Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination.
Sensitive tests to measure certain antigens, antibodies, or viruses, using their ability to agglutinate certain erythrocytes. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
The type (and only) species of RUBIVIRUS causing acute infection in humans, primarily children and young adults. Humans are the only natural host. A live, attenuated vaccine is available for prophylaxis.
Immunoglobulins produced in response to VIRAL ANTIGENS.
A mobile, very volatile, highly flammable liquid used as an inhalation anesthetic and as a solvent for waxes, fats, oils, perfumes, alkaloids, and gums. It is mildly irritating to skin and mucous membranes.
The aggregation of ERYTHROCYTES by AGGLUTININS, including antibodies, lectins, and viral proteins (HEMAGGLUTINATION, VIRAL).
An acute infectious disease caused by the RUBELLA VIRUS. The virus enters the respiratory tract via airborne droplet and spreads to the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
Serologic tests based on inactivation of complement by the antigen-antibody complex (stage 1). Binding of free complement can be visualized by addition of a second antigen-antibody system such as red cells and appropriate red cell antibody (hemolysin) requiring complement for its completion (stage 2). Failure of the red cells to lyse indicates that a specific antigen-antibody reaction has taken place in stage 1. If red cells lyse, free complement is present indicating no antigen-antibody reaction occurred in stage 1.
The measurement of infection-blocking titer of ANTISERA by testing a series of dilutions for a given virus-antiserum interaction end-point, which is generally the dilution at which tissue cultures inoculated with the serum-virus mixtures demonstrate cytopathology (CPE) or the dilution at which 50% of test animals injected with serum-virus mixtures show infectivity (ID50) or die (LD50).
The type species of the genus INFLUENZAVIRUS A that causes influenza and other diseases in humans and animals. Antigenic variation occurs frequently between strains, allowing classification into subtypes and variants. Transmission is usually by aerosol (human and most non-aquatic hosts) or waterborne (ducks). Infected birds shed the virus in their saliva, nasal secretions, and feces.
A family of RNA viruses causing INFLUENZA and other diseases. There are five recognized genera: INFLUENZAVIRUS A; INFLUENZAVIRUS B; INFLUENZAVIRUS C; ISAVIRUS; and THOGOTOVIRUS.
Substances elaborated by viruses that have antigenic activity.
Common name for the species Gallus gallus, the domestic fowl, in the family Phasianidae, order GALLIFORMES. It is descended from the red jungle fowl of SOUTHEAST ASIA.
Vaccines used to prevent infection by viruses in the family ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE. It includes both killed and attenuated vaccines. The composition of the vaccines is changed each year in response to antigenic shifts and changes in prevalence of influenza virus strains. The vaccine is usually bivalent or trivalent, containing one or two INFLUENZAVIRUS A strains and one INFLUENZAVIRUS B strain.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Agglutination of ERYTHROCYTES by a virus.
Studies determining the effectiveness or value of processes, personnel, and equipment, or the material on conducting such studies. For drugs and devices, CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; DRUG EVALUATION; and DRUG EVALUATION, PRECLINICAL are available.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Phenomenon of cell-mediated immunity measured by in vitro inhibition of the migration or phagocytosis of antigen-stimulated LEUKOCYTES or MACROPHAGES. Specific CELL MIGRATION ASSAYS have been developed to estimate levels of migration inhibitory factors, immune reactivity against tumor-associated antigens, and immunosuppressive effects of infectious microorganisms.
Test for cell-mediated antitumor immunity and related serum blocking factors based on the finding that leukocytes from cancer patients, but not from controls, when mixed in vitro with antigenic extracts of tumors of the same histological type, undergo a diminution in their normal adherence to glass surfaces. Sera from tumor-bearing patients block the LAI reaction of their own leukocytes or those of other patients with the same type of tumor.
An acute viral infection in humans involving the respiratory tract. It is marked by inflammation of the NASAL MUCOSA; the PHARYNX; and conjunctiva, and by headache and severe, often generalized, myalgia.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS with the surface proteins hemagglutinin 1 and neuraminidase 1. The H1N1 subtype was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
Specific hemagglutinin subtypes encoded by VIRUSES.
Serological reactions in which an antiserum against one antigen reacts with a non-identical but closely related antigen.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 2. The H3N2 subtype was responsible for the Hong Kong flu pandemic of 1968.
Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.
Vaccines in which the infectious microbial nucleic acid components have been destroyed by chemical or physical treatment (e.g., formalin, beta-propiolactone, gamma radiation) without affecting the antigenicity or immunogenicity of the viral coat or bacterial outer membrane proteins.
Virus diseases caused by the ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE.
Membrane glycoproteins from influenza viruses which are involved in hemagglutination, virus attachment, and envelope fusion. Fourteen distinct subtypes of HA glycoproteins and nine of NA glycoproteins have been identified from INFLUENZA A VIRUS; no subtypes have been identified for Influenza B or Influenza C viruses.
Agents that cause agglutination of red blood cells. They include antibodies, blood group antigens, lectins, autoimmune factors, bacterial, viral, or parasitic blood agglutinins, etc.
The most common mineral of a group of hydrated aluminum silicates, approximately H2Al2Si2O8-H2O. It is prepared for pharmaceutical and medicinal purposes by levigating with water to remove sand, etc. (From Merck Index, 11th ed) The name is derived from Kao-ling (Chinese: "high ridge"), the original site. (From Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Red blood cells. Mature erythrocytes are non-nucleated, biconcave disks containing HEMOGLOBIN whose function is to transport OXYGEN.
An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of alpha-2,3, alpha-2,6-, and alpha-2,8-glycosidic linkages (at a decreasing rate, respectively) of terminal sialic residues in oligosaccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, colominic acid, and synthetic substrate. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992)
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
Technique involving the diffusion of antigen or antibody through a semisolid medium, usually agar or agarose gel, with the result being a precipitin reaction.
Species of the genus INFLUENZAVIRUS B that cause HUMAN INFLUENZA and other diseases primarily in humans. Antigenic variation is less extensive than in type A viruses (INFLUENZA A VIRUS) and consequently there is no basis for distinct subtypes or variants. Epidemics are less likely than with INFLUENZA A VIRUS and there have been no pandemics. Previously only found in humans, Influenza B virus has been isolated from seals which may constitute the animal reservoir from which humans are exposed.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 3 and neuraminidase 8. The H3N8 subtype has frequently been found in horses.
A method for the detection of very small quantities of antibody in which the antigen-antibody-complement complex adheres to indicator cells, usually primate erythrocytes or nonprimate blood platelets. The reaction is dependent on the number of bound C3 molecules on the C3b receptor sites of the indicator cell.
An acute febrile, contagious, viral disease of birds caused by an AVULAVIRUS called NEWCASTLE DISEASE VIRUS. It is characterized by respiratory and nervous symptoms in fowl and is transmissible to man causing a severe, but transient conjunctivitis.
Sorbitan mono-9-octadecanoate poly(oxy-1,2-ethanediyl) derivatives; complex mixtures of polyoxyethylene ethers used as emulsifiers or dispersing agents in pharmaceuticals.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
Diagnostic procedures involving immunoglobulin reactions.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 5 and neuraminidase 1. The H5N1 subtype, frequently referred to as the bird flu virus, is endemic in wild birds and very contagious among both domestic (POULTRY) and wild birds. It does not usually infect humans, but some cases have been reported.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "geese" is a common name for certain species of waterfowl and doesn't have a medical definition. It is not related to medical terminology or healthcare.
Methods of detecting pregnancy by examining the levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in plasma or urine.
The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.
Infection of domestic and wild fowl and other BIRDS with INFLUENZA A VIRUS. Avian influenza usually does not sicken birds, but can be highly pathogenic and fatal in domestic POULTRY.
'Squalene' is a biologically occurring triterpene compound, naturally produced in humans, animals, and plants, that forms an essential part of the lipid-rich membranes in various tissues, including the skin surface and the liver, and has been studied for its potential benefits in skincare, dietary supplements, and vaccine adjuvant systems.
A genus of gram-negative, mostly facultatively anaerobic bacteria in the family MYCOPLASMATACEAE. The cells are bounded by a PLASMA MEMBRANE and lack a true CELL WALL. Its organisms are pathogens found on the MUCOUS MEMBRANES of humans, ANIMALS, and BIRDS.
A subtype of INFLUENZA A VIRUS comprised of the surface proteins hemagglutinin 9 and neuraminidase 2. The H9N2 subtype usually infects domestic birds (POULTRY) but there have been some human infections reported.
Passive agglutination tests in which antigen is adsorbed onto latex particles which then clump in the presence of antibody specific for the adsorbed antigen. (From Stedman, 26th ed)
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
Large, hoofed mammals of the family EQUIDAE. Horses are active day and night with most of the day spent seeking and consuming food. Feeding peaks occur in the early morning and late afternoon, and there are several daily periods of rest.
Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
Diseases of birds which are raised as a source of meat or eggs for human consumption and are usually found in barnyards, hatcheries, etc. The concept is differentiated from BIRD DISEASES which is for diseases of birds not considered poultry and usually found in zoos, parks, and the wild.
The most well known avian paramyxovirus in the genus AVULAVIRUS and the cause of a highly infectious pneumoencephalitis in fowl. It is also reported to cause CONJUNCTIVITIS in humans. Transmission is by droplet inhalation or ingestion of contaminated water or food.
Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.
EPIDEMIOLOGIC STUDIES based on the detection through serological testing of characteristic change in the serum level of specific ANTIBODIES. Latent subclinical infections and carrier states can thus be detected in addition to clinically overt cases.
The period of recovery following an illness.
A family of viruses, mainly arboviruses, consisting of a single strand of RNA. Virions are enveloped particles 90-120 nm diameter. The complete family contains over 300 members arranged in five genera: ORTHOBUNYAVIRUS; HANTAVIRUS; NAIROVIRUS; PHLEBOVIRUS; and TOSPOVIRUS.
Proteins that share the common characteristic of binding to carbohydrates. Some ANTIBODIES and carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. PLANT LECTINS are carbohydrate-binding proteins that have been primarily identified by their hemagglutinating activity (HEMAGGLUTININS). However, a variety of lectins occur in animal species where they serve diverse array of functions through specific carbohydrate recognition.
A series of steps taken in order to conduct research.
Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.
A common name used for the genus Cavia. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.
Epidemics of infectious disease that have spread to many countries, often more than one continent, and usually affecting a large number of people.
A species in the ORTHOBUNYAVIRUS genus of the family BUNYAVIRIDAE. Serotypes are found in temperate and arctic regions and each is closely associated with a single species of vector mosquito. The vertebrate hosts are usually small mammals but several serotypes infect humans.
The type species of LYSSAVIRUS causing rabies in humans and other animals. Transmission is mostly by animal bites through saliva. The virus is neurotropic multiplying in neurons and myotubes of vertebrates.
Diseases of domestic swine and of the wild boar of the genus Sus.
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
A species of FLAVIVIRUS, one of the Japanese encephalitis virus group (ENCEPHALITIS VIRUSES, JAPANESE), which is the etiological agent of Japanese encephalitis found in Asia, southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.
A viral infection of the brain caused by serotypes of California encephalitis virus (ENCEPHALITIS VIRUS, CALIFORNIA) transmitted to humans by the mosquito AEDES triseriatus. The majority of cases are caused by the LA CROSSE VIRUS. This condition is endemic to the midwestern United States and primarily affects children between 5-10 years of age. Clinical manifestations include FEVER; VOMITING; HEADACHE; and abdominal pain followed by SEIZURES, altered mentation, and focal neurologic deficits. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1996, Ch26, p13)
Semidomesticated variety of European polecat much used for hunting RODENTS and/or RABBITS and as a laboratory animal. It is in the subfamily Mustelinae, family MUSTELIDAE.
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
Infections of the brain caused by arthropod-borne viruses (i.e., arboviruses) primarily from the families TOGAVIRIDAE; FLAVIVIRIDAE; BUNYAVIRIDAE; REOVIRIDAE; and RHABDOVIRIDAE. Life cycles of these viruses are characterized by ZOONOSES, with birds and lower mammals serving as intermediate hosts. The virus is transmitted to humans by the bite of mosquitoes (CULICIDAE) or TICKS. Clinical manifestations include fever, headache, alterations of mentation, focal neurologic deficits, and COMA. (From Clin Microbiol Rev 1994 Jan;7(1):89-116; Walton, Brain's Diseases of the Nervous System, 10th ed, p321)
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).
Arthropod-borne viruses. A non-taxonomic designation for viruses that can replicate in both vertebrate hosts and arthropod vectors. Included are some members of the following families: ARENAVIRIDAE; BUNYAVIRIDAE; REOVIRIDAE; TOGAVIRIDAE; and FLAVIVIRIDAE. (From Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2nd ed)
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.

