcare provider.

It's worth noting that GTB is relatively rare in developed countries with low rates of tuberculosis, but it is more common in areas where TB is endemic or among populations with weakened immune systems, such as those with HIV/AIDS.

Tuberculosis (TB) of the spine, also known as Pott's disease, is a specific form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis that involves the vertebral column. It is caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium, which primarily affects the lungs but can spread through the bloodstream to other parts of the body, including the spine.

In Pott's disease, the infection leads to the destruction of the spongy bone (vertebral body) and the intervertebral disc space, resulting in vertebral collapse, kyphosis (hunchback deformity), and potential neurological complications due to spinal cord compression. Common symptoms include back pain, stiffness, fever, night sweats, and weight loss. Early diagnosis and treatment with a multidrug antibiotic regimen are crucial to prevent long-term disability and further spread of the infection.

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium bovis. It primarily affects cattle but can also spread to other mammals including humans, causing a similar disease known as zoonotic tuberculosis. The infection in animals typically occurs through inhalation of infectious droplets or ingestion of contaminated feed and water.

In cattle, the disease often affects the respiratory system, leading to symptoms such as chronic coughing, weight loss, and difficulty breathing. However, it can also affect other organs, including the intestines, lymph nodes, and mammary glands. Diagnosis of BTB typically involves a combination of clinical signs, laboratory tests, and epidemiological data.

Control measures for BTB include regular testing and culling of infected animals, movement restrictions, and vaccination of susceptible populations. In many countries, BTB is a notifiable disease, meaning that cases must be reported to the authorities. Proper cooking and pasteurization of dairy products can help prevent transmission to humans.

Cutaneous tuberculosis (CTB) is a rare form of tuberculosis that affects the skin. It is caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, including M. tuberculosis, M. bovis, and M. africanum. CTB can occur as a primary infection after direct inoculation of the skin with the bacteria, or it can be secondary to a distant focus of infection such as lung or lymph node TB.

The clinical presentation of CTB is varied and can include papules, nodules, pustules, ulcers, plaques, or scaly lesions. The lesions may be painless or painful, and they can be associated with systemic symptoms such as fever, night sweats, and weight loss.

CTB can be diagnosed through a combination of clinical examination, skin biopsy, culture, and PCR testing. Treatment typically involves a prolonged course of multiple antibiotics, often for six to nine months or more. The most commonly used drugs are isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. Surgical excision may be necessary in some cases.

Prevention measures include early detection and treatment of pulmonary TB, BCG vaccination, and avoiding contact with people with active TB.

A tuberculin test is a medical procedure used to determine if someone has developed an immune response to the bacterium that causes tuberculosis (TB), Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The test involves injecting a small amount of purified protein derivative (PPD) from the TB bacteria under the skin, usually on the forearm. After 48-72 hours, the area is examined for signs of a reaction, such as swelling, redness, or hardness. A positive result suggests that the person has been infected with TB at some point in the past, although it does not necessarily mean that they have active TB disease. However, individuals who have a positive tuberculin test should be evaluated further to determine if they need treatment for latent TB infection or active TB disease.

Drug resistance in neoplasms (also known as cancer drug resistance) refers to the ability of cancer cells to withstand the effects of chemotherapeutic agents or medications designed to kill or inhibit the growth of cancer cells. This can occur due to various mechanisms, including changes in the cancer cell's genetic makeup, alterations in drug targets, increased activity of drug efflux pumps, and activation of survival pathways.

Drug resistance can be intrinsic (present at the beginning of treatment) or acquired (developed during the course of treatment). It is a significant challenge in cancer therapy as it often leads to reduced treatment effectiveness, disease progression, and poor patient outcomes. Strategies to overcome drug resistance include the use of combination therapies, development of new drugs that target different mechanisms, and personalized medicine approaches that consider individual patient and tumor characteristics.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Drug resistance, viral, refers to the ability of a virus to continue replicating in the presence of antiviral drugs that are designed to inhibit or stop its growth. This occurs when the virus mutates and changes its genetic makeup in such a way that the drug can no longer effectively bind to and inhibit the function of its target protein, allowing the virus to continue infecting host cells and causing disease.

Viral drug resistance can develop due to several factors, including:

1. Mutations in the viral genome that alter the structure or function of the drug's target protein.
2. Changes in the expression levels or location of the drug's target protein within the virus-infected cell.
3. Activation of alternative pathways that allow the virus to replicate despite the presence of the drug.
4. Increased efflux of the drug from the virus-infected cell, reducing its intracellular concentration and effectiveness.

Viral drug resistance is a significant concern in the treatment of viral infections such as HIV, hepatitis B and C, herpes simplex virus, and influenza. It can lead to reduced treatment efficacy, increased risk of treatment failure, and the need for more toxic or expensive drugs. Therefore, it is essential to monitor viral drug resistance during treatment and adjust therapy accordingly to ensure optimal outcomes.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Microbial drug resistance is a significant medical issue that refers to the ability of microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand or survive exposure to drugs or medications designed to kill them or limit their growth. This phenomenon has become a major global health concern, particularly in the context of bacterial infections, where it is also known as antibiotic resistance.

Drug resistance arises due to genetic changes in microorganisms that enable them to modify or bypass the effects of antimicrobial agents. These genetic alterations can be caused by mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. The resistant microbes then replicate and multiply, forming populations that are increasingly difficult to eradicate with conventional treatments.

The consequences of drug-resistant infections include increased morbidity, mortality, healthcare costs, and the potential for widespread outbreaks. Factors contributing to the emergence and spread of microbial drug resistance include the overuse or misuse of antimicrobials, poor infection control practices, and inadequate surveillance systems.

To address this challenge, it is crucial to promote prudent antibiotic use, strengthen infection prevention and control measures, develop new antimicrobial agents, and invest in research to better understand the mechanisms underlying drug resistance.

"Mycobacterium bovis" is a species of slow-growing, aerobic, gram-positive bacteria in the family Mycobacteriaceae. It is the causative agent of tuberculosis in cattle and other animals, and can also cause tuberculosis in humans, particularly in those who come into contact with infected animals or consume unpasteurized dairy products from infected cows. The bacteria are resistant to many common disinfectants and survive for long periods in a dormant state, making them difficult to eradicate from the environment. "Mycobacterium bovis" is closely related to "Mycobacterium tuberculosis," the bacterium that causes tuberculosis in humans, and both species share many genetic and biochemical characteristics.

Pleural Tuberculosis is a form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) that involves the infection and inflammation of the pleura, which are the thin membranes that surround the lungs and line the inside of the chest cavity. This condition is caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium, which can spread through the air when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks.

In pleural tuberculosis, the bacteria reach the pleura either through direct extension from a nearby lung infection or via bloodstream dissemination. The infection can cause the pleura to become inflamed and produce excess fluid, leading to pleural effusion. This accumulation of fluid in the pleural space can cause chest pain, coughing, and difficulty breathing.

Diagnosis of pleural tuberculosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, imaging studies such as chest X-rays or CT scans, and laboratory tests such as acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear microscopy, culture, and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs) to detect the presence of M. tuberculosis in the pleural fluid or tissue samples.

Treatment of pleural tuberculosis typically involves a standard course of anti-tuberculosis therapy (ATT), which includes a combination of multiple antibiotics such as isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. The duration of treatment may vary depending on the severity of the infection and the patient's response to therapy. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to drain the pleural effusion or remove the infected pleura.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Urogenital tuberculosis (UTB) is a less common form of TB that affects the urinary and genital systems. It occurs when the bacteria spread through the bloodstream from the initial site of infection, usually the lungs, to the kidneys. The infection can then spread to other parts of the urinary system, including the ureters, bladder, and urethra, as well as the genital organs in both men and women.

UTB symptoms may include:
- Persistent dull pain in the lower back or side
- Frequent urination or urgent need to urinate
- Painful urination (dysuria)
- Blood in the urine (hematuria)
- Incontinence
- Sexual dysfunction in men, such as epididymitis or infertility
- Scrotal mass in men
- Amenorrhea or irregular menstruation in women

Diagnosis of UTB typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, imaging tests (such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI), urine analysis and culture, and sometimes biopsy. Treatment usually consists of a prolonged course of multiple antibiotics to eliminate the infection. Surgery may be required in some cases to repair damaged organs or remove scar tissue.

Ethionamide is an antimicrobial medication used to treat tuberculosis (TB) caused by drug-resistant strains of the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It belongs to a class of drugs called thioamides, which work by inhibiting the bacteria's ability to synthesize its cell wall.

Ethionamide is often used in combination with other TB medications to prevent the development of drug-resistant strains and improve treatment outcomes. Common side effects of ethionamide include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite, as well as neurological symptoms such as dizziness, headache, and peripheral neuropathy.

It is important to note that the use of ethionamide should be under the close supervision of a healthcare professional, as it can cause serious side effects and its effectiveness may be affected by drug interactions or individual patient factors.

