A 191-amino acid polypeptide hormone secreted by the human adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR), also known as GH or somatotropin. Synthetic growth hormone, termed somatropin, has replaced the natural form in therapeutic usage such as treatment of dwarfism in children with growth hormone deficiency.
A polypeptide that is secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Growth hormone, also known as somatotropin, stimulates mitosis, cell differentiation and cell growth. Species-specific growth hormones have been synthesized.
Cell surface proteins that bind GROWTH HORMONE with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Activation of growth hormone receptors regulates amino acid transport through cell membranes, RNA translation to protein, DNA transcription, and protein and amino acid catabolism in many cell types. Many of these effects are mediated indirectly through stimulation of the release of somatomedins.
A form of dwarfism caused by complete or partial GROWTH HORMONE deficiency, resulting from either the lack of GROWTH HORMONE-RELEASING FACTOR from the HYPOTHALAMUS or from the mutations in the growth hormone gene (GH1) in the PITUITARY GLAND. It is also known as Type I pituitary dwarfism. Human hypophysial dwarf is caused by a deficiency of HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE during development.
A polypeptide hormone of approximately 25 kDa that is produced by the SYNCYTIOTROPHOBLASTS of the PLACENTA, also known as chorionic somatomammotropin. It has both GROWTH HORMONE and PROLACTIN activities on growth, lactation, and luteal steroid production. In women, placental lactogen secretion begins soon after implantation and increases to 1 g or more a day in late pregnancy. Placental lactogen is also an insulin antagonist.
Deviations from the average values for a specific age and sex in any or all of the following: height, weight, skeletal proportions, osseous development, or maturation of features. Included here are both acceleration and retardation of growth.
A peptide of 44 amino acids in most species that stimulates the release and synthesis of GROWTH HORMONE. GHRF (or GRF) is synthesized by neurons in the ARCUATE NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, GHRF stimulates GH release by the SOMATOTROPHS in the PITUITARY GLAND.
A lactogenic hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). It is a polypeptide of approximately 23 kD. Besides its major action on lactation, in some species prolactin exerts effects on reproduction, maternal behavior, fat metabolism, immunomodulation and osmoregulation. Prolactin receptors are present in the mammary gland, hypothalamus, liver, ovary, testis, and prostate.
Chemical substances having a specific regulatory effect on the activity of a certain organ or organs. The term was originally applied to substances secreted by various ENDOCRINE GLANDS and transported in the bloodstream to the target organs. It is sometimes extended to include those substances that are not produced by the endocrine glands but that have similar effects.
A well-characterized basic peptide believed to be secreted by the liver and to circulate in the blood. It has growth-regulating, insulin-like, and mitogenic activities. This growth factor has a major, but not absolute, dependence on GROWTH HORMONE. It is believed to be mainly active in adults in contrast to INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTOR II, which is a major fetal growth factor.
Surgical removal or destruction of the hypophysis, or pituitary gland. (Dorland, 28th ed)
A small, unpaired gland situated in the SELLA TURCICA. It is connected to the HYPOTHALAMUS by a short stalk which is called the INFUNDIBULUM.
A genetic or pathological condition that is characterized by short stature and undersize. Abnormal skeletal growth usually results in an adult who is significantly below the average height.
Labile proteins on or in prolactin-sensitive cells that bind prolactin initiating the cells' physiological response to that hormone. Mammary casein synthesis is one of the responses. The receptors are also found in placenta, liver, testes, kidneys, ovaries, and other organs and bind and respond to certain other hormones and their analogs and antagonists. This receptor is related to the growth hormone receptor.
Proteins prepared by recombinant DNA technology.
A condition caused by prolonged exposure to excessive HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE in adults. It is characterized by bony enlargement of the FACE; lower jaw (PROGNATHISM); hands; FEET; HEAD; and THORAX. The most common etiology is a GROWTH HORMONE-SECRETING PITUITARY ADENOMA. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1992, Ch36, pp79-80)
Establishment of the age of an individual by examination of their skeletal structure.
Gradual increase in the number, the size, and the complexity of cells of an individual. Growth generally results in increase in ORGAN WEIGHT; BODY WEIGHT; and BODY HEIGHT.
Hormones produced by the placenta include CHORIONIC GONADOTROPIN, and PLACENTAL LACTOGEN as well as steroids (ESTROGENS; PROGESTERONE), and neuropeptide hormones similar to those found in the hypothalamus (HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES).
Neoplasms which arise from or metastasize to the PITUITARY GLAND. The majority of pituitary neoplasms are adenomas, which are divided into non-secreting and secreting forms. Hormone producing forms are further classified by the type of hormone they secrete. Pituitary adenomas may also be characterized by their staining properties (see ADENOMA, BASOPHIL; ADENOMA, ACIDOPHIL; and ADENOMA, CHROMOPHOBE). Pituitary tumors may compress adjacent structures, including the HYPOTHALAMUS, several CRANIAL NERVES, and the OPTIC CHIASM. Chiasmal compression may result in bitemporal HEMIANOPSIA.
Form of radioimmunoassay in which excess specific labeled antibody is added directly to the test antigen being measured.
Natural hormones secreted by the THYROID GLAND, such as THYROXINE, and their synthetic analogs.
Diminution or cessation of secretion of one or more hormones from the anterior pituitary gland (including LH; FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE; SOMATOTROPIN; and CORTICOTROPIN). This may result from surgical or radiation ablation, non-secretory PITUITARY NEOPLASMS, metastatic tumors, infarction, PITUITARY APOPLEXY, infiltrative or granulomatous processes, and other conditions.
The distance from the sole to the crown of the head with body standing on a flat surface and fully extended.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Classic quantitative assay for detection of antigen-antibody reactions using a radioactively labeled substance (radioligand) either directly or indirectly to measure the binding of the unlabeled substance to a specific antibody or other receptor system. Non-immunogenic substances (e.g., haptens) can be measured if coupled to larger carrier proteins (e.g., bovine gamma-globulin or human serum albumin) capable of inducing antibody formation.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates GAMETOGENESIS and the supporting cells such as the ovarian GRANULOSA CELLS, the testicular SERTOLI CELLS, and LEYDIG CELLS. FSH consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
The anterior glandular lobe of the pituitary gland, also known as the adenohypophysis. It secretes the ADENOHYPOPHYSEAL HORMONES that regulate vital functions such as GROWTH; METABOLISM; and REPRODUCTION.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Luteinizing hormone regulates steroid production by the interstitial cells of the TESTIS and the OVARY. The preovulatory LUTEINIZING HORMONE surge in females induces OVULATION, and subsequent LUTEINIZATION of the follicle. LUTEINIZING HORMONE consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).
A syndrome of defective gonadal development in phenotypic females associated with the karyotype 45,X (or 45,XO). Patients generally are of short stature with undifferentiated GONADS (streak gonads), SEXUAL INFANTILISM, HYPOGONADISM, webbing of the neck, cubitus valgus, elevated GONADOTROPINS, decreased ESTRADIOL level in blood, and CONGENITAL HEART DEFECTS. NOONAN SYNDROME (also called Pseudo-Turner Syndrome and Male Turner Syndrome) resembles this disorder; however, it occurs in males and females with a normal karyotype and is inherited as an autosomal dominant.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Forceful administration under the skin of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the skin.
A T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3.
Insulin-like polypeptides made by the liver and some fibroblasts and released into the blood when stimulated by SOMATOTROPIN. They cause sulfate incorporation into collagen, RNA, and DNA synthesis, which are prerequisites to cell division and growth of the organism.
Iodoproteins are proteins that have iodine atoms covalently bonded to them, often as part of thyroid hormones or other biologically active molecules involved in various physiological processes such as metabolism regulation and antioxidant defense systems.
A decapeptide that stimulates the synthesis and secretion of both pituitary gonadotropins, LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE. GnRH is produced by neurons in the septum PREOPTIC AREA of the HYPOTHALAMUS and released into the pituitary portal blood, leading to stimulation of GONADOTROPHS in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
A polypeptide hormone (84 amino acid residues) secreted by the PARATHYROID GLANDS which performs the essential role of maintaining intracellular CALCIUM levels in the body. Parathyroid hormone increases intracellular calcium by promoting the release of CALCIUM from BONE, increases the intestinal absorption of calcium, increases the renal tubular reabsorption of calcium, and increases the renal excretion of phosphates.
A POU domain factor that regulates expression of GROWTH HORMONE; PROLACTIN; and THYROTROPIN-BETA in the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
Illegitimate use of substances for a desired effect in competitive sports. It includes humans and animals.
The uptake of naked or purified DNA by CELLS, usually meaning the process as it occurs in eukaryotic cells. It is analogous to bacterial transformation (TRANSFORMATION, BACTERIAL) and both are routinely employed in GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
The main glucocorticoid secreted by the ADRENAL CORTEX. Its synthetic counterpart is used, either as an injection or topically, in the treatment of inflammation, allergy, collagen diseases, asthma, adrenocortical deficiency, shock, and some neoplastic conditions.
An anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the ADRENAL CORTEX and its production of CORTICOSTEROIDS. ACTH is a 39-amino acid polypeptide of which the N-terminal 24-amino acid segment is identical in all species and contains the adrenocorticotrophic activity. Upon further tissue-specific processing, ACTH can yield ALPHA-MSH and corticotrophin-like intermediate lobe peptide (CLIP).
Steroid hormones produced by the GONADS. They stimulate reproductive organs, germ cell maturation, and the secondary sex characteristics in the males and the females. The major sex steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL; PROGESTERONE; and TESTOSTERONE.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
Hormones secreted by the PITUITARY GLAND including those from the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis), the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis), and the ill-defined intermediate lobe. Structurally, they include small peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins. They are under the regulation of neural signals (NEUROTRANSMITTERS) or neuroendocrine signals (HYPOTHALAMIC HORMONES) from the hypothalamus as well as feedback from their targets such as ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANDROGENS; ESTROGENS.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
The insertion of recombinant DNA molecules from prokaryotic and/or eukaryotic sources into a replicating vehicle, such as a plasmid or virus vector, and the introduction of the resultant hybrid molecules into recipient cells without altering the viability of those cells.
The injection of solutions into the skin by compressed air devices so that only the solution pierces the skin.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
A benign pituitary-region neoplasm that originates from Rathke's pouch. The two major histologic and clinical subtypes are adamantinous (or classical) craniopharyngioma and papillary craniopharyngioma. The adamantinous form presents in children and adolescents as an expanding cystic lesion in the pituitary region. The cystic cavity is filled with a black viscous substance and histologically the tumor is composed of adamantinomatous epithelium and areas of calcification and necrosis. Papillary craniopharyngiomas occur in adults, and histologically feature a squamous epithelium with papillations. (From Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1998, Ch14, p50)
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
A period in the human life in which the development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal system takes place and reaches full maturity. The onset of synchronized endocrine events in puberty lead to the capacity for reproduction (FERTILITY), development of secondary SEX CHARACTERISTICS, and other changes seen in ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT.
A regulatory region first identified in the human beta-globin locus but subsequently found in other loci. The region is believed to regulate GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION by opening and remodeling CHROMATIN structure. It may also have enhancer activity.
Hormones synthesized from amino acids. They are distinguished from INTERCELLULAR SIGNALING PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS in that their actions are systemic.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.
Stable iodine atoms that have the same atomic number as the element iodine, but differ in atomic weight. I-127 is the only naturally occurring stable iodine isotope.
Cell surface receptors that bind the hypothalamic hormones regulating pituitary cell differentiation, proliferation, and hormone synthesis and release, including the pituitary-releasing and release-inhibiting hormones. The pituitary hormone-regulating hormones are also released by cells other than hypothalamic neurons, and their receptors also occur on non-pituitary cells, especially brain neurons, where their role is less well understood. Receptors for dopamine, which is a prolactin release-inhibiting hormone as well as a common neurotransmitter, are not included here.
The totality of characteristics of reproductive structure, functions, PHENOTYPE, and GENOTYPE, differentiating the MALE from the FEMALE organism.
A synthetic hormone with anabolic and androgenic properties.
A benign tumor of the anterior pituitary in which the cells do not stain with acidic or basic dyes.
Specific high affinity binding proteins for THYROID HORMONES in target cells. They are usually found in the nucleus and regulate DNA transcription. These receptors are activated by hormones that leads to transcription, cell differentiation, and growth suppression. Thyroid hormone receptors are encoded by two genes (GENES, ERBA): erbA-alpha and erbA-beta for alpha and beta thyroid hormone receptors, respectively.
A category of nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity and which code for the basic instructions for the development, reproduction, and maintenance of organisms.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
Transmembrane proteins that recognize and bind GHRELIN, a potent stimulator of GROWTH HORMONE secretion and food intake in mammals. Ghrelin receptors are found in the pituitary and HYPOTHALAMUS. They belong to the family of G-PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS.
Glucose in blood.
Domesticated bovine animals of the genus Bos, usually kept on a farm or ranch and used for the production of meat or dairy products or for heavy labor.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
A method of measuring the effects of a biologically active substance using an intermediate in vivo or in vitro tissue or cell model under controlled conditions. It includes virulence studies in animal fetuses in utero, mouse convulsion bioassay of insulin, quantitation of tumor-initiator systems in mouse skin, calculation of potentiating effects of a hormonal factor in an isolated strip of contracting stomach muscle, etc.
An anabolic steroid that has been used in the treatment of male HYPOGONADISM, delayed puberty in males, and in the treatment of breast neoplasms in women.
A 28-amino acid, acylated, orexigenic peptide that is a ligand for GROWTH HORMONE SECRETAGOGUE RECEPTORS. Ghrelin is widely expressed but primarily in the stomach in the adults. Ghrelin acts centrally to stimulate growth hormone secretion and food intake, and peripherally to regulate energy homeostasis. Its large precursor protein, known as appetite-regulating hormone or motilin-related peptide, contains ghrelin and obestatin.
One of the six homologous soluble proteins that bind insulin-like growth factors (SOMATOMEDINS) and modulate their mitogenic and metabolic actions at the cellular level.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
FATTY ACIDS found in the plasma that are complexed with SERUM ALBUMIN for transport. These fatty acids are not in glycerol ester form.
A serotonin antagonist and a histamine H1 blocker used as antipruritic, appetite stimulant, antiallergic, and for the post-gastrectomy dumping syndrome, etc.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
Therapeutic use of hormones to alleviate the effects of hormone deficiency.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
A synthetic hormone with anabolic and androgenic properties. It is used mainly in the treatment of anemias. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002), this compound may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen. (From Merck Index, 11th ed)
An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight [14.00643; 14.00728]. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
The relative amounts of various components in the body, such as percentage of body fat.
Partial proteins formed by partial hydrolysis of complete proteins or generated through PROTEIN ENGINEERING techniques.
Cell surface proteins that bind signalling molecules external to the cell with high affinity and convert this extracellular event into one or more intracellular signals that alter the behavior of the target cell (From Alberts, Molecular Biology of the Cell, 2nd ed, pp693-5). Cell surface receptors, unlike enzymes, do not chemically alter their ligands.
Injuries to tissues caused by contact with heat, steam, chemicals (BURNS, CHEMICAL), electricity (BURNS, ELECTRIC), or the like.
Hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Structurally, they include polypeptide, protein, and glycoprotein molecules.
The major hormone derived from the thyroid gland. Thyroxine is synthesized via the iodination of tyrosines (MONOIODOTYROSINE) and the coupling of iodotyrosines (DIIODOTYROSINE) in the THYROGLOBULIN. Thyroxine is released from thyroglobulin by proteolysis and secreted into the blood. Thyroxine is peripherally deiodinated to form TRIIODOTHYRONINE which exerts a broad spectrum of stimulatory effects on cell metabolism.
A highly vascularized mammalian fetal-maternal organ and major site of transport of oxygen, nutrients, and fetal waste products. It includes a fetal portion (CHORIONIC VILLI) derived from TROPHOBLASTS and a maternal portion (DECIDUA) derived from the uterine ENDOMETRIUM. The placenta produces an array of steroid, protein and peptide hormones (PLACENTAL HORMONES).
A 14-amino acid peptide named for its ability to inhibit pituitary GROWTH HORMONE release, also called somatotropin release-inhibiting factor. It is expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems, the gut, and other organs. SRIF can also inhibit the release of THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE; PROLACTIN; INSULIN; and GLUCAGON besides acting as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. In a number of species including humans, there is an additional form of somatostatin, SRIF-28 with a 14-amino acid extension at the N-terminal.
The processes of milk secretion by the maternal MAMMARY GLANDS after PARTURITION. The proliferation of the mammary glandular tissue, milk synthesis, and milk expulsion or let down are regulated by the interactions of several hormones including ESTRADIOL; PROGESTERONE; PROLACTIN; and OXYTOCIN.
MAMMARY GLANDS in the non-human MAMMALS.
Transport proteins that carry specific substances in the blood or across cell membranes.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
A glycoprotein hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Thyrotropin stimulates THYROID GLAND by increasing the iodide transport, synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE). Thyrotropin consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH; LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
Instruments used for injecting or withdrawing fluids. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Sharp instruments used for puncturing or suturing.
The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.
A benign epithelial tumor with a glandular organization.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
A rare transmissible encephalopathy most prevalent between the ages of 50 and 70 years. Affected individuals may present with sleep disturbances, personality changes, ATAXIA; APHASIA, visual loss, weakness, muscle atrophy, MYOCLONUS, progressive dementia, and death within one year of disease onset. A familial form exhibiting autosomal dominant inheritance and a new variant CJD (potentially associated with ENCEPHALOPATHY, BOVINE SPONGIFORM) have been described. Pathological features include prominent cerebellar and cerebral cortical spongiform degeneration and the presence of PRIONS. (From N Engl J Med, 1998 Dec 31;339(27))
Specialized connective tissue composed of fat cells (ADIPOCYTES). It is the site of stored FATS, usually in the form of TRIGLYCERIDES. In mammals, there are two types of adipose tissue, the WHITE FAT and the BROWN FAT. Their relative distributions vary in different species with most adipose tissue being white.
Biologically active DNA which has been formed by the in vitro joining of segments of DNA from different sources. It includes the recombination joint or edge of a heteroduplex region where two recombining DNA molecules are connected.
The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.
The 17-beta-isomer of estradiol, an aromatized C18 steroid with hydroxyl group at 3-beta- and 17-beta-position. Estradiol-17-beta is the most potent form of mammalian estrogenic steroids.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Use of restriction endonucleases to analyze and generate a physical map of genomes, genes, or other segments of DNA.
A non-metal element that has the atomic symbol P, atomic number 15, and atomic weight 31. It is an essential element that takes part in a broad variety of biochemical reactions.
The area between the EPIPHYSIS and the DIAPHYSIS within which bone growth occurs.
A potent androgenic steroid and major product secreted by the LEYDIG CELLS of the TESTIS. Its production is stimulated by LUTEINIZING HORMONE from the PITUITARY GLAND. In turn, testosterone exerts feedback control of the pituitary LH and FSH secretion. Depending on the tissues, testosterone can be further converted to DIHYDROTESTOSTERONE or ESTRADIOL.
Recombinant proteins produced by the GENETIC TRANSLATION of fused genes formed by the combination of NUCLEIC ACID REGULATORY SEQUENCES of one or more genes with the protein coding sequences of one or more genes.
The interaction of two or more substrates or ligands with the same binding site. The displacement of one by the other is used in quantitative and selective affinity measurements.
A low-molecular-weight (approx. 10 kD) protein occurring in the cytoplasm of kidney cortex and liver. It is rich in cysteinyl residues and contains no aromatic amino acids. Metallothionein shows high affinity for bivalent heavy metals.
Characteristic restricted to a particular organ of the body, such as a cell type, metabolic response or expression of a particular protein or antigen.
An enzyme capable of hydrolyzing highly polymerized DNA by splitting phosphodiester linkages, preferentially adjacent to a pyrimidine nucleotide. This catalyzes endonucleolytic cleavage of DNA yielding 5'-phosphodi- and oligonucleotide end-products. The enzyme has a preference for double-stranded DNA.
The sum of the weight of all the atoms in a molecule.
Anterior pituitary cells which produce GROWTH HORMONE.
DNA molecules capable of autonomous replication within a host cell and into which other DNA sequences can be inserted and thus amplified. Many are derived from PLASMIDS; BACTERIOPHAGES; or VIRUSES. They are used for transporting foreign genes into recipient cells. Genetic vectors possess a functional replicator site and contain GENETIC MARKERS to facilitate their selective recognition.
Cell surface receptors that bind specific neuropeptides with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Many neuropeptides are also hormones outside of the nervous system.
Disorders caused by nutritional imbalance, either overnutrition or undernutrition.
An aromatized C18 steroid with a 3-hydroxyl group and a 17-ketone, a major mammalian estrogen. It is converted from ANDROSTENEDIONE directly, or from TESTOSTERONE via ESTRADIOL. In humans, it is produced primarily by the cyclic ovaries, PLACENTA, and the ADIPOSE TISSUE of men and postmenopausal women.
Compounds, either natural or synthetic, which block development of the growing insect.
Enzymes that are part of the restriction-modification systems. They catalyze the endonucleolytic cleavage of DNA sequences which lack the species-specific methylation pattern in the host cell's DNA. Cleavage yields random or specific double-stranded fragments with terminal 5'-phosphates. The function of restriction enzymes is to destroy any foreign DNA that invades the host cell. Most have been studied in bacterial systems, but a few have been found in eukaryotic organisms. They are also used as tools for the systematic dissection and mapping of chromosomes, in the determination of base sequences of DNAs, and have made it possible to splice and recombine genes from one organism into the genome of another. EC 3.21.1.
A group of deoxyribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each deoxyribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the deoxyribose moieties.
The administering of nutrients for assimilation and utilization by a patient who cannot maintain adequate nutrition by enteral feeding alone. Nutrients are administered by a route other than the alimentary canal (e.g., intravenously, subcutaneously).
A tripeptide that stimulates the release of THYROTROPIN and PROLACTIN. It is synthesized by the neurons in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, TRH (was called TRF) stimulates the release of TSH and PRL from the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
ANIMALS whose GENOME has been altered by GENETIC ENGINEERING, or their offspring.
Experimentally induced chronic injuries to the parenchymal cells in the liver to achieve a model for LIVER CIRRHOSIS.
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).
Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.
The gradual irreversible changes in structure and function of an organism that occur as a result of the passage of time.
Detection of RNA that has been electrophoretically separated and immobilized by blotting on nitrocellulose or other type of paper or nylon membrane followed by hybridization with labeled NUCLEIC ACID PROBES.
Intracellular proteins that reversibly bind hydrophobic ligands including: saturated and unsaturated FATTY ACIDS; EICOSANOIDS; and RETINOIDS. They are considered a highly conserved and ubiquitously expressed family of proteins that may play a role in the metabolism of LIPIDS.
Cells grown in vitro from neoplastic tissue. If they can be established as a TUMOR CELL LINE, they can be propagated in cell culture indefinitely.
A peptide of about 41 amino acids that stimulates the release of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE. CRH is synthesized by neurons in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, CRH stimulates the release of ACTH from the PITUITARY GLAND. CRH can also be synthesized in other tissues, such as PLACENTA; ADRENAL MEDULLA; and TESTIS.
A strong organic base existing primarily as guanidium ions at physiological pH. It is found in the urine as a normal product of protein metabolism. It is also used in laboratory research as a protein denaturant. (From Martindale, the Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed and Merck Index, 12th ed) It is also used in the treatment of myasthenia and as a fluorescent probe in HPLC.
The characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, supersecondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. PROTEIN STRUCTURE, QUATERNARY describes the conformation assumed by multimeric proteins (aggregates of more than one polypeptide chain).
Linear POLYPEPTIDES that are synthesized on RIBOSOMES and may be further modified, crosslinked, cleaved, or assembled into complex proteins with several subunits. The specific sequence of AMINO ACIDS determines the shape the polypeptide will take, during PROTEIN FOLDING, and the function of the protein.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
The end-stage of CHRONIC RENAL INSUFFICIENCY. It is characterized by the severe irreversible kidney damage (as measured by the level of PROTEINURIA) and the reduction in GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE to less than 15 ml per min (Kidney Foundation: Kidney Disease Outcome Quality Initiative, 2002). These patients generally require HEMODIALYSIS or KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION.
A method of studying a drug or procedure in which both the subjects and investigators are kept unaware of who is actually getting which specific treatment.
Quantitative determination of receptor (binding) proteins in body fluids or tissue using radioactively labeled binding reagents (e.g., antibodies, intracellular receptors, plasma binders).
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
Nucleic acid sequences involved in regulating the expression of genes.
The major protein constituents of milk are CASEINS and whey proteins such as LACTALBUMIN and LACTOGLOBULINS. IMMUNOGLOBULINS occur in high concentrations in COLOSTRUM and in relatively lower concentrations in milk. (Singleton and Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed, p554)
Organic compounds that generally contain an amino (-NH2) and a carboxyl (-COOH) group. Twenty alpha-amino acids are the subunits which are polymerized to form proteins.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the CORPUS LUTEUM and the PLACENTA. Progesterone acts on the UTERUS, the MAMMARY GLANDS and the BRAIN. It is required in EMBRYO IMPLANTATION; PREGNANCY maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for MILK production. Progesterone, converted from PREGNENOLONE, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of GONADAL STEROID HORMONES and adrenal CORTICOSTEROIDS.
Peptide hormones secreted into the blood by cells in the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS of the pancreas. The alpha cells secrete glucagon; the beta cells secrete insulin; the delta cells secrete somatostatin; and the PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
A non-essential amino acid that occurs in high levels in its free state in plasma. It is produced from pyruvate by transamination. It is involved in sugar and acid metabolism, increases IMMUNITY, and provides energy for muscle tissue, BRAIN, and the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The sequential correspondence of nucleotides in one nucleic acid molecule with those of another nucleic acid molecule. Sequence homology is an indication of the genetic relatedness of different organisms and gene function.
The ultimate exclusion of nonsense sequences or intervening sequences (introns) before the final RNA transcript is sent to the cytoplasm.
Genetically engineered MUTAGENESIS at a specific site in the DNA molecule that introduces a base substitution, or an insertion or deletion.
The relationship between the chemical structure of a compound and its biological or pharmacological activity. Compounds are often classed together because they have structural characteristics in common including shape, size, stereochemical arrangement, and distribution of functional groups.
The growth and development of bones from fetus to adult. It includes two principal mechanisms of bone growth: growth in length of long bones at the epiphyseal cartilages and growth in thickness by depositing new bone (OSTEOGENESIS) with the actions of OSTEOBLASTS and OSTEOCLASTS.
Ventral part of the DIENCEPHALON extending from the region of the OPTIC CHIASM to the caudal border of the MAMMILLARY BODIES and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the THIRD VENTRICLE.
Widely used technique which exploits the ability of complementary sequences in single-stranded DNAs or RNAs to pair with each other to form a double helix. Hybridization can take place between two complimentary DNA sequences, between a single-stranded DNA and a complementary RNA, or between two RNA sequences. The technique is used to detect and isolate specific sequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one or both strands. (Kendrew, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994, p503)
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
Amino acid sequences found in transported proteins that selectively guide the distribution of the proteins to specific cellular compartments.
Proteins which bind to DNA. The family includes proteins which bind to both double- and single-stranded DNA and also includes specific DNA binding proteins in serum which can be used as markers for malignant diseases.
The parts of a transcript of a split GENE remaining after the INTRONS are removed. They are spliced together to become a MESSENGER RNA or other functional RNA.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
A family of soluble proteins that bind insulin-like growth factors and modulate their biological actions at the cellular level. (Int J Gynaecol Obstet 1992;39(1):3-9)
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Peptide hormones produced by NEURONS of various regions in the HYPOTHALAMUS. They are released into the pituitary portal circulation to stimulate or inhibit PITUITARY GLAND functions. VASOPRESSIN and OXYTOCIN, though produced in the hypothalamus, are not included here for they are transported down the AXONS to the POSTERIOR LOBE OF PITUITARY before being released into the portal circulation.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
Cis-acting DNA sequences which can increase transcription of genes. Enhancers can usually function in either orientation and at various distances from a promoter.
Thin layers of tissue which cover parts of the body, separate adjacent cavities, or connect adjacent structures.
Peptides, natural or synthetic, that stimulate the release of PITUITARY HORMONES. They were first isolated from the extracts of the HYPOTHALAMUS; MEDIAN EMINENCE; PITUITARY STALK; and NEUROHYPOPHYSIS. In addition, some hypophysiotropic hormones control pituitary cell differentiation, cell proliferation, and hormone synthesis. Some can act on more than one pituitary hormone.
Genes that are introduced into an organism using GENE TRANSFER TECHNIQUES.
The unborn young of a viviparous mammal, in the postembryonic period, after the major structures have been outlined. In humans, the unborn young from the end of the eighth week after CONCEPTION until BIRTH, as distinguished from the earlier EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Chemical substances which inhibit the function of the endocrine glands, the biosynthesis of their secreted hormones, or the action of hormones upon their specific sites.
A signal transducer and activator of transcription that mediates cellular responses to a variety of CYTOKINES. Stat5 activation is associated with transcription of CELL CYCLE regulators such as CYCLIN KINASE INHIBITOR P21 and anti-apoptotic genes such as BCL-2 GENES. Stat5 is constitutively activated in many patients with acute MYELOID LEUKEMIA.
Those characteristics that distinguish one SEX from the other. The primary sex characteristics are the OVARIES and TESTES and their related hormones. Secondary sex characteristics are those which are masculine or feminine but not directly related to reproduction.
A glycoprotein that causes regression of MULLERIAN DUCTS. It is produced by SERTOLI CELLS of the TESTES. In the absence of this hormone, the Mullerian ducts develop into structures of the female reproductive tract. In males, defects of this hormone result in persistent Mullerian duct, a form of MALE PSEUDOHERMAPHRODITISM.
Chemical groups containing the covalent disulfide bonds -S-S-. The sulfur atoms can be bound to inorganic or organic moieties.
Hormones produced by the GONADS, including both steroid and peptide hormones. The major steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL and PROGESTERONE from the OVARY, and TESTOSTERONE from the TESTIS. The major peptide hormones include ACTIVINS and INHIBINS.
An autosomal recessive disorder characterized by short stature, defective GROWTH HORMONE RECEPTOR, and failure to generate INSULIN-LIKE GROWTH FACTOR I by GROWTH HORMONE. Laron syndrome is not a form of primary pituitary dwarfism (GROWTH HORMONE DEFICIENCY DWARFISM) but the result of mutation of the human GHR gene on chromosome 5.
High affinity receptors for THYROID HORMONES, especially TRIIODOTHYRONINE. These receptors are usually found in the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. They are encoded by the THRB gene (also known as NR1A2, THRB1, or ERBA2 gene) as several isoforms produced by alternative splicing. Mutations in the THRB gene cause THYROID HORMONE RESISTANCE SYNDROME.
Examinations that evaluate functions of the pituitary gland.
A barbituric acid derivative that acts as a nonselective central nervous system depressant. It potentiates GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID action on GABA-A RECEPTORS, and modulates chloride currents through receptor channels. It also inhibits glutamate induced depolarizations.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
A change from planar to elliptic polarization when an initially plane-polarized light wave traverses an optically active medium. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
The amount of a substance secreted by cells or by a specific organ or organism over a given period of time; usually applies to those substances which are formed by glandular tissues and are released by them into biological fluids, e.g., secretory rate of corticosteroids by the adrenal cortex, secretory rate of gastric acid by the gastric mucosa.
White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
Sites on an antigen that interact with specific antibodies.
The amount of mineral per square centimeter of BONE. This is the definition used in clinical practice. Actual bone density would be expressed in grams per milliliter. It is most frequently measured by X-RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY or TOMOGRAPHY, X RAY COMPUTED. Bone density is an important predictor for OSTEOPOROSIS.