Serum dilution neutralization test for California group virus identification and serology. (1/1894)

The serum dilution neutralization test was evaluated for serological diagnosis of California group arbovirus infections and identification of virus isolates. The technical advantages and the degree of subtype specificity of the serum dilution neutralization test over the hemagglutination inhibition test and the complement fixation test were demonstrated with paired specimens from human cases, single human survey sera, and sentinel rabbit sera. Twenty-one virus isolates from various geographical areas of the United States were also used to evaluate the efficacy of the serum dilution neutralization test for specific virus identification.  (+info)

Removal of non-specific serum inhibitors of haemagglutination of rubella virus by treatment with dodecylamine-gel. (2/1894)

The suitability of using dodecylamine-gel for removing the serum non-antibody-like inhibitors of haemagglutination by rubella was studied. Compared with kaolin and MnCl2/heparin treatment this new procedure appears to have a higher specificity since it removes the non-antibody-like inhibitors from serum without affecting the immunoglobulin level significantly. The potential application of this procedure in routine serological analysis for rubella virus infection is discussed.  (+info)

Staphylococcal protein A; its preparation and an application to rubella serology. (3/1894)

Good yields of staphylococcal protein A are obtained by growing the staphylococcus Cowan type 1 on cellophane agar. The activity of these preparations in removing immunoglobulin G (IgG) from human serum can be readily measured by the Mancini radial-diffusion technique and the correct in-use dilution determined. Treatment with protein A of sera from women with a history of rubella may help in the identification of those having specific antibody in the IgM and IgA fractions. This relatively simple procedure may have worthwhile application in the diagnosis of rubella.  (+info)

Detection of antibody to avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in human serum by using a combination of serologic assays. (4/1894)

From May to December 1997, 18 cases of mild to severe respiratory illness caused by avian influenza A (H5N1) viruses were identified in Hong Kong. The emergence of an avian virus in the human population prompted an epidemiological investigation to determine the extent of human-to-human transmission of the virus and risk factors associated with infection. The hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay, the standard method for serologic detection of influenza virus infection in humans, has been shown to be less sensitive for the detection of antibodies induced by avian influenza viruses. Therefore, we developed a more sensitive microneutralization assay to detect antibodies to avian influenza in humans. Direct comparison of an HI assay and the microneutralization assay demonstrated that the latter was substantially more sensitive in detecting human antibodies to H5N1 virus in infected individuals. An H5-specific indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was also established to test children's sera. The sensitivity and specificity of the microneutralization assay were compared with those of an H5-specific indirect ELISA. When combined with a confirmatory H5-specific Western blot test, the specificities of both assays were improved. Maximum sensitivity (80%) and specificity (96%) for the detection of anti-H5 antibody in adults aged 18 to 59 years were achieved by using the microneutralization assay combined with Western blotting. Maximum sensitivity (100%) and specificity (100%) in detecting anti-H5 antibody in sera obtained from children less than 15 years of age were achieved by using ELISA combined with Western blotting. This new test algorithm is being used for the seroepidemiologic investigations of the avian H5N1 influenza outbreak.  (+info)

A modified rubella HI test using prestandardized reagents. (5/1894)

A modified haemagglutination inhibition test for rubella antibodies using prestandardized freeze-dried reagents was compared to a "standard" method. Tests of 707 serum samples showed that the modified test was sensitive and reliable by both macrotitration and microtitration techniques. The minor disadvantages of some reduction in antibody level when rubella sera were tested within one week of the rash and of spontaneous sheep erythrocyte agglutination in 0-7% of sera were out-weighed by the increased speed of the new test and the fact that it was carried out at room temperature.  (+info)

Experimental production of respiratory tract disease in cebus monkeys after intratracheal or intranasal infection with influenza A/Victoria/3/75 or influenza A/New Jersey/76 virus. (6/1894)

A total of 28 cebus monkeys were inoculated intratracheally or intranasally with 10(6) 50% tissue culture infective doses of A/New Jersey/76 virus or 10(7) 50% tissue culture infective doses of A/Victoria/75 virus, and 8 additional monkeys received sterile allantoic fluid. Each of the animals became infected as evidenced by a serological response and/or shedding of the virus. Of the 10 animals inoculated intratracheally with A/Victoria/75 virus, 8 developed a systemic illness, and pulmonary infiltration was detected by X-ray in 7 of the 8. Administration of A/New Jersey/76 virus intratracheally to 10 monkeys produced a mild systemic illness in 2 animals and an upper respiratory tract illness in 6, but no illness developed in the remaining 2 monkeys; none of the animals developed X-ray evidence of lower respiratory tract disease. Intranasal administration of either virus failed to induce any illness or produced, at most, mild illness confined to the upper respiratory tract. These studies demonstrate that cebus monkeys are susceptible to respiratory tract infection with influenza A viruses and that the development of pulmonary disease is reflected in the appearance of easily recognizable radiological changes.  (+info)

Influenza vaccination of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected adults: impact on plasma levels of HIV type 1 RNA and determinants of antibody response. (7/1894)

We assessed the effect of influenza vaccination on plasma levels of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) RNA and the impact of age, plasma HIV-1 RNA level, CD4 cell count, and anti-HIV therapy on immune response. Forty-nine adults (mean age, 38.7 years; mean CD4 cell count +/- SD, 190 +/- 169/mL; mean plasma HIV-1 RNA level +/- SD, 154,616 +/- 317,192 copies/mL) were immunized. Elevations of > or = 0.48 log in plasma HIV-1 RNA levels occurred in two (4%) of 49 subjects within 4 weeks of vaccination. A fourfold or greater increase in antibody titer occurred in 13 (45%) of 29 subjects, correlating directly with CD4 cell count (P = .002) and inversely with plasma HIV-1 RNA level (P = .034). By multivariate analysis, CD4 cell count was a stronger predictor of antibody response than was plasma HIV-1 RNA level. We conclude that increases in plasma HIV-1 RNA levels following influenza vaccination are rare and transient and that antibody response is impaired with CD4 cell counts of < 100/mL and plasma HIV-1 RNA levels of > 100,000 copies/mL. Prospective trials are needed to evaluate the impact of highly active therapy on immune response after vaccination.  (+info)

Further characterization of IgA in chicken serum and secretions with evidence of a possible analogue of mammalian secretory component. (8/1894)

Immunochemical studies of the intestinal secretory immune system of the chicken have led to further characterization of IgA in bile, intestinal contents and serum. A component was detected in late Sephadex G-200 fractions of caecal and intestinal contents which showed partial identity with bile, intestinal and a high molecular weight fraction of serum IgA. This component showed similar sedimentation characteristics to bovine serum albumin in sucrose density gradients, a fast electrophoretic mobility on polyacrylamide gel and is a possible analogue of mammalian secretory component (SC). Fractionation of serum from birds affected with infectious synovitis revealed two moleculare classes of IgA. Comparative double diffusion studies produced a reaction of complete identity between bile IgA and high molecular weight serum IgA (15S) and partial identity with low molecular weight serum IgA (7S), suggesting a lack of an SC determinant on the latter. A spur of partial identity between 15S and 7S serum IgA was also observed. Although no direct structural homology with mammalian or human IgA could be demonstrated by immunological cross-reactivity, the similarities of molecular characteristics, particularly emphasized by the presence of a secretory component, favour a functional analogy between the secretory immune system of the fowl and mammalian species.  (+info)

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests are a type of serological assay used in medical laboratories to detect and measure the amount of antibodies present in a patient's serum. These tests are commonly used to diagnose viral infections, such as influenza or HIV, by identifying the presence of antibodies that bind to specific viral antigens and prevent hemagglutination (the agglutination or clumping together of red blood cells).

In an HI test, a small amount of the patient's serum is mixed with a known quantity of the viral antigen, which has been treated to attach to red blood cells. If the patient's serum contains antibodies that bind to the viral antigen, they will prevent the antigen from attaching to the red blood cells and inhibit hemagglutination. The degree of hemagglutination inhibition can be measured and used to estimate the amount of antibody present in the patient's serum.

HI tests are relatively simple and inexpensive to perform, but they have some limitations. For example, they may not detect early-stage infections before the body has had a chance to produce antibodies, and they may not be able to distinguish between different strains of the same virus. Nonetheless, HI tests remain an important tool for diagnosing viral infections and monitoring immune responses to vaccination or infection.

Hemagglutination tests are laboratory procedures used to detect the presence of antibodies or antigens in a sample, typically in blood serum. These tests rely on the ability of certain substances, such as viruses or bacteria, to agglutinate (clump together) red blood cells.

In a hemagglutination test, a small amount of the patient's serum is mixed with a known quantity of red blood cells that have been treated with a specific antigen. If the patient has antibodies against that antigen in their serum, they will bind to the antigens on the red blood cells and cause them to agglutinate. This clumping can be observed visually, indicating a positive test result.

Hemagglutination tests are commonly used to diagnose infectious diseases caused by viruses or bacteria that have hemagglutinating properties, such as influenza, parainfluenza, and HIV. They can also be used in blood typing and cross-matching before transfusions.

Rubella virus is the sole member of the genus Rubivirus, within the family Togaviridae. It is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus that causes the disease rubella (German measles) in humans. The virus is typically transmitted through respiratory droplets and has an incubation period of 12-23 days.

Rubella virus infection during pregnancy, particularly during the first trimester, can lead to serious birth defects known as congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) in the developing fetus. The symptoms of CRS may include hearing impairment, eye abnormalities, heart defects, and developmental delays.

The virus was eradicated from the Americas in 2015 due to widespread vaccination programs. However, it still circulates in other parts of the world, and travelers can bring the virus back to regions where it has been eliminated. Therefore, maintaining high vaccination rates is crucial for preventing the spread of rubella and protecting vulnerable populations from CRS.

Antibodies, viral are proteins produced by the immune system in response to an infection with a virus. These antibodies are capable of recognizing and binding to specific antigens on the surface of the virus, which helps to neutralize or destroy the virus and prevent its replication. Once produced, these antibodies can provide immunity against future infections with the same virus.

Viral antibodies are typically composed of four polypeptide chains - two heavy chains and two light chains - that are held together by disulfide bonds. The binding site for the antigen is located at the tip of the Y-shaped structure, formed by the variable regions of the heavy and light chains.

There are five classes of antibodies in humans: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has a different function and is distributed differently throughout the body. For example, IgG is the most common type of antibody found in the bloodstream and provides long-term immunity against viruses, while IgA is found primarily in mucous membranes and helps to protect against respiratory and gastrointestinal infections.

In addition to their role in the immune response, viral antibodies can also be used as diagnostic tools to detect the presence of a specific virus in a patient's blood or other bodily fluids.

In medical terms, "ether" is an outdated term that was used to refer to a group of compounds known as diethyl ethers. The most common member of this group, and the one most frequently referred to as "ether," is diethyl ether, also known as sulfuric ether or simply ether.

Diethyl ether is a highly volatile, flammable liquid that was once widely used as an anesthetic agent in surgical procedures. It has a characteristic odor and produces a state of unconsciousness when inhaled, allowing patients to undergo surgery without experiencing pain. However, due to its numerous side effects, such as nausea, vomiting, and respiratory depression, as well as the risk of explosion or fire during use, it has largely been replaced by safer and more effective anesthetic agents.

It's worth noting that "ether" also has other meanings in different contexts, including a term used to describe a substance that produces a feeling of detachment from reality or a sense of unreality, as well as a class of organic compounds characterized by the presence of an ether group (-O-, a functional group consisting of an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups).

Hemagglutination is a medical term that refers to the agglutination or clumping together of red blood cells (RBCs) in the presence of an agglutinin, which is typically a protein or a polysaccharide found on the surface of certain viruses, bacteria, or incompatible blood types.

In simpler terms, hemagglutination occurs when the agglutinin binds to specific antigens on the surface of RBCs, causing them to clump together and form visible clumps or aggregates. This reaction is often used in diagnostic tests to identify the presence of certain viruses or bacteria, such as influenza or HIV, by mixing a sample of blood or other bodily fluid with a known agglutinin and observing whether hemagglutination occurs.

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays are also commonly used to measure the titer or concentration of antibodies in a serum sample, by adding serial dilutions of the serum to a fixed amount of agglutinin and observing the highest dilution that still prevents hemagglutination. This can help determine whether a person has been previously exposed to a particular pathogen and has developed immunity to it.

Rubella, also known as German measles, is a viral infection that primarily affects the skin and lymphatic system. It is caused by the rubella virus. The disease is typically mild with symptoms such as low-grade fever, sore throat, swollen glands (especially around the ears and back of the neck), and a rash that starts on the face and spreads to the rest of the body.

Rubella is preventable through vaccination, and it's part of the MMR (measles, mumps, and rubella) vaccine. It's crucial to get vaccinated against rubella because if a pregnant woman gets infected with the virus, it can cause serious birth defects in her unborn baby, including hearing impairment, eye abnormalities, heart problems, and developmental delays. This condition is called congenital rubella syndrome (CRS).

It's worth noting that rubella has been largely eliminated from many parts of the world due to widespread vaccination programs, but it still remains a public health concern in areas with low vaccination rates or where access to healthcare is limited.

Complement fixation tests are a type of laboratory test used in immunology and serology to detect the presence of antibodies in a patient's serum. These tests are based on the principle of complement activation, which is a part of the immune response. The complement system consists of a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body.

In a complement fixation test, the patient's serum is mixed with a known antigen and complement proteins. If the patient has antibodies against the antigen, they will bind to it and activate the complement system. This results in the consumption or "fixation" of the complement proteins, which are no longer available to participate in a secondary reaction.

A second step involves adding a fresh source of complement proteins and a dye-labeled antibody that recognizes a specific component of the complement system. If complement was fixed during the first step, it will not be available for this secondary reaction, and the dye-labeled antibody will remain unbound. Conversely, if no antibodies were present in the patient's serum, the complement proteins would still be available for the second reaction, leading to the binding of the dye-labeled antibody.

The mixture is then examined under a microscope or using a spectrophotometer to determine whether the dye-labeled antibody has bound. If it has not, this indicates that the patient's serum contains antibodies specific to the antigen used in the test, and a positive result is recorded.

Complement fixation tests have been widely used for the diagnosis of various infectious diseases, such as syphilis, measles, and influenza. However, they have largely been replaced by more modern serological techniques, like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and nucleic acid amplification tests (NAATs), due to their increased sensitivity, specificity, and ease of use.

Neutralization tests are a type of laboratory assay used in microbiology and immunology to measure the ability of a substance, such as an antibody or antitoxin, to neutralize the activity of a toxin or infectious agent. In these tests, the substance to be tested is mixed with a known quantity of the toxin or infectious agent, and the mixture is then incubated under controlled conditions. After incubation, the mixture is tested for residual toxicity or infectivity using a variety of methods, such as cell culture assays, animal models, or biochemical assays.

The neutralization titer is then calculated based on the highest dilution of the test substance that completely neutralizes the toxin or infectious agent. Neutralization tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and evaluation of immune responses to vaccines, as well as in the detection and quantification of toxins and other harmful substances.

Examples of neutralization tests include the serum neutralization test for measles antibodies, the plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for dengue virus antibodies, and the cytotoxicity neutralization assay for botulinum neurotoxins.

Influenza A virus is defined as a negative-sense, single-stranded, segmented RNA virus belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae. It is responsible for causing epidemic and pandemic influenza in humans and is also known to infect various animal species, such as birds, pigs, horses, and seals. The viral surface proteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA), are the primary targets for antiviral drugs and vaccines. There are 18 different HA subtypes and 11 known NA subtypes, which contribute to the diversity and antigenic drift of Influenza A viruses. The zoonotic nature of this virus allows for genetic reassortment between human and animal strains, leading to the emergence of novel variants with pandemic potential.

Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes influenza A, B, and C viruses, which are the causative agents of flu in humans and animals. These viruses are enveloped, meaning they have a lipid membrane derived from the host cell, and have a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome. The genome is segmented, meaning it consists of several separate pieces of RNA, which allows for genetic reassortment or "shuffling" when two different strains infect the same cell, leading to the emergence of new strains.

The viral envelope contains two major glycoproteins: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). The HA protein is responsible for binding to host cells and facilitating entry into the cell, while NA helps release newly formed virus particles from infected cells by cleaving sialic acid residues on the host cell surface.

Orthomyxoviruses are known to cause respiratory infections in humans and animals, with influenza A viruses being the most virulent and capable of causing pandemics. Influenza B viruses typically cause less severe illness and are primarily found in humans, while influenza C viruses generally cause mild upper respiratory symptoms and are also mainly restricted to humans.

An antigen is any substance that can stimulate an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies. Viral antigens are antigens that are found on or produced by viruses. They can be proteins, glycoproteins, or carbohydrates present on the surface or inside the viral particle.

Viral antigens play a crucial role in the immune system's recognition and response to viral infections. When a virus infects a host cell, it may display its antigens on the surface of the infected cell. This allows the immune system to recognize and target the infected cells for destruction, thereby limiting the spread of the virus.

Viral antigens are also important targets for vaccines. Vaccines typically work by introducing a harmless form of a viral antigen to the body, which then stimulates the production of antibodies and memory T-cells that can recognize and respond quickly and effectively to future infections with the actual virus.

It's worth noting that different types of viruses have different antigens, and these antigens can vary between strains of the same virus. This is why there are often different vaccines available for different viral diseases, and why flu vaccines need to be updated every year to account for changes in the circulating influenza virus strains.

"Chickens" is a common term used to refer to the domesticated bird, Gallus gallus domesticus, which is widely raised for its eggs and meat. However, in medical terms, "chickens" is not a standard term with a specific definition. If you have any specific medical concern or question related to chickens, such as food safety or allergies, please provide more details so I can give a more accurate answer.

Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots, are vaccines that protect against the influenza virus. Influenza is a highly contagious respiratory illness that can cause severe symptoms and complications, particularly in young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with certain underlying health conditions.

Influenza vaccines contain inactivated or weakened viruses or pieces of the virus, which stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies that recognize and fight off the virus. The vaccine is typically given as an injection into the muscle, usually in the upper arm.

There are several different types of influenza vaccines available, including:

* Trivalent vaccines, which protect against three strains of the virus (two A strains and one B strain)
* Quadrivalent vaccines, which protect against four strains of the virus (two A strains and two B strains)
* High-dose vaccines, which contain a higher amount of antigen and are recommended for people aged 65 and older
* Adjuvanted vaccines, which contain an additional ingredient to boost the immune response and are also recommended for people aged 65 and older
* Cell-based vaccines, which are produced using cultured cells rather than eggs and may be recommended for people with egg allergies

It's important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, so the vaccine is updated each year to match the circulating strains. It's recommended that most people get vaccinated against influenza every year to stay protected.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Hemagglutination is a process where red blood cells (RBCs) agglutinate or clump together. Viral hemagglutination refers to the ability of certain viruses to bind to and agglutinate RBCs. This is often due to viral surface proteins known as hemagglutinins, which can recognize and attach to specific receptors on the surface of RBCs.

In virology, viral hemagglutination assays are commonly used for virus identification and quantification. For example, the influenza virus is known to hemagglutinate chicken RBCs, and this property can be used to identify and titrate the virus in a sample. The hemagglutination titer is the highest dilution of a virus that still causes visible agglutination of RBCs. This information can be useful in understanding the viral load in a patient or during vaccine production.

"Evaluation studies" is a broad term that refers to the systematic assessment or examination of a program, project, policy, intervention, or product. The goal of an evaluation study is to determine its merits, worth, and value by measuring its effects, efficiency, and impact. There are different types of evaluation studies, including formative evaluations (conducted during the development or implementation of a program to provide feedback for improvement), summative evaluations (conducted at the end of a program to determine its overall effectiveness), process evaluations (focusing on how a program is implemented and delivered), outcome evaluations (assessing the short-term and intermediate effects of a program), and impact evaluations (measuring the long-term and broad consequences of a program).

In medical contexts, evaluation studies are often used to assess the safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness of new treatments, interventions, or technologies. These studies can help healthcare providers make informed decisions about patient care, guide policymakers in developing evidence-based policies, and promote accountability and transparency in healthcare systems. Examples of evaluation studies in medicine include randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compare the outcomes of a new treatment to those of a standard or placebo treatment, observational studies that examine the real-world effectiveness and safety of interventions, and economic evaluations that assess the costs and benefits of different healthcare options.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Cell migration inhibition refers to the process or agents that restrict the movement of cells, particularly in the context of cancer metastasis. Cell migration is a critical biological process involved in various physiological and pathological conditions, including embryonic development, wound healing, and tumor cell dissemination. Inhibiting cell migration can help prevent the spread of cancer to distant organs, thereby improving treatment outcomes and patient survival rates.

Various factors and mechanisms contribute to cell migration inhibition, such as:

1. Modulation of signaling pathways: Cell migration is regulated by complex intracellular signaling networks that control cytoskeletal rearrangements, adhesion molecules, and other components required for cell motility. Inhibiting specific signaling proteins or pathways can suppress cell migration.
2. Extracellular matrix (ECM) modifications: The ECM provides structural support and biochemical cues that guide cell migration. Altering the composition or organization of the ECM can hinder cell movement.
3. Inhibition of adhesion molecules: Cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions are mediated by adhesion molecules, such as integrins and cadherins. Blocking these molecules can prevent cells from attaching to their surroundings and migrating.
4. Targeting cytoskeletal components: The cytoskeleton is responsible for the mechanical forces required for cell migration. Inhibiting cytoskeletal proteins, such as actin or tubulin, can impair cell motility.
5. Use of pharmacological agents: Several drugs and compounds have been identified to inhibit cell migration, either by targeting specific molecules or indirectly affecting the overall cellular environment. These agents include chemotherapeutic drugs, natural compounds, and small molecule inhibitors.

Understanding the mechanisms underlying cell migration inhibition can provide valuable insights into developing novel therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment and other diseases involving aberrant cell migration.

The Leukocyte Adherence Inhibition (LAI) test is not widely recognized as a standardized or established medical diagnostic procedure in modern medicine. However, it has been historically used as an alternative or complementary medical test in some contexts. The LAI test is based on the observation that the adherence of white blood cells (leukocytes) to endothelial cells can be inhibited by certain substances, such as antibodies or antigens present in the serum of an individual.

The LAI test generally involves mixing leukocytes from a donor with the serum of a patient and then measuring the degree of leukocyte adherence to a surface, such as a glass slide or endothelial cell culture. If the patient's serum contains antibodies or other substances that react with the donor's leukocytes, it is thought to inhibit the adherence of those leukocytes to the surface. This inhibition has been proposed as a potential indicator of immune system activation, response to therapy, or disease activity in various conditions, such as cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infections.

However, due to the lack of standardization, reproducibility, and robust scientific evidence supporting its clinical utility, the LAI test is not widely accepted or used in conventional medical practice. It should be noted that any information regarding the LAI test's medical definition, applications, or interpretations might vary significantly depending on the source and context.

Influenza, also known as the flu, is a highly contagious viral infection that attacks the respiratory system of humans. It is caused by influenza viruses A, B, or C and is characterized by the sudden onset of fever, chills, headache, muscle pain, sore throat, cough, runny nose, and fatigue. Influenza can lead to complications such as pneumonia, bronchitis, and ear infections, and can be particularly dangerous for young children, older adults, pregnant women, and people with weakened immune systems or chronic medical conditions. The virus is spread through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs, sneezes, or talks, and can also survive on surfaces for a period of time. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, which makes it necessary to get vaccinated annually to protect against the most recent and prevalent strains.

'Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype' is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes flu in humans and animals. It contains certain proteins called hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) on its surface, with this subtype specifically having H1 and N1 antigens. The H1N1 strain is well-known for causing the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which was a global outbreak of flu that resulted in significant morbidity and mortality. This subtype can also cause seasonal flu, although the severity and symptoms may vary. It is important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing, and new strains or subtypes can emerge over time, requiring regular updates to vaccines to protect against them.

Hemagglutinins are glycoprotein spikes found on the surface of influenza viruses. They play a crucial role in the viral infection process by binding to sialic acid receptors on host cells, primarily in the respiratory tract. After attachment, hemagglutinins mediate the fusion of the viral and host cell membranes, allowing the viral genome to enter the host cell and initiate replication.

There are 18 different subtypes of hemagglutinin (H1-H18) identified in influenza A viruses, which naturally infect various animal species, including birds, pigs, and humans. The specificity of hemagglutinins for particular sialic acid receptors can influence host range and tissue tropism, contributing to the zoonotic potential of certain influenza A virus subtypes.

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays are commonly used in virology and epidemiology to measure the antibody response to influenza viruses and determine vaccine effectiveness. In these assays, hemagglutinins bind to red blood cells coated with sialic acid receptors, forming a diffuse mat of cells that can be observed visually. The addition of specific antisera containing antibodies against the hemagglutinin prevents this binding and results in the formation of discrete buttons of red blood cells, indicating a positive HI titer and the presence of neutralizing antibodies.

Cross reactions, in the context of medical diagnostics and immunology, refer to a situation where an antibody or a immune response directed against one antigen also reacts with a different antigen due to similarities in their molecular structure. This can occur in allergy testing, where a person who is allergic to a particular substance may have a positive test result for a different but related substance because of cross-reactivity between them. For example, some individuals who are allergic to birch pollen may also have symptoms when eating certain fruits, such as apples, due to cross-reactive proteins present in both.

"Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the influenza A virus that causes respiratory illness and is known to circulate in humans and animals, including birds and pigs. The "H3N2" refers to the two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). In this subtype, the H protein is of the H3 variety and the N protein is of the N2 variety. This subtype has been responsible for several influenza epidemics and pandemics in humans, including the 1968 Hong Kong flu pandemic. It is one of the influenza viruses that are monitored closely by public health authorities due to its potential to cause significant illness and death, particularly in high-risk populations such as older adults, young children, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

'Immune sera' refers to the serum fraction of blood that contains antibodies produced in response to an antigenic stimulus, such as a vaccine or an infection. These antibodies are proteins known as immunoglobulins, which are secreted by B cells (a type of white blood cell) and can recognize and bind to specific antigens. Immune sera can be collected from an immunized individual and used as a source of passive immunity to protect against infection or disease. It is often used in research and diagnostic settings to identify or measure the presence of specific antigens or antibodies.

Inactivated vaccines, also known as killed or non-live vaccines, are created by using a version of the virus or bacteria that has been grown in a laboratory and then killed or inactivated with chemicals, heat, or radiation. This process renders the organism unable to cause disease, but still capable of stimulating an immune response when introduced into the body.

Inactivated vaccines are generally considered safer than live attenuated vaccines since they cannot revert back to a virulent form and cause illness. However, they may require multiple doses or booster shots to maintain immunity because the immune response generated by inactivated vaccines is not as robust as that produced by live vaccines. Examples of inactivated vaccines include those for hepatitis A, rabies, and influenza (inactivated flu vaccine).

Orthomyxoviridae is a family of viruses that includes influenza A, B, and C viruses, which can cause respiratory infections in humans. Orthomyxoviridae infections are typically characterized by symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, muscle or body aches, headaches, and fatigue.

Influenza A and B viruses can cause seasonal epidemics of respiratory illness that occur mainly during the winter months in temperate climates. Influenza A viruses can also cause pandemics, which are global outbreaks of disease that occur when a new strain of the virus emerges to which there is little or no immunity in the human population.

Influenza C viruses are less common and typically cause milder illness than influenza A and B viruses. They do not cause epidemics and are not usually included in seasonal flu vaccines.

Orthomyxoviridae infections can be prevented through vaccination, good respiratory hygiene (such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing), hand washing, and avoiding close contact with sick individuals. Antiviral medications may be prescribed to treat influenza A and B infections, particularly for people at high risk of complications, such as older adults, young children, pregnant women, and people with certain underlying medical conditions.

Hemagglutinin (HA) glycoproteins are surface proteins found on influenza viruses. They play a crucial role in the virus's ability to infect and spread within host organisms.

The HAs are responsible for binding to sialic acid receptors on the host cell's surface, allowing the virus to attach and enter the cell. After endocytosis, the viral and endosomal membranes fuse, releasing the viral genome into the host cell's cytoplasm.

There are several subtypes of hemagglutinin (H1-H18) identified so far, with H1, H2, and H3 being common in human infections. The significant antigenic differences among these subtypes make them important targets for the development of influenza vaccines. However, due to their high mutation rate, new vaccine formulations are often required to match the circulating virus strains.

In summary, hemagglutinin glycoproteins on influenza viruses are essential for host cell recognition and entry, making them important targets for diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of influenza infections.

Hemagglutinins are proteins found on the surface of some viruses, including influenza viruses. They have the ability to bind to specific receptors on the surface of red blood cells, causing them to clump together (a process known as hemagglutination). This property is what allows certain viruses to infect host cells and cause disease. Hemagglutinins play a crucial role in the infection process of influenza viruses, as they facilitate the virus's entry into host cells by binding to sialic acid receptors on the surface of respiratory epithelial cells. There are 18 different subtypes of hemagglutinin (H1-H18) found in various influenza A viruses, and they are a major target of the immune response to influenza infection. Vaccines against influenza contain hemagglutinins from the specific strains of virus that are predicted to be most prevalent in a given season, and induce immunity by stimulating the production of antibodies that can neutralize the virus.

Kaolin is not a medical term per se, but it is a mineral that has various applications in the medical field. Medically, kaolin is used as an ingredient in some over-the-counter (OTC) medications and clinical products, particularly in oral and topical formulations.

Medical definition: Kaolin is a natural hydrated aluminum silicate clay mineral (with the chemical formula Al2Si2O5(OH)4) used in medical applications as an antidiarrheal agent and as a component in various dermatological products for its absorbent, protective, and soothing properties.

Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells (RBCs), are the most common type of blood cell in circulating blood in mammals. They are responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.

Erythrocytes are formed in the bone marrow and have a biconcave shape, which allows them to fold and bend easily as they pass through narrow blood vessels. They do not have a nucleus or mitochondria, which makes them more flexible but also limits their ability to reproduce or repair themselves.

In humans, erythrocytes are typically disc-shaped and measure about 7 micrometers in diameter. They contain the protein hemoglobin, which binds to oxygen and gives blood its red color. The lifespan of an erythrocyte is approximately 120 days, after which it is broken down in the liver and spleen.

Abnormalities in erythrocyte count or function can lead to various medical conditions, such as anemia, polycythemia, and sickle cell disease.

Neuraminidase is an enzyme that occurs on the surface of influenza viruses. It plays a crucial role in the life cycle of the virus by helping it to infect host cells and to spread from cell to cell within the body. Neuraminidase works by cleaving sialic acid residues from glycoproteins, allowing the virus to detach from infected cells and to move through mucus and other bodily fluids. This enzyme is a major target of antiviral drugs used to treat influenza, such as oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza). Inhibiting the activity of neuraminidase can help to prevent the spread of the virus within the body and reduce the severity of symptoms.

Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way to protect people against harmful diseases, before they come into contact with them. It uses your body's natural defenses to build protection to specific infections and makes your immune system stronger.

A vaccination usually contains a small, harmless piece of a virus or bacteria (or toxins produced by these germs) that has been made inactive or weakened so it won't cause the disease itself. This piece of the germ is known as an antigen. When the vaccine is introduced into the body, the immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign and produces antibodies to fight it.

If a person then comes into contact with the actual disease-causing germ, their immune system will recognize it and immediately produce antibodies to destroy it. The person is therefore protected against that disease. This is known as active immunity.

Vaccinations are important for both individual and public health. They prevent the spread of contagious diseases and protect vulnerable members of the population, such as young children, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems who cannot be vaccinated or for whom vaccination is not effective.

Immunodiffusion is a laboratory technique used in immunology to detect and measure the presence of specific antibodies or antigens in a sample. It is based on the principle of diffusion, where molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until they reach equilibrium. In this technique, a sample containing an unknown quantity of antigen or antibody is placed in a gel or agar medium that contains a known quantity of antibody or antigen, respectively.

The two substances then diffuse towards each other and form a visible precipitate at the point where they meet and reach equivalence, which indicates the presence and quantity of the specific antigen or antibody in the sample. There are several types of immunodiffusion techniques, including radial immunodiffusion (RID) and double immunodiffusion (Ouchterlony technique). These techniques are widely used in diagnostic laboratories to identify and measure various antigens and antibodies, such as those found in infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and allergic reactions.

Influenza B virus is one of the primary types of influenza viruses that cause seasonal flu in humans. It's an enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family Orthomyxoviridae.

Influenza B viruses are typically found only in humans and circulate widely during the annual flu season. They mutate at a slower rate than Influenza A viruses, which means that immunity developed against one strain tends to provide protection against similar strains in subsequent seasons. However, they can still cause significant illness, especially among young children, older adults, and people with certain chronic medical conditions.

Influenza B viruses are divided into two lineages: Victoria and Yamagata. Vaccines are developed each year to target the most likely strains of Influenza A and B viruses that will circulate in the upcoming flu season.

'Influenza A Virus, H3N8 Subtype' is a type of influenza virus that causes respiratory illness in animals, particularly horses and dogs. It is one of the many subtypes of Influenza A viruses, which are classified based on two proteins found on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). The H3N8 subtype has hemagglutinin protein type 3 and neuraminidase protein type 8.

While H3N8 is not typically known to cause illness in humans, it can occasionally infect people who have close contact with infected animals. However, human-to-human transmission of this subtype is rare. It's important to note that influenza viruses are constantly changing and evolving, so the potential for new strains to emerge and pose a threat to human health cannot be ruled out.

Regular surveillance and monitoring of animal populations for influenza viruses, as well as ongoing research into their transmission dynamics and genetic changes, are crucial for early detection and response to potential pandemic threats.

The term "Immune Adherence Reaction" is not widely used in modern immunology or medicine. It appears to be an outdated concept that refers to the attachment of immune complexes (consisting of antigens, antibodies, and complement components) to Fc receptors on phagocytic cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes. This interaction facilitates the clearance of immune complexes from circulation and helps to prevent tissue damage caused by their deposition.

However, it is important to note that this term is not commonly used in current scientific literature or clinical settings. Instead, the processes it describes are typically discussed within the broader context of immune complex-mediated inflammation, complement activation, and phagocytosis.

Newcastle Disease is a highly contagious viral disease caused by the Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV). It primarily affects birds and poultry, causing severe respiratory, neurological, and gastrointestinal symptoms. The virus can also infect mammals, including humans, but human cases are relatively rare and usually result in mild or asymptomatic infections.

In birds, the disease can cause significant mortality, especially in young chickens. Symptoms may include respiratory distress, depression, greenish diarrhea, muscle tremors, twisting of the neck (torticollis), paralysis, and decreased egg production. The virus is transmitted through direct contact with infected birds or their feces, as well as through contaminated food, water, and equipment.

In humans, Newcastle Disease typically results in conjunctivitis, mild respiratory symptoms, or influenza-like illness. It is not considered a significant public health concern, but proper biosecurity measures should be taken to prevent transmission between birds and humans. Vaccination programs are widely used to control the disease in poultry populations.

Polysorbates are a type of nonionic surfactant (a compound that lowers the surface tension between two substances, such as oil and water) commonly used in pharmaceuticals, foods, and cosmetics. They are derived from sorbitol and reacted with ethylene oxide to create a polyoxyethylene structure. The most common types of polysorbates used in medicine are polysorbate 20, polysorbate 40, and polysorbate 60, which differ in the number of oxyethylene groups in their molecular structure.

Polysorbates are often added to pharmaceutical formulations as emulsifiers, solubilizers, or stabilizers. They help to improve the solubility and stability of drugs that are otherwise insoluble in water, allowing for better absorption and bioavailability. Polysorbates can also prevent the aggregation and precipitation of proteins in injectable formulations.

In addition to their use in pharmaceuticals, polysorbates are also used as emulsifiers in food products such as ice cream, salad dressings, and baked goods. They help to mix oil and water-based ingredients together and prevent them from separating. In cosmetics, polysorbates are used as surfactants, solubilizers, and stabilizers in a variety of personal care products.

It is important to note that some people may have allergic reactions to polysorbates, particularly those with sensitivities to sorbitol or other ingredients used in their production. Therefore, it is essential to carefully consider the potential risks and benefits of using products containing polysorbates in individuals who may be at risk for adverse reactions.

Antibody formation, also known as humoral immune response, is the process by which the immune system produces proteins called antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign substance (antigen) in the body. This process involves several steps:

1. Recognition: The antigen is recognized and bound by a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell, which then becomes activated.
2. Differentiation: The activated B cell undergoes differentiation to become a plasma cell, which is a type of cell that produces and secretes large amounts of antibodies.
3. Antibody production: The plasma cells produce and release antibodies, which are proteins made up of four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains and two light chains) arranged in a Y-shape. Each antibody has two binding sites that can recognize and bind to specific regions on the antigen called epitopes.
4. Neutralization or elimination: The antibodies bind to the antigens, neutralizing them or marking them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to prevent the spread of infection and protect the body from harmful substances.

Antibody formation is an important part of the adaptive immune response, which allows the body to specifically recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens and foreign substances.

Serologic tests are laboratory tests that detect the presence or absence of antibodies or antigens in a patient's serum (the clear liquid that separates from clotted blood). These tests are commonly used to diagnose infectious diseases, as well as autoimmune disorders and other medical conditions.

In serologic testing for infectious diseases, a sample of the patient's blood is collected and allowed to clot. The serum is then separated from the clot and tested for the presence of antibodies that the body has produced in response to an infection. The test may be used to identify the specific type of infection or to determine whether the infection is active or has resolved.

Serologic tests can also be used to diagnose autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, by detecting the presence of antibodies that are directed against the body's own tissues. These tests can help doctors confirm a diagnosis and monitor the progression of the disease.

It is important to note that serologic tests are not always 100% accurate and may produce false positive or false negative results. Therefore, they should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and laboratory test results.

"Influenza A Virus, H5N1 Subtype" is a specific subtype of the Influenza A virus that is often found in avian species (birds) and can occasionally infect humans. The "H5N1" refers to the specific proteins (hemagglutinin and neuraminidase) found on the surface of the virus. This subtype has caused serious infections in humans, with high mortality rates, especially in cases where people have had close contact with infected birds. It does not commonly spread from person to person, but there is concern that it could mutate and adapt to efficiently transmit between humans, which would potentially cause a pandemic.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid. It is the first antibody to be produced in response to an initial exposure to an antigen, making it an important part of the body's primary immune response. IgM antibodies are large molecules that are composed of five basic units, giving them a pentameric structure. They are primarily found on the surface of B cells as membrane-bound immunoglobulins (mlgM), where they function as receptors for antigens. Once an mlgM receptor binds to an antigen, it triggers the activation and differentiation of the B cell into a plasma cell that produces and secretes large amounts of soluble IgM antibodies.

IgM antibodies are particularly effective at agglutination (clumping) and complement activation, which makes them important in the early stages of an immune response to help clear pathogens from the bloodstream. However, they are not as stable or long-lived as other types of antibodies, such as IgG, and their levels tend to decline after the initial immune response has occurred.

In summary, Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the primary immune response to antigens by agglutination and complement activation. It is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid, and it is produced by B cells after they are activated by an antigen.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "geese" is not a medical term. It refers to various waterbirds constituting the family Anatidae and the genus Branta, characterized by a long neck, wide wings, and a honking call. They are not related to human health or medicine. If you have any medical concerns or questions, I'd be happy to help you with those!

Immunologic pregnancy tests are a type of diagnostic test used to determine the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in a patient's urine or blood. hCG is a hormone produced by the placenta during pregnancy, and its levels increase rapidly in early pregnancy. Immunologic pregnancy tests use antibodies to detect the presence of hCG and produce a positive or negative result based on the amount of hCG detected. These tests are widely used as an initial screening tool for pregnancy and can provide accurate results within a few days of missed menstrual period.

Antibody specificity refers to the ability of an antibody to bind to a specific epitope or antigenic determinant on an antigen. Each antibody has a unique structure that allows it to recognize and bind to a specific region of an antigen, typically a small portion of the antigen's surface made up of amino acids or sugar residues. This highly specific binding is mediated by the variable regions of the antibody's heavy and light chains, which form a pocket that recognizes and binds to the epitope.

The specificity of an antibody is determined by its unique complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), which are loops of amino acids located in the variable domains of both the heavy and light chains. The CDRs form a binding site that recognizes and interacts with the epitope on the antigen. The precise fit between the antibody's binding site and the epitope is critical for specificity, as even small changes in the structure of either can prevent binding.

Antibody specificity is important in immune responses because it allows the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self antigens. This helps to prevent autoimmune reactions where the immune system attacks the body's own cells and tissues. Antibody specificity also plays a crucial role in diagnostic tests, such as ELISA assays, where antibodies are used to detect the presence of specific antigens in biological samples.

'Avian influenza' refers to the infection caused by avian (bird) influenza A viruses. These viruses occur naturally among wild aquatic birds worldwide and can infect domestic poultry and other bird and animal species. Avian influenza viruses do not normally infect humans, but rare cases of human infection have occurred mainly after close contact with infected birds or heavily contaminated environments.

There are many different subtypes of avian influenza viruses based on two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). There are 16 known HA subtypes and 9 known NA subtypes, creating a vast number of possible combinations. Some of these combinations cause severe disease and death in birds (e.g., H5N1, H7N9), while others only cause mild illness (e.g., H9N2).

Most avian influenza viruses do not infect humans. However, some forms are zoonotic, meaning they can infect animals and humans. The risk to human health is generally low. When human infections with avian influenza viruses have occurred, most have resulted from direct contact with infected poultry or surfaces contaminated by their feces.

Avian influenza viruses have caused several pandemics in the past, including the 1918 Spanish flu (H1N1), which was an H1N1 virus containing genes of avian origin. The concern is that a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus could mutate to become easily transmissible from human to human, leading to another pandemic. This is one of the reasons why avian influenza viruses are closely monitored by public health authorities worldwide.

Squalene is a organic compound that is a polyunsaturated triterpene. It is a natural component of human skin surface lipids and sebum, where it plays a role in maintaining the integrity and permeability barrier of the stratum corneum. Squalene is also found in various plant and animal tissues, including olive oil, wheat germ oil, and shark liver oil.

In the body, squalene is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and other sterols. It is produced in the liver and transported to other tissues via low-density lipoproteins (LDLs). Squalene has been studied for its potential health benefits due to its antioxidant properties, as well as its ability to modulate immune function and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential benefits.

Mycoplasma: A type of bacteria that lack a cell wall and are among the smallest organisms capable of self-replication. They can cause various infections in humans, animals, and plants. In humans, they are associated with respiratory tract infections (such as pneumonia), urogenital infections (like pelvic inflammatory disease), and some sexually transmitted diseases. Mycoplasma species are also known to contaminate cell cultures and can interfere with research experiments. Due to their small size and lack of a cell wall, they are resistant to many common antibiotics, making them difficult to treat.

'Influenza A Virus, H9N2 Subtype' is a type of influenza virus that causes respiratory illness in birds and occasionally in humans. It has been found to infect various animal species, including pigs, dogs, and horses. The H9N2 subtype has eight negative-sense RNA segments, encoding several proteins, such as hemagglutinin (H), neuraminidase (N), matrix protein (M), nucleoprotein (NP), nonstructural protein (NS), and three polymerase proteins (PA, PB1, and PB2).

The H9 hemagglutinin and N2 neuraminidase surface glycoproteins define the subtype of this influenza virus. The H9N2 viruses are known to have low pathogenicity in birds but can cause mild to moderate respiratory symptoms in humans, particularly those with occupational exposure to poultry or live bird markets.