BCG (Bacillus Calmette-Guérin) vaccine is a type of immunization used primarily to prevent tuberculosis (TB). It contains a live but weakened strain of Mycobacterium bovis, which is related to the bacterium that causes TB in humans (Mycobacterium tuberculosis).

The BCG vaccine works by stimulating an immune response in the body, enabling it to better resist infection with TB bacteria if exposed in the future. It is often given to infants and children in countries where TB is common, and its use varies depending on the national immunization policies. The protection offered by the BCG vaccine is moderate and may not last for a very long time.

In addition to its use against TB, the BCG vaccine has also been investigated for its potential therapeutic role in treating bladder cancer and some other types of cancer. The mechanism of action in these cases is thought to be related to the vaccine's ability to stimulate an immune response against abnormal cells.

Meningeal tuberculosis, also known as Tuberculous meningitis, is a severe form of tuberculosis (TB) that affects the meninges, which are the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. It is caused by the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium, which can spread through the bloodstream from a primary infection site in the lungs or elsewhere in the body.

In meningeal tuberculosis, the bacteria cause inflammation and thickening of the meninges, leading to increased intracranial pressure, cerebral edema, and vasculitis. These conditions can result in various neurological symptoms such as headache, fever, stiff neck, altered mental status, seizures, and focal neurologic deficits. If left untreated, meningeal tuberculosis can lead to severe complications, including brain damage, hydrocephalus, and even death.

Diagnosis of meningeal tuberculosis typically involves a combination of clinical symptoms, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, imaging studies, and sometimes molecular or culture-based tests to detect the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the CSF. Treatment usually involves a prolonged course of antibiotics specifically designed to target TB, such as isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide, often administered for six to nine months or longer. In some cases, corticosteroids may also be used to reduce inflammation and prevent complications.

'Burkholderia gladioli' is a gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that belongs to the Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc). This complex includes several closely related species that can cause respiratory infections, particularly in people with weakened immune systems or chronic lung diseases such as cystic fibrosis.

'Burkholderia gladioli' is commonly found in the environment, including soil and water. It has been isolated from a variety of plants, including onions, gladiolus, and other flowers. While it can cause serious infections in humans, it is also being studied for its potential use in bioremediation and as a source of novel antibiotics.

Infections caused by 'Burkholderia gladioli' can be difficult to treat due to the bacterium's resistance to many commonly used antibiotics. Treatment typically involves the use of multiple antibiotics and close monitoring of the patient's response to therapy.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

Streptomycin is an antibiotic drug derived from the actinobacterium Streptomyces griseus. It belongs to the class of aminoglycosides and works by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis and leading to bacterial death.

Streptomycin is primarily used to treat a variety of infections caused by gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, including tuberculosis, brucellosis, plague, tularemia, and certain types of bacterial endocarditis. It is also used as part of combination therapy for the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB).

Like other aminoglycosides, streptomycin has a narrow therapeutic index and can cause ototoxicity (hearing loss) and nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) with prolonged use or high doses. Therefore, its use is typically limited to cases where other antibiotics are ineffective or contraindicated.

It's important to note that the use of streptomycin requires careful monitoring of drug levels and kidney function, as well as regular audiometric testing to detect any potential hearing loss.

Pinellia is a plant genus, specifically belonging to the Araceae family. The most commonly used species in traditional medicine is Pinellia ternata, which is native to East Asia. The tuber of this plant has been used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for centuries to treat various conditions such as nausea, vomiting, and respiratory ailments.

In a medical context, the term 'Pinellia' usually refers to the use of this plant or its extracts in herbal medicine. It contains various bioactive compounds including alkaloids, steroidal saponins, and polysaccharides, which are believed to contribute to its medicinal properties.

However, it's important to note that while Pinellia has a long history of use in TCM, its efficacy and safety for various uses have not been thoroughly studied in clinical trials following Western medical standards. Therefore, it should be used under the guidance of a trained healthcare provider.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "Azerbaijan" is a country's name and not a medical term or condition. It is located in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. If you have any questions about Azerbaijani culture, history, or geography, I would be happy to try to help answer them, but for medical information, it would be best to consult a reliable health or medical resource.

Ocular tuberculosis (OTB) is a form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB), which results from the spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex bacteria outside the lungs. In ocular tuberculosis, these bacteria primarily affect the eye and its surrounding structures.

The most common form of OTB is tubercular uveitis, which involves inflammation of the uveal tract (iris, ciliary body, and choroid). Other forms of OTB include:

* Tubercular conjunctivitis: Inflammation of the conjunctiva, the mucous membrane that covers the front part of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelids.
* Tubercular keratitis: Inflammation of the cornea, the transparent outer layer at the front of the eye.
* Tubercular scleritis: Inflammation of the sclera, the white protective coating of the eye.
* Tubercular episcleritis: Inflammation of the episclera, a thin layer of tissue between the conjunctiva and sclera.
* Tubercular dacryoadenitis: Inflammation of the lacrimal gland, which produces tears.
* Tubercular optic neuritis: Inflammation of the optic nerve, which transmits visual information from the eye to the brain.

Diagnosis of OTB can be challenging due to its varied clinical presentations and the need for laboratory confirmation. A definitive diagnosis typically requires the isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from ocular tissues or fluids, which may involve invasive procedures. In some cases, a presumptive diagnosis might be made based on clinical findings, epidemiological data, and response to anti-tuberculous therapy.

Treatment for OTB usually involves a standard anti-tuberculosis regimen consisting of multiple drugs (isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide) for at least six months. Corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive agents might be used concomitantly to manage inflammation and prevent tissue damage. Close monitoring is essential to ensure treatment adherence, assess response to therapy, and detect potential side effects.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Splenic tuberculosis is a form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (ETB), which refers to a manifestation of the disease outside of the lungs. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

In splenic tuberculosis, the infection involves the spleen (an organ located in the upper left part of the abdomen that filters blood and helps fight infection). The infection can occur through the hematogenous spread (dissemination via the bloodstream) from a primary focus elsewhere in the body, such as the lungs.

The disease presents with various symptoms, including fever, fatigue, weight loss, abdominal pain, and splenomegaly (enlargement of the spleen). Diagnosis often requires a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and microbiological or histopathological confirmation. Treatment typically involves a prolonged course of multidrug antibiotics to eliminate the infection and prevent complications.

"Mycobacterium" is a genus of gram-positive, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are characterized by their complex cell walls containing large amounts of lipids. This genus includes several species that are significant in human and animal health, most notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis, and Mycobacterium leprae, which causes leprosy. Other species of Mycobacterium can cause various diseases in humans, including skin and soft tissue infections, lung infections, and disseminated disease in immunocompromised individuals. These bacteria are often resistant to common disinfectants and antibiotics, making them difficult to treat.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

Hepatic tuberculosis (HTB) is a form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB) that involves the liver. It can occur as a result of the spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from a primary site of infection, usually the lungs, through the bloodstream to the liver.

In hepatic tuberculosis, the liver may become enlarged and tender, and patients may experience symptoms such as fever, night sweats, loss of appetite, weight loss, and abdominal discomfort. Liver function tests may show elevated levels of certain enzymes, such as alkaline phosphatase and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT).

Diagnosis of hepatic tuberculosis can be challenging, as the symptoms and laboratory findings are nonspecific. Imaging studies such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI may show evidence of liver involvement, but a definitive diagnosis usually requires histological examination of liver tissue obtained through biopsy.

Treatment of hepatic tuberculosis involves the use of multiple antituberculous drugs, typically including isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. The duration of treatment is usually at least six months, but may be longer in some cases. It is important to monitor liver function tests closely during treatment, as these medications can cause liver damage in some individuals.

Female genital tuberculosis (FGTB) is a specific form of tuberculosis (TB) that affects the female reproductive organs. It is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which primarily affects the lungs (pulmonary TB) but can spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system.

In FGTB, the bacteria typically infect the fallopian tubes, uterus, ovaries, and/or the cervix, leading to various gynecological symptoms. The infection can cause scarring, blockage of the fallopian tubes, and damage to the reproductive organs, which may result in infertility, ectopic pregnancy, or chronic pelvic pain.

FGTB is often asymptomatic or has non-specific symptoms, making it difficult to diagnose. Common symptoms include irregular menstrual bleeding, postmenopausal bleeding, vaginal discharge, and pelvic pain. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical examination, imaging studies (such as ultrasound or CT scan), and laboratory tests (such as endometrial biopsy, PCR, or culture).

FGTB is usually treated with a standard anti-tuberculosis drug regimen that includes isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for at least six months. In some cases, surgery may be required to manage complications such as hydrosalpinx or chronic pelvic pain. Preventing the spread of pulmonary TB through early detection and treatment is crucial in preventing FGTB.