Effect of growth hormone treatment on adult height of children with idiopathic short stature. Genentech Collaborative Group. (1/1891)

BACKGROUND: Short-term administration of growth hormone to children with idiopathic short stature results in increases in growth rate and standard-deviation scores for height. However, the effect of long-term growth hormone therapy on adult height in these children is unknown. METHODS: We studied 121 children with idiopathic short stature, all of whom had an initial height below the third percentile, low growth rates, and maximal stimulated serum concentrations of growth hormone of at least 10 microg per liter. The children were treated with growth hormone (0.3 mg per kilogram of body weight per week) for 2 to 10 years. Eighty of these children have reached adult height, with a bone age of at least 16 years in the boys and at least 14 years in the girls, and pubertal stage 4 or 5. The difference between the predicted adult height before treatment and achieved adult height was compared with the corresponding difference in three untreated normal or short-statured control groups. RESULTS: In the 80 children who have reached adult height, growth hormone treatment increased the mean standard-deviation score for height (number of standard deviations from the mean height for chronologic age) from -2.7 to -1.4. The mean (+/-SD) difference between predicted adult height before treatment and achieved adult height was +5.0+/-5.1 cm for boys and +5.9+/-5.2 cm for girls. The difference between predicted and achieved adult height among treated boys was 9.2 cm greater than the corresponding difference among untreated boys with initial standard-deviation scores of less than -2, and the difference among treated girls was 5.7 cm greater than the difference among untreated girls. CONCLUSION: Long-term administration of growth hormone to children with idiopathic short stature can increase adult height to a level above the predicted adult height and above the adult height of untreated historical control children.  (+info)

Perioperative growth hormone treatment and functional outcome after major abdominal surgery: a randomized, double-blind, controlled study. (2/1891)