H9N2 viruses have sporadically infected humans since their first identification in the 1960s and pose a pandemic threat due to their ability to reassort genetic material with other influenza A viruses, potentially creating new strains with increased transmissibility and pathogenicity for humans.

Latex fixation tests are diagnostic procedures used to detect the presence of certain antigens or antibodies in a patient's sample, such as blood or serum. These tests use latex particles that are coated with specific antigens or antibodies that can bind to complementary antigens or antibodies present in the sample. When the sample is added to the latex reagent, if the specific antigen or antibody is present, they will bind to the latex particles, forming an agglutination reaction that can be seen as a visible clumping or agglutination of the latex particles.

Latex fixation tests are commonly used in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders, and genetic disorders. For example, a latex fixation test may be used to detect the presence of Streptococcus pneumoniae antigens in a patient's sputum sample or to identify the presence of rheumatoid factor (RF) antibodies in a patient's blood sample. These tests are known for their simplicity, speed, and sensitivity, making them a valuable tool in clinical laboratories.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "horses" is not a medical term. It is the common name given to the species *Equus ferus caballus*, which are large domesticated mammals used for transportation, work, and recreation. If you have any questions about horses or a related topic that you would like a medical perspective on, please let me know and I'd be happy to help!

An epitope is a specific region on the surface of an antigen (a molecule that can trigger an immune response) that is recognized by an antibody, B-cell receptor, or T-cell receptor. It is also commonly referred to as an antigenic determinant. Epitopes are typically composed of linear amino acid sequences or conformational structures made up of discontinuous amino acids in the antigen. They play a crucial role in the immune system's ability to differentiate between self and non-self molecules, leading to the targeted destruction of foreign substances like viruses and bacteria. Understanding epitopes is essential for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.

Immunoenzyme techniques are a group of laboratory methods used in immunology and clinical chemistry that combine the specificity of antibody-antigen reactions with the sensitivity and amplification capabilities of enzyme reactions. These techniques are primarily used for the detection, quantitation, or identification of various analytes (such as proteins, hormones, drugs, viruses, or bacteria) in biological samples.

In immunoenzyme techniques, an enzyme is linked to an antibody or antigen, creating a conjugate. This conjugate then interacts with the target analyte in the sample, forming an immune complex. The presence and amount of this immune complex can be visualized or measured by detecting the enzymatic activity associated with it.

There are several types of immunoenzyme techniques, including:

1. Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): A widely used method for detecting and quantifying various analytes in a sample. In ELISA, an enzyme is attached to either the capture antibody or the detection antibody. After the immune complex formation, a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme, producing a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.
2. Immunoblotting (Western blot): A method used for detecting specific proteins in a complex mixture, such as a protein extract from cells or tissues. In this technique, proteins are separated by gel electrophoresis and transferred to a membrane, where they are probed with an enzyme-conjugated antibody directed against the target protein.
3. Immunohistochemistry (IHC): A method used for detecting specific antigens in tissue sections or cells. In IHC, an enzyme-conjugated primary or secondary antibody is applied to the sample, and the presence of the antigen is visualized using a chromogenic substrate that produces a colored product at the site of the antigen-antibody interaction.
4. Immunofluorescence (IF): A method used for detecting specific antigens in cells or tissues by employing fluorophore-conjugated antibodies. The presence of the antigen is visualized using a fluorescence microscope.
5. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A method used for detecting and quantifying specific antigens or antibodies in liquid samples, such as serum or culture supernatants. In ELISA, an enzyme-conjugated detection antibody is added after the immune complex formation, and a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme to produce a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.

These techniques are widely used in research and diagnostic laboratories for various applications, including protein characterization, disease diagnosis, and monitoring treatment responses.

Poultry diseases refer to a wide range of infectious and non-infectious disorders that affect domesticated birds, particularly those raised for meat, egg, or feather production. These diseases can be caused by various factors including viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, genetic predisposition, environmental conditions, and management practices.

Infectious poultry diseases are often highly contagious and can lead to significant economic losses in the poultry industry due to decreased production, increased mortality, and reduced quality of products. Some examples of infectious poultry diseases include avian influenza, Newcastle disease, salmonellosis, colibacillosis, mycoplasmosis, aspergillosis, and coccidiosis.

Non-infectious poultry diseases can be caused by factors such as poor nutrition, environmental stressors, and management issues. Examples of non-infectious poultry diseases include ascites, fatty liver syndrome, sudden death syndrome, and various nutritional deficiencies.

Prevention and control of poultry diseases typically involve a combination of biosecurity measures, vaccination programs, proper nutrition, good management practices, and monitoring for early detection and intervention. Rapid and accurate diagnosis of poultry diseases is crucial to implementing effective treatment and prevention strategies, and can help minimize the impact of disease outbreaks on both individual flocks and the broader poultry industry.

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA virus that belongs to the genus Avulavirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. It is the causative agent of Newcastle disease, a highly contagious and often fatal viral infection affecting birds and poultry worldwide. The virus can cause various clinical signs, including respiratory distress, neurological disorders, and decreased egg production, depending on the strain's virulence. NDV has zoonotic potential, but human infections are rare and typically result in mild, flu-like symptoms.

I apologize, but "sheep" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is a common animal with the scientific name Ovis aries. If you have any medical or health-related questions, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Seroepidemiologic studies are a type of epidemiological study that measures the presence and levels of antibodies in a population's blood serum to investigate the prevalence, distribution, and transmission of infectious diseases. These studies help to identify patterns of infection and immunity within a population, which can inform public health policies and interventions.

Seroepidemiologic studies typically involve collecting blood samples from a representative sample of individuals in a population and testing them for the presence of antibodies against specific pathogens. The results are then analyzed to estimate the prevalence of infection and immunity within the population, as well as any factors associated with increased or decreased risk of infection.

These studies can provide valuable insights into the spread of infectious diseases, including emerging and re-emerging infections, and help to monitor the effectiveness of vaccination programs. Additionally, seroepidemiologic studies can also be used to investigate the transmission dynamics of infectious agents, such as identifying sources of infection or tracking the spread of antibiotic resistance.

Convalescence is the period of recovery following a serious illness, injury, or medical treatment. During this time, the body gradually returns to its normal state of health and functioning. The length and intensity of the convalescent period can vary widely depending on the individual and the severity of the condition that required treatment.

During convalescence, it is important for individuals to take care of themselves and allow their bodies to heal properly. This may involve getting plenty of rest, eating a healthy diet, engaging in gentle exercise or physical therapy as recommended by a healthcare provider, and avoiding strenuous activities or stressors that could hinder recovery.

Convalescence is an essential part of the healing process, and it is important to allow oneself enough time to fully recover before returning to normal activities. Rushing the convalescent period can lead to setbacks, complications, or a prolonged recovery time. By taking the time to focus on self-care and healing during convalescence, individuals can help ensure a full and speedy recovery.

Bunyaviridae is a family of enveloped, single-stranded RNA viruses that includes more than 350 different species. These viruses are named after the type species, Bunyamwera virus, which was first isolated in 1943 from mosquitoes in Uganda.

The genome of Bunyaviridae viruses is divided into three segments: large (L), medium (M), and small (S). The L segment encodes the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, which is responsible for replication and transcription of the viral genome. The M segment encodes two glycoproteins that form the viral envelope and are involved in attachment and fusion to host cells. The S segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein, which packages the viral RNA, and a non-structural protein that is involved in modulation of the host immune response.

Bunyaviridae viruses are transmitted to humans and animals through arthropod vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandflies. Some members of this family can cause severe disease in humans, including Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, and Rift Valley fever.

Prevention and control measures for Bunyaviridae viruses include avoiding contact with vectors, using insect repellent and wearing protective clothing, and implementing vector control programs. There are no specific antiviral treatments available for most Bunyaviridae infections, although ribavirin has been shown to be effective against some members of the family. Vaccines are available for a few Bunyaviridae viruses, such as Hantavirus and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, but they are not widely used due to limitations in production and distribution.

Lectins are a type of proteins that bind specifically to carbohydrates and have been found in various plant and animal sources. They play important roles in biological recognition events, such as cell-cell adhesion, and can also be involved in the immune response. Some lectins can agglutinate certain types of cells or precipitate glycoproteins, while others may have a more direct effect on cellular processes. In some cases, lectins from plants can cause adverse effects in humans if ingested, such as digestive discomfort or allergic reactions.

In the context of medical research, "methods" refers to the specific procedures or techniques used in conducting a study or experiment. This includes details on how data was collected, what measurements were taken, and what statistical analyses were performed. The methods section of a medical paper allows other researchers to replicate the study if they choose to do so. It is considered one of the key components of a well-written research article, as it provides transparency and helps establish the validity of the findings.

Cellular immunity, also known as cell-mediated immunity, is a type of immune response that involves the activation of immune cells, such as T lymphocytes (T cells), to protect the body against infected or damaged cells. This form of immunity is important for fighting off infections caused by viruses and intracellular bacteria, as well as for recognizing and destroying cancer cells.

Cellular immunity involves a complex series of interactions between various immune cells and molecules. When a pathogen infects a cell, the infected cell displays pieces of the pathogen on its surface in a process called antigen presentation. This attracts T cells, which recognize the antigens and become activated. Activated T cells then release cytokines, chemicals that help coordinate the immune response, and can directly attack and kill infected cells or help activate other immune cells to do so.

Cellular immunity is an important component of the adaptive immune system, which is able to learn and remember specific pathogens in order to mount a faster and more effective response upon subsequent exposure. This form of immunity is also critical for the rejection of transplanted organs, as the immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and attacks it.

I must clarify that the term "Guinea Pigs" is not typically used in medical definitions. However, in colloquial or informal language, it may refer to people who are used as the first to try out a new medical treatment or drug. This is known as being a "test subject" or "in a clinical trial."

In the field of scientific research, particularly in studies involving animals, guinea pigs are small rodents that are often used as experimental subjects due to their size, cost-effectiveness, and ease of handling. They are not actually pigs from Guinea, despite their name's origins being unclear. However, they do not exactly fit the description of being used in human medical experiments.

A pandemic is a global outbreak of a disease that spreads easily from person to person across a large region, such as multiple continents or worldwide. It is declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) when the spread of a disease poses a significant threat to the global population due to its severity and transmissibility.

Pandemics typically occur when a new strain of virus emerges that has not been previously seen in humans, for which there is little or no pre-existing immunity. This makes it difficult to control the spread of the disease, as people do not have natural protection against it. Examples of pandemics include the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic and the more recent COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus.

During a pandemic, healthcare systems can become overwhelmed, and there may be significant social and economic disruption as governments take measures to slow the spread of the disease, such as travel restrictions, quarantines, and lockdowns. Effective vaccines and treatments are critical in controlling the spread of pandemics and reducing their impact on public health.

There is no medical definition or specific virus named "Encephalitis Virus, California." However, there are several viruses that can cause encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) and some of them have been identified in California. Some examples include:

1. West Nile Virus: A mosquito-borne virus that is the most common cause of encephalitis in the United States, including California.
2. St. Louis Encephalitis Virus: Another mosquito-borne virus that is less common but can cause encephalitis, particularly in older adults. It has been identified in California.
3. Californian serogroup viruses (La Crosse, Jamestown Canyon, Snowshoe Hare): These are transmitted through the bite of infected mosquitoes and have been known to cause encephalitis, particularly in children. They are named after California because they were first identified there.
4. Tick-borne encephalitis viruses: There are several tick-borne viruses that can cause encephalitis, including Powassan virus and deer tick virus. These have been reported in California but are rare.

It's important to note that any virus that causes an infection in the body has the potential to spread to the brain and cause encephalitis, so there are many other viruses that could potentially be associated with encephalitis in California or any other location.

Rabies is a viral disease that affects the nervous system of mammals, including humans. It's caused by the rabies virus (RV), which belongs to the family Rhabdoviridae and genus Lyssavirus. The virus has a bullet-shaped appearance under an electron microscope and is encased in a lipid envelope.

The rabies virus primarily spreads through the saliva of infected animals, usually via bites. Once inside the body, it travels along nerve fibers to the brain, where it multiplies rapidly and causes inflammation (encephalitis). The infection can lead to symptoms such as anxiety, confusion, hallucinations, seizures, paralysis, coma, and ultimately death if left untreated.

Rabies is almost always fatal once symptoms appear, but prompt post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which includes vaccination and sometimes rabies immunoglobulin, can prevent the disease from developing when administered after an exposure to a potentially rabid animal. Pre-exposure vaccination is also recommended for individuals at high risk of exposure, such as veterinarians and travelers visiting rabies-endemic areas.

Swine diseases refer to a wide range of infectious and non-infectious conditions that affect pigs. These diseases can be caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, or environmental factors. Some common swine diseases include:

1. Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS): a viral disease that causes reproductive failure in sows and respiratory problems in piglets and grower pigs.
2. Classical Swine Fever (CSF): also known as hog cholera, is a highly contagious viral disease that affects pigs of all ages.
3. Porcine Circovirus Disease (PCVD): a group of diseases caused by porcine circoviruses, including Porcine CircoVirus Associated Disease (PCVAD) and Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS).
4. Swine Influenza: a respiratory disease caused by type A influenza viruses that can infect pigs and humans.
5. Mycoplasma Hyopneumoniae: a bacterial disease that causes pneumonia in pigs.
6. Actinobacillus Pleuropneumoniae: a bacterial disease that causes severe pneumonia in pigs.
7. Salmonella: a group of bacteria that can cause food poisoning in humans and a variety of diseases in pigs, including septicemia, meningitis, and abortion.
8. Brachyspira Hyodysenteriae: a bacterial disease that causes dysentery in pigs.
9. Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae: a bacterial disease that causes erysipelas in pigs.
10. External and internal parasites, such as lice, mites, worms, and flukes, can also cause diseases in swine.

Prevention and control of swine diseases rely on good biosecurity practices, vaccination programs, proper nutrition, and management practices. Regular veterinary check-ups and monitoring are essential to detect and treat diseases early.

Immunization is defined medically as the process where an individual is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically through the administration of a vaccine. The vaccine stimulates the body's own immune system to recognize and fight off the specific disease-causing organism, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of future infections with that organism.

Immunization can be achieved actively, where the person is given a vaccine to trigger an immune response, or passively, where antibodies are transferred to the person through immunoglobulin therapy. Immunizations are an important part of preventive healthcare and have been successful in controlling and eliminating many infectious diseases worldwide.

Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) is a type of flavivirus that is the causative agent of Japanese encephalitis, a mosquito-borne viral infection of the brain. The virus is primarily transmitted to humans through the bite of infected Culex species mosquitoes, particularly Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Culex gelidus.

JEV is endemic in many parts of Asia, including China, Japan, Korea, India, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is estimated to cause around 68,000 clinical cases and 13,000-20,000 deaths each year. The virus is maintained in a transmission cycle between mosquitoes and vertebrate hosts, primarily pigs and wading birds.

Most JEV infections are asymptomatic or result in mild symptoms such as fever, headache, and muscle aches. However, in some cases, the infection can progress to severe encephalitis, which is characterized by inflammation of the brain, leading to neurological symptoms such as seizures, tremors, paralysis, and coma. The case fatality rate for Japanese encephalitis is estimated to be 20-30%, and around half of those who survive have significant long-term neurological sequelae.

Prevention of JEV infection includes the use of insect repellent, wearing protective clothing, and avoiding outdoor activities during peak mosquito feeding times. Vaccination is also an effective means of preventing Japanese encephalitis, and vaccines are available for travelers to endemic areas as well as for residents of those areas.

"California encephalitis" is not a medical term used to describe a specific type of encephalitis. Instead, it refers to a group of related viral infections that are common in California and other western states. These viruses are transmitted to humans through the bite of infected mosquitoes.

The most common cause of California encephalitis is the California serogroup of viruses, which includes the La Crosse virus, Jamestown Canyon virus, and Snowshoe Hare virus. These viruses can cause inflammation of the brain (encephalitis) and can lead to symptoms such as fever, headache, vomiting, confusion, seizures, and coma.

California encephalitis is typically a mild illness, but in some cases, it can be severe or even life-threatening. Treatment usually involves supportive care, such as fluids and medication to manage symptoms. There is no specific antiviral treatment for California encephalitis. Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito bites, using insect repellent, and eliminating standing water where mosquitoes breed.

A ferret is a domesticated mammal that belongs to the weasel family, Mustelidae. The scientific name for the common ferret is Mustela putorius furo. Ferrets are native to Europe and have been kept as pets for thousands of years due to their playful and curious nature. They are small animals, typically measuring between 13-20 inches in length, including their tail, and weighing between 1.5-4 pounds.

Ferrets have a slender body with short legs, a long neck, and a pointed snout. They have a thick coat of fur that can vary in color from white to black, with many different patterns in between. Ferrets are known for their high level of activity and intelligence, and they require regular exercise and mental stimulation to stay healthy and happy.

Ferrets are obligate carnivores, which means that they require a diet that is high in protein and low in carbohydrates. They have a unique digestive system that allows them to absorb nutrients efficiently from their food, but it also means that they are prone to certain health problems if they do not receive proper nutrition.

Ferrets are social animals and typically live in groups. They communicate with each other using a variety of vocalizations, including barks, chirps, and purrs. Ferrets can be trained to use a litter box and can learn to perform simple tricks. With proper care and attention, ferrets can make loving and entertaining pets.

An antigen is a substance (usually a protein) that is recognized as foreign by the immune system and stimulates an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies or activation of T-cells. Antigens can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and tumor cells. They can also come from non-living substances such as pollen, dust mites, or chemicals.

Antigens contain epitopes, which are specific regions on the antigen molecule that are recognized by the immune system. The immune system's response to an antigen depends on several factors, including the type of antigen, its size, and its location in the body.

In general, antigens can be classified into two main categories:

1. T-dependent antigens: These require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are typically larger, more complex molecules that contain multiple epitopes capable of binding to both MHC class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells and T-cell receptors on CD4+ T-cells.
2. T-independent antigens: These do not require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are usually smaller, simpler molecules that contain repetitive epitopes capable of cross-linking B-cell receptors and activating them directly.

Understanding antigens and their properties is crucial for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.

Arbovirus encephalitis is a type of encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) caused by a group of viruses that are transmitted through the bite of infected arthropods, such as mosquitoes or ticks. The term "arbovirus" stands for "arthropod-borne virus."

There are many different types of arboviruses that can cause encephalitis, including:

* La Crosse virus
* St. Louis encephalitis virus
* West Nile virus
* Eastern equine encephalitis virus
* Western equine encephalitis virus
* Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus

The symptoms of arbovirus encephalitis can vary, but may include fever, headache, stiff neck, seizures, confusion, and weakness. In severe cases, it can lead to coma or death. Treatment typically involves supportive care to manage symptoms, as there is no specific antiviral treatment for most types of arbovirus encephalitis. Prevention measures include avoiding mosquito and tick bites, using insect repellent, and eliminating standing water where mosquitoes breed.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

Arboviruses are a group of viruses that are primarily transmitted to humans and animals through the bites of infected arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandflies. The term "arbovirus" is short for "arthropod-borne virus."

Arboviruses can cause a wide range of symptoms, depending on the specific virus and the individual host's immune response. Some common symptoms associated with arboviral infections include fever, headache, muscle and joint pain, rash, and fatigue. In severe cases, arboviral infections can lead to serious complications such as encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), or hemorrhagic fever (bleeding disorders).

There are hundreds of different arboviruses, and they are found in many parts of the world. Some of the most well-known arboviral diseases include dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika virus infection, West Nile virus infection, yellow fever, and Japanese encephalitis.

Prevention of arboviral infections typically involves avoiding mosquito bites and other arthropod vectors through the use of insect repellent, wearing long sleeves and pants, and staying indoors during peak mosquito feeding times. Public health efforts also focus on reducing vector populations through environmental management and the use of larvicides. Vaccines are available for some arboviral diseases, such as yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis.

The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) is a type of immunofluorescence assay used in laboratory medicine and pathology for the detection and localization of specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, cells, or microorganisms. In this technique, a fluorescein-labeled antibody is used to selectively bind to the target antigen or antibody, forming an immune complex. When excited by light of a specific wavelength, the fluorescein label emits light at a longer wavelength, typically visualized as green fluorescence under a fluorescence microscope.

The FAT is widely used in diagnostic microbiology for the identification and characterization of various bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It has also been applied in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and certain cancers by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in patient samples. The main advantage of FAT is its high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for accurate detection and differentiation of various pathogens and disease markers. However, it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel to perform and interpret the results.