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection is a viral illness that progressively attacks and weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to other infections and diseases. The virus primarily infects CD4+ T cells, a type of white blood cell essential for fighting off infections. Over time, as the number of these immune cells declines, the body becomes increasingly vulnerable to opportunistic infections and cancers.

HIV infection has three stages:

1. Acute HIV infection: This is the initial stage that occurs within 2-4 weeks after exposure to the virus. During this period, individuals may experience flu-like symptoms such as fever, fatigue, rash, swollen glands, and muscle aches. The virus replicates rapidly, and the viral load in the body is very high.
2. Chronic HIV infection (Clinical latency): This stage follows the acute infection and can last several years if left untreated. Although individuals may not show any symptoms during this phase, the virus continues to replicate at low levels, and the immune system gradually weakens. The viral load remains relatively stable, but the number of CD4+ T cells declines over time.
3. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): This is the most advanced stage of HIV infection, characterized by a severely damaged immune system and numerous opportunistic infections or cancers. At this stage, the CD4+ T cell count drops below 200 cells/mm3 of blood.

It's important to note that with proper antiretroviral therapy (ART), individuals with HIV infection can effectively manage the virus, maintain a healthy immune system, and significantly reduce the risk of transmission to others. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for improving long-term health outcomes and reducing the spread of HIV.

"Mycobacterium smegmatis" is a species of fast-growing, non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). It is commonly found in the environment, including soil and water. This bacterium is known for its ability to form resistant colonies called biofilms. While it does not typically cause disease in humans, it can contaminate medical equipment and samples, potentially leading to misdiagnosis or infection. In rare cases, it has been associated with skin and soft tissue infections. It is often used in research as a model organism for studying mycobacterial biology and drug resistance due to its relatively harmless nature and rapid growth rate.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

P-glycoprotein (P-gp) is a type of membrane transport protein that plays a crucial role in the efflux (extrusion) of various substrates, including drugs and toxins, out of cells. It is also known as multidrug resistance protein 1 (MDR1).

P-gp is encoded by the ABCB1 gene and is primarily located on the apical membrane of epithelial cells in several tissues, such as the intestine, liver, kidney, and blood-brain barrier. Its main function is to protect these organs from harmful substances by actively pumping them out of the cells and back into the lumen or bloodstream.

In the context of pharmacology, P-gp can contribute to multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells. When overexpressed, P-gp can reduce the intracellular concentration of various anticancer drugs, making them less effective. This has led to extensive research on inhibitors of P-gp as potential adjuvants for cancer therapy.

In summary, P-glycoprotein is a vital efflux transporter that helps maintain homeostasis by removing potentially harmful substances from cells and can impact drug disposition and response in various tissues, including the intestine, liver, kidney, and blood-brain barrier.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Antimalarials are a class of drugs that are used for the prevention, treatment, and elimination of malaria. They work by targeting the malaria parasite at various stages of its life cycle, particularly the erythrocytic stage when it infects red blood cells. Some commonly prescribed antimalarials include chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, quinine, mefloquine, and artemisinin-based combinations. These drugs can be used alone or in combination with other antimalarial agents to increase their efficacy and prevent the development of drug resistance. Antimalarials are also being investigated for their potential use in treating other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer.

Endocrine tuberculosis (TB) is a form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis that involves the endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, pituitary, and adrenal glands. The infection can cause inflammation, granulomatous lesions, and tissue damage in these glands, leading to hormonal imbalances and various clinical manifestations.

Tuberculosis bacilli (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) reach the endocrine glands through hematogenous spread from a primary or secondary focus, usually in the lungs. The most common form of endocrine TB is adrenal TB, which can lead to adrenal insufficiency due to destruction of the adrenal cortex. Thyroid TB is rare and typically presents as a cold abscess or a thyroid mass. Pituitary TB is also uncommon but can cause hypopituitarism and visual impairment due to compression of the optic chiasm.

Diagnosis of endocrine TB often involves imaging studies, such as CT or MRI scans, hormonal assessments, and microbiological or histopathological examination of tissue samples obtained through biopsy. Treatment typically consists of a standard anti-tuberculous chemotherapy regimen, which may need to be adjusted based on the patient's hormonal status and clinical response.

Central Nervous System (CNS) Tuberculosis is a specific form of tuberculosis (TB) that refers to the infection and inflammation caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the brain or spinal cord. The two most common forms of CNS tuberculosis are tuberculous meningitis and tuberculomas.

1. Tuberculous Meningitis (TBM): This is the most frequent form of CNS TB, characterized by the inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord (meninges). The infection can lead to the formation of caseous lesions (granulomas), which may obstruct cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow and result in increased intracranial pressure. Symptoms often include headache, fever, altered mental status, neck stiffness, vomiting, and focal neurological deficits.
2. Tuberculomas: These are localized granulomatous lesions formed by the immune response to M. tuberculosis in the brain parenchyma. They can cause various neurological symptoms depending on their size and location, such as seizures, focal deficits, or increased intracranial pressure.

CNS TB is a severe manifestation of tuberculosis that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent long-term neurological damage or even death. Diagnosis typically involves imaging studies (CT or MRI scans) and analysis of cerebrospinal fluid obtained through lumbar puncture. Treatment usually consists of a prolonged course of multiple antituberculous drugs, along with corticosteroids to manage inflammation and prevent complications.

Laryngeal tuberculosis is a specific form of tuberculosis (TB), a bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, that affects the larynx or voice box. The bacteria typically infect the lungs, leading to pulmonary TB, and can spread through the bloodstream or airways to other parts of the body, including the larynx.

In laryngeal tuberculosis, the infection causes granulomatous inflammation and ulceration in the laryngeal tissues, particularly affecting the vocal cords, epiglottis, and/or false vocal cords. Symptoms may include hoarseness, cough, difficulty swallowing, painful swallowing, stridor (high-pitched whistling sound during breathing), and occasionally respiratory distress or airway obstruction. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as X-rays or CT scans), endoscopic examination, and microbiological or histopathological confirmation of the presence of TB in tissue samples or secretions. Treatment usually consists of a standard multidrug antituberculosis chemotherapy regimen to eliminate the infection and prevent complications or further spread of the disease.

Doxorubicin is a type of chemotherapy medication known as an anthracycline. It works by interfering with the DNA in cancer cells, which prevents them from growing and multiplying. Doxorubicin is used to treat a wide variety of cancers, including leukemia, lymphoma, breast cancer, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, and many others. It may be given alone or in combination with other chemotherapy drugs.

Doxorubicin is usually administered through a vein (intravenously) and can cause side effects such as nausea, vomiting, hair loss, mouth sores, and increased risk of infection. It can also cause damage to the heart muscle, which can lead to heart failure in some cases. For this reason, doctors may monitor patients' heart function closely while they are receiving doxorubicin treatment.

It is important for patients to discuss the potential risks and benefits of doxorubicin therapy with their healthcare provider before starting treatment.

Bacterial typing techniques are methods used to identify and differentiate bacterial strains or isolates based on their unique characteristics. These techniques are essential in epidemiological studies, infection control, and research to understand the transmission dynamics, virulence, and antibiotic resistance patterns of bacterial pathogens.

There are various bacterial typing techniques available, including:

1. **Bacteriophage Typing:** This method involves using bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) to identify specific bacterial strains based on their susceptibility or resistance to particular phages.
2. **Serotyping:** It is a technique that differentiates bacterial strains based on the antigenic properties of their cell surface components, such as capsules, flagella, and somatic (O) and flagellar (H) antigens.
3. **Biochemical Testing:** This method uses biochemical reactions to identify specific metabolic pathways or enzymes present in bacterial strains, which can be used for differentiation. Commonly used tests include the catalase test, oxidase test, and various sugar fermentation tests.
4. **Molecular Typing Techniques:** These methods use genetic markers to identify and differentiate bacterial strains at the DNA level. Examples of molecular typing techniques include:
* **Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE):** This method uses restriction enzymes to digest bacterial DNA, followed by electrophoresis in an agarose gel under pulsed electrical fields. The resulting banding patterns are analyzed and compared to identify related strains.
* **Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST):** It involves sequencing specific housekeeping genes to generate unique sequence types that can be used for strain identification and phylogenetic analysis.
* **Whole Genome Sequencing (WGS):** This method sequences the entire genome of a bacterial strain, providing the most detailed information on genetic variation and relatedness between strains. WGS data can be analyzed using various bioinformatics tools to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), gene deletions or insertions, and other genetic changes that can be used for strain differentiation.

These molecular typing techniques provide higher resolution than traditional methods, allowing for more accurate identification and comparison of bacterial strains. They are particularly useful in epidemiological investigations to track the spread of pathogens and identify outbreaks.

Renal tuberculosis (TB) is a type of extrapulmonary tuberculosis that occurs when the Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacterium infects and affects the kidneys. It can also spread to other parts of the urinary system, such as the ureters, bladder, or urethra.