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate short- and long-term effects of perioperative human growth hormone (hGH) treatment on physical performance and fatigue in younger patients undergoing a major abdominal operation in a normal postoperative regimen with oral nutrition. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Muscle wasting and functional impairment follow major abdominal surgery. METHODS: Twenty-four patients with ulcerative colitis undergoing ileoanal J-pouch surgery were randomized to hGH (12 IU/day) or placebo treatment from 2 days before to 7 days after surgery. Measurements were performed 2 days before and 10, 30, and 90 days after surgery. RESULTS: The total muscle strength of four limb muscle groups was reduced by 7.6% in the hGH group and by 17.1% in the placebo group at postoperative day 10 compared with baseline values. There was also a significant difference between treatment groups in total muscle strength at day 30, and at the 90-day follow-up total muscle strength was equal to baseline values in the hGH group, but still significantly 5.9% below in the placebo group. The work capacity decreased by approximately 20% at day 10 after surgery, with no significant difference between treatment groups. Both groups were equally fatigued at day 10 after surgery, but at day 30 and 90 the hGH patients were less fatigued than the placebo patients. During the treatment period, patients receiving hGH had reduced loss of limb lean tissue mass, and 3 months after surgery the hGH patients had regained more lean tissue mass than placebo patients. CONCLUSIONS: Perioperative hGH treatment of younger patients undergoing major abdominal surgery preserved limb lean tissue mass, increased postoperative muscular strength, and reduced long-term postoperative fatigue.  (+info)

Long-term effects of growth hormone (GH) on body fluid distribution in GH deficient adults: a four months double blind placebo controlled trial. (3/1891)

OBJECTIVE: Short-term growth hormone (GH) treatment normalises body fluid distribution in adult GH deficient patients, but the impact of long-term treatment on body fluid homeostasis has hitherto not been thoroughly examined in placebo controlled trials. To investigate if the water retaining effect of GH persists for a longer time we examined the impact of 4 months GH treatment on extracellular volume (ECV) and plasma volume (PV) in GH deficient adults. DESIGN: Twenty-four (18 male, 6 female) adult GH deficient patients aged 25-64 years were included and received either GH (n=11) or placebo (n=13) in a double blind parallel design. METHODS: Before and at the end of each 4 month period ECV and PV were assessed directly using 82Br- and 125I-albumin respectively, and blood samples were obtained. RESULTS: During GH treatment ECV increased significantly (before: 20.48+/-0.99 l, 4 months: 23.77+/-1.38 l (P<0.01)), but remained unchanged during placebo administration (before: 16.92+/-1.01 l, 4 months: 17.60+/-1.24 l (P=0.37)). The difference between the groups was significant (P<0.05). GH treatment also increased PV (before: 3.39+/-0.27 l. 4 months: 3.71+/-0.261 (P=0.01)), although an insignificant increase in the placebo treated patients (before: 2.81+/-0.18 l, 4 months: 2.89+/-0.20 l (P=0.37)) resulted in an insignificant treatment effect (P=0.07). Serum insulin-like growth factor-I increased significantly during GH treatment and was not affected by placebo treatment. Plasma renin (mIU/l) increased during GH administration (before: 14.73+/-2.16, 4 months: 26.00+/-6.22 (P=0.03)) and remained unchanged following placebo (before: 20.77+/-5.13, 4 months: 20.69+/-6.67 (P=0.99)) leaving no significant treatment effect (P=0.08). CONCLUSION: The long-term impact of GH treatment on body fluid distribution in adult GH deficient patients involves expansion of ECV and probably also PV. These data substantiate the role of GH as a regulator of fluid homeostasis in adult GH deficiency.  (+info)

Long-term results of GH therapy in GH-deficient children treated before 1 year of age. (4/1891)

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the long-term effects of GH therapy in early diagnosed GH-deficient patients treated before 1 year of age. STUDY DESIGN: We studied all 59 patients (33 males) recorded by Association France-Hypophyse and treated with GH (0.50+/-0.15 IU/kg (S.D.) per week) before 1 year of age. Clinical presentation and growth parameters under GH treatment were analyzed. RESULTS: Neonatal manifestations of hypopituitarism were frequent: hypoglycemia (n=50), jaundice (n=25) and micropenis (n=17/33). Although birth length was moderately reduced (-0.9+/-1.4), growth retardation at diagnosis (5.8+/-3.8 months) was severe (-3.5+/-1.9 standard deviation scores (SDS)). Fifty patients (85%) had thyrotropin and/or corticotropin deficiency. After a mean duration of GH therapy of 8.0+/-3.6 years, change in height SDS was +3.11+/-2.06 S.D., exceeding 4 SDS in 19 patients. Only 9 patients (15%) did not reach a height of -2 S.D. for chronological age and 20 patients (34%) exceeded their target height. Pretreatment height SDS was independently associated with total catch-up growth. CONCLUSION: Conventional doses of GH allow normalization of height in patients with early GH deficiency and treatment.  (+info)

Changes in body composition and leptin levels during growth hormone (GH) treatment in short children with various GH secretory capacities. (5/1891)

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to follow changes in body composition, estimated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), in relation to changes in leptin during the first year of GH therapy in order to test the hypothesis that leptin is a metabolic signal involved in the regulation of GH secretion in children. DESIGN AND METHODS: In total, 33 prepubertal children were investigated. Their mean (S.D.) chronological age at the start of GH treatment was 11.5 (1.6) years, and their mean height was -2.33 (0.38) S.D. scores (SDS). GH was administered subcutaneously at a daily dose of 0.1 (n=26) or 0.2 (n=7) IU/kg body weight. Ten children were in the Swedish National Registry for children with GH deficiency, and twenty-three children were involved in trials of GH treatment for idiopathic short stature. Spontaneous 24-h GH secretion was studied in 32 of the children. In the 24-h GH profiles, the maximum level of GH was determined and the secretion rate estimated by deconvolution analysis (GHt). Serum leptin levels were measured at the start of GH treatment and after 10 and 30 days and 3, 6 and 12 months of treatment. Body composition measurements, by DXA, were performed at baseline and 12 months after the onset of GH treatment. RESULTS: After 12 months of GH treatment, mean height increased from -2.33 to -1.73 SDS and total body fat decreased significantly by 3.0 (3.3)%. Serum leptin levels were decreased significantly at all time points studied compared with baseline. There was a significant correlation between the change in total body fat and the change in serum leptin levels during the 12 months of GH treatment, whereas the leptin concentration per unit fat mass did not change. In a multiple stepwise linear regression analysis with 12 month change in leptin levels as the dependent variable, the percentage change in fat over 12 months, the baseline fat mass (%) of body mass and GHt accounted for 24.0%, 11.5% and 12.2% of the variability respectively. CONCLUSIONS: There are significant correlations between changes in leptin and fat and endogenous GH secretion in short children with various GH secretory capacities. Leptin may be the messenger by which the adipose tissue affects hypothalamic regulation of GH secretion.  (+info)

GH-binding protein in obese men with varying glucose tolerance: relationship to body fat distribution, insulin secretion and the GH-IGF-I axis. (6/1891)

Bioelectrical impedance for measurement of total body fat and computed tomography for visceral and subcutaneous fat at umbilicus levels were performed in 34 obese and 10 lean men. Insulin secretion in response to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and a GH stimulation test by L-dopa, growth hormone-binding protein (GHBP) and IGF-I were measured. Obese subjects were divided into three groups according to the OGTT. The obese type II diabetes mellitus group had the highest GHBP levels and the most visceral fat. GHBP levels were most strongly correlated with the ratio of visceral fat area to body weight (VWR) above any other parameters (r = 0.725, P<0.001). The insulin and free fatty acid (FFA) areas under curves (AUC) during the OGTT, and the IGF-I level, were also positively correlated with GHBP levels (r = 0.474, P<0.005; r = 0.572, P<0.005; r = 0.453. P<0.005). GH-AUC to the L-dopa stimulation test was negatively correlated with GHBP levels (r = -0.432. P<0.005). Stepwise multiple linear regression analysis showed that VWR, FFA-AUC and insulin-AUC significantly contributed to the variability of GHBP (r2 = 0.58). In conclusion, we demonstrated that: (i) visceral fat amount mainly determined GHBP levels in obese men with varying glucose tolerance: (ii) hyperglycemia per se did not influence the GHBP level, whereas insulin and FFA could play a role in regulation of GHBP: and (iii) although GH was not the main regulator of GHBP, the unchanged IGF-I level despite GH hyposecretion suggests that increased GHBP levels reflect GH hypersensitivity in order to compensate for decreased GH secretion in obesity.  (+info)

Apo E phenotype and changes in serum lipids in adult patients during growth hormone replacement. (7/1891)

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether apo E phenotype influences changes in lipid profiles induced by growth hormone replacement in growth hormone (GH)-deficient adults. DESIGNS: Patients were treated for 6 months with recombinant human GH (hGH), given in a dose of 0.125 U/kg per week for 4 weeks followed by 0.25 U/kg per week thereafter. The effects on serum lipids and the influence of apo E phenotype were examined. METHODS: Thirty patients (aged 35.1+/-11.8 years: mean +/- S.D.) with adult growth hormone deficiency with included in the study. Fasting serum samples were analysed for apo E phenotype total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol, triglycerides, lipoprotein (a) (Lp(a)) and IGF-I. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol was calculated using the Friedwald formula. RESULTS: Six months of replacement treatment with hGH resulted in a reduction in HDL-cholesterol from 0.90+/-0.10 to 0.68+/-0.08 mmol/l (P<0.01), and a small, non-significant reduction in total cholesterol from 6.14+/-0.40 to 5.99+/-0.35 mmol/l (P = 0.06). There was no significant change in the other lipid parameters. The decrease in HDL-cholesterol concentration was greater in patients carrying the apo E2 allele (0.40+/-0.07 mmol/l, P<0.05) than in patients homozygous for the apo E3 allele (0.23+/-0.04 mmol/l) and patients carrying the apo E4 allele (0.15+/-0.36 mmol/l). Patients with the apo E4 allele had lower baseline cholesterol concentrations than patients lacking the apo E4 allele, and this persisted after treatment with hGH (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Apo E phenotype may be a determining factor in the response of HDL-cholesterol to hGH in GH-deficient adults.  (+info)

Decreased hexosamine biosynthesis in GH-deficient dwarf rat muscle. reversal with GH, but not IGF-I, therapy. (8/1891)

Enhanced glucose flux via the hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HNSP) has been implicated in insulin resistance. We measured L-glutamine:D-fructose-6-phosphate amidotransferase activity (GFAT, a rate-limiting enzyme) and concentrations of UDP-N-acetyl hexosamines (UDP-HexNAc, major products of HNSP) in muscle and liver of growth hormone (GH)-deficient male dwarf (dw) rats. All parameters measured, except body weight, were similar in 5-wk-old control and dw rats. Muscle GFAT activity declined progressively with age in controls and dw rats but was consistently 30-60% lower in 8- to 14-wk-old dw rats vs. age-matched controls; UDP-HexNAc concentrations in muscle were concomitantly 30% lower in dw rats vs. controls (P < 0.01). Concentrations of UDP-hexoses, GDP-mannose, and UDP in muscle were similar in control and dw rats. Muscle HNSP activity was similarly diminished in fed and fasted dw rats. In liver, only a small difference in GFAT activity was evident between controls and dw rats, and no differences in UDP-HexNAc concentrations were observed. Treatment with recombinant human GH (rhGH) for 5 days restored UDP-HexNAc to control levels in dw muscles (P < 0.01) and partially restored GFAT activity. Insulin-like growth factor I treatment was ineffective. We conclude that GH participates in HNSP regulation in muscle.  (+info)

Human Growth Hormone (HGH), also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone produced in the pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in human development and growth by stimulating the production of another hormone called insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). IGF-1 promotes the growth and reproduction of cells throughout the body, particularly in bones and other tissues. HGH also helps regulate body composition, body fluids, muscle and bone growth, sugar and fat metabolism, and possibly heart function. It is essential for human development and continues to have important effects throughout life. The secretion of HGH decreases with age, which is thought to contribute to the aging process.

Growth Hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin, is a peptide hormone secreted by the somatotroph cells in the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration by stimulating the production of another hormone called insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) in the liver and other tissues. GH also has important metabolic functions, such as increasing glucose levels, enhancing protein synthesis, and reducing fat storage. Its secretion is regulated by two hypothalamic hormones: growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), which stimulates its release, and somatostatin (SRIF), which inhibits its release. Abnormal levels of GH can lead to various medical conditions, such as dwarfism or gigantism if there are deficiencies or excesses, respectively.

Somatotropin receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that binds to and gets activated by the hormone somatotropin, also known as growth hormone (GH). These receptors are found in many tissues throughout the body, including the liver, muscle, and fat. When somatotropin binds to its receptor, it activates a series of intracellular signaling pathways that regulate various physiological processes such as growth, metabolism, and cell reproduction.

Somatotropin receptors belong to the class I cytokine receptor family and are composed of two subunits, a homodimer of extracellular glycoproteins that bind to the hormone and an intracellular tyrosine kinase domain that activates downstream signaling pathways. Mutations in the somatotropin receptor gene can lead to growth disorders such as dwarfism or gigantism, depending on whether the mutation results in a decrease or increase in receptor activity.

Pituitary dwarfism, also known as growth hormone deficiency dwarfism or hypopituitarism dwarfism, is a type of dwarfism that results from insufficient production of growth hormone by the pituitary gland during childhood. The medical term for this condition is "growth hormone deficiency."

The pituitary gland is a small gland located at the base of the brain that produces several important hormones, including growth hormone. Growth hormone plays a critical role in regulating growth and development during childhood and adolescence. When the pituitary gland fails to produce enough growth hormone, children do not grow and develop normally, resulting in short stature and other symptoms associated with dwarfism.

Pituitary dwarfism can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic mutations, brain tumors, trauma, or infection. In some cases, the cause may be unknown. Symptoms of pituitary dwarfism include short stature, delayed puberty, and other hormonal imbalances.

Treatment for pituitary dwarfism typically involves replacing the missing growth hormone with injections of synthetic growth hormone. This therapy can help promote normal growth and development, although it may not completely eliminate the short stature associated with the condition. Early diagnosis and treatment are essential to optimize outcomes and improve quality of life for individuals with pituitary dwarfism.

Placental lactogen is a hormone produced by the placenta during pregnancy in humans and some other mammals. It is similar in structure to human growth hormone and prolactin, and has both growth-promoting and lactogenic (milk-producing) properties. Placental lactogen plays an important role in regulating maternal metabolism during pregnancy, promoting the growth and development of the fetus, and preparing the mother's body for lactation after birth. It helps to stimulate the growth of the mammary glands and the production of milk by increasing the availability of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids in the mother's bloodstream. Placental lactogen also helps to regulate the mother's insulin sensitivity, which can affect her energy levels and the growth of the fetus.

Growth disorders are medical conditions that affect a person's growth and development, leading to shorter or taller stature than expected for their age, sex, and ethnic group. These disorders can be caused by various factors, including genetic abnormalities, hormonal imbalances, chronic illnesses, malnutrition, and psychosocial issues.

There are two main types of growth disorders:

1. Short stature: This refers to a height that is significantly below average for a person's age, sex, and ethnic group. Short stature can be caused by various factors, including genetic conditions such as Turner syndrome or dwarfism, hormonal deficiencies, chronic illnesses, malnutrition, and psychosocial issues.
2. Tall stature: This refers to a height that is significantly above average for a person's age, sex, and ethnic group. Tall stature can be caused by various factors, including genetic conditions such as Marfan syndrome or Klinefelter syndrome, hormonal imbalances, and certain medical conditions like acromegaly.

Growth disorders can have significant impacts on a person's physical, emotional, and social well-being. Therefore, it is essential to diagnose and manage these conditions early to optimize growth and development and improve overall quality of life. Treatment options for growth disorders may include medication, nutrition therapy, surgery, or a combination of these approaches.

Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone (GHRH) is a hormone that is produced and released by the hypothalamus, a small gland located in the brain. Its primary function is to stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to release growth hormone (GH) into the bloodstream. GH plays a crucial role in growth and development, particularly during childhood and adolescence, by promoting the growth of bones and muscles.

GHRH is a 44-amino acid peptide that binds to specific receptors on the surface of pituitary cells, triggering a series of intracellular signals that ultimately lead to the release of GH. The production and release of GHRH are regulated by various factors, including sleep, stress, exercise, and nutrition.

Abnormalities in the production or function of GHRH can lead to growth disorders, such as dwarfism or gigantism, as well as other hormonal imbalances. Therefore, understanding the role of GHRH in regulating GH release is essential for diagnosing and treating these conditions.

Prolactin is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain. Its primary function is to stimulate milk production in women after childbirth, a process known as lactation. However, prolactin also plays other roles in the body, including regulating immune responses, metabolism, and behavior. In men, prolactin helps maintain the sexual glands and contributes to paternal behaviors.

Prolactin levels are usually low in both men and non-pregnant women but increase significantly during pregnancy and after childbirth. Various factors can affect prolactin levels, including stress, sleep, exercise, and certain medications. High prolactin levels can lead to medical conditions such as amenorrhea (absence of menstruation), galactorrhea (spontaneous milk production not related to childbirth), infertility, and reduced sexual desire in both men and women.

Hormones are defined as chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands or specialized cells and are transported through the bloodstream to tissues and organs, where they elicit specific responses. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes such as growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood. Examples of hormones include insulin, estrogen, testosterone, adrenaline, and thyroxine.

Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) is a hormone that plays a crucial role in growth and development. It is a small protein with structural and functional similarity to insulin, hence the name "insulin-like." IGF-I is primarily produced in the liver under the regulation of growth hormone (GH).

IGF-I binds to its specific receptor, the IGF-1 receptor, which is widely expressed throughout the body. This binding activates a signaling cascade that promotes cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. In addition, IGF-I has anabolic effects on various tissues, including muscle, bone, and cartilage, contributing to their growth and maintenance.