Older methods included complement fixation tests, hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralisation. Newer methods use ... The so-called "home" or "self"-testing gadgets are usually lateral flow tests, which detect the virus using a tagged monoclonal ... The invention of microfluidic tests as allowed for most of these tests to be automated, Despite its specificity and sensitivity ... Viral load tests are an important in the control of infections by HIV. This versatile method can be used for plant viruses. ...
Other methods of diagnosis included hemagglutination inhibition (HI), complement fixation, neutralization tests. However, new ... A seroprevalence study in Andaman and Nicobar islands in 2002 revealed a high prevalence of hemagglutination inhibition (HI) ... This study also found using immune response tests that birds and humans in the region appeared to have been exposed to the ...
The haemagglutination inhibition test can be used to establish the strain of coronavirus. Animals should be treated ... In respiratory disease, diagnosis is confirmed by performing a direct fluorescent antibody test on nasal washes - which ...
Diagnosis is by virus isolation, serology, and other tests. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) is one method of serology that ... ELISA was shown to have higher sensitivity to the HEF than the HI test. Because only Influenza viruses C and D produce esterase ... No samples of influenza D virus were detected in serum samples from humans; however, hemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies ...
Diagnosis is by virus isolation, serology, and other tests. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) is one method of serology that ... ELISA was shown to have higher sensitivity to the HEF than the HI test. Because only Influenza viruses C and D produce esterase ... If more individuals were tested for Influenza virus C as well as the other three types, infections not previously associated ...
In these cases, hemagglutination inhibition can be used, wherein a neutralizing substance cancels out a specific antigen. ... If routine serologic testing for RhD results in a score of 2+ or less, the antiglobulin test can be used to demonstrate the ... The indirect antiglobulin test, which is used for weak D testing and typing of some red blood cell antigens, detects IgG bound ... A direct antiglobulin test (Coombs test) is also performed as part of the antibody investigation. Donor blood is generally ...
... are the targets of numerous serologic reactions and tests including neutralization and hemagglutination inhibition. The ...
Serological testing via virus neutralization and haemagglutination inhibition testing can be performed to diagnose the disease ... General biosecurity protocols including adequate quarantine, testing, and disinfection can help prevent the entry or spread of ...
... pregnancy tests were introduced in 1960 when Wide and Gemzell presented a test based on in-vitro hemagglutination inhibition. ... Therefore, a blood test can be positive while the urine test is still negative. Qualitative tests (yes/no or positive/negative ... Qualitative urine tests available for home use are typically designed as lateral flow tests. Quantitative tests measure the ... such as agglutination-inhibition-based assays and sandwich ELISA, used in modern home pregnancy tests. Tests are now so cheap ...
Several parameters of the hemagglutination (HA) test-such as the temperature of incubation, the species of erythrocyte used, ... and hemagglutination inhibition (HI). The biophysical and biochemical properties of PPV have been extensively studied and are ... The SN test has been reported to be more sensitive than the HI test. A microtechnique for application of the SN test has been ... Tests The HI test is frequently used for detection and quantitation of humoral antibody for PPV. Antibody sometimes can be ...
... close contacts of the infected patients did not become ill and they all tested negative for haemagglutination inhibition ... Adjuvants are being tested with the vaccine to determine if an adequate immune response can be produced. In addition, during a ... A health department notice suggested that a 4-year-old boy had no clinical symptoms and was tested during surveillance of high- ... Chinese National Influenza Center director Shu Yuelong said the vaccine passed tests on ferrets and had been approved for ...
In 1960 Gemzell and Leif Wide presented a pregnancy test based on in-vitro hemagglutination inhibition, a first step away from ... This test initiated a series of improvements in pregnancy testing leading to the contemporary at-home testing. Gemzell was a ... ISBN 978-0-470-16927-8. Wide L (2005). "Inventions leading to the development of the diagnostic test kit industry--from the ... Wide, L; Gemzell, C. A. (1960). "An immunological pregnancy test". Acta Endocrinologica. 35: 261-7. doi:10.1530/acta.0.xxxv0261 ...
... test, hemagglutination inhibition test (HI), or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The SPA test is more commonly used ... Tests can be performed on serum samples as well as tissue samples. However, it has been stated that serological tests cannot be ... Many serology tests can be performed to diagnose M. gallisepticum: serum plate agglutination (SPA) ... found that antibody responses change in the early and advanced stages of the disease and the results vary according to the test ...
Her main research areas include influenza vaccination and influenza hemagglutination inhibition. Her thesis on 1 - ... Maria Zambon and her PHE colleague Joanna Ellis contributed to the development of the first real-time RT-PCR test for SARS-CoV- ... In 1984, Zambon earned a PhD from the University of London (Imperial College) with a thesis titeled "Inhibition of influenza ...
The common tests of choice include Haemaglutination-Inhibition, Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay and Serum Neutralisation. The ... in the flocks is also useful for early detection and tested for haemagglutination. It is common practice for poultry viruses' ... However, proper laboratory testing is still needed to eliminate doubts for a definitive diagnosis. Serological testing can ... Identification of the virus can also be detected by Polymerase Chain Reaction-based test. There is no treatment for EDS '76, ...
Common serological assays include hemagglutination inhibition assays that detect HA-specific antibodies, virus neutralization ... Nucleic acid-based tests (NATs) amplify and detect viral nucleic acid. Most of these tests take a few hours, but rapid ... Rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs) are a simple way of obtaining assay results, are low cost, and produce results quickly ... Influenza testing is recommended for anyone hospitalized with symptoms resembling influenza during flu season or who is ...
... direct and indirect fluorescent antibody tests, complement fixation tests (CFT), indirect haemagglutination test (IHA), ELISA ... Other procedures used for diagnosis include growth inhibition disc tests (GI), ...
... neutralization test, and hemagglutination-inhibition test. In the past, arboviruses were organized into one of four groups: A, ... Mettler, N. E.; Clarke, D. H.; Casals, J. (1971). "Hemagglutination Inhibition with Arboviruses: Relationship Between Titers ... "Arbovirus Antibodies Test". Medical Health Tests. March 27, 2012. Retrieved April 17, 2013. Huang, C.; Slater, B.; Campbell, W ... "Arboviral Diagnostic Testing". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Retrieved April 17, 2013. " ...
... antigen can be detected in urine using hemagglutination inhibition testing: anti-Sd(a) is added to the urine, followed by Sd(a ... antibodies by inhibition testing.: 406 The antigen was named for Sid, an employee at the Lister Institute whose red blood cells ... test positive through urine testing.: 224 The Sd(a++) phenotype is rare, especially in Europe, but may be more common in East ... Urine testing is considered the most reliable method for determining a person's Sid blood type.: 505-6 Antibodies against the ...
... hemagglutination inhibition), NT (neutralization test), and CF (complement fixation test) tests and in-house-enzyme linked ... Nevertheless, clinics in Brazil may not have adequate testing reliability as they rely on symptoms rather than PCR viral ...
... based on hemagglutination inhibition assay (HAI) at all doses tested. The unadjuvanted vaccine at the 45-microgram dose yielded ... Still, such a vaccine is years away from full testing, approval, and use." As of July 2007, phase I clinical trials on humans ... That exceeds the European Union's requirement of an acceptable response (a hemagglutinin-inhibition titer of 40 or more) in 70 ... Study start: October 2005; Study completion: January 2007 This Australian study will test the safety and immunogenicity of an ...
Antibodies to IBV may be detected by indirect immunofluorescent antibody test, ELISA and Haemagglutination inhibition ( ...
... hemagglutination-inhibition tests (HA/HI), and nucleic acid hybridization. Mostly torovirus infecting humans are probably ... ELISA or haemagglutination inhibition.[citation needed] Supportive treatment may be given to prevent dehydration and secondary ... Many diagnostic techniques for torovirus infection in clinical specimens are now available such as hemagglutination (HA), ... severity of illness and mortality was not much affected in the patients with torovirus as compared to the patients who tested ...
... infections performed by most state diagnostic laboratories were complement-fixation test and hemagglutination inhibition tests ... The test is automatically done on all samples testing positive or equivocal for La Crosse Virus IgM antibodies by ELISA. In ... JCV-antibody testing has only been available at the CDC and the New York State Department of Health. The CDC has used plaque ... Increasing awareness and more testing In the latest US review covering 2000-2013, more than half of cases were identified in ...
Antigenic analysis of recombinant viruses possessing the 1918 HA and NA by hemagglutination inhibition tests using ferret and ... Avian influenza viruses that the World Organisation for Animal Health and others test for to control poultry disease include ...
Immunogenicity was assessed by microneutralization and hemagglutination-inhibition assays with the use of the vaccine virus, ... Some vaccines also exist for use in humans, and others are in testing, but none have been made available to civilian ... although a subgroup of samples were tested with the use of the wild-type influenza A/Vietnam/1203/2004 (H5N1) virus." The ... are being refined and tested; and do have some promise both in furthering research and preparedness for the next pandemic. ...
... prevent them from crosslinking red blood cells and so inhibit hemagglutination. This hemagglutination inhibition assay (HIA) ... Hannah Hoag, writing in Nature Medicine in 2013, describes the assay as "the gold-standard serologic test to type influenza ... J Virol 73: 3520-3523 (text) Racaniello V. Influenza hemagglutination inhibition assay (27 May 2009) (accessed February 19, ... and adapting it into the hemagglutination inhibition assay, which measures virus-specific antibodies in serum. He was the first ...
"Laboratory diagnosis of psittacine beak and feather disease by haemagglutination and haemagglutination inhibition". Australian ... Testing regimes currently rely on a combination of viral DNA testing using PCR methods, and excreted antigen detection in ... feather dander using haemagglutination assay (HA) alongside serology using haemagglutination inhibition (HI). The results can ... Khalesi, B.; Bonne, N.; Stewart, M.; Sharp, M.; Raidal, S.R. (2005). "A comparison of haemagglutination, haemagglutination ...
... hemagglutination inhibition tests MeSH E01.450.495.735.550 - neutralization tests MeSH E01.450.495.735.550.750 - skin test end- ... hemagglutination tests MeSH E01.450.495.735.050.375.150 - coombs test MeSH E01.450.495.735.050.450 - latex fixation tests MeSH ... schilling test MeSH E01.450.495.100 - basophil degranulation test MeSH E01.450.495.150 - cell migration inhibition MeSH E01.450 ... leukocyte adherence inhibition test MeSH E01.450.495.505 - monitoring, immunologic MeSH E01.450.495.620 - pregnancy tests, ...
On the contrary, if hemagglutination occurs, the test will result negative. Hemagglutination blood typing detection: This ... Hemagglutination Inhibition Assay: A serologic assay which can be used either to screen for antibodies using RBCs with known ... The agglutination of red blood cells is used in the Coombs test in diagnostic immunohematology to test for autoimmune hemolytic ... "Modified Hemagglutination Tests for COVID-19 Serology in Resource-Poor Settings: Ready for Prime-Time?". Vaccines. 10 (3): 406 ...
Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and haemagglutination inhibition test for the detection of Newcastle disease ... Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and haemagglutination inhibition test for the detection of Newcastle disease ... A comparison of haemagglutination inhibition (HI) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) techniques for the detection of ... It was interesting that though 78% sera had concordant results by the two tests, titres obtained by ELISA were nearly six times ...
... of the sera tested to determine the presence of rubella-specific antibodies by the hemagglutination inhibition test ... of the sera tested to determine the presence of rubella-specific antibodies by the hemagglutination inhibition test ... of the sera tested to determine the presence of rubella-specific antibodies by the hemagglutination inhibition test ... of the sera tested to determine the presence of rubella-specific antibodies by the hemagglutination inhibition test ...
Hemagglutination-Inhibition Hemagglutination-Inhibition Tests Antigen 8 units Calovo System Serum Calovo Homologous Antigens ...
Haemagglutination inhibition test. Influenza virus has two important surface glycoproteins-the haemagglutinin (HA) and the ... In the haemagglutination inhibition test (HIT), antibody directed against the viral haemagglutinins block the virus from ... Haemagglutination inhibiting (HI) antibodies were tested by a standard WHO procedure. Response was defined as a fourfold or ... The haemagglutinin inhibition titre was determined as the highest dilution of serum that completely inhibits haemagglutination ...
... neutralization test, haemagglutination inhibition test, immunofluorescence assay and ELISA. Trop Med Int Health 1999;4:867-71. ... hemagglutination inhibition assay; LNI = log10 neutralization index; M = measles vaccine; MMR= measles, mumps, and rubella ... Risk of bias among those tested for long-term seropostivity.. *Indirectness due to different population (majority of data are ... Neutralizing and haemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies to yellow fever 17 years after vaccination with 17D vaccine. Bull ...
Serological Hemagglutination Inhibition (HI) Test. Serum specimens, obtained from 45 narcoleptic patients, from 28 patients (56 ... All patients showed a diagnostic antibody rise in the H1N1pdm09 virus-specific hemagglutination inhibition assay (HI; ≥4 × rise ... Anti-NS1 and virus-specific hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers from 28 paired serum samples. ... Anti-NS1 and virus-specific hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers from 50 age-matched controls. ...
The Hemagglutination Inhibition Assay (HI Test). Scientists use a test called the hemagglutination inhibition assay (HI test) ... In the HI test, this will cause hemagglutination to occur (see Figure 2B). Circulating influenza viruses tested via the HI test ... "hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test." Hemagglutination (as depicted in Figure 2B) occurs when antibodies do not recognize and ... hemagglutination inhibition). The picture below provides an example of hemagglutination inhibition. The rightmost section of ...
serologic testing using hemagglutination inhibition or microneutralization.[59,60]. The state health department should be ... Hemagglutination inhibition or microneutralization tests are most commonly used for serodiagnosis. A positive result is a 4- ... than RT-PCR testing.[61-64] Currently available rapid influenza diagnostic tests fall into 2 groups: the tests that either ... Such tests can be costly and take time to perform. As more and better diagnostic tests become available, more accurate and ...
Older methods included complement fixation tests, hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralisation. Newer methods use ... The so-called "home" or "self"-testing gadgets are usually lateral flow tests, which detect the virus using a tagged monoclonal ... The invention of microfluidic tests as allowed for most of these tests to be automated, Despite its specificity and sensitivity ... Viral load tests are an important in the control of infections by HIV. This versatile method can be used for plant viruses. ...
Hemagglutination Inhibition Tests * Humans * Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype * Influenza Vaccines / immunology ...
Categories: Hemagglutination Inhibition Tests Image Types: Photo, Illustrations, Video, Color, Black&White, PublicDomain, ...
Serological analyses demonstrated that homologous hemagglutination inhibition and microneutralization antibody titers were ... In this study, two H7N9 split virion vaccines with or without AS03 adjuvant were tested in the naive ferret model. ... To test if immunization with a Eurasian lineage H7N9 virus vaccine can also induce antibodies cross-reactive toward a North ... Hemagglutination inhibition. Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody titers against H7N9 A/Shanghai/2/2013, H7N9 A/Anhui/1/ ...
Serology tests available include IgM, ELISA, indirect FA, hemagglutination inhibition, compliment fixation, and IgG. PCR is not ... Serum testing always should include dilution to at least 1:320. The tube agglutination test does not detect antibodies to B ... The tube agglutination test remains the criterion standard. This test reflects the presence of anti-O-polysaccharide antibody. ... testing and can be utilized on blood and body fluid specimens. Currently, these tests are utilized throughout the reference ...
Pregnancy Test.. 34. Virus antibodies - hemagglutination inhibition or ELISA technique (Rubella).. 35. Non-cultural, indirect ... 5. That a Hepatitis B surface antigen test not be performed if the person requesting the test indicates that the test is for a ... test or any combination of them not be performed if the person requesting the test indicates that the test is for a fetal ... cystic fibrosis or severe combined immune deficiency not be performed if the person requesting the test indicates that the test ...
Pregnancy Test.. 34. Virus antibodies - hemagglutination inhibition or ELISA technique (Rubella).. 35. Non-cultural, indirect ... 5. That a Hepatitis B surface antigen test not be performed if the person requesting the test indicates that the test is for a ... test or any combination of them not be performed if the person requesting the test indicates that the test is for a fetal ... iii) at the request of an insurer or an agent within the meaning of the Insurance Act, in respect of HIV Antibody testing, ...
Complement fixation and neutralization antibody tests are more specific than hemagglutination inhibition.(35) Most serologic ... and detection of hemagglutination inhibition antibody. Dengue-induced hemagglutination inhibition antibody cross-reacts broadly ... Results of coagulation tests may be abnormal; prolonged partial thromboplastin and thrombin times are noted more frequently ... unpublished data). A study of the performance of IgM ELISA in Thailand showed the sensitivity of this test in convalescent ...
Haemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests showed 30% and 48% seroconversion of birds vaccinated at 4 and 12 weeks, respectively. ... Use of rapid tests in identifying poultry diseases at farm level has been suggested by various workers as one of the strategies ... Laboratory trial testing efficacy of NDV4 by eyedrop delivery. Vaccinated birds had HI titres, of log29 to log210; all ... Tested efficacy of three vaccines: Hitchner B1, Lasota and Komarov. Vaccine to use depends on the virulence of the NDV strains ...
A hemagglutination-inhibition test was used to demonstrate the occurrence of the infection in the experimental monkeys. ...
The effect of Tri-Z on virus binding to its cell surface receptor was evaluated in a hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) assay ... was tested for embryo survival of the infection (n = 12 per ratio, in triplicates). Embryo survival was determined by candling ... Hemagglutination inhibition (HAI). We carried out HAI as previously described [24] with Tri-Z as the test material. Tri-Z was ... It shows haemagglutination inhibition test using chicken red blood cells. In A, convalescent serum was added to neutralise the ...
... specific for influenza virus is generally done using the standard influenza virus test of hemagglutination inhibition (HI). ... Testing Offered at the AHDC The AHDC Online Test Catalog provides detailed information about available tests for CIV. ... Dogs showing clinical signs for ,7 days should be tested for CIV by an antibody test as the virus itself is often undetectable ... Testing Later in the Course of the Disease Testing for antibodies ...
Front Immunol . Haemagglutination inhibition and virus microneutralisation serology assays: use of harmonised protocols and ... Front Immunol . H3N2 influenza hemagglutination inhibition method qualification with data driven statistical methods for human ... Diagnosis & Testing *Do not take medical advice from the internet. If you have any medical questions please consult your ... Virol J . Gargle sample is an effective option in a novel fully automated molecular point-of-care test for influenza: a ...
... the commercial system was compared to the traditional hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) test using 500 consecutive samples from ... The sensitivity was 97.7%, the specificity was 100%, and agreement between the two tests was 97.8%. The discrepancies ...