In renal TB, the infection typically begins in the renal cortex, where it causes caseous necrosis (formation of areas of tissue death) and granulomas (small clusters of immune cells). Over time, these lesions can lead to scarring, calcification, and destruction of renal tissues.

Symptoms of renal TB may include fever, fatigue, weight loss, flank pain, hematuria (blood in the urine), and sterile pyuria (pus in the urine without evidence of bacterial infection). Diagnosis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, imaging studies (such as CT scans or intravenous pyelograms), and laboratory tests (such as urinalysis, acid-fast bacilli smears, and culture).

Treatment of renal TB usually involves a prolonged course of antibiotics (typically 6 to 9 months) using multiple drugs, such as isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. Surgery may be necessary in some cases to remove damaged or infected tissues, or to relieve obstructions caused by scarring or calcification.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) is a term used in molecular biology and genetics. It refers to the presence of variations in DNA sequences among individuals, which can be detected by restriction enzymes. These enzymes cut DNA at specific sites, creating fragments of different lengths.

In RFLP analysis, DNA is isolated from an individual and treated with a specific restriction enzyme that cuts the DNA at particular recognition sites. The resulting fragments are then separated by size using gel electrophoresis, creating a pattern unique to that individual's DNA. If there are variations in the DNA sequence between individuals, the restriction enzyme may cut the DNA at different sites, leading to differences in the length of the fragments and thus, a different pattern on the gel.

These variations can be used for various purposes, such as identifying individuals, diagnosing genetic diseases, or studying evolutionary relationships between species. However, RFLP analysis has largely been replaced by more modern techniques like polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods and DNA sequencing, which offer higher resolution and throughput.

Molecular epidemiology is a branch of epidemiology that uses laboratory techniques to identify and analyze the genetic material (DNA, RNA) of pathogens or host cells to understand their distribution, transmission, and disease associations in populations. It combines molecular biology methods with epidemiological approaches to investigate the role of genetic factors in disease occurrence and outcomes. This field has contributed significantly to the identification of infectious disease outbreaks, tracking the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, understanding the transmission dynamics of viruses, and identifying susceptible populations for targeted interventions.

Disk diffusion antimicrobial susceptibility tests, also known as Kirby-Bauer tests, are laboratory methods used to determine the effectiveness of antibiotics against a specific bacterial strain. This test provides a simple and standardized way to estimate the susceptibility or resistance of a microorganism to various antibiotics.

In this method, a standardized inoculum of the bacterial suspension is spread evenly on the surface of an agar plate. Antibiotic-impregnated paper disks are then placed on the agar surface, allowing the diffusion of the antibiotic into the agar. After incubation, the zone of inhibition surrounding each disk is measured. The size of the zone of inhibition correlates with the susceptibility or resistance of the bacterial strain to that specific antibiotic.

The results are interpreted based on predefined criteria established by organizations such as the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) or the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST). These interpretive criteria help categorize the susceptibility of the bacterial strain into one of three categories: susceptible, intermediate, or resistant.

It is important to note that disk diffusion tests have limitations and may not always accurately predict clinical outcomes. However, they remain a valuable tool in guiding empirical antibiotic therapy and monitoring antimicrobial resistance trends.