IGF-I is essential for normal growth during childhood and adolescence, and it continues to play a role in maintaining tissue homeostasis throughout adulthood. Abnormal levels of IGF-I have been associated with various medical conditions, such as growth disorders, diabetes, and certain types of cancer.

Hypophysectomy is a surgical procedure that involves the removal or partial removal of the pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis. The pituitary gland is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, just above the nasal cavity, and is responsible for producing and secreting several important hormones that regulate various bodily functions.

Hypophysectomy may be performed for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes. In some cases, it may be used to treat pituitary tumors or other conditions that affect the function of the pituitary gland. It may also be performed as a research procedure in animal models to study the effects of pituitary hormone deficiency on various physiological processes.

The surgical approach for hypophysectomy may vary depending on the specific indication and the patient's individual anatomy. In general, however, the procedure involves making an incision in the skull and exposing the pituitary gland through a small opening in the bone. The gland is then carefully dissected and removed or partially removed as necessary.

Potential complications of hypophysectomy include damage to surrounding structures such as the optic nerves, which can lead to vision loss, and cerebrospinal fluid leaks. Additionally, removal of the pituitary gland can result in hormonal imbalances that may require long-term management with hormone replacement therapy.

The pituitary gland is a small, endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It is often called the "master gland" because it controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger many body functions. The pituitary gland measures about 0.5 cm in height and 1 cm in width, and it weighs approximately 0.5 grams.

The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe is further divided into three zones: the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis. Each part of the pituitary gland has distinct functions and produces different hormones.

The anterior pituitary gland produces and releases several important hormones, including:

* Growth hormone (GH), which regulates growth and development in children and helps maintain muscle mass and bone strength in adults.
* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which controls the production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
* Prolactin, which stimulates milk production in pregnant and lactating women.

The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases two hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus:

* Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which helps regulate water balance in the body by controlling urine production.
* Oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk release during breastfeeding.

Overall, the pituitary gland plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating various bodily functions, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproductive function.

Dwarfism is a medical condition that is characterized by short stature, typically with an adult height of 4 feet 10 inches (147 centimeters) or less. It is caused by a variety of genetic and medical conditions that affect bone growth, including skeletal dysplasias, hormonal deficiencies, and chromosomal abnormalities.

Skeletal dysplasias are the most common cause of dwarfism and are characterized by abnormalities in the development and growth of bones and cartilage. Achondroplasia is the most common form of skeletal dysplasia, accounting for about 70% of all cases of dwarfism. It is caused by a mutation in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) gene and results in short limbs, a large head, and a prominent forehead.

Hormonal deficiencies, such as growth hormone deficiency or hypothyroidism, can also cause dwarfism if they are not diagnosed and treated early. Chromosomal abnormalities, such as Turner syndrome (monosomy X) or Down syndrome (trisomy 21), can also result in short stature and other features of dwarfism.

It is important to note that people with dwarfism are not "dwarves" - the term "dwarf" is a medical and sociological term used to describe individuals with this condition, while "dwarves" is a term often used in fantasy literature and media to refer to mythical beings. The use of the term "dwarf" can be considered disrespectful or offensive to some people with dwarfism, so it is important to use respectful language when referring to individuals with this condition.

Prolactin receptors are proteins found on the surface of various cells throughout the body that bind to the hormone prolactin. Once prolactin binds to its receptor, it activates a series of intracellular signaling pathways that regulate diverse physiological functions, including lactation, growth and development, metabolism, immune function, and behavior.

Prolactin receptors belong to the class I cytokine receptor family and are expressed in many tissues, including the mammary gland, pituitary gland, liver, kidney, adipose tissue, brain, and immune cells. In the mammary gland, prolactin signaling through its receptor is essential for milk production and breast development during pregnancy and lactation.

Abnormalities in prolactin receptor function have been implicated in several diseases, including cancer, infertility, and metabolic disorders. Therefore, understanding the structure, regulation, and function of prolactin receptors is crucial for developing new therapies to treat these conditions.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

Acromegaly is a rare hormonal disorder that typically occurs in middle-aged adults. It results from the pituitary gland producing too much growth hormone (GH) during adulthood. The excessive production of GH leads to abnormal growth of body tissues, particularly in the hands, feet, and face.

The term "acromegaly" is derived from two Greek words: "akros," meaning extremities, and "megaly," meaning enlargement. In most cases, acromegaly is caused by a benign tumor (adenoma) of the pituitary gland, which results in overproduction of GH.

Common symptoms include enlarged hands and feet, coarse facial features, deepened voice, joint pain, and sweating. If left untreated, acromegaly can lead to serious complications such as diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, and arthritis. Treatment usually involves surgical removal of the tumor, radiation therapy, or medication to control GH production.

Age determination by skeleton, also known as skeletal aging or skeletal maturation, is the process of estimating a person's age based on the analysis of their skeletal remains. This technique is commonly used in forensic anthropology to help identify unknown individuals or determine the time since death.

The method involves examining various features of the skeleton, such as the degree of fusion of epiphyseal growth plates, the shape and size of certain bones, and the presence or absence of degenerative changes. These features change in a predictable way as a person grows and develops, allowing for an estimation of their age at death.

It is important to note that while skeletal aging can provide useful information, it is not always possible to determine an exact age. Instead, forensic anthropologists typically provide a range of ages that the individual may have fallen into based on the skeletal evidence. Additionally, factors such as genetics, nutrition, and health can affect the rate at which skeletal features develop, making it difficult to provide a precise estimate in some cases.

In the context of medicine, growth generally refers to the increase in size or mass of an organism or a specific part of the body over time. This can be quantified through various methods such as measuring height, weight, or the dimensions of particular organs or tissues. In children, normal growth is typically assessed using growth charts that plot measurements like height and weight against age to determine whether a child's growth is following a typical pattern.

Growth can be influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, nutrition, hormonal regulation, and overall health status. Abnormalities in growth patterns may indicate underlying medical conditions or developmental disorders that require further evaluation and treatment.

Placental hormones are a type of hormones that are produced by the placenta, an organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy. These hormones play a crucial role in maintaining and supporting a healthy pregnancy. Some of the key placental hormones include:

1. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG): This hormone is produced after implantation and is detected in the urine or blood to confirm pregnancy. It maintains the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone during early pregnancy.
2. Progesterone: This hormone is critical for preparing the uterus for pregnancy and maintaining the pregnancy. It suppresses maternal immune response to prevent rejection of the developing embryo/fetus.
3. Estrogen: This hormone plays a vital role in the growth and development of the fetal brain, as well as promoting the growth of the uterus and mammary glands during pregnancy.
4. Human Placental Lactogen (hPL): This hormone stimulates maternal metabolism to provide nutrients for the developing fetus and helps prepare the breasts for lactation.
5. Relaxin: This hormone relaxes the pelvic ligaments and softens and widens the cervix in preparation for childbirth.

These hormones work together to support fetal growth, maintain pregnancy, and prepare the mother's body for childbirth and lactation.

Pituitary neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. These neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), with most being benign. They can vary in size and may cause various symptoms depending on their location, size, and hormonal activity.

Pituitary neoplasms can produce and secrete excess hormones, leading to a variety of endocrine disorders such as Cushing's disease (caused by excessive ACTH production), acromegaly (caused by excessive GH production), or prolactinoma (caused by excessive PRL production). They can also cause local compression symptoms due to their size, leading to headaches, vision problems, and cranial nerve palsies.

The exact causes of pituitary neoplasms are not fully understood, but genetic factors, radiation exposure, and certain inherited conditions may increase the risk of developing these tumors. Treatment options for pituitary neoplasms include surgical removal, radiation therapy, and medical management with drugs that can help control hormonal imbalances.

An Immunoradiometric Assay (IRMA) is a type of radioimmunoassay (RIA), which is a technique used in clinical laboratories to measure the concentration of specific analytes, such as hormones, drugs, or vitamins, in biological samples. In an IRMA, the sample containing the unknown amount of the analyte is incubated with a known quantity of a labeled antibody that specifically binds to the analyte.

The labeled antibody is usually radiolabeled with a radioisotope such as iodine-125 (^125^I) or tritium (^3^H). During the incubation, the labeled antibody binds to the analyte in the sample, forming an immune complex. The unbound labeled antibody is then separated from the immune complex by a variety of methods such as precipitation, centrifugation, or chromatography.

The amount of radioactivity in the pellet (immune complex) is measured using a gamma counter (for ^125^I) or liquid scintillation counter (for ^3^H). The amount of radioactivity is directly proportional to the amount of analyte present in the sample. By comparing the radioactivity in the sample to a standard curve prepared with known concentrations of the analyte, the concentration of the analyte in the sample can be determined.

IRMAs are highly sensitive and specific assays that can detect very low levels of analytes in biological samples. However, they require specialized equipment and handling procedures due to the use of radioisotopes.

Thyroid hormones are hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small endocrine gland located in the neck that helps regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. The two main thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which contain iodine atoms. These hormones play a crucial role in various bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, digestion, and brain development. They help regulate the rate at which your body uses energy, affects how sensitive your body is to other hormones, and plays a vital role in the development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland through a feedback mechanism that helps maintain proper balance.

Hypopituitarism is a medical condition characterized by deficient secretion of one or more hormones produced by the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland controls several other endocrine glands in the body, including the thyroid, adrenals, and sex glands (ovaries and testes).

Hypopituitarism can result from damage to the pituitary gland due to various causes such as tumors, surgery, radiation therapy, trauma, or inflammation. In some cases, hypopituitarism may also be caused by a dysfunction of the hypothalamus, a region in the brain that regulates the pituitary gland's function.

The symptoms and signs of hypopituitarism depend on which hormones are deficient and can include fatigue, weakness, decreased appetite, weight loss, low blood pressure, decreased sex drive, infertility, irregular menstrual periods, intolerance to cold, constipation, thinning hair, dry skin, and depression.

Treatment of hypopituitarism typically involves hormone replacement therapy to restore the deficient hormones' normal levels. The type and dosage of hormones used will depend on which hormones are deficient and may require regular monitoring and adjustments over time.

"Body height" is a measure of the vertical length of a person's body from the top of their head to the bottom of their feet. It is typically measured in units such as centimeters (cm) or inches (in). In medical settings, body height is often used as a basic anthropometric measurement to assess overall health status, growth and development, nutritional status, and aging-related changes.

There are different methods for measuring body height, but the most common one involves having the person stand upright against a vertical surface (such as a wall or a stadiometer) with their heels, buttocks, shoulders, and head touching the surface. The measurement is taken at the point where the top of the person's head meets the surface.

Body height can be influenced by various factors, including genetics, nutrition, health status, and environmental conditions. Changes in body height over time can provide important insights into a person's health trajectory and potential health risks. For example, a significant decrease in body height may indicate bone loss or spinal compression, while a rapid increase in height during childhood or adolescence may suggest optimal growth and development.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is a highly sensitive analytical technique used in clinical and research laboratories to measure concentrations of various substances, such as hormones, vitamins, drugs, or tumor markers, in biological samples like blood, urine, or tissues. The method relies on the specific interaction between an antibody and its corresponding antigen, combined with the use of radioisotopes to quantify the amount of bound antigen.

In a typical RIA procedure, a known quantity of a radiolabeled antigen (also called tracer) is added to a sample containing an unknown concentration of the same unlabeled antigen. The mixture is then incubated with a specific antibody that binds to the antigen. During the incubation period, the antibody forms complexes with both the radiolabeled and unlabeled antigens.

After the incubation, the unbound (free) radiolabeled antigen is separated from the antibody-antigen complexes, usually through a precipitation or separation step involving centrifugation, filtration, or chromatography. The amount of radioactivity in the pellet (containing the antibody-antigen complexes) is then measured using a gamma counter or other suitable radiation detection device.

The concentration of the unlabeled antigen in the sample can be determined by comparing the ratio of bound to free radiolabeled antigen in the sample to a standard curve generated from known concentrations of unlabeled antigen and their corresponding bound/free ratios. The higher the concentration of unlabeled antigen in the sample, the lower the amount of radiolabeled antigen that will bind to the antibody, resulting in a lower bound/free ratio.

Radioimmunoassays offer high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy, making them valuable tools for detecting and quantifying low levels of various substances in biological samples. However, due to concerns about radiation safety and waste disposal, alternative non-isotopic immunoassay techniques like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have become more popular in recent years.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, it promotes the growth and development of ovarian follicles in the ovary, which ultimately leads to the maturation and release of an egg (ovulation). In males, FSH stimulates the testes to produce sperm. It works in conjunction with luteinizing hormone (LH) to regulate reproductive processes. The secretion of FSH is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and its release is influenced by the levels of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), estrogen, inhibin, and androgens.

The anterior pituitary, also known as the adenohypophysis, is the front portion of the pituitary gland. It is responsible for producing and secreting several important hormones that regulate various bodily functions. These hormones include:

* Growth hormone (GH), which stimulates growth and cell reproduction in bones and other tissues.
* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which regulates the production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which regulate reproductive function in both males and females by controlling the development and release of eggs or sperm.
* Prolactin, which stimulates milk production in pregnant and nursing women.
* Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which regulates skin pigmentation and appetite.

The anterior pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus, a small region of the brain located just above it. The hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that regulate the secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary. These hormones are released into a network of blood vessels called the portal system, which carries them directly to the anterior pituitary gland.

Damage or disease of the anterior pituitary can lead to hormonal imbalances and various medical conditions, such as growth disorders, thyroid dysfunction, adrenal insufficiency, reproductive problems, and diabetes insipidus.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is a glycoprotein hormone, which is primarily produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In women, a surge of LH triggers ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovaries during the menstrual cycle. During pregnancy, LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone. In men, LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. It plays a crucial role in sexual development, reproduction, and maintaining the reproductive system.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.

Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.

Turner Syndrome is a genetic disorder that affects females, caused by complete or partial absence of one X chromosome. The typical karyotype is 45,X0 instead of the normal 46,XX in women. This condition leads to distinctive physical features and medical issues in growth, development, and fertility. Characteristic features include short stature, webbed neck, low-set ears, and swelling of the hands and feet. Other potential symptoms can include heart defects, hearing and vision problems, skeletal abnormalities, kidney issues, and learning disabilities. Not all individuals with Turner Syndrome will have every symptom, but most will require medical interventions and monitoring throughout their lives to address various health concerns associated with the condition.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Subcutaneous injection is a route of administration where a medication or vaccine is delivered into the subcutaneous tissue, which lies between the skin and the muscle. This layer contains small blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissues that help to absorb the medication slowly and steadily over a period of time. Subcutaneous injections are typically administered using a short needle, at an angle of 45-90 degrees, and the dose is injected slowly to minimize discomfort and ensure proper absorption. Common sites for subcutaneous injections include the abdomen, thigh, or upper arm. Examples of medications that may be given via subcutaneous injection include insulin, heparin, and some vaccines.

Triiodothyronine (T3) is a thyroid hormone, specifically the active form of thyroid hormone, that plays a critical role in the regulation of metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. It is produced by the thyroid gland through the iodination and coupling of the amino acid tyrosine with three atoms of iodine. T3 is more potent than its precursor, thyroxine (T4), which has four iodine atoms, as T3 binds more strongly to thyroid hormone receptors and accelerates metabolic processes at the cellular level.

In circulation, about 80% of T3 is bound to plasma proteins, while the remaining 20% is unbound or free, allowing it to enter cells and exert its biological effects. The primary functions of T3 include increasing the rate of metabolic reactions, promoting protein synthesis, enhancing sensitivity to catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline), and supporting normal brain development during fetal growth and early infancy. Imbalances in T3 levels can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, which may require clinical intervention and management.

Somatomedins are a type of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), specifically IGF-1 and IGF-2. They are peptide hormones that play an essential role in the regulation of growth, development, and metabolism in the human body. Somatomedins are primarily produced by the liver in response to stimulation by growth hormone (GH) and act as mediators of GH's effects on cell growth, differentiation, and survival. They also have important functions in glucose homeostasis, energy metabolism, and tissue repair. Somatomedins exert their actions by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, leading to intracellular signaling cascades that regulate various cellular processes.

Iodoproteins are proteins that have iodine atoms chemically bonded to them. This type of modification is often seen in the thyroid hormones, where iodination of the tyrosine residues plays a crucial role in their biological activity. The iodination of proteins can also occur as a result of exposure to certain disinfectants such as iodopovidone (povidone-iodine), which is used for its antimicrobial properties. However, it's important to note that non-specific iodination of proteins can alter their structure and function, and may even lead to the formation of harmful byproducts, so it's not a common practice in biological systems.

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH), also known as Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone (LHRH), is a hormonal peptide consisting of 10 amino acids. It is produced and released by the hypothalamus, an area in the brain that links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

GnRH plays a crucial role in regulating reproduction and sexual development through its control of two gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These gonadotropins, in turn, stimulate the gonads (ovaries or testes) to produce sex steroids and eggs or sperm.

GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary gland by binding to its specific receptors, leading to the release of FSH and LH. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is under negative feedback control, meaning that when sex steroid levels are high, they inhibit the release of GnRH, which subsequently decreases FSH and LH secretion.