... concentration to influenza A was measured using ELISA and antibody titers were measured using a hemagglutinin inhibition assay ... Hemagglutination Inhibition Assays. To evaluate if the antibodies to influenza A were able to inhibit viral activity, we used a ... Diluted samples were tested for antibody ability to interfere with the binding of the hemagglutinin (HA) protein of the ... Hemagglutination Inhibition Assays (HIA). The ability of antibodies to inhibit influenza A binding was measured using ...
Almost 89% of the vaccinated animals showed hemagglutination inhibition (HI) and complement fixing (CF) antibodies while 55.5% ... Similar vaccines have also been generated and tested for all four Dengue virus serotypes [168,169,170,171,172,173]. The ... A DNA vaccine expressing the WNV NY99 capsid gene was constructed and tested in mice [139]. This vaccine was shown to elicit a ... We constructed and tested in mice recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) vectored vaccines against WNV using a prime- ...
The serological techniques described include the hemagglutination-inhibition and agar gel immunodiffusion tests. The ... The DIVA tests developed by an OIE Reference Laboratory will prove helpful to countries using marker vaccines. The principle of ... Such tests have usually been evaluated and validated by the manufacturer, and it is essential that the manufacturers ... Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals. 5th ed. Paris, France: OIE. ...
  • Comparison of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and haemagglutination inhibition test for the detection of Newcastle disease virus antibodies in human sera. (bmj.com)
  • A comparison of haemagglutination inhibition (HI) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) techniques for the detection of antibodies against Newcastle disease virus in sera from persons working in poultry farms and veterinary vaccine institutes and from the general population revealed that 22% more sera were positive by ELISA compared to HI. (bmj.com)
  • Scientists use a test called the hemagglutination inhibition assay (HI test) to antigenically characterize influenza viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • The effect of Tri-Z on virus binding to its cell surface receptor was evaluated in a hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) assay using chicken red cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Haemagglutination inhibition and virus microneutralisation serology assays: use of harmonised protocols and biological standards in seasonal influenza serology testing and their impact on inter-laboratory variation and assay. (flutrackers.com)
  • The hemagglutination inhibition assay was used to measure antibody levels. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Using a cross-sectional study design, sera was collected from volunteers and then tested for the presence of antibodies to the virus using a ≥ 1:40 dilution cut-off by hemagglutination inhibition assay. (biomedcentral.com)
  • 158 (52.6%) tested positive for influenza A(H1N1) 2009 via hemagglutination inhibition assay using a ≥ 1:40 dilution cut-off. (biomedcentral.com)
  • 54.4% of those who tested positive for influenza A(H1N1) 2009 using the ≥ 1:40 dilution cut-off on the hemagglutination inhibition assay in this study population did not report experiencing symptoms during the pandemic meeting the May 2010 CDC definition of influenza-like illness. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This biopsy material tested positively for La Crosse virus antigen on direct immunofluorescence assay. (medscape.com)
  • Serological detection of total antibodies (IgM and IgG) directed towards Japanese Encephalitis (JE) virus by Hemagglutination Inhibition (HI) assay. (canada.ca)
  • To provide further insight into these glycan attachments and their potential clinical relevance, the classic hemagglutination (HA) assay was applied using spike protein from the Wuhan, Alpha, Delta and Omicron B.1.1.529 lineages of SARS-CoV-2 mixed with human RBCs. (biorxiv.org)
  • The swabs were tested by RT-qPCR assay targeting a conserved region of the influenza A matrix gene that detects influenza A viruses of all subtypes. (flu.org.cn)
  • The antigenic properties of influenza viral isolates were analysed using the haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay as previously described. (health.gov.au)
  • Approximately 7% of the sera tested to determine the presence of rubella-specific antibodies by the hemagglutination inhibition test demonstrated abnormal patterns of reactivity, rendering the test unreadable. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Haemagglutination inhibiting (HI) antibodies were tested by a standard WHO procedure. (bmj.com)
  • The HI test works by measuring how well antibodies bind to the HA proteins and prevent them from "gluing" red blood cells together (i.e., hemagglutination inhibition). (cdc.gov)
  • HI test results can tell us whether antibodies developed after vaccination (or infection) with one virus can recognize and bind to other viruses, which means these other viruses are similar to the vaccine virus. (cdc.gov)
  • Scientists also use the HI test to compare the antigenic properties (i.e., the virus' ability to be recognized by antibodies) of currently circulating influenza viruses with those of influenza viruses that have circulated in the past. (cdc.gov)
  • The HI test involves three main components: antibodies, influenza virus, and red blood cells that are mixed together in the wells (i.e., cups) of a microtiter plate. (cdc.gov)
  • The rows of the plate can be used to test different influenza viruses against the same set of antibodies. (cdc.gov)
  • Testing for antibodies specific for influenza virus is generally done using the standard influenza virus test of hemagglutination inhibition (HI). (cornell.edu)
  • Samples from dogs with respiratory disease will be tested for both H3N8 and H3N2-specific antibodies. (cornell.edu)
  • A licensed indirect fluorescent antibody test is available for IgG and IgM antibodies to La Crosse virus and may be useful in diagnosis. (medscape.com)
  • 38 Neutralisation tests or an epitope-blocking ELISA can help identify MVEV-specific antibodies. (mja.com.au)
  • Sera were tested in ELISA assays for influenza A type specific antibodies and by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests using equine H3N8. (flu.org.cn)
  • The function of the Virology Laboratory is to provide timely and accurate tests to detect viral pathogens or antibodies induced by viral infection or vaccination. (msu.edu)
  • A variety of methods, such as virus neutralization, ELISA, and hemagglutination inhibition are available in our section to detect and quantitate antibodies induced by natural infection or vaccination. (msu.edu)
  • Serological analyses demonstrated that homologous hemagglutination inhibition and microneutralization antibody titers were detectable in the ferrets after the first immunization with the AS03-adjuvanted vaccines that were further boosted by the second immunization. (nature.com)
  • Significant antibody titers include levels of more than 320 by hemagglutination inhibition, more than 128 by complement fixation, more than 256 by immunofluorescence, or more than 160 by plaque reduction neutralization test. (medscape.com)
  • Administration of QIV with the two adjuvants, individually or combined, resulted in enhanced HA-specific serum ELISA IgG titers, serum hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) titers and splenic T cell responses as examined by IFN-γ and IL-4 enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISPOT) assays, 4-weeks post-prime and post-boost vaccination in BALB/c mice. (researchsquare.com)
  • Moreover, enhanced IgG2a titers correlate with antibody-mediated cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) that targets both the highly conserved H1 hemagglutination (HA) stalk domain and N1 neuraminidase (NA). (researchsquare.com)
  • Hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) antibody titers to seasonal influenza strains are important surrogates for vaccine -elicited protection . (bvsalud.org)
  • 5. That a Hepatitis B surface antigen test not be performed if the person requesting the test indicates that the test is for a prenatal assessment. (ontario.ca)
  • Serologic tests in which a known quantity of antigen is added to the serum prior to the addition of a red cell suspension. (bvsalud.org)
  • Reaction result is expressed as the smallest amount of antigen which causes complete inhibition of hemagglutination. (bvsalud.org)
  • A serological survey based on haemagglutination inhibition test confirmed our findings. (who.int)
  • 20 , 29 - 32 The use of PCR in conjunction with serological tests can increase the sensitivity of WNV diagnostic tests to 94% compared with 45% for serological tests alone. (mja.com.au)
  • Serological tests remain the mainstay of confirmatory diagnostic testing. (mja.com.au)
  • 29 , 37 Most reference laboratories have developed in-house MVEV serological tests that can detect total antibody by haemagglutination inhibition, IgG by immunofluorescence assays (IFA) or enzyme immunoassays (EIA), and IgM by IFA or EIA. (mja.com.au)
  • 1 In HI assays, viruses were tested for their ability to agglutinate red blood cells in the presence of ferret antisera previously raised against reference viruses. (health.gov.au)
  • Twenty-four national-level public health laboratories performed routine diagnostic assays on a proficiency testing panel consisting of two modules. (who.int)
  • It was interesting that though 78% sera had concordant results by the two tests, titres obtained by ELISA were nearly six times higher than those by HI. (bmj.com)
  • Of the 145 serasamples tested by ELISA, 81 (55.9%) were positive and 98 (67.6%) of 145 sera tested by HI tests were positive for equine H3. (flu.org.cn)
  • A small number of A(H1N1)pdm09 and B/Victoria viruses had highly reduced inhibition to the neuraminidase inhibitors oseltamivir and zanamivir. (health.gov.au)
  • 28 Indeed, by the time neurological symptoms develop, PCR testing of serum or CSF often returns a negative result. (mja.com.au)
  • Isolates were identified as antigenically similar to the reference strain if the test samples had a titre that was no more than 4-fold different from the titre of the homologous reference strain. (health.gov.au)
  • The Virology Laboratory offers high volume testing for detection of persistent bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) infection in cattle, using pooled PCR for initial screening with an average overall turnaround time of two to four business days. (msu.edu)
  • However, high price of new test kits is a major restraining factor for the adoption of these kits in emerging countries, which are currently relying on traditional and time consuming test kits for virus detection. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • In terms of test, the global virus diagnostic test kits market can be categorized into traditional tests (cell culture test, complement fixation test (CFT), Haemagglutination inhibition test, and others) and rapid tests (nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT), immunoassay test, next generation sequencing (NGS), and mass spectrometry). (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Genetic sequencing and Serology tests using human sera and genetic sequencing provide additional information about how similar circulating flu viruses are to vaccine viruses or other influenza viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • Scientists use the HI test to assess the antigenic similarity between different influenza viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • This test helps to select candidate vaccine viruses (CVVs), which can then be included in seasonal flu vaccines. (cdc.gov)
  • Virology began when there were no methods for propagating or visualizing viruses or specific laboratory tests for viral infections. (wikipedia.org)
  • Clarke, D.H. and Casals, J. Techniques for hemagglutination and hemagglutination-inhibitiion with arthropod-borne viruses. (canada.ca)
  • 317 and then typed by HI test following WHO tibody titre (titre 40) against influenza protocols [ 3 ]. (who.int)
  • In addition to the Influenza Virus Matrix PCR test that will detect any influenza variant currently circulating that may infect dogs or other species, the AHDC offers a more broadly diagnostic Canine Respiratory PCR Panel. (cornell.edu)
  • 7 days should be tested for CIV by an antibody test as the virus itself is often undetectable in later stages of illness, as is true for most respiratory viral infections. (cornell.edu)
  • RESUME Afin de mieux comprendre la distribution annuelle du virus de la grippe dans notre pays, nous avons procédé à l'isolement et au typage de 45 virus provenant de 1043 patients atteints de maladies respiratoires aiguës au cours d'une étude sur 10 ans réalisée par le Centre national de la grippe en Iran. (who.int)
  • Rise in incidence of viral infections such as hepatitis, respiratory syncytial virus, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) worldwide is expected to boost the viral diagnostic test kits market. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Moreover, outbreak of new viral infections in the recent past such as Ebola, hemorrhagic fever, and swine influenza a virus is driving demand for new and innovative virus diagnostic test kits across the world. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • This is leading to a rise in demand for virus diagnostic test kits. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Additionally, new techniques and recent developments in the methods applied for virus testing have led to the introduction of new rapid diagnostic test kits. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • This is projected to further fuel the expansion of the global virus diagnostic test kits market from 2018 to 2026. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • The global virus diagnostic test kits market can be segmented based on type, test, end- user, and region. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Based on type, the global virus diagnostic test kits market can be classified into influenza test kits, hepatitis test kits, human immunodeficiency virus test kits, respiratory syncytial virus test kits, and others. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Based on end-user, the global virus diagnostic test kits market can be segmented into diagnostic & clinical laboratories, academic & research institutes, contract research organizations, and others. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • In terms of region, the global virus diagnostic test kits market can be categorized into North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America, and Middle East & Africa. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Introduction of new and rapid test kits, regulatory approvals for these kits, and rise in prevalence of viral infections among the general population are some of the major factors driving the virus diagnostic test kits market in North America in 2018. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Further comprehensive diagnostic testing, including testing for Zika virus, should comprise future iterations of the EQA. (who.int)
  • Methods of inhibition of FimH activity in a human subject are also provided for the treatment of diseases such as bacterial infection, Crohn's disease (CD) and Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD). (justia.com)
  • Methods of inhibition of FimH activity in a human subject are also provided for the treatment diseases such as urinary tract infection. (justia.com)
  • There has been a gradual shift toward new techniques and methods of diagnosis of viral infections, including nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT), which have shown promising results with improved accuracy and reduced time of diagnosis. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • Within weeks of the beginning of the epidemic, public health laboratories quickly became overwhelmed with unprecedented numbers of clinical influenza specimens for testing, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) quickly recommended changes in the testing strategy [ 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The CDC recommended that since uncomplicated influenza did not require a laboratory diagnosis for clinical management, the only people who required testing for influenza were: hospitalized patients with suspected influenza, patients for whom a diagnosis of influenza would have informed decisions regarding clinical care, infection control, or management of close contacts, and patients who died of an acute illness in which influenza was suspected. (biomedcentral.com)
  • According to the CDC, diagnosis of other groups was not considered a priority for a number of reasons, the foremost of which being "Once influenza activity has been documented in a community or geographic area, most patients with an uncomplicated illness consistent with influenza can be diagnosed clinically and do not require influenza testing for clinical management, including antiviral treatment decisions [ 4 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Patient name and / or identifier (specimen reference number), date of birth, test(s) requested, collection date of specimen, date of on-set of symptoms, and clinical and travel history of patient. (canada.ca)
  • Assessment for DFTD is hampered by a lack of a pre-clinical diagnostic test. (agriculture.gov.au)
  • 3) development of a pre-clinical diagnostic test. (agriculture.gov.au)
  • A hemagglutination-inhibition test was used to demonstrate the occurrence of the infection in the experimental monkeys. (ajtmh.org)
  • A mixture of zinc oxide (Zn) and trimethoprim (TMP) (weight/weight ratios ranged from 0.01 to 0.3, Zn/TMP with increment of 0.1) was tested for embryo survival of the infection (n = 12 per ratio, in triplicates). (biomedcentral.com)
  • Serologic tests are useful for monitoring the MG infection in a flock and for prophylactic measures to control MG infection early detected in MG free poultry. (scielo.br)
  • Accurate laboratory testing is a critical component of dengue and chikungunya surveillance and control. (who.int)
  • 86 people (54.4%) tested positive for H1N1 but did not report experiencing symptoms during the pandemic meeting the May 2010 CDC definition of influenza-like illness. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Furthermore, of those individuals who reported that they had received the H1N1 vaccine, 16% did not test positive. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Overall, 52.7% of the total study population tested positive for influenza A(H1N1) 2009. (biomedcentral.com)
  • 16% of those who reported receiving the H1N1 vaccine did not test positive by HAI. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Health care providers are constantly engaged in the development of accurate and rapid diagnostic test kits for viral infections. (transparencymarketresearch.com)
  • These results demonstrate that HAI qualification and data generation for new influenza strains can be achieved efficiently with minimal extra testing and development. (bvsalud.org)
  • To demonstrate seroconversion, both acute and convalescent samples must be tested in parallel. (canada.ca)
  • Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the diagnosis of La Crosse encephalitis and Metagenomic next-generation sequencing (NGS) of the CSF has the potential to identify a broad range of pathogens in a single test (ref DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1803396). (medscape.com)
  • These results emphasize the necessity of heating sera for the rubella hemagglutination inhibition test after the chemical removal of nonspecific inhibitors. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The Chi-square test, multivariable logistic regression analysis, and sum-rank test were used to analyze the factors associated with influenza vaccine immune response. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In this study, two H7N9 split virion vaccines with or without AS03 adjuvant were tested in the naive ferret model. (nature.com)
  • However, these tests showed low specificity and the sensibility depends on the test that had been chosen (1). (scielo.br)
  • When these abnormally reacting and false-positive sera were heated at 56°C for 30 min after chemical treatment they always converted to negative, indicating the absence of specific rubella hemagglutination-inhibiting antibody. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The AHDC Online Test Catalog provides detailed information about available tests for CIV. (cornell.edu)
  • For more information about pricing, test offerings, specimen requirements, or submittal procedures, visit our test catalog or contact us at 517.353.1683. (msu.edu)
  • Only a few state laboratories or other specialized laboratories, including those at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), are capable of performing this specialized testing. (medscape.com)
  • PCR-based testing is used increasingly in viral diagnostics because it is less dependent upon specimen condition, provides excellent sensitivity, and decreases turnaround time. (msu.edu)
  • Before the study population was screened, the commercial system was compared to the traditional hemagglutination-inhibition (HAI) test using 500 consecutive samples from parturient women. (nih.gov)
  • Among 20 laboratories testing Module A, 17 (85%) correctly detected DENV RNA by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), 18 (90%) correctly determined serotype and 19 (95%) correctly identified CHIKV by RT-PCR. (who.int)
  • 4. That an Alphafetoprotein screen, HCG or Estriol, Inhibin or Pregnancy Associated Plasma Protein type A (PAPP-A) test or any combination of them not be performed if the person requesting the test indicates that the test is for a fetal assessment. (ontario.ca)
  • The rightmost section of the image shows what hemagglutination looks like in the well of a microtiter plate (this is explained in greater detail further below). (cdc.gov)
  • Surveillance for viral diseases is a significant component of our overall testing. (msu.edu)
  • Blood collection by using vacutainers after strong and long venous congestion may cause hemolysis (interference with a significant number of tests). (fml-dubai.com)