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"Emergence of new forms of totally drug-resistant tuberculosis bacilli: super extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis or totally ... Extensively drug-resistant TB is also resistant to three or more of the six classes of second-line drugs. Totally drug- ... "Drugs for preventing tuberculosis in people at risk of multiple-drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis". The Cochrane Database ... mostly due to the increase in HIV-associated tuberculosis and the emergence of multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis. A ...
... although multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant TB present an increasing challenge. According to a 2017 article in ... making it the highest burden country for both tuberculosis and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Matteelli, Alberto; Rendon, ... Tuberculosis has been a curable illness since the 1940s when the first drugs became available, ... tuberculosis elimination will require not just treating active tuberculosis but also latent cases, and eliminating tuberculosis ...
This condition becomes more severe in case of multi-drug (MDRTB) and extensively drug resistant TB (XDRTB), which are difficult ... see Multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis). Tuberculosis can occur at any stage of HIV infection. The risk and severity of ... Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the most common cause of Tuberculosis disease (TB). Airborne transmission typically causes TB ... When HIV-negative children take isoniazid after they have been exposed to tuberculosis, their risk to contract tuberculosis is ...
"FDA approves new drug for treatment-resistant forms of tuberculosis that affects the lungs". U.S. Food and Drug Administration ... for the treatment of pulmonary extensively drug resistant (XDR), or treatment-intolerant or nonresponsive multidrug-resistant ( ... Abutaleb Y (14 August 2019). "New antibiotic approved for drug-resistant tuberculosis". The Washington Post. "New Drug Therapy ... Pretomanid is an antibiotic medication used for the treatment of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis affecting the lungs. It is ...
Of particular concern are multi and extensively drug-resistant bacteria strains. "Namibia: State of the Nation's Health". www. ... Namibia has a high rate of tuberculosis sufferers; Overall, approximately 0.7 cases are reported per 1,000 inhabitants. In 2018 ...
The cost of treating a single case of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) or extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) can be ... first-line tuberculosis drugs. Due to the contagious nature of tuberculosis, drug resistance is considered to be a serious ... for the treatment of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB as well as treatment-intolerant or nonresponsive multidrug-resistant ( ... "Tuberculosis (TB)". www.who.int. Retrieved 2019-04-25. "WHO , Drug-resistant TB: global situation". WHO. Archived from the ...
Learn more about extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB), including information on symptoms, risk-factors, prevention ... Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (XDR TB). What is Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis (XDR TB)?. Extensively drug- ... In a report published in 2006, the highly resistant form of TB was named extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR TB). Since then, ... resistant TB (XDR TB) is a rare type of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB) that is resistant to isoniazid, rifampin, a ...
Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is a form of tuberculosis caused by bacteria that are resistant to some of the ... "Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area ... "The emergence of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (TB): TB/HIV coinfection, multidrug-resistant TB and the resulting ... "Clonal Expansion of Multidrug-Resistant and Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis, Japan". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 16 ( ...
... tuberculosis is defined as disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis with resistance to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, ... any fluoroquinolone, and at least one of three injectable second-line drugs (amikacin, capreomycin, or kanamycin). The ... Extensively drug-resistant (XDR) tuberculosis is defined as disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis with resistance to at ... Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis Lancet Infect Dis. 2009 Jan;9(1):19-30. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(08)70260-3. Epub 2008 ...
Tuberculosis burden in households of patients with multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a ... Transmission of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in a metropolitan city. Eric Chung Ching Leung ... Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis as a cause of death in patients co-infected with tuberculosis and HIV in a rural area ... Clonal expansion of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis, Japan. Emerg Infect Dis 2010; 16: 948-954. ...
... in whom the diagnosis of extensively drug-resistant TB was made through phenotypic drug-sensitivity testing of an ocular fluid ... We not only overcame this limitation, but also were able to create a complete drug-sensitivity testing profile from ocular ... We describe a patient with concurrent ocular and pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) ... Extrapulmonary drug-resistant tuberculosis at a drug-resistant tuberculosis center, Mumbai: our experience: hope in the midst ...
"Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis, Lesotho" 14, no. 6 (2008). Satti, Hind et al. "Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis ... Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis Fatal Outcome Humans Male Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Tuberculosis, Multidrug-Resistant ... Definitions of resistance in multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB) and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) ... A new era for treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis Cite CITE. Title : A new era for treatment of drug-resistant ...
A fact sheet on Learn more about multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), including information on symptoms, prevention, and ... What is extensively drug resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB)?. Extensively drug resistant TB (XDR TB) is a rare type of MDR TB that ... Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis (MDR TB). What is tuberculosis (TB)?. Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by bacteria that ... What is multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB)?. Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR TB) is caused by an organism that is resistant ...
It is caused by a bacterial microorganism, the tubercle bacillus or Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ... Tuberculosis Definition Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially fatal contagious disease that can affect almost any part of the body ... The CDC states that Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) is "a relatively rare type of multidrug-resistant ... IN CONTEXT: EXTENSIVELY DRUG-RESISTANT TUBERCULOSIS (XDR TB). In May 2007 a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) ...
Tuberculosis, Pulmonary. Abstract. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) tuberculosis (TB) are now ... Exogenous reinfection as a cause of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in rural South Africa.. ... Exogenous reinfection as a cause of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in rural South Africa. ... Exogenous reinfection as a cause of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in rural South Africa. ...
Tuberculosis (TB) (see the image below), a multisystemic disease with myriad presentations and manifestations, is the most ... Tuberculosis burden in households of patients with multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: a ... Plan to combat extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: recommendations of the Federal Tuberculosis Task Force. MMWR Recomm Rep ... Mlambo CK, Warren RM, Poswa X, Victor TC, Duse AG, Marais E. Genotypic diversity of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis ( ...
... tuberculosis (TB) isolates. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) based analysis of 37 extensively drug resistant (XDR) and five drug ... tuberculosis (TB) isolates. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) based analysis of 37 extensively drug resistant (XDR) and five drug ... tuberculosis (TB) isolates. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) based analysis of 37 extensively drug resistant (XDR) and five drug ... tuberculosis (TB) isolates. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) based analysis of 37 extensively drug resistant (XDR) and five drug ...
Beyond extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Lisbon, Portugal: a case of linezolid resistance acquisition presenting as an ... Beyond extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Lisbon, Portugal: a case of linezolid resistance acquisition presenting as an ...
... systematically reviewed research on implementation and cost-effectiveness of the WHO-recommended interventions for tuberculosis ... Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis Is the Subject Area "Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis" applicable to this ... Tuberculosis diagnosis and management Is the Subject Area "Tuberculosis diagnosis and management" applicable to this article? ... Drug therapy Is the Subject Area "Drug therapy" applicable to this article? Yes. No. ...
Detection of pre-extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis by molecular testing. Between 2009 and 2020, 20 546 people in Canada ... multidrug-resistant (defined as resistance to isoniazid and rifampin) and pre-extensively drug-resistant/extensively drug-... ...
Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is defined as TB which is resistant not only to the 2 best first-line anti-TB ... Managing a Case of Extensively Drug-Resistant (XDR) Pulmonary Tuberculosis in Singapore. Chee Kiang Phua, Cynthia BE Chee, ... Tuberculosis poses a very real problem to healthcare workers (HCWs). In Singapore, the prevalence of tuberculosis in the ... Tuberculosis Post-Liver Transplantation: A Rare but Complicated Disease. W Lu, CT Wai, M Da Costa, PA Tambyah, K Prabhakaran, ...
... the likelihood of achieving the Sustainable Development Goal of ending the tuberculosis (TB) epidemic by 2030 is low, due to ... and quantified potential benefit of increased community ART coverage in lowering tuberculosis, highlighting the need to ... Spatial distribution of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) patients in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. PLoS. One. 12 ... Smith, C. M., Lessells, R., Grant, A. D., Herbst, K. & Tanser, F. Spatial clustering of drug-resistant tuberculosis in Hlabisa ...
Bedaquiline in the treatment of multidrug- and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Pym AS, Diacon AH, Tang SJ, Conradie F ... Spread of drug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis in Estonia. Krüüner A, Hoffner SE, Sillastu H, Danilovits M, Levina K, Svenson ... Delamanid for multidrug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis. Gler MT, Skripconoka V, Sanchez-Garavito E, Xiao H, Cabrera-Rivero JL ... Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis management in resource-limited settings. Nathanson E, Lambregts-van Weezenbeek C, Rich ML, ...
... in a pilot network of seven European health care institutions sharing 70+ million triples of information about drug resistance ... Several initiatives to track drug resistance evolution have been developed. However, no effective real-time and source- ... Surveillance of extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Europe, 2003-2007. Euro Surveill 2010 Mar 18;15(11) [FREE Full text ... In addition to well-known drug resistance cases such as Pneumococcus species to penicillin [5-7], outbreaks of new resistant ...