GnRH agonists and antagonists have clinical applications in various medical conditions, such as infertility treatments, precocious puberty, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, prostate cancer, and hormone-responsive breast cancer.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a polypeptide hormone that plays a crucial role in the regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in the body. It is produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands, which are four small endocrine glands located on the back surface of the thyroid gland.

The primary function of PTH is to maintain normal calcium levels in the blood by increasing calcium absorption from the gut, mobilizing calcium from bones, and decreasing calcium excretion by the kidneys. PTH also increases phosphate excretion by the kidneys, which helps to lower serum phosphate levels.

In addition to its role in calcium and phosphate homeostasis, PTH has been shown to have anabolic effects on bone tissue, stimulating bone formation and preventing bone loss. However, chronic elevations in PTH levels can lead to excessive bone resorption and osteoporosis.

Overall, Parathyroid Hormone is a critical hormone that helps maintain mineral homeostasis and supports healthy bone metabolism.

Transcription Factor Pit-1, also known as POU1F1 or pituitary-specific transcription factor 1, is a protein that plays a crucial role in the development and function of the anterior pituitary gland. It is a member of the POU domain family of transcription factors, which are characterized by a conserved DNA-binding domain.

Pit-1 is essential for the differentiation and proliferation of certain types of pituitary cells, including those that produce growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Pit-1 binds to specific DNA sequences in the promoter regions of these hormone genes, thereby activating their transcription and promoting hormone production.

Mutations in the gene encoding Pit-1 can lead to a variety of pituitary disorders, such as dwarfism due to GH deficiency, delayed puberty, and hypothyroidism due to TSH deficiency. Additionally, some studies have suggested that Pit-1 may also play a role in regulating energy balance and body weight, although the exact mechanisms are not fully understood.

Doping in sports is the use of prohibited substances or methods to improve athletic performance. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) defines doping as "the occurrence of one or more of the following anti-doping rule violations":

1. Presence of a prohibited substance in an athlete's sample
2. Use or attempted use of a prohibited substance or method
3. Evading, refusing, or failing to submit to sample collection
4. Whereabouts failures (three missed tests or filing failures within a 12-month period)
5. Tampering or attempted tampering with any part of the doping control process
6. Possession, trafficking, or administration of a prohibited substance or method
7. Complicity in an anti-doping rule violation
8. Prohibited association with a person who has been serving a period of ineligibility for an anti-doping rule violation

Doping is considered unethical and harmful to the integrity of sports, as it provides an unfair advantage to those who engage in it. It can also have serious health consequences for athletes. Various international and national organizations, including WADA and the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA), work to prevent doping in sports through education, testing, and enforcement of anti-doping rules.

Transfection is a term used in molecular biology that refers to the process of deliberately introducing foreign genetic material (DNA, RNA or artificial gene constructs) into cells. This is typically done using chemical or physical methods, such as lipofection or electroporation. Transfection is widely used in research and medical settings for various purposes, including studying gene function, producing proteins, developing gene therapies, and creating genetically modified organisms. It's important to note that transfection is different from transduction, which is the process of introducing genetic material into cells using viruses as vectors.

Hydrocortisone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, which is a class of steroid hormones. It is identical to the naturally occurring cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal gland that helps regulate metabolism and helps your body respond to stress. Hydrocortisone has anti-inflammatory effects and is used to treat various inflammatory conditions such as allergies, skin disorders, and autoimmune diseases. It works by suppressing the immune system's response to reduce swelling, redness, itching, and other symptoms caused by inflammation.

Hydrocortisone is available in different forms, including oral tablets, topical creams, lotions, gels, and ointments, as well as injectable solutions. The specific use and dosage depend on the condition being treated and the individual patient's medical history and current health status.

As with any medication, hydrocortisone can have side effects, especially when used in high doses or for extended periods. Common side effects include increased appetite, weight gain, mood changes, insomnia, and skin thinning. Long-term use of hydrocortisone may also increase the risk of developing osteoporosis, diabetes, cataracts, and other health problems. Therefore, it is essential to follow your healthcare provider's instructions carefully when using this medication.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) is a hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. ACTH plays a crucial role in the regulation of the body's stress response and has significant effects on various physiological processes.

The primary function of ACTH is to stimulate the adrenal glands, which are triangular-shaped glands situated on top of the kidneys. The adrenal glands consist of two parts: the outer cortex and the inner medulla. ACTH specifically targets the adrenal cortex, where it binds to specific receptors and initiates a series of biochemical reactions leading to the production and release of steroid hormones, primarily cortisol (a glucocorticoid) and aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid).

Cortisol is involved in various metabolic processes, such as regulating blood sugar levels, modulating the immune response, and helping the body respond to stress. Aldosterone plays a vital role in maintaining electrolyte and fluid balance by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.

ACTH release is controlled by the hypothalamus, another part of the brain, which produces corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete ACTH, which in turn triggers cortisol production in the adrenal glands. This complex feedback system helps maintain homeostasis and ensures that appropriate amounts of cortisol are released in response to various physiological and psychological stressors.

Disorders related to ACTH can lead to hormonal imbalances, resulting in conditions such as Cushing's syndrome (excessive cortisol production) or Addison's disease (insufficient cortisol production). Proper diagnosis and management of these disorders typically involve assessing the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and addressing any underlying issues affecting ACTH secretion.

Gonadal steroid hormones, also known as gonadal sex steroids, are hormones that are produced and released by the gonads (i.e., ovaries in women and testes in men). These hormones play a critical role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics, reproductive function, and overall health.

The three main classes of gonadal steroid hormones are:

1. Androgens: These are male sex hormones that are primarily produced by the testes but also produced in smaller amounts by the ovaries and adrenal glands. The most well-known androgen is testosterone, which plays a key role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.
2. Estrogens: These are female sex hormones that are primarily produced by the ovaries but also produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands. The most well-known estrogen is estradiol, which plays a key role in the development of female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and the menstrual cycle.
3. Progestogens: These are hormones that are produced by the ovaries during the second half of the menstrual cycle and play a key role in preparing the uterus for pregnancy. The most well-known progestogen is progesterone, which also plays a role in maintaining pregnancy and regulating the menstrual cycle.

Gonadal steroid hormones can have significant effects on various physiological processes, including bone density, cognitive function, mood, and sexual behavior. Disorders of gonadal steroid hormone production or action can lead to a range of health problems, including infertility, osteoporosis, and sexual dysfunction.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Pituitary hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the "master gland" because it controls several other endocrine glands and regulates various bodily functions.

There are two main types of pituitary hormones: anterior pituitary hormones and posterior pituitary hormones, which are produced in different parts of the pituitary gland and have distinct functions.

Anterior pituitary hormones include:

1. Growth hormone (GH): regulates growth and metabolism.
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones.
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH): regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
5. Prolactin: stimulates milk production in lactating women.
6. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): regulates skin pigmentation and appetite.

Posterior pituitary hormones include:

1. Oxytocin: stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during lactation.
2. Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, ADH): regulates water balance in the body by controlling urine production in the kidneys.

Overall, pituitary hormones play crucial roles in regulating growth, development, metabolism, reproductive function, and various other bodily functions. Abnormalities in pituitary hormone levels can lead to a range of medical conditions, such as dwarfism, acromegaly, Cushing's disease, infertility, and diabetes insipidus.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Molecular cloning is a laboratory technique used to create multiple copies of a specific DNA sequence. This process involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The first step in molecular cloning is to isolate the DNA sequence of interest from the rest of the genomic DNA. This can be done using various methods such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, or hybridization.
2. Vector construction: Once the DNA sequence of interest has been isolated, it must be inserted into a vector, which is a small circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently in a host cell. Common vectors used in molecular cloning include plasmids and phages.
3. Transformation: The constructed vector is then introduced into a host cell, usually a bacterial or yeast cell, through a process called transformation. This can be done using various methods such as electroporation or chemical transformation.
4. Selection: After transformation, the host cells are grown in selective media that allow only those cells containing the vector to grow. This ensures that the DNA sequence of interest has been successfully cloned into the vector.
5. Amplification: Once the host cells have been selected, they can be grown in large quantities to amplify the number of copies of the cloned DNA sequence.

Molecular cloning is a powerful tool in molecular biology and has numerous applications, including the production of recombinant proteins, gene therapy, functional analysis of genes, and genetic engineering.

A jet injection is a type of medical injection that uses a high-pressure stream of medication to deliver the dose through the skin and into the underlying tissue. This method does not require the use of a hypodermic needle and is also known as a "needle-free" injection. Jet injectors have been used for various purposes, including vaccination, pain management, and treatment of some skin conditions. However, their use has declined in recent years due to concerns about potential safety issues, such as the risk of cross-contamination between patients and the possibility of injury to the tissue.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

A craniopharyngioma is a type of brain tumor that develops near the pituitary gland, which is a small gland located at the base of the brain. These tumors arise from remnants of Rathke's pouch, an embryonic structure involved in the development of the pituitary gland.

Craniopharyngiomas are typically slow-growing and benign (non-cancerous), but they can still cause significant health problems due to their location. They can compress nearby structures such as the optic nerves, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland, leading to symptoms like vision loss, hormonal imbalances, and cognitive impairment.

Treatment for craniopharyngiomas usually involves surgical removal of the tumor, followed by radiation therapy in some cases. Regular follow-up with a healthcare team is essential to monitor for recurrence and manage any long-term effects of treatment.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

Puberty is the period of sexual maturation, generally occurring between the ages of 10 and 16 in females and between 12 and 18 in males. It is characterized by a series of events including rapid growth, development of secondary sexual characteristics, and the acquisition of reproductive capabilities. Puberty is initiated by the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, leading to the secretion of hormones such as estrogen and testosterone that drive the physical changes associated with this stage of development.

In females, puberty typically begins with the onset of breast development (thelarche) and the appearance of pubic hair (pubarche), followed by the start of menstruation (menarche). In males, puberty usually starts with an increase in testicular size and the growth of pubic hair, followed by the deepening of the voice, growth of facial hair, and the development of muscle mass.

It's important to note that the onset and progression of puberty can vary widely among individuals, and may be influenced by genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors.

A Locus Control Region (LCR) is a term used in molecular biology to describe a specific type of cis-acting DNA regulatory element that controls the expression of genes located within a genetic locus. These regions are characterized by their ability to enhance or increase the transcription of genes, particularly when they are located at a distance from the gene itself.

LCRs typically contain multiple binding sites for various transcription factors and other regulatory proteins, which work together to modulate the expression of the associated genes. They are often found in clusters near the genes they regulate, and can have a profound impact on the level, timing, and specificity of gene expression.

In the context of human genetics, LCRs have been identified as important regulators of gene expression in a number of different contexts, including development, differentiation, and disease. For example, mutations or variations in LCRs have been linked to several genetic disorders, including certain forms of cancer and hemoglobinopathies such as sickle cell anemia.

Peptide hormones are a type of hormone consisting of short chains of amino acids known as peptides. They are produced and released by various endocrine glands and play crucial roles in regulating many physiological processes in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, stress response, and reproductive functions.

Peptide hormones exert their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in cell behavior or function. Some examples of peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, prolactin, oxytocin, and vasopressin.

Peptide hormones are synthesized as larger precursor proteins called prohormones, which are cleaved by enzymes to release the active peptide hormone. They are water-soluble and cannot pass through the cell membrane, so they exert their effects through autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine mechanisms. Autocrine signaling occurs when a cell releases a hormone that binds to receptors on the same cell, while paracrine signaling involves the release of a hormone that acts on nearby cells. Endocrine signaling, on the other hand, involves the release of a hormone into the bloodstream, which then travels to distant target cells to exert its effects.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

Promoter regions in genetics refer to specific DNA sequences located near the transcription start site of a gene. They serve as binding sites for RNA polymerase and various transcription factors that regulate the initiation of gene transcription. These regulatory elements help control the rate of transcription and, therefore, the level of gene expression. Promoter regions can be composed of different types of sequences, such as the TATA box and CAAT box, and their organization and composition can vary between different genes and species.

Iodine isotopes are different forms of the chemical element iodine, which have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Iodine has a total of 53 protons in its nucleus, and its stable isotope, iodine-127, has 74 neutrons, giving it a mass number of 127. However, there are also radioactive isotopes of iodine, which have different numbers of neutrons and are therefore unstable.

Radioactive isotopes of iodine emit radiation as they decay towards a stable state. For example, iodine-131 is a commonly used isotope in medical imaging and therapy, with a half-life of about 8 days. It decays by emitting beta particles and gamma rays, making it useful for treating thyroid cancer and other conditions that involve overactive thyroid glands.

Other radioactive iodine isotopes include iodine-123, which has a half-life of about 13 hours and is used in medical imaging, and iodine-125, which has a half-life of about 60 days and is used in brachytherapy (a type of radiation therapy that involves placing radioactive sources directly into or near tumors).

It's important to note that exposure to radioactive iodine isotopes can be harmful, especially if it occurs through inhalation or ingestion. This is because the iodine can accumulate in the thyroid gland and cause damage over time. Therefore, appropriate safety measures must be taken when handling or working with radioactive iodine isotopes.

Pituitary hormone-regulating hormone receptors refer to specific protein structures found on the surface of certain cells in the body. These receptors are responsible for detecting and responding to hormones produced by the hypothalamus, which regulate the function of the pituitary gland.

The pituitary gland is a small gland located at the base of the brain that plays a critical role in regulating various bodily functions, including growth and development, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response. The hypothalamus produces hormones that either stimulate or inhibit the release of pituitary hormones, which then act on target organs throughout the body to regulate their function.

Pituitary hormone-regulating hormone receptors are found on the surface of pituitary cells and are specific to individual hypothalamic hormones. When a hypothalamic hormone binds to its corresponding receptor, it triggers a series of intracellular signals that ultimately result in the release or inhibition of pituitary hormones.

Examples of pituitary hormone-regulating hormone receptors include:

* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor, which responds to thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus.
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) receptor, which responds to corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus.
* Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) receptor, which responds to GHRH from the hypothalamus.
* Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor, which responds to GnRH from the hypothalamus.
* Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) receptor, which responds to dopamine from the hypothalamus.

Abnormalities in pituitary hormone-regulating hormone receptors can lead to various endocrine disorders, such as hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, acromegaly, and infertility.

In medical terms, "sex" refers to the biological characteristics that define males and females. These characteristics include chromosomes, hormone levels, reproductive/sexual anatomy, and secondary sexual traits. Generally, people are categorized as male or female based on their anatomical and genetic features, but there are also intersex individuals who may have physical or genetic features that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies. It is important to note that while sex is a biological concept, gender is a social construct that refers to the roles, behaviors, activities, and expectations that a society considers appropriate for men and women.

Oxandrolone is an anabolic steroid medication, which is a synthetic version of the hormone testosterone. Medically, it's used to help people gain weight after certain illnesses or injuries, and to treat conditions like HIV-related wasting, major burns, and some types of osteoporosis. It works by promoting muscle growth and increasing appetite.

It's important to note that oxandrolone is a controlled substance and its use should be under the supervision of a healthcare professional due to the potential for serious side effects and abuse.

A chromophobe adenoma is a type of benign (non-cancerous) tumor that typically arises in the pituitary gland, which is a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The term "chromophobe" refers to the appearance of the cells under a microscope - they lack pigment and have a characteristic appearance with abundant clear or lightly stained cytoplasm.

Chromophobe adenomas are slow-growing tumors that can vary in size, and they may cause symptoms due to pressure on surrounding structures or by producing excess hormones. The most common hormone produced by chromophobe adenomas is prolactin, leading to symptoms such as menstrual irregularities, milk production (galactorrhea), and decreased sexual function in women, and decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, and infertility in men.

Treatment for chromophobe adenomas typically involves surgical removal of the tumor, often through a transsphenoidal approach (through the nose and sphenoid sinus). In some cases, radiation therapy or medical management with hormone-blocking drugs may also be necessary. Regular follow-up with an endocrinologist is important to monitor for any recurrence or hormonal imbalances.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), and regulate gene transcription in target cells. These receptors play a crucial role in the development, growth, and metabolism of an organism by mediating the actions of thyroid hormones. THRs are encoded by genes THRA and THRB, which give rise to two major isoforms: TRα1 and TRβ1. Additionally, alternative splicing results in other isoforms with distinct tissue distributions and functions. THRs function as heterodimers with retinoid X receptors (RXRs) and bind to thyroid hormone response elements (TREs) in the regulatory regions of target genes. The binding of T3 or T4 to THRs triggers a conformational change, which leads to recruitment of coactivators or corepressors, ultimately resulting in activation or repression of gene transcription.

A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that carries genetic information. Genes are the fundamental units of heredity and are responsible for the development and function of all living organisms. They code for proteins or RNA molecules, which carry out various functions within cells and are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.

Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome, and each person inherits two copies of every gene, one from each parent. Variations in the sequence of nucleotides in a gene can lead to differences in traits between individuals, including physical characteristics, susceptibility to disease, and responses to environmental factors.

Medical genetics is the study of genes and their role in health and disease. It involves understanding how genes contribute to the development and progression of various medical conditions, as well as identifying genetic risk factors and developing strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Ghrelin receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the central nervous system and other tissues throughout the body. They are also known as growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R1a) because they were initially identified as being activated by synthetic ligands called growth hormone secretagogues, which stimulate the release of growth hormone.