www.medicinenet.com/extensively_drug-resistant_tuberculosis_xdr_tb/article.htm 1.3 Other websites. * The University of ... Drug-resistant Tuberculosis Links. *Factual links. Some of the websites providing factual information on Drug-resistant ... offers information on drug-resistant TB: www.tballiance.org/home 1.2 Questions and Answers on Drug-resistant Tuberculosis. * ... The U.S. MedecineNet website answers a number of questions on extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) : ...
Pre-XDR TB: pre-extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. RR-TB: rifampin-resistant tuberculosis. SA MRC: South African Medical ... FLD: first-line drug. FQ-R: fluoroquinolone-resistant tuberculosis. HHMI: Howard Hughes Medical Institute. HIV: human ... LTBI: latent tuberculosis infection. MDR-TB: multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. MSF: Médecins Sans Frontières. NHMRC: National ... SLD: second-line drug. TB: tuberculosis. TBM: tuberculous meningitis. TBTC: Tuberculosis Trials Consortium, U.S. Centers for ...
Tuberculosis in Children. Ben J. Marais and H. Simon Schaaf. Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis and Extensively Drug-Resistant ... Modeling Tuberculosis in Nonhuman Primates. Charles A. Scanga and JoAnne L. Flynn. SECTION 2. DRUGS AND BIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS ... The Tuberculosis Drug Discovery and Development Pipeline and Emerging Drug Targets. Khisimuzi Mdluli, Takushi Kaneko, and Anna ... Genetic Approaches to Facilitate Antibacterial Drug Development. Dirk Schnappinger. Tuberculosis Drug Development: History and ...
Spread of Extensively Drug-resistant Tuberculosis Cite CITE. Title : Spread of Extensively Drug-resistant Tuberculosis Personal ... Drug-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis among New Tuberculosis Patients, Yangon, Myanmar Cite CITE. Title : Drug-Resistant ... Spread of Extensively Drug-resistant Tuberculosis. 13(4). Samper, Sofía and Martín, Carlos "Spread of Extensively Drug- ... resistant Tuberculosis" 13, no. 4 (2007). Samper, Sofía and Martín, Carlos "Spread of Extensively Drug-resistant Tuberculosis" ...
... repositioning the safe medicine Comtan to treat multi-drug and extensively drug resistant tuberculosis. PLOS Comput. Biol. 5, ... To study drug specificity, interaction networks can be used to show all proteins known to interact with a drug. Images made ... Biol. 326, 621-636 (2003). Provides several detailed examples showing how Relibase can aid structure-based drug design. ... Hartshorn, M.J. AstexViewer: a visualisation aid for structure-based drug design. J. Comput. Aided Mol. Des. 16, 871-881 (2002 ...
Instead, he suffers from an extensively drug-resistant strain of tuberculosis, or XDR-TB. It is considered virtually ... PHOENIX - Behind the county hospitals tall cinderblock walls, a 27-year-old tuberculosis patient sits in a jail cell equipped ... altered their behavior in a way similar to that produced by antidepressant drugs, reports research published in the latest ... have shown for the first time that food enriched with natural isotopes builds bodily components that are more resistant to the ...
Drug resistance beyond extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis: individual patient data meta-analysis. Eur Respir J 2013; 42: ... Is HIV infection a risk factor for multi-drug resistant tuberculosis? A systematic review. PLoS ONE 2009; 4: e5561. ... A multi-institutional outbreak of highly drug-resistant tuberculosis: epidemiology and clinical outcomes. JAMA 1996; 276: 1229- ... Turning off the spigot: reducing drug-resistant tuberculosis transmission in resource-limited settings. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis ...
  • Extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR TB) is a rare type of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB) that is resistant to isoniazid, rifampin, a fluoroquinolone, and a second-line injectable (amikacin, capreomycin, and kanamycin) OR isoniazid, rifampin, a fluoroquinolone, and bedaquiline or linezolid. (cdc.gov)
  • XDR-TB strains have arisen after the mismanagement of individuals with multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). (wikipedia.org)
  • If these drugs are misused or mismanaged, multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) can develop. (wikipedia.org)
  • In August 2019, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the use of pretomanid in combination with bedaquiline and linezolid for treating a limited and specific population of adult patients with extensively drug resistant, treatment-intolerant or nonresponsive multidrug resistant pulmonary TB. (wikipedia.org)
  • Surveillance sociated with multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively data indicate MDR TB is an emerging global problem, drug-resistant (XDR) tuberculosis (TB) in Germany in 2004- especially in countries of the former Soviet Union (FSU), 2006. (cdc.gov)
  • Multidrug-resistant (MDR)- tuberculosis (TB) and extensively drug resistant (XDR)-TB reportedly lead to increased household transmission. (ersjournals.com)
  • Of particular concern is the occurrence of multidrug-resistant (MDR)-TB defined by bacillary resistance to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, and extensively drug-resistant (XDR)-TB, which is MDR-TB with additional resistance to any fluoroquinolone, and at least one of the three second-line injectable drugs (kanamycin, amikacin and capreomycin). (ersjournals.com)
  • Exogenous reinfection as a cause of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in rural South Africa. (yale.edu)
  • Multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) tuberculosis (TB) are now major threats in areas of South Africa with a high prevalence of TB and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. (yale.edu)
  • symptoms and radiographic findings do not differentiate multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) from fully susceptible TB. (medscape.com)
  • In 2003, the Expanded Framework for DOTS Strategy that incorporated response to TB/HIV coinfection and multidrug-resistant TB was launched. (who.int)
  • Treatment Outcomes in Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis. (nih.gov)
  • Clinical Management of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis in 16 European Countries. (nih.gov)
  • Treatment with [TB389 trade name] should be initiated and monitored by a physician experienced in the management of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis . (who.int)
  • TB389 trade name] is for use in children weighing from 3 to 46 kg receiving longer individualised regimens for multidrug-resistant TB. (who.int)
  • Patients infected with multidrug-resistant (MDR)-TB (defined as resistance to at least rifampicin and isoniazid, the two most powerful anti-TB drugs) require longer, more expensive treatment regimens than drug-susceptible TB, with poorer treatment success [ 2 ], [ 3 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • Health experts say the detection of XDR-TB cases is not surprising, given the widespread prevalence of TB and the rising cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) in India. (indiatimes.com)
  • Maharashtra's current burden of drug-susceptible TB is 1.34 lakh cases and there are 9,716 multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) cases apart from the 155 XDR TB cases, which are more difficult to treat. (indiatimes.com)
  • Molecular surveillance of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) using 24-loci MIRU-VNTR in the European Union suggests the occurrence of international transmission. (eurosurveillance.org)
  • Management of patients with multidrug-resistant/extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis in Europe: a TBNET consensus statement. (fz-borstel.de)
  • Economic evaluation of a shortened standardised treatment regimen of antituberculosis drugs for patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (STREAM): study protocol. (treattb.org)
  • Multidrug-resistant (MDR)-TB is another significant challenge. (ersjournals.com)
  • And then her sputum test revealed that she had multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). (mediaforfreedom.com)
  • Low-Dose Linezolid for Treatment of Patients With Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis. (ucsf.edu)
  • Multidrug-resistant TB (MDR TB) is resistant to more than one anti-TB drug and at least isoniazid (INH) and rifampin (RIF). (cdc.gov)
  • I was experiencing a lot of side effects during my previous treatment which included drugs that need to be injected," said Noludwe Mabandlela, who was treated for multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) in Khayelitsha, South Africa and was cured in early 2019. (msf.org.uk)
  • We analysed routine data reported by countries to WHO from 2007 to 2013, focusing on data from the following: surveillance and surveys of drug resistance, management of drug-resistant TB and financing related to multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) management. (who.int)
  • 1 Despite these gains, multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that is resistant to isoniazid and rifampicin (two of the first-line drugs used for treatment) poses a formidable challenge to controlling TB. (who.int)
  • WHO/HTM/TB/2008.402a". 1.Tuberculosis, Multidrug-resistant - drug therapy. (bvsalud.org)
  • 2.Tuberculosis, Multidrug- resistant - prevention and control. (bvsalud.org)
  • Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) increasingly occur in resource-constrained settings. (bvsalud.org)
  • The World Health Organization (WHO) defines XDR-TB as MDR-TB that is resistant to at least one fluoroquinolone and a second-line injectable drug (amikacin, capreomycin, or kanamycin). (wikipedia.org)
  • 1. Tuberculosis (TB) control in the African Region has evolved since the disease was declared a global emergency by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993. (who.int)
  • In order to achieve by 2035 the goals of the Political Declaration of the High-Level Meeting of the General Assembly on the Fight Against Tuberculosis, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly October 10, 2018, and of the World Health Organization End TB Strategy, adopted by the World Health Assembly in 2014, new tools must be developed and made available. (govinfo.gov)
  • We explored the relationship between HIV infection and MDR-TB disease using data reported by member states to the World Health Organization (WHO) within the context of the Global Project on Anti-TB Drug Resistance Surveillance. (ersjournals.com)
  • Tuberculosis (TB) still represents a major public health issue in spite of the significant impact of the efforts made by the World Health Organization (WHO) and partners to improve its control. (ersjournals.com)
  • Multi-drug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant forms of tuberculosis (TB) are spreading at an alarming rate in Europe and will kill thousands unless health authorities halt the pandemic, the World Health Organization (WHO) said. (naturalnews.com)
  • According to the World Health Organization (WHO) report, in 2018, tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis , was one of the major causes of death related to antimicrobial resistance ( World Health Organization [WHO], 2019a ). (frontiersin.org)
  • Globally, in 2018 about half a million TB infections were rifampicin-resistant, of which 78% were multi-drug resistant (MDR)-TB ( World Health Organization [WHO], 2019a ). (frontiersin.org)
  • Among these cases, 6.2% were estimated to have extensively drug-resistant (XDR)-TB ( World Health Organization [WHO], 2019a ). (frontiersin.org)
  • To review the latest information about tuberculosis (TB) drug resistance and programmatic management of drug-resistant TB in the Western Pacific Region of the World Health Organization (WHO). (who.int)
  • Pharmaceutical corporations like J&J should stop inflating the price of the drug that offers a lifeline to people affected with drug-resistant forms of tuberculosis. (msf.org.uk)
  • Clinical manifestations, although variable in different settings and among different strains, have in general shown that XDR tuberculosis is associated with greater morbidity and mortality than non-XDR tuberculosis. (nih.gov)
  • Furthermore, strains of M. tuberculosis that are re- and resistance to all fi rst-line drugs was more frequent (36% sistant to second-line drugs are also emerging. (cdc.gov)
  • Extensive drug susceptibil- wide, and they are associated with worse treatment out- ity testing and availability of second- and third-line drugs un- comes than strains of MDR TB ( 8 , 10 , 11 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Efflux pump gene protein superfamilies have been characterized by genome analysis of drug resistant strains and through in vitro transcriptional studies. (aku.edu)
  • The continuing emergence and spread of drug-resistant TB strains is one of the most difficult challenges facing control of the disease. (cshlpress.com)
  • The emergence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains that cause XDR TB has prompted the issuance of interim guidelines for clinical and research laboratories handling XDR TB specimens. (cdc.gov)
  • Furthermore, several M. tuberculosis BDQ resistant mutants were isolated by both MDR strains, harboring mutations in both atpE and Rv0678 genes. (frontiersin.org)
  • Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially fatal contagious disease that can affect almost any part of the body but is mainly an infection of the lungs. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Scientists know it as an infection caused by M. tuberculosis . (encyclopedia.com)
  • When streptomycin, the first antibiotic effective against M. tuberculosis , was discovered in the early 1940s, the infection began to come under control. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Written and edited by experts in the field, this collection from Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine examines all aspects of M. tuberculosis biology, transmission, and infection, as well as ongoing strategies to treat and control it. (cshlpress.com)
  • With tuberculosis infection widespread and extensively drug resistant disease prominent throughout Russia, there is an urgent need for improved tuberculosis testing. (science20.com)
  • Pulmonary tuberculosis is an airborne and highly contagious bacterial infection that usually attacks the lungs and can be fatal in left untreated. (abc.net.au)
  • Screening for Latent Tuberculosis Infection Among Non-US-Born Adults in the US: A Path Toward Elimination. (ucsf.edu)
  • Increasing Latent Tuberculosis Infection Testing and Treatment Initiation at a Community Health Center with a Large Non-U.S.-born Population. (ucsf.edu)
  • State-level prevalence estimates of latent tuberculosis infection in the United States by medical risk factors, demographic characteristics and nativity. (ucsf.edu)
  • Policy Implications of Mathematical Modeling of Latent Tuberculosis Infection Testing and Treatment Strategies to Accelerate Tuberculosis Elimination. (ucsf.edu)
  • Modeling the Impact of Recommendations for Primary Care-Based Screening for Latent Tuberculosis Infection in California. (ucsf.edu)
  • Tuberculosis is a chronic contagious infection caused by the airborne bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis . (msdmanuals.com)
  • Tuberculosis (TB) in Newborns Tuberculosis is a contagious infection caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis . (msdmanuals.com)
  • This is a pyrazine analog of nicotinamide that is either bacteriostatic or bactericidal against M tuberculosis , depending on the concentration of drug attained at the site of infection. (medscape.com)
  • This document is an evidence-based policy for the implementation of sound tuberculosis (TB) infection control by all stakeholders. (bvsalud.org)
  • To evaluate drug susceptibility, the bacteria need to be cultivated and tested in a suitable laboratory. (wikipedia.org)
  • The original method used to test for MDR-TB and XDR-TB was the Drug Susceptibility Testing (DST). (wikipedia.org)
  • Drug Susceptibility testing is done by making a Lowenstein-Jensen medium plate and spreading the bacteria on the plate. (wikipedia.org)
  • The duration of tuberculosis treatment depends on the regimen chosen, the patient's clinical and radiographical responses, smear and culture results, and susceptibility of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from the patient or the suspected source case. (who.int)
  • Continuous surveillance is based on routine drug susceptibility testing of all bacteriologically confirmed TB patients. (ersjournals.com)
  • The coverage of drug susceptibility testing (DST) among new and previously treated TB cases was 3% and 20%, respectively. (who.int)
  • This requires improvements in the following critical steps of the cascade of services: (1) step-wise increase of the proportion of TB cases who receive drug susceptibility testing (DST), (2) all diagnosed patients are promptly notified and enrolled in treatment, and (3) all enrolled patients complete their treatment with effective patient-centred support. (who.int)
  • Up to 50% of persons with HIV and a diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) in Thailand die during TB treatment. (cdc.gov)
  • The GeneXpert diagnostic testing technology from the US corporation Cepheid, and its parent company Danaher, has revolutionised rapid, accurate diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB) and other diseases, since entering the market in 2010. (msfaccess.org)
  • CheXaid: deep learning assistance for physician diagnosis of tuberculosis using chest x-rays in patients with. (tbdb.org)
  • Failure to properly diagnose and treat TB can lead to death and can exacerbate antimicrobial resistance, a key contributor to rising cases of multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis, and increasing the probability of the introduction of resistant TB into new geographic areas. (govinfo.gov)
  • Fortnightly outreach clinics were set up on Boigu and Saibai islands by Queensland Health six years ago, specifically to treat PNG nationals suffering from multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB) . (abc.net.au)
  • Yuri's doctors said he had one chance left: a treatment programme offered by MSF in cooperation with Belarus' government, using the latest TB drugs. (msfaccess.org)
  • I received this costly drug as part of 'strengthened regimen' programme of MSF in Khayelitsha. (mediaforfreedom.com)
  • However, there is limited information regarding efflux pump genes in extensively drug resistant (XDR) tuberculosis (TB) isolates. (aku.edu)
  • Whole genome sequencing (WGS) based analysis of 37 extensively drug resistant (XDR) and five drug sensitive (DS) MTB clinical isolates was performed. (aku.edu)
  • We identified unique SNPs in efflux pump genes which may be associated with increased drug resistance in the isolates. (aku.edu)
  • Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the major causes of death related to antimicrobial resistance worldwide because of the spread of Mycobacterium tuberculosis multi- and extensively drug resistant (multi-drug resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR), respectively) clinical isolates. (frontiersin.org)
  • To this aim, in this work an in vitro generation of M. tuberculosis mutants resistant to BDQ was performed starting from two MDR clinical isolates as parental cultures. (frontiersin.org)
  • The two M. tuberculosis MDR clinical isolates were firstly characterized by whole genome sequencing, finding the main mutations responsible for their MDR phenotype. (frontiersin.org)
  • DST is capable of determining how well four primary antitubercular drugs inhibit the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The four primary antitubercular drugs are Isoniazid, Rifampin, Ethambutol and Pyrazinamide. (wikipedia.org)
  • To fight MDR and XDR tuberculosis, three new antitubercular drugs, bedaquiline (BDQ), delamanid, and pretomanid were approved for use in clinical setting. (frontiersin.org)
  • Drug resistance implies low treatment success rates ( e.g. 54% for MDR-/rifampicin-resistant TB and 30% for XDR-TB) [ 1 - 3 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • As a result, in 2021, only one in three people with drug-resistant TB (DR-TB) received treatment for the disease. (msfaccess.org)
  • Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is a form of tuberculosis caused by bacteria that are resistant to some of the most effective anti-TB drugs. (wikipedia.org)
  • Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by bacteria that are spread from person to person through the air. (cdc.gov)
  • Tuberculosis is caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis . (msdmanuals.com)
  • Infections Caused by Bacteria Related to Tuberculosis (TB) Many species of mycobacteria exist. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of M. tuberculosis and related mycobacteria is now routine, allowing comparisons across time and space. (jci.org)
  • the complete genome sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis continues to provide an invaluable resource to understand tuberculosis (TB), the leading cause of global infectious disease mortality. (jci.org)
  • At the 25-year anniversary of this accomplishment, we describe how insights gleaned from the M. tuberculosis genome have led to vital tools for TB research, epidemiology, and clinical practice. (jci.org)
  • While the genome sequence was already transformative at the time, the past 25 years of progress have substantially increased its impact on TB taxonomy, drug discovery, resistance mechanisms, epidemiology, vaccine development, and pathogenesis. (jci.org)
  • The M. tuberculosis genome has ushered in a quarter century of substantial clinical and public health advancements. (jci.org)
  • ABSTRACT Defaulting on tuberculosis (TB) treatment remains a challenge to controlling TB. (who.int)
  • MDR TB is caused by an organism that is resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampin, the two most potent TB drugs. (cdc.gov)
  • Extensively drug resistant TB (XDR TB) is a rare type of MDR TB that is resistant to isoniazid and rifampin, plus any fluoroquinolone and at least one of three injectable second-line drugs (i.e., amikacin, kanamycin, or capreomycin). (cdc.gov)
  • Pre-XDR TB is caused by an organism that is resistant to isoniazid, rifampin, and a fluoroquinolone OR by an organism that is resistant to isoniazid, rifampin, and a second-line injectable (amikacin, capreomycin, and kanamycin). (cdc.gov)
  • TB can usually be treated with a course of four standard, or first-line, anti-TB drugs (i.e., isoniazid, rifampin and any fluoroquinolone). (wikipedia.org)
  • Pre-Extensively Drug-resistant TB (pre-XDR TB) is a type of MDR TB caused by TB bacteria that are resistant to isoniazid, rifampin, and a fluroquinolone OR by TB bacteria that are resistant to isoniazid, rifampin, and a second-line injectable (amikacin, capreomycin, and kanamycin). (cdc.gov)
  • New cases are initially treated with four drugs: isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and either ethambutol or streptomycin. (medscape.com)
  • Patients requiring retreatment should initially receive at least 5 drugs, including isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and at least 2 (preferably 3) new drugs to which the patient has not been exposed. (medscape.com)
  • Rifampin is used in combination with at least 1 other antituberculous drug for the treatment of active TB. (medscape.com)
  • This woman was admitted to isolation and started empirically on a 4-drug regimen in the ED. Tuberculosis was confirmed on sputum testing. (medscape.com)
  • Administer the drug for the initial 2 months of a 6-month or longer treatment regimen for drug-susceptible TB. (medscape.com)
  • Extensively drug-resistant (XDR) tuberculosis is defined as disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis with resistance to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, any fluoroquinolone, and at least one of three injectable second-line drugs (amikacin, capreomycin, or kanamycin). (nih.gov)
  • Mycobacterium tuberculosis , the causative agent of TB ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • It is caused by a bacterial microorganism, the tubercle bacillus or Mycobacterium tuberculosis . (encyclopedia.com)
  • It is challenging to understand mechanisms of drug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) due to the large variability in resistance associated genes. (aku.edu)
  • TB389 trade name] is indicated in combination with other tuberculosis medicines for the treatment of drug- resistant tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis . (who.int)
  • People infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and HIV are much more likely to develop active tuberculosis (TB) than people with M. tuberculosis but without HIV [ 1 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • Present results showed that Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA was present in 36 out of 300 (12%) sputum samples. (scialert.net)