However, it was later discovered that ghrelin, a hormone produced in the stomach, is the natural endogenous ligand for these receptors. Ghrelin is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because its levels rise before meals and decrease after eating, signaling to the brain that it's time to eat.

Activation of ghrelin receptors has been shown to have a variety of effects on the body, including stimulating appetite, increasing growth hormone secretion, promoting fat storage, and modulating glucose metabolism. Dysregulation of the ghrelin system has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as obesity, anorexia nervosa, and type 2 diabetes.

Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.

The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.

Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.

"Cattle" is a term used in the agricultural and veterinary fields to refer to domesticated animals of the genus *Bos*, primarily *Bos taurus* (European cattle) and *Bos indicus* (Zebu). These animals are often raised for meat, milk, leather, and labor. They are also known as bovines or cows (for females), bulls (intact males), and steers/bullocks (castrated males). However, in a strict medical definition, "cattle" does not apply to humans or other animals.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

A biological assay is a method used in biology and biochemistry to measure the concentration or potency of a substance (like a drug, hormone, or enzyme) by observing its effect on living cells or tissues. This type of assay can be performed using various techniques such as:

1. Cell-based assays: These involve measuring changes in cell behavior, growth, or viability after exposure to the substance being tested. Examples include proliferation assays, apoptosis assays, and cytotoxicity assays.
2. Protein-based assays: These focus on measuring the interaction between the substance and specific proteins, such as enzymes or receptors. Examples include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), radioimmunoassays (RIAs), and pull-down assays.
3. Genetic-based assays: These involve analyzing the effects of the substance on gene expression, DNA structure, or protein synthesis. Examples include quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays, reporter gene assays, and northern blotting.

Biological assays are essential tools in research, drug development, and diagnostic applications to understand biological processes and evaluate the potential therapeutic efficacy or toxicity of various substances.

Fluoxymesterone is a synthetic androgenic anabolic steroid hormone. It is derived from testosterone and has been structurally modified to increase its androgenic effects while reducing its estrogenic and progestogenic activity. Fluoxymesterone is used in medical treatment for conditions such as hypogonadism, delayed puberty, and breast cancer in women. It works by replacing the missing testosterone in men or mimicking the effects of testosterone in the body.

Fluoxymesterone is known to have a high anabolic and androgenic activity, and it is commonly abused for non-medical purposes such as improving physical performance, muscle mass, and strength. However, its use for these purposes is not approved by regulatory agencies and can lead to serious health consequences.

Fluoxymesterone is available in oral form and is typically taken two to three times a day due to its short half-life. Its side effects may include acne, hair loss, liver toxicity, mood changes, aggression, and changes in sexual function. It is important to use this medication under the supervision of a healthcare provider and follow their instructions carefully to minimize the risk of adverse effects.

Ghrelin is a hormone primarily produced and released by the stomach with some production in the small intestine, pancreas, and brain. It is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because it stimulates appetite, promotes food intake, and contributes to the regulation of energy balance.

Ghrelin levels increase before meals and decrease after eating. In addition to its role in regulating appetite and meal initiation, ghrelin also has other functions, such as modulating glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, gastric motility, and cardiovascular function. Its receptor, the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R), is found in various tissues throughout the body, indicating its wide range of physiological roles.

Insulin-like Growth Factor Binding Protein 3 (IGFBP-3) is a protein that binds to and regulates the bioavailability and activity of Insulin-like Growth Factors (IGFs), specifically IGF-1 and IGF-2. It plays a crucial role in the growth, development, and homeostasis of various tissues and organs by modulating IGF signaling. IGFBP-3 is the most abundant IGF binding protein in circulation and has a longer half-life than IGFs, allowing it to act as a reservoir and transport protein for IGFs. Additionally, IGFBP-3 has been found to have IGF-independent functions, including roles in cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis, and tumor suppression.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

Nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), also known as free fatty acids (FFA), refer to fatty acid molecules that are not bound to glycerol in the form of triglycerides or other esters. In the bloodstream, NEFAs are transported while bound to albumin and can serve as a source of energy for peripheral tissues. Under normal physiological conditions, NEFA levels are tightly regulated by the body; however, elevated NEFA levels have been associated with various metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance, obesity, and type 2 diabetes.

Cyproheptadine is an antihistamine and anticholinergic medication that is primarily used to treat symptoms of allergies, such as runny nose, sneezing, and itching. It works by blocking the action of histamine, a substance in the body that causes allergic reactions.

Cyproheptadine also has other uses, including the treatment of migraines and cluster headaches, appetite stimulation in people with certain medical conditions, and as a sedative in some cases. It is available in various forms, such as tablets, capsules, and syrup.

Like all medications, cyproheptadine can have side effects, including drowsiness, dry mouth, dizziness, and blurred vision. It is important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and talk to a healthcare provider if you experience any bothersome or persistent side effects.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) is a medical treatment that involves the use of hormones to replace or supplement those that the body is no longer producing or no longer producing in sufficient quantities. It is most commonly used to help manage symptoms associated with menopause and conditions related to hormonal imbalances.

In women, HRT typically involves the use of estrogen and/or progesterone to alleviate hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, and mood changes that can occur during menopause. In some cases, testosterone may also be prescribed to help improve energy levels, sex drive, and overall sense of well-being.

In men, HRT is often used to treat low testosterone levels (hypogonadism) and related symptoms such as fatigue, decreased muscle mass, and reduced sex drive.

It's important to note that while HRT can be effective in managing certain symptoms, it also carries potential risks, including an increased risk of blood clots, stroke, breast cancer (in women), and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, the decision to undergo HRT should be made carefully and discussed thoroughly with a healthcare provider.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Oxymetholone is an anabolic steroid medication, which is used to treat various medical conditions such as anemia due to lack of red blood cells and wasting syndrome in people with HIV infection. It works by increasing the production of erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the production of red blood cells. Oxymetholone also helps to improve muscle mass and appetite.

It is important to note that oxymetholone is a controlled substance and has potential for serious side effects, including liver toxicity, masculinization in women, and cardiovascular risks. Therefore, it should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider and for legitimate medical purposes.

Nitrogen is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is an element that is crucial to medicine and human life.

In a medical context, nitrogen is often mentioned in relation to gas analysis, respiratory therapy, or medical gases. Nitrogen (N) is a colorless, odorless, and nonreactive gas that makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. It is an essential element for various biological processes, such as the growth and maintenance of organisms, because it is a key component of amino acids, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds.

In some medical applications, nitrogen is used to displace oxygen in a mixture to create a controlled environment with reduced oxygen levels (hypoxic conditions) for therapeutic purposes, such as in certain types of hyperbaric chambers. Additionally, nitrogen gas is sometimes used in cryotherapy, where extremely low temperatures are applied to tissues to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation.

However, it's important to note that breathing pure nitrogen can be dangerous, as it can lead to unconsciousness and even death due to lack of oxygen (asphyxiation) within minutes.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Body composition refers to the relative proportions of different components that make up a person's body, including fat mass, lean muscle mass, bone mass, and total body water. It is an important measure of health and fitness, as changes in body composition can indicate shifts in overall health status. For example, an increase in fat mass and decrease in lean muscle mass can be indicative of poor nutrition, sedentary behavior, or certain medical conditions.

There are several methods for measuring body composition, including:

1. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): This method uses low-level electrical currents to estimate body fat percentage based on the conductivity of different tissues.
2. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA): This method uses low-dose X-rays to measure bone density and body composition, including lean muscle mass and fat distribution.
3. Hydrostatic weighing: This method involves submerging a person in water and measuring their weight underwater to estimate body density and fat mass.
4. Air displacement plethysmography (ADP): This method uses air displacement to measure body volume and density, which can be used to estimate body composition.

Understanding body composition can help individuals make informed decisions about their health and fitness goals, as well as provide valuable information for healthcare providers in the management of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.

A peptide fragment is a short chain of amino acids that is derived from a larger peptide or protein through various biological or chemical processes. These fragments can result from the natural breakdown of proteins in the body during regular physiological processes, such as digestion, or they can be produced experimentally in a laboratory setting for research or therapeutic purposes.

Peptide fragments are often used in research to map the structure and function of larger peptides and proteins, as well as to study their interactions with other molecules. In some cases, peptide fragments may also have biological activity of their own and can be developed into drugs or diagnostic tools. For example, certain peptide fragments derived from hormones or neurotransmitters may bind to receptors in the body and mimic or block the effects of the full-length molecule.

Cell surface receptors, also known as membrane receptors, are proteins located on the cell membrane that bind to specific molecules outside the cell, known as ligands. These receptors play a crucial role in signal transduction, which is the process of converting an extracellular signal into an intracellular response.

Cell surface receptors can be classified into several categories based on their structure and mechanism of action, including:

1. Ion channel receptors: These receptors contain a pore that opens to allow ions to flow across the cell membrane when they bind to their ligands. This ion flux can directly activate or inhibit various cellular processes.
2. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): These receptors consist of seven transmembrane domains and are associated with heterotrimeric G proteins that modulate intracellular signaling pathways upon ligand binding.
3. Enzyme-linked receptors: These receptors possess an intrinsic enzymatic activity or are linked to an enzyme, which becomes activated when the receptor binds to its ligand. This activation can lead to the initiation of various signaling cascades within the cell.
4. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs): These receptors contain intracellular tyrosine kinase domains that become activated upon ligand binding, leading to the phosphorylation and activation of downstream signaling molecules.
5. Integrins: These receptors are transmembrane proteins that mediate cell-cell or cell-matrix interactions by binding to extracellular matrix proteins or counter-receptors on adjacent cells. They play essential roles in cell adhesion, migration, and survival.

Cell surface receptors are involved in various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, hormone signaling, immune response, and cell growth and differentiation. Dysregulation of these receptors can contribute to the development of numerous diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Burns are injuries to tissues caused by heat, electricity, chemicals, friction, or radiation. They are classified based on their severity:

1. First-degree burns (superficial burns) affect only the outer layer of skin (epidermis), causing redness, pain, and swelling.
2. Second-degree burns (partial-thickness burns) damage both the epidermis and the underlying layer of skin (dermis). They result in redness, pain, swelling, and blistering.
3. Third-degree burns (full-thickness burns) destroy the entire depth of the skin and can also damage underlying muscles, tendons, and bones. These burns appear white or blackened and charred, and they may be painless due to destroyed nerve endings.

Immediate medical attention is required for second-degree and third-degree burns, as well as for large area first-degree burns, to prevent infection, manage pain, and ensure proper healing. Treatment options include wound care, antibiotics, pain management, and possibly skin grafting or surgery in severe cases.

Anterior pituitary hormones are a group of six major hormones that are produced and released by the anterior portion (lobe) of the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various bodily functions and activities. The six main anterior pituitary hormones are:

1. Growth Hormone (GH): Also known as somatotropin, GH is essential for normal growth and development in children and adolescents. It helps regulate body composition, metabolism, and bone density in adults.
2. Prolactin (PRL): A hormone that stimulates milk production in females after childbirth and is also involved in various reproductive and immune functions in both sexes.
3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): FSH regulates the development, growth, and maturation of follicles in the ovaries (in females) and sperm production in the testes (in males).
4. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH plays a key role in triggering ovulation in females and stimulating testosterone production in males.
5. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH): TSH regulates the function of the thyroid gland, which is responsible for producing and releasing thyroid hormones that control metabolism and growth.
6. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, a steroid hormone involved in stress response, metabolism, and immune function.

These anterior pituitary hormones are regulated by the hypothalamus, which is located above the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus releases releasing and inhibiting factors that control the synthesis and secretion of anterior pituitary hormones, creating a complex feedback system to maintain homeostasis in the body.

Thyroxine (T4) is a type of hormone produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of your neck. It is one of two major hormones produced by the thyroid gland, with the other being triiodothyronine (T3).

Thyroxine plays a crucial role in regulating various metabolic processes in the body, including growth, development, and energy expenditure. Specifically, T4 helps to control the rate at which your body burns calories for energy, regulates protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism, and influences the body's sensitivity to other hormones.

T4 is produced by combining iodine and tyrosine, an amino acid found in many foods. Once produced, T4 circulates in the bloodstream and gets converted into its active form, T3, in various tissues throughout the body. Thyroxine has a longer half-life than T3, which means it remains active in the body for a more extended period.

Abnormal levels of thyroxine can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) or hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid). These conditions can cause a range of symptoms, including weight gain or loss, fatigue, mood changes, and changes in heart rate and blood pressure.

The placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during pregnancy and provides oxygen and nutrients to the growing baby through the umbilical cord. It also removes waste products from the baby's blood. The placenta attaches to the wall of the uterus, and the baby's side of the placenta contains many tiny blood vessels that connect to the baby's circulatory system. This allows for the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste between the mother's and baby's blood. After the baby is born, the placenta is usually expelled from the uterus in a process called afterbirth.

Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the release of several hormones and also has a role in slowing down digestion. It is produced by the body in various parts of the body, including the hypothalamus (a part of the brain), the pancreas, and the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin exists in two forms: somatostatin-14 and somatostatin-28, which differ in their length. Somatostatin-14 is the predominant form found in the brain, while somatostatin-28 is the major form found in the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin has a wide range of effects on various physiological processes, including:

* Inhibiting the release of several hormones such as growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, and gastrin
* Slowing down digestion by inhibiting the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and reducing blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract
* Regulating neurotransmission in the brain

Somatostatin is used clinically as a diagnostic tool for detecting certain types of tumors that overproduce growth hormone or other hormones, and it is also used as a treatment for some conditions such as acromegaly (a condition characterized by excessive growth hormone production) and gastrointestinal disorders.

Lactation is the process by which milk is produced and secreted from the mammary glands of female mammals, including humans, for the nourishment of their young. This physiological function is initiated during pregnancy and continues until it is deliberately stopped or weaned off. The primary purpose of lactation is to provide essential nutrients, antibodies, and other bioactive components that support the growth, development, and immune system of newborns and infants.

The process of lactation involves several hormonal and physiological changes in a woman's body. During pregnancy, the hormones estrogen and progesterone stimulate the growth and development of the mammary glands. After childbirth, the levels of these hormones drop significantly, allowing another hormone called prolactin to take over. Prolactin is responsible for triggering the production of milk in the alveoli, which are tiny sacs within the breast tissue.

Another hormone, oxytocin, plays a crucial role in the release or "let-down" of milk from the alveoli to the nipple during lactation. This reflex is initiated by suckling or thinking about the baby, which sends signals to the brain to release oxytocin. The released oxytocin then binds to receptors in the mammary glands, causing the smooth muscles around the alveoli to contract and push out the milk through the ducts and into the nipple.

Lactation is a complex and highly regulated process that ensures the optimal growth and development of newborns and infants. It provides not only essential nutrients but also various bioactive components, such as immunoglobulins, enzymes, and growth factors, which protect the infant from infections and support their immune system.

In summary, lactation is the physiological process by which milk is produced and secreted from the mammary glands of female mammals for the nourishment of their young. It involves hormonal changes, including the actions of prolactin, oxytocin, estrogen, and progesterone, to regulate the production, storage, and release of milk.

Mammary glands are specialized exocrine glands found in mammals, including humans and other animals. These glands are responsible for producing milk, which is used to nurse offspring after birth. The mammary glands are located in the breast region of female mammals and are usually rudimentary or absent in males.

In animals, mammary glands can vary in number and location depending on the species. For example, humans and other primates have two mammary glands, one in each breast. Cows, goats, and sheep, on the other hand, have multiple pairs of mammary glands located in their lower abdominal region.

Mammary glands are made up of several structures, including lobules, ducts, and connective tissue. The lobules contain clusters of milk-secreting cells called alveoli, which produce and store milk. The ducts transport the milk from the lobules to the nipple, where it is released during lactation.

Mammary glands are an essential feature of mammals, as they provide a source of nutrition for newborn offspring. They also play a role in the development and maintenance of the mother-infant bond, as nursing provides opportunities for physical contact and bonding between the mother and her young.

Carrier proteins, also known as transport proteins, are a type of protein that facilitates the movement of molecules across cell membranes. They are responsible for the selective and active transport of ions, sugars, amino acids, and other molecules from one side of the membrane to the other, against their concentration gradient. This process requires energy, usually in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).

Carrier proteins have a specific binding site for the molecule they transport, and undergo conformational changes upon binding, which allows them to move the molecule across the membrane. Once the molecule has been transported, the carrier protein returns to its original conformation, ready to bind and transport another molecule.

Carrier proteins play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of ions and other molecules inside and outside of cells, and are essential for many physiological processes, including nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, and nutrient uptake.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

Thyrotropin, also known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Its primary function is to regulate the production and release of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) hormones from the thyroid gland. Thyrotropin binds to receptors on the surface of thyroid follicular cells, stimulating the uptake of iodide and the synthesis and release of T4 and T3. The secretion of thyrotropin is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis: thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of thyrotropin, while T3 and T4 inhibit its release through a negative feedback mechanism.

A syringe is a medical device used to administer or withdraw fluids, typically liquids or gases. It consists of a narrow tube, usually made of plastic or glass, connected to a handle that contains a plunger. The plunger is used to draw fluid into the tube by creating a vacuum, and then to expel the fluid when pressure is applied to the plunger. Syringes come in various sizes and are used for a wide range of medical procedures, including injections, wound care, and specimen collection. They are an essential tool in the medical field and are used daily in hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare settings.

In the context of medicine, "needles" are thin, sharp, and typically hollow instruments used in various medical procedures to introduce or remove fluids from the body, administer medications, or perform diagnostic tests. They consist of a small-gauge metal tube with a sharp point on one end and a hub on the other, where a syringe is attached.

There are different types of needles, including:

1. Hypodermic needles: These are used for injections, such as intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC), or intravenous (IV) injections, to deliver medications directly into the body. They come in various sizes and lengths depending on the type of injection and the patient's age and weight.
2. Blood collection needles: These are used for drawing blood samples for diagnostic tests. They have a special vacuum-assisted design that allows them to easily penetrate veins and collect the required amount of blood.
3. Surgical needles: These are used in surgeries for suturing (stitching) wounds or tissues together. They are typically curved and made from stainless steel, with a triangular or reverse cutting point to facilitate easy penetration through tissues.
4. Acupuncture needles: These are thin, solid needles used in traditional Chinese medicine for acupuncture therapy. They are inserted into specific points on the body to stimulate energy flow and promote healing.

It is essential to follow proper infection control procedures when handling and disposing of needles to prevent the spread of bloodborne pathogens and infectious diseases.

Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins. It involves two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. This RNA copy, or messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosome. During translation, the mRNA is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The ribosome then links these amino acids together in the correct order to form a polypeptide chain, which may then fold into a functional protein. Protein biosynthesis is essential for the growth and maintenance of all living organisms.

An adenoma is a benign (noncancerous) tumor that develops from glandular epithelial cells. These types of cells are responsible for producing and releasing fluids, such as hormones or digestive enzymes, into the surrounding tissues. Adenomas can occur in various organs and glands throughout the body, including the thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, and digestive systems.

Depending on their location, adenomas may cause different symptoms or remain asymptomatic. Some common examples of adenomas include:

1. Colorectal adenoma (also known as a polyp): These growths occur in the lining of the colon or rectum and can develop into colorectal cancer if left untreated. Regular screenings, such as colonoscopies, are essential for early detection and removal of these polyps.
2. Thyroid adenoma: This type of adenoma affects the thyroid gland and may result in an overproduction or underproduction of hormones, leading to conditions like hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) or hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid).
3. Pituitary adenoma: These growths occur in the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain and controls various hormonal functions. Depending on their size and location, pituitary adenomas can cause vision problems, headaches, or hormonal imbalances that affect growth, reproduction, and metabolism.
4. Liver adenoma: These rare benign tumors develop in the liver and may not cause any symptoms unless they become large enough to press on surrounding organs or structures. In some cases, liver adenomas can rupture and cause internal bleeding.
5. Adrenal adenoma: These growths occur in the adrenal glands, which are located above the kidneys and produce hormones that regulate stress responses, metabolism, and blood pressure. Most adrenal adenomas are nonfunctioning, meaning they do not secrete excess hormones. However, functioning adrenal adenomas can lead to conditions like Cushing's syndrome or Conn's syndrome, depending on the type of hormone being overproduced.

It is essential to monitor and manage benign tumors like adenomas to prevent potential complications, such as rupture, bleeding, or hormonal imbalances. Treatment options may include surveillance with imaging studies, medication to manage hormonal issues, or surgical removal of the tumor in certain cases.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob syndrome (CJD) is a rare, degenerative, and fatal brain disorder. It is caused by an abnormal form of protein called prion that can cause normal proteins in the brain to fold into abnormal shapes and accumulate, leading to damage and death of brain cells.

The symptoms of CJD usually develop over a period of several months and include rapidly progressing dementia, memory loss, confusion, coordination problems, muscle stiffness, twitching, and shaking. Some people may also experience visual hallucinations, changes in personality, or depression.

There are three main types of CJD: sporadic, inherited, and acquired. Sporadic CJD is the most common form and accounts for about 85% of all cases. It occurs spontaneously with no known cause. Inherited CJD is caused by a genetic mutation that is passed down from parents to their children. Acquired CJD is caused by exposure to contaminated tissue or bodily fluids, such as through a medical procedure or eating contaminated beef (variant CJD).

There is no cure for Creutzfeldt-Jakob syndrome and it is fatal, usually within a year of onset of symptoms. Treatment focuses on managing the symptoms and making the patient as comfortable as possible.

Adipose tissue, also known as fatty tissue, is a type of connective tissue that is composed mainly of adipocytes (fat cells). It is found throughout the body, but is particularly abundant in the abdominal cavity, beneath the skin, and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.

Adipose tissue serves several important functions in the body. One of its primary roles is to store energy in the form of fat, which can be mobilized and used as an energy source during periods of fasting or exercise. Adipose tissue also provides insulation and cushioning for the body, and produces hormones that help regulate metabolism, appetite, and reproductive function.

There are two main types of adipose tissue: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). WAT is the more common form and is responsible for storing energy as fat. BAT, on the other hand, contains a higher number of mitochondria and is involved in heat production and energy expenditure.

Excessive accumulation of adipose tissue can lead to obesity, which is associated with an increased risk of various health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

Recombinant DNA is a term used in molecular biology to describe DNA that has been created by combining genetic material from more than one source. This is typically done through the use of laboratory techniques such as molecular cloning, in which fragments of DNA are inserted into vectors (such as plasmids or viruses) and then introduced into a host organism where they can replicate and produce many copies of the recombinant DNA molecule.

Recombinant DNA technology has numerous applications in research, medicine, and industry, including the production of recombinant proteins for use as therapeutics, the creation of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for agricultural or industrial purposes, and the development of new tools for genetic analysis and manipulation.

It's important to note that while recombinant DNA technology has many potential benefits, it also raises ethical and safety concerns, and its use is subject to regulation and oversight in many countries.

Cell division is the process by which a single eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) divides into two identical daughter cells. This complex process involves several stages, including replication of DNA, separation of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms. The stages of mitosis include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is a type of cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) during the production of gametes (sex cells). Meiosis results in four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. The stages of meiosis include meiosis I and meiosis II, which are further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

In summary, cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two daughter cells, either through mitosis or meiosis. This process is critical for growth, development, tissue repair, and sexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.

Estradiol is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It is the most potent and dominant form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and regulation of the menstrual cycle. It also helps maintain bone density, protect the lining of the uterus, and is involved in cognition and mood regulation.

Estradiol is produced primarily by the ovaries, but it can also be synthesized in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estradiol is produced from testosterone through a process called aromatization. Abnormal levels of estradiol can contribute to various health issues, such as hormonal imbalances, infertility, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Restriction mapping is a technique used in molecular biology to identify the location and arrangement of specific restriction endonuclease recognition sites within a DNA molecule. Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut double-stranded DNA at specific sequences, producing fragments of various lengths. By digesting the DNA with different combinations of these enzymes and analyzing the resulting fragment sizes through techniques such as agarose gel electrophoresis, researchers can generate a restriction map - a visual representation of the locations and distances between recognition sites on the DNA molecule. This information is crucial for various applications, including cloning, genome analysis, and genetic engineering.

Phosphorus is an essential mineral that is required by every cell in the body for normal functioning. It is a key component of several important biomolecules, including adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the primary source of energy for cells, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which are the genetic materials in cells.

Phosphorus is also a major constituent of bones and teeth, where it combines with calcium to provide strength and structure. In addition, phosphorus plays a critical role in various metabolic processes, including energy production, nerve impulse transmission, and pH regulation.

The medical definition of phosphorus refers to the chemical element with the atomic number 15 and the symbol P. It is a highly reactive non-metal that exists in several forms, including white phosphorus, red phosphorus, and black phosphorus. In the body, phosphorus is primarily found in the form of organic compounds, such as phospholipids, phosphoproteins, and nucleic acids.

Abnormal levels of phosphorus in the body can lead to various health problems. For example, high levels of phosphorus (hyperphosphatemia) can occur in patients with kidney disease or those who consume large amounts of phosphorus-rich foods, and can contribute to the development of calcification of soft tissues and cardiovascular disease. On the other hand, low levels of phosphorus (hypophosphatemia) can occur in patients with malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or alcoholism, and can lead to muscle weakness, bone pain, and an increased risk of infection.

A growth plate, also known as an epiphyseal plate or physis, is a layer of cartilaginous tissue found near the ends of long bones in children and adolescents. This region is responsible for the longitudinal growth of bones during development. The growth plate contains actively dividing cells that differentiate into chondrocytes, which produce and deposit new matrix, leading to bone elongation. Once growth is complete, usually in late adolescence or early adulthood, the growth plates ossify (harden) and are replaced by solid bone, transforming into the epiphyseal line.

Testosterone is a steroid hormone that belongs to androsten class of hormones. It is primarily secreted by the Leydig cells in the testes of males and, to a lesser extent, by the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. Testosterone is the main male sex hormone and anabolic steroid. It plays a key role in the development of masculine characteristics, such as body hair and muscle mass, and contributes to bone density, fat distribution, red cell production, and sex drive. In females, testosterone contributes to sexual desire and bone health. Testosterone is synthesized from cholesterol and its production is regulated by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

Recombinant fusion proteins are artificially created biomolecules that combine the functional domains or properties of two or more different proteins into a single protein entity. They are generated through recombinant DNA technology, where the genes encoding the desired protein domains are linked together and expressed as a single, chimeric gene in a host organism, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells.

The resulting fusion protein retains the functional properties of its individual constituent proteins, allowing for novel applications in research, diagnostics, and therapeutics. For instance, recombinant fusion proteins can be designed to enhance protein stability, solubility, or immunogenicity, making them valuable tools for studying protein-protein interactions, developing targeted therapies, or generating vaccines against infectious diseases or cancer.

Examples of recombinant fusion proteins include:

1. Etaglunatide (ABT-523): A soluble Fc fusion protein that combines the heavy chain fragment crystallizable region (Fc) of an immunoglobulin with the extracellular domain of the human interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R). This fusion protein functions as a decoy receptor, neutralizing IL-6 and its downstream signaling pathways in rheumatoid arthritis.
2. Etanercept (Enbrel): A soluble TNF receptor p75 Fc fusion protein that binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inhibits its proinflammatory activity, making it a valuable therapeutic option for treating autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriasis.
3. Abatacept (Orencia): A fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) linked to the Fc region of an immunoglobulin, which downregulates T-cell activation and proliferation in autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Belimumab (Benlysta): A monoclonal antibody that targets B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) protein, preventing its interaction with the B-cell surface receptor and inhibiting B-cell activation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
5. Romiplostim (Nplate): A fusion protein consisting of a thrombopoietin receptor agonist peptide linked to an immunoglobulin Fc region, which stimulates platelet production in patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP).
6. Darbepoetin alfa (Aranesp): A hyperglycosylated erythropoiesis-stimulating protein that functions as a longer-acting form of recombinant human erythropoietin, used to treat anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease or cancer.
7. Palivizumab (Synagis): A monoclonal antibody directed against the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which prevents RSV infection and is administered prophylactically to high-risk infants during the RSV season.
8. Ranibizumab (Lucentis): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody fragment that binds and inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), used in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and other ocular disorders.
9. Cetuximab (Erbitux): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), used in the treatment of colorectal cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
10. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully humanized monoclonal antibody that targets tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn's disease.
11. Bevacizumab (Avastin): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to VEGF-A, used in the treatment of various cancers, including colorectal, lung, breast, and kidney cancer.
12. Trastuzumab (Herceptin): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets HER2/neu receptor, used in the treatment of breast cancer.
13. Rituximab (Rituxan): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to CD20 antigen on B cells, used in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and rheumatoid arthritis.
14. Palivizumab (Synagis): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus, used in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.
15. Infliximab (Remicade): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
16. Natalizumab (Tysabri): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to α4β1 integrin, used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and Crohn's disease.
17. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis.
18. Golimumab (Simponi): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and ulcerative colitis.
19. Certolizumab pegol (Cimzia): A PEGylated Fab' fragment of a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and Crohn's disease.
20. Ustekinumab (Stelara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-12 and IL-23, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and Crohn's disease.
21. Secukinumab (Cosentyx): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
22. Ixekizumab (Taltz): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.
23. Brodalumab (Siliq): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17 receptor A, used in the treatment of psoriasis.
24. Sarilumab (Kevzara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
25. Tocilizumab (Actemra): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis, giant cell arteritis, and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-induced cytokine release syndrome.
26. Siltuximab (Sylvant): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment of multicentric Castleman disease.
27. Satralizumab (Enspryng): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6 receptor alpha, used in the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.
28. Sirukumab (Plivensia): A human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment

"Competitive binding" is a term used in pharmacology and biochemistry to describe the behavior of two or more molecules (ligands) competing for the same binding site on a target protein or receptor. In this context, "binding" refers to the physical interaction between a ligand and its target.

When a ligand binds to a receptor, it can alter the receptor's function, either activating or inhibiting it. If multiple ligands compete for the same binding site, they will compete to bind to the receptor. The ability of each ligand to bind to the receptor is influenced by its affinity for the receptor, which is a measure of how strongly and specifically the ligand binds to the receptor.

In competitive binding, if one ligand is present in high concentrations, it can prevent other ligands with lower affinity from binding to the receptor. This is because the higher-affinity ligand will have a greater probability of occupying the binding site and blocking access to the other ligands. The competition between ligands can be described mathematically using equations such as the Langmuir isotherm, which describes the relationship between the concentration of ligand and the fraction of receptors that are occupied by the ligand.

Competitive binding is an important concept in drug development, as it can be used to predict how different drugs will interact with their targets and how they may affect each other's activity. By understanding the competitive binding properties of a drug, researchers can optimize its dosage and delivery to maximize its therapeutic effect while minimizing unwanted side effects.

Metallothioneins (MTs) are a group of small, cysteine-rich, metal-binding proteins found in the cells of many organisms, including humans. They play important roles in various biological processes such as:

1. Metal homeostasis and detoxification: MTs can bind to various heavy metals like zinc, copper, cadmium, and mercury with high affinity. This binding helps regulate the concentration of these metals within cells and protects against metal toxicity.
2. Oxidative stress protection: Due to their high cysteine content, MTs act as antioxidants by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals, thus protecting cells from oxidative damage.
3. Immune response regulation: MTs are involved in the modulation of immune cell function and inflammatory responses. They can influence the activation and proliferation of immune cells, as well as the production of cytokines and chemokines.
4. Development and differentiation: MTs have been implicated in cell growth, differentiation, and embryonic development, particularly in tissues with high rates of metal turnover, such as the liver and kidneys.
5. Neuroprotection: In the brain, MTs play a role in protecting neurons from oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, and heavy metal toxicity. They have been implicated in various neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

There are four main isoforms of metallothioneins (MT-1, MT-2, MT-3, and MT-4) in humans, each with distinct tissue expression patterns and functions.

Organ specificity, in the context of immunology and toxicology, refers to the phenomenon where a substance (such as a drug or toxin) or an immune response primarily affects certain organs or tissues in the body. This can occur due to various reasons such as:

1. The presence of specific targets (like antigens in the case of an immune response or receptors in the case of drugs) that are more abundant in these organs.
2. The unique properties of certain cells or tissues that make them more susceptible to damage.
3. The way a substance is metabolized or cleared from the body, which can concentrate it in specific organs.

For example, in autoimmune diseases, organ specificity describes immune responses that are directed against antigens found only in certain organs, such as the thyroid gland in Hashimoto's disease. Similarly, some toxins or drugs may have a particular affinity for liver cells, leading to liver damage or specific drug interactions.

Deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) is an enzyme that cleaves the phosphodiester bonds in the DNA molecule, breaking it down into smaller pieces. It is also known as DNase A or bovine pancreatic deoxyribonuclease. This enzyme specifically hydrolyzes the internucleotide linkages of DNA by cleaving the phosphodiester bond between the 3'-hydroxyl group of one deoxyribose sugar and the phosphate group of another, leaving 3'-phosphomononucleotides as products.

DNase I plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including DNA degradation during apoptosis (programmed cell death), DNA repair, and host defense against pathogens by breaking down extracellular DNA from invading microorganisms or damaged cells. It is widely used in molecular biology research for applications such as DNA isolation, removing contaminating DNA from RNA samples, and generating defined DNA fragments for cloning purposes. DNase I can be found in various sources, including bovine pancreas, human tears, and bacterial cultures.

Molecular weight, also known as molecular mass, is the mass of a molecule. It is expressed in units of atomic mass units (amu) or daltons (Da). Molecular weight is calculated by adding up the atomic weights of each atom in a molecule. It is a useful property in chemistry and biology, as it can be used to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution, or to calculate the amount of a substance that will react with another in a chemical reaction.

Somatotrophs are a type of cell found within the anterior pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. These cells are responsible for producing and secreting the hormone known as somatotropin or growth hormone (GH). This hormone plays a crucial role in regulating growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration. It also helps to regulate the body's metabolism and maintain proper body composition by promoting the breakdown of fats and the synthesis of proteins. Disorders related to somatotrophs can lead to conditions such as gigantism or dwarfism, depending on whether there is an overproduction or underproduction of growth hormone.

A genetic vector is a vehicle, often a plasmid or a virus, that is used to introduce foreign DNA into a host cell as part of genetic engineering or gene therapy techniques. The vector contains the desired gene or genes, along with regulatory elements such as promoters and enhancers, which are needed for the expression of the gene in the target cells.

The choice of vector depends on several factors, including the size of the DNA to be inserted, the type of cell to be targeted, and the efficiency of uptake and expression required. Commonly used vectors include plasmids, adenoviruses, retroviruses, and lentiviruses.

Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently in bacteria. They are often used as cloning vectors to amplify and manipulate DNA fragments. Adenoviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a wide range of host cells, including human cells. They are commonly used as gene therapy vectors because they can efficiently transfer genes into both dividing and non-dividing cells.

Retroviruses and lentiviruses are RNA viruses that integrate their genetic material into the host cell's genome. This allows for stable expression of the transgene over time. Lentiviruses, a subclass of retroviruses, have the advantage of being able to infect non-dividing cells, making them useful for gene therapy applications in post-mitotic tissues such as neurons and muscle cells.

Overall, genetic vectors play a crucial role in modern molecular biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study gene function, develop new therapies, and modify organisms for various purposes.

Neuropeptide receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to neuropeptides, which are small signaling molecules made up of short chains of amino acids. These receptors play an important role in the nervous system by mediating the effects of neuropeptides on various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, pain perception, and hormone release.

Neuropeptide receptors are typically composed of seven transmembrane domains and are classified into several families based on their structure and function. Some examples of neuropeptide receptor families include the opioid receptors, somatostatin receptors, and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) receptors.

When a neuropeptide binds to its specific receptor, it activates a signaling pathway within the cell that leads to various cellular responses. These responses can include changes in gene expression, ion channel activity, and enzyme function. Overall, the activation of neuropeptide receptors helps to regulate many important functions in the body, including mood, appetite, and pain sensation.

Nutrition disorders refer to conditions that result from eating, drinking, or absorbing nutrients in a way that is not consistent with human physiological needs. These disorders can manifest as both undernutrition and overnutrition. Undernutrition includes disorders such as protein-energy malnutrition, vitamin deficiencies, and mineral deficiencies, while overnutrition includes conditions such as obesity and diet-related noncommunicable diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain types of cancer.

Malnutrition is the broad term used to describe a state in which a person's nutrient intake is insufficient or excessive, leading to negative consequences for their health. Malnutrition can be caused by a variety of factors, including poverty, food insecurity, lack of education, cultural practices, and chronic diseases.

In addition to under- and overnutrition, disordered eating patterns such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and other specified feeding or eating disorders can also be considered nutrition disorders. These conditions are characterized by abnormal eating habits that can lead to serious health consequences, including malnutrition, organ damage, and mental health problems.

Overall, nutrition disorders are complex conditions that can have significant impacts on a person's physical and mental health. They require careful assessment, diagnosis, and treatment by healthcare professionals with expertise in nutrition and dietetics.

Estrone is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It's one of the three major naturally occurring estrogens in women, along with estradiol and estriol. Estrone is weaker than estradiol but has a longer half-life, meaning it remains active in the body for a longer period of time.

Estrone is produced primarily in the ovaries, adrenal glands, and fat tissue. In postmenopausal women, when the ovaries stop producing estradiol, estrone becomes the dominant form of estrogen. It plays a role in maintaining bone density, regulating the menstrual cycle, and supporting the development and maintenance of female sexual characteristics.

Like other forms of estrogen, estrone can also have effects on various tissues throughout the body, including the brain, heart, and breast tissue. Abnormal levels of estrone, either too high or too low, can contribute to a variety of health issues, such as osteoporosis, menstrual irregularities, and increased risk of certain types of cancer.

Juvenile hormones (JHs) are a class of sesquiterpenoid compounds that play a crucial role in the regulation of insect development, reproduction, and other physiological processes. They are primarily produced by the corpora allata, a pair of endocrine glands located in the head of insects.

JHs are essential for maintaining the larval or nymphal stage of insects, preventing the expression of adult characteristics during molting. As the concentration of JH decreases in the hemolymph (insect blood), a molt to the next developmental stage occurs, and if the insect has reached its final instar, it will metamorphose into an adult.

In addition to their role in development, JHs also influence various aspects of insect reproductive physiology, such as vitellogenesis (yolk protein synthesis), oocyte maturation, and spermatogenesis. Furthermore, JHs have been implicated in regulating diapause (a period of suspended development during unfavorable environmental conditions) and caste determination in social insects like bees and ants.

Overall, juvenile hormones are vital regulators of growth, development, and reproduction in insects, making them attractive targets for the development of novel pest management strategies.

DNA restriction enzymes, also known as restriction endonucleases, are a type of enzyme that cut double-stranded DNA at specific recognition sites. These enzymes are produced by bacteria and archaea as a defense mechanism against foreign DNA, such as that found in bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria).

Restriction enzymes recognize specific sequences of nucleotides (the building blocks of DNA) and cleave the phosphodiester bonds between them. The recognition sites for these enzymes are usually palindromic, meaning that the sequence reads the same in both directions when facing the opposite strands of DNA.

Restriction enzymes are widely used in molecular biology research for various applications such as genetic engineering, genome mapping, and DNA fingerprinting. They allow scientists to cut DNA at specific sites, creating precise fragments that can be manipulated and analyzed. The use of restriction enzymes has been instrumental in the development of recombinant DNA technology and the Human Genome Project.

Oligodeoxyribonucleotides (ODNs) are relatively short, synthetic single-stranded DNA molecules. They typically contain 15 to 30 nucleotides, but can range from 2 to several hundred nucleotides in length. ODNs are often used as tools in molecular biology research for various applications such as:

1. Nucleic acid detection and quantification (e.g., real-time PCR)
2. Gene regulation (antisense, RNA interference)
3. Gene editing (CRISPR-Cas systems)
4. Vaccine development
5. Diagnostic purposes

Due to their specificity and affinity towards complementary DNA or RNA sequences, ODNs can be designed to target a particular gene or sequence of interest. This makes them valuable tools in understanding gene function, regulation, and interaction with other molecules within the cell.

Parenteral nutrition (PN) is a medical term used to describe the delivery of nutrients directly into a patient's bloodstream through a vein, bypassing the gastrointestinal tract. It is a specialized medical treatment that is typically used when a patient cannot receive adequate nutrition through enteral feeding, which involves the ingestion and digestion of food through the mouth or a feeding tube.

PN can be used to provide essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and electrolytes to patients who have conditions that prevent them from absorbing nutrients through their gut, such as severe gastrointestinal tract disorders, malabsorption syndromes, or short bowel syndrome.

PN is administered through a catheter that is inserted into a vein, typically in the chest or arm. The nutrient solution is prepared under sterile conditions and delivered through an infusion pump to ensure accurate and controlled delivery of the solution.

While PN can be a life-saving intervention for some patients, it also carries risks such as infection, inflammation, and organ damage. Therefore, it should only be prescribed and administered by healthcare professionals with specialized training in this area.

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) is a tripeptide hormone that is produced and released by the hypothalamus in the brain. Its main function is to regulate the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland. TRH acts on the pituitary gland to stimulate the synthesis and secretion of TSH, which then stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)) into the bloodstream.

TRH is a tripeptide amino acid sequence with the structure of pGlu-His-Pro-NH2, and it is synthesized as a larger precursor molecule called preprothyrotropin-releasing hormone (preproTRH) in the hypothalamus. PreproTRH undergoes post-translational processing to produce TRH, which is then stored in secretory vesicles and released into the hypophyseal portal system, where it travels to the anterior pituitary gland and binds to TRH receptors on thyrotroph cells.

In addition to its role in regulating TSH release, TRH has been shown to have other physiological functions, including modulation of feeding behavior, body temperature, and neurotransmitter release. Dysregulation of the TRH-TSH axis can lead to various thyroid disorders, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.

Genetically modified animals (GMAs) are those whose genetic makeup has been altered using biotechnological techniques. This is typically done by introducing one or more genes from another species into the animal's genome, resulting in a new trait or characteristic that does not naturally occur in that species. The introduced gene is often referred to as a transgene.

The process of creating GMAs involves several steps:

1. Isolation: The desired gene is isolated from the DNA of another organism.
2. Transfer: The isolated gene is transferred into the target animal's cells, usually using a vector such as a virus or bacterium.
3. Integration: The transgene integrates into the animal's chromosome, becoming a permanent part of its genetic makeup.
4. Selection: The modified cells are allowed to multiply, and those that contain the transgene are selected for further growth and development.
5. Breeding: The genetically modified individuals are bred to produce offspring that carry the desired trait.

GMAs have various applications in research, agriculture, and medicine. In research, they can serve as models for studying human diseases or testing new therapies. In agriculture, GMAs can be developed to exhibit enhanced growth rates, improved disease resistance, or increased nutritional value. In medicine, GMAs may be used to produce pharmaceuticals or other therapeutic agents within their bodies.

Examples of genetically modified animals include mice with added genes for specific proteins that make them useful models for studying human diseases, goats that produce a human protein in their milk to treat hemophilia, and pigs with enhanced resistance to certain viruses that could potentially be used as organ donors for humans.

It is important to note that the use of genetically modified animals raises ethical concerns related to animal welfare, environmental impact, and potential risks to human health. These issues must be carefully considered and addressed when developing and implementing GMA technologies.

Experimental liver cirrhosis refers to a controlled research setting where various factors and substances are intentionally introduced to induce liver cirrhosis in animals or cell cultures. The purpose is to study the mechanisms, progression, potential treatments, and prevention strategies for liver cirrhosis. This could involve administering chemicals, drugs, alcohol, viruses, or manipulating genes associated with liver damage and fibrosis. It's important to note that results from experimental models may not directly translate to human conditions, but they can provide valuable insights into disease pathophysiology and therapeutic development.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

I apologize, but "sheep" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is a common animal with the scientific name Ovis aries. If you have any medical or health-related questions, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Aging is a complex, progressive and inevitable process of bodily changes over time, characterized by the accumulation of cellular damage and degenerative changes that eventually lead to increased vulnerability to disease and death. It involves various biological, genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that contribute to the decline in physical and mental functions. The medical field studies aging through the discipline of gerontology, which aims to understand the underlying mechanisms of aging and develop interventions to promote healthy aging and extend the human healthspan.

Northern blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and analyze specific RNA molecules (such as mRNA) in a mixture of total RNA extracted from cells or tissues. This technique is called "Northern" blotting because it is analogous to the Southern blotting method, which is used for DNA detection.

The Northern blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Electrophoresis: The total RNA mixture is first separated based on size by running it through an agarose gel using electrical current. This separates the RNA molecules according to their length, with smaller RNA fragments migrating faster than larger ones.

2. Transfer: After electrophoresis, the RNA bands are denatured (made single-stranded) and transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane using a technique called capillary transfer or vacuum blotting. This step ensures that the order and relative positions of the RNA fragments are preserved on the membrane, similar to how they appear in the gel.

3. Cross-linking: The RNA is then chemically cross-linked to the membrane using UV light or heat treatment, which helps to immobilize the RNA onto the membrane and prevent it from washing off during subsequent steps.

4. Prehybridization: Before adding the labeled probe, the membrane is prehybridized in a solution containing blocking agents (such as salmon sperm DNA or yeast tRNA) to minimize non-specific binding of the probe to the membrane.

5. Hybridization: A labeled nucleic acid probe, specific to the RNA of interest, is added to the prehybridization solution and allowed to hybridize (form base pairs) with its complementary RNA sequence on the membrane. The probe can be either a DNA or an RNA molecule, and it is typically labeled with a radioactive isotope (such as ³²P) or a non-radioactive label (such as digoxigenin).

6. Washing: After hybridization, the membrane is washed to remove unbound probe and reduce background noise. The washing conditions (temperature, salt concentration, and detergent concentration) are optimized based on the stringency required for specific hybridization.

7. Detection: The presence of the labeled probe is then detected using an appropriate method, depending on the type of label used. For radioactive probes, this typically involves exposing the membrane to X-ray film or a phosphorimager screen and analyzing the resulting image. For non-radioactive probes, detection can be performed using colorimetric, chemiluminescent, or fluorescent methods.

8. Data analysis: The intensity of the signal is quantified and compared to controls (such as housekeeping genes) to determine the relative expression level of the RNA of interest. This information can be used for various purposes, such as identifying differentially expressed genes in response to a specific treatment or comparing gene expression levels across different samples or conditions.

Fatty acid-binding proteins (FABPs) are a group of small intracellular proteins that play a crucial role in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids within cells. They are responsible for binding long-chain fatty acids, which are hydrophobic molecules, and facilitating their movement across the cell while protecting the cells from lipotoxicity.

FABPs are expressed in various tissues, including the heart, liver, muscle, and brain, with different isoforms found in specific organs. These proteins have a high affinity for long-chain fatty acids and can regulate their intracellular concentration by controlling the uptake, storage, and metabolism of these molecules.

FABPs also play a role in modulating cell signaling pathways that are involved in various physiological processes such as inflammation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of FABP expression and function has been implicated in several diseases, including diabetes, obesity, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

In summary, fatty acid-binding proteins are essential intracellular proteins that facilitate the transport and metabolism of long-chain fatty acids while regulating cell signaling pathways.

'Tumor cells, cultured' refers to the process of removing cancerous cells from a tumor and growing them in controlled laboratory conditions. This is typically done by isolating the tumor cells from a patient's tissue sample, then placing them in a nutrient-rich environment that promotes their growth and multiplication.

The resulting cultured tumor cells can be used for various research purposes, including the study of cancer biology, drug development, and toxicity testing. They provide a valuable tool for researchers to better understand the behavior and characteristics of cancer cells outside of the human body, which can lead to the development of more effective cancer treatments.

It is important to note that cultured tumor cells may not always behave exactly the same way as they do in the human body, so findings from cell culture studies must be validated through further research, such as animal models or clinical trials.

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) is a hormone that is produced and released by the hypothalamus, a small gland located in the brain. CRH plays a critical role in the body's stress response system.

When the body experiences stress, the hypothalamus releases CRH, which then travels to the pituitary gland, another small gland located at the base of the brain. Once there, CRH stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland.

ACTH then travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal glands, which are located on top of the kidneys. ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to produce and release cortisol, a hormone that helps the body respond to stress by regulating metabolism, immune function, and blood pressure, among other things.

Overall, CRH is an important part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which regulates many bodily functions related to stress response, mood, and cognition. Dysregulation of the HPA axis and abnormal levels of CRH have been implicated in various psychiatric and medical conditions, including depression, anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and Cushing's syndrome.

Guanidine is not typically defined in the context of medical terminology, but rather, it is a chemical compound with the formula NH2(C=NH)NH2. However, guanidine and its derivatives do have medical relevance:

1. Guanidine is used as a medication in some neurological disorders, such as stiff-person syndrome, to reduce muscle spasms and rigidity. It acts on the central nervous system to decrease abnormal nerve impulses that cause muscle spasticity.

2. Guanidine derivatives are found in various medications used for treating diabetes, like metformin. These compounds help lower glucose production in the liver and improve insulin sensitivity in muscle cells.

3. In some cases, guanidine is used as a skin penetration enhancer in transdermal drug delivery systems to increase the absorption of certain medications through the skin.

It is essential to note that guanidine itself has limited medical use due to its potential toxicity and narrow therapeutic window. Its derivatives, like metformin, are more commonly used in medical practice.

Protein conformation refers to the specific three-dimensional shape that a protein molecule assumes due to the spatial arrangement of its constituent amino acid residues and their associated chemical groups. This complex structure is determined by several factors, including covalent bonds (disulfide bridges), hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and ionic bonds, which help stabilize the protein's unique conformation.

Protein conformations can be broadly classified into two categories: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures. The primary structure represents the linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. The secondary structure arises from local interactions between adjacent amino acid residues, leading to the formation of recurring motifs such as α-helices and β-sheets. Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional folding pattern of a single polypeptide chain, while quaternary structure describes the spatial arrangement of multiple folded polypeptide chains (subunits) that interact to form a functional protein complex.

Understanding protein conformation is crucial for elucidating protein function, as the specific three-dimensional shape of a protein directly influences its ability to interact with other molecules, such as ligands, nucleic acids, or other proteins. Any alterations in protein conformation due to genetic mutations, environmental factors, or chemical modifications can lead to loss of function, misfolding, aggregation, and disease states like neurodegenerative disorders and cancer.

Proteins are complex, large molecules that play critical roles in the body's functions. They are made up of amino acids, which are organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are required for the structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs. They are essential for the growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues, and they play a crucial role in many biological processes, including metabolism, immune response, and cellular signaling. Proteins can be classified into different types based on their structure and function, such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and structural proteins. They are found in various foods, especially animal-derived products like meat, dairy, and eggs, as well as plant-based sources like beans, nuts, and grains.

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

Chronic kidney failure, also known as chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 5 or end-stage renal disease (ESRD), is a permanent loss of kidney function that occurs gradually over a period of months to years. It is defined as a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of less than 15 ml/min, which means the kidneys are filtering waste and excess fluids at less than 15% of their normal capacity.