  • These bacteria plus Mycobacterium tuberculosis and some others are called the mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The species Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the one that causes tuberculosis. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Discovery of pyrimidine-tethered benzothiazole derivatives as novel anti-tubercular agents towards multi- and extensively drug resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis . (bvsalud.org)
  • XDR-TB is a rare form of tuberculosis that is resistant to at least four of the core anti-TB drugs. (indiatimes.com)
  • Recent surveillance data have indicated that the prevalence of tuberculosis drug resistance has risen to the highest rate ever recorded. (nih.gov)
  • This study was performed to examine the prevalence of tuberculosis (TB) in Afghan immigrants in Kerman province of Iran. (scialert.net)
  • Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis treated with bedaquiline: A case report in the particularly vulnerable tribal group. (tbdb.org)
  • In Zhytomyr, Ukraine, MSF introduced new oral drugs that are recommended by the WHO, including bedaquiline. (msf.org.uk)
  • MSF demands this price cut considering the joint contributions made in the development of the drug, bedaquiline, including by MSF itself. (msf.org.uk)
  • We're calling on J&J to price bedaquiline at no more than $1 per day so that it can be made available to all people with drug-resistant TB," said Sharonann Lynch, HIV & TB Advisor for MSF's Access Campaign. (msf.org.uk)
  • On 22 January, 2020, MSF protested outside the New York Stock Exchange in New York, demanding Johnson & Johnson make the tuberculosis drug bedaquiline available for all people with drug-resistant TB for no more than a dollar a day. (msf.org.uk)
  • In comparison, the lowest price J&J charges today for 20 months of bedaquiline is nearly double this at $1,200 ($2 per day) in countries eligible to purchase through the Global Drug Facility (GDF), a TB drug and diagnostic procurement mechanism, operating out of a UN agency. (msf.org.uk)
  • This high price affects the scale-up of the drug in many countries struggling with DR-TB epidemics, considering that bedaquiline is just one of multiple drugs required in treatment regimens. (msf.org.uk)
  • The drug most recently completed a Phase IIa study in patients with TB in South Africa. (pharmatimes.com)
  • She is perhaps the first female survivor of the deadly extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) in South Africa. (mediaforfreedom.com)
  • of the $13,000,000,000 required annually outlined in the Stop TB Partnership's Global Plan to End TB for tuberculosis prevention, diagnosis, and treatment is currently available. (govinfo.gov)
  • Tuberculosis has been in the news lately because of the story concerning the man with "extensively drug resistant" tuberculosis (XDR TB) who has been quarantined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta. (cdc.gov)
  • Among all enrolled MDR-TB cases, 34% had second-line DST and of these, 13% were resistant to fluoroquinolones (FQ) and/or second-line injectable agents. (who.int)
  • Between 2009 and 2020, 20 546 people in Canada were reported to have tuberculosis. (bcmj.org)
  • Solid organ transplant recipients with tuberculosis disease in California, 2010 to 2020. (ucsf.edu)
  • Sociodemographic Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Mortality Among Persons Diagnosed With Tuberculosis and COVID-19 in Close Succession in California, 2020. (ucsf.edu)
  • The radiograph shows a classic posterior segment right upper lobe density consistent with active tuberculosis. (medscape.com)
  • For years the tuberculin skin test has been the only diagnostic for latent tuberculosis available in this region. (science20.com)
  • Early diagnosis and treatment plus isolation of people with active disease until they have responded to treatment help prevent tuberculosis from spreading. (msdmanuals.com)
  • AIDS patients are much more likely to develop tuberculosis because of their weakened immune systems. (encyclopedia.com)
  • Globally an estimated 1.6 million people develop tuberculosis (TB), and 110 000 die from this curable illness annually. (who.int)
  • However, treatment continues to be limited in tuberculosis-endemic countries largely because of weaknesses in national tuberculosis health-care models. (nih.gov)
  • Earlier, the state government would send the patient's sample to Bangalore-based National Tuberculosis Institute for confirmation of XDR-TB. (indiatimes.com)
  • Tuberculosis (TB) is still an infectious disease of public health importance today. (ersjournals.com)
  • Tuberculosis (TB) (see the image below), a multisystemic disease with myriad presentations and manifestations, is the most common cause of infectious disease-related mortality worldwide. (medscape.com)
  • Tuberculosis (TB) is the leading cause of death from infectious disease in the world 1 , with epidemics being spatially heterogeneous, as indicated by evidence of geographic clustering at different resolution levels 2 , 3 . (nature.com)
  • People with drug-resistant TB remain infectious for a longer period, despite the treatment and this may prolong the risk of transmission in the household. (indiatimes.com)
  • Tuberculosis experts are worried the shifting of TB clinics across the international border will undermine the fight against a drug-resistant strain of the infectious bacteria. (abc.net.au)
  • Seventy- resistance of M. tuberculosis to any fl uoroquinolone and four (40%) of these 184 patients received treatment with to at least one of the injectable drugs (capreomycin, kana- linezolid. (cdc.gov)
  • There were an estimated 9.2 million new TB cases and 1.7 1Additional German Tuberculosis Network European Trials group million deaths from TB in 2006 ( 2 ). (cdc.gov)
  • This would allow greater access to drug-resistant TB (DR-TB) treatment and reduce deaths. (msf.org.uk)
  • There were an estimated 9.9 million new cases of symptomatic tuberculosis and an estimated 1.5 million deaths from the disease. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The increasing trend in detection and enrolment of MDR-TB cases demonstrates readiness to scale up programmatic management of drug-resistant TB at the country level. (who.int)
  • To address the challenge of drug resistance in the WHO Western Pacific Region, the Regional strategy to stop tuberculosis in the Western Pacific 2011-2015 6 declared scaling up the programmatic management of drug-resistant TB (PMDT) as one of its five objectives. (who.int)
  • Management of MDR-TB : a field guide : a companion document to guidelines for programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis : integrated management of adolescent and adult illness (IMAI). (bvsalud.org)
  • It is based on the Emergency Update 2008 of Guidelines for programmatic management of drug-resistant tuberculosis (WHO/HTM/TB/2008.402), and may be considered a companion document to these guidelines. (bvsalud.org)
  • Doctors at the Lizo Nobanda TB Care Centre in Cape Town (managed by MSF/ Medicins Sans Frontieres or Doctors Without Borders) told her about a new drug - a high-strength antibiotic called linezolid. (mediaforfreedom.com)
  • This Issue Brief examines the current landscape and trends of DR-TB drug pricing and patents, and highlights challenges and opportunities to accelerate people's access to lifesaving regimens that are shorter, all-oral and make use of the most effective medicines. (msfaccess.org)
  • Treat drug-resistant TB with individualized regimens. (medscape.com)
  • Resistance to anti-TB drugs can occur when these drugs are misused or mismanaged. (cdc.gov)
  • It takes a substantially longer time to treat the drug-resistant form of TB than the drug-susceptible form and requires the use of second-line anti-TB drugs, which are expensive. (indiatimes.com)
  • There is also mounting evidence that PNG is ill-prepared to take over such a complex and expensive health service, with serious questions being asked about its ability to get access to vital anti-TB drugs. (abc.net.au)
  • Contributors explore the biological characteristics of M. tuberculosis, its complex interactions with the human immune system, and factors that influence the progression from latent to active TB disease (e.g., coinfection with HIV/AIDS). (cshlpress.com)
  • At a United Nations General Assembly Special Session convened in June 2001, the world's nations signed up to this commitment, and the creation of the Global Fund to fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria was endorsed as part of a Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS [6] . (lww.com)
  • Tuberculosis elimination: where are we now? (ersjournals.com)
  • Can Primary Care Drive Tuberculosis Elimination? (ucsf.edu)
  • Pfizer has outlicensed exclusive worldwide rights to sutezolid, a mid-stage oxazolidinone antibiotic currently in development for tuberculosis, to Sequella. (pharmatimes.com)
  • European Reference Laboratory Network for TB Members, Balabanova Y. Laboratory diagnosis of paediatric tuberculosis in the European Union/European Economic Area: analysis of routine laboratory data, 2007 to 2011. (fz-borstel.de)
  • The data were aggregated numbers of cases reported from either drug resistance surveys or continuous surveillance systems. (ersjournals.com)
  • Efflux pump genes contribute to drug resistance and thus add to this complexity. (aku.edu)
  • The most common mutations linked to low-level of BDQ resistance are present in Rv0678 gene coding for the M. tuberculosis repressor of MmpS5-MmpL5 efflux system. (frontiersin.org)
  • Instead, he suffers from an extensively drug-resistant strain of tuberculosis, or XDR-TB. (sott.net)
  • MDR-TB cases can either be previously treated TB cases that develop resistance due to inadequate, incomplete or poor treatment quality (secondary drug resistance) or newly diagnosed TB cases infected with a drug-resistant TB strain (primary drug resistance). (who.int)
  • Drug-susceptible TB and XDR TB are spread the same way. (cdc.gov)
  • The effect of BCG against XDR TB would likely be similar to the effect on drug-susceptible TB. (cdc.gov)
  • If I have drug-susceptible TB, how can I prevent getting drug-resistant TB? (cdc.gov)
  • If TB bacteria are found in the sputum, the diagnosis of TB can be made in a day or two, but this finding will not be able to distinguish between drug-susceptible and drug-resistant TB. (wikipedia.org)
  • The treatment of XDR tuberculosis should include agents to which the organism is susceptible, and should continue for a minimum of 18-24 months. (nih.gov)
  • Drug-resistant TB (DR TB) is spread the same way that drug-susceptible TB is spread. (cdc.gov)
  • Successful outcomes depend greatly on the extent of the drug resistance, the severity of the disease, whether the patient's immune system is weakened, and adherence to treatment. (cdc.gov)
  • These drugs are used to treat all persons with TB disease. (cdc.gov)
  • a public health emergency and called on countries to make scaling up tuberculosis control a priority, TB remains a deadly health threat despite the fact that TB is a preventable, treatable, and curable disease. (govinfo.gov)
  • People receiving treatment for TB disease should tell their health care provider if they are having trouble taking the drugs. (cdc.gov)
  • Tuberculosis is spread mainly when people breathe air contaminated by a person who has active disease. (msdmanuals.com)
  • 2016 . Current tools available for the diagnosis of drug-resistant tuberculosis . (ajtmh.org)
  • Assessing Complexity Among Patients With Tuberculosis in California, 1993-2016. (ucsf.edu)
  • Health insurance, healthcare utilization and language use among populations who experience risk for tuberculosis, California 2014-2017. (ucsf.edu)
  • Sometimes drug-resistant TB occurs when bacteria become resistant to the drugs used to treat TB. (cdc.gov)
  • This means that the drug can no longer kill the TB bacteria. (cdc.gov)
  • Drug-resistant TB is caused by TB bacteria that are resistant to at least one first-line anti-TB drug. (cdc.gov)
  • To prevent, treat, and cure tuberculosis globally. (govinfo.gov)
  • TB is always treated with three or more meds to reduce emergence of drug resistance, but preclinical studies performed independently by Sequella and Pfizer show SQ109 and sutezolid to each have activity as single agents, and promising additional activity when used in combination. (pharmatimes.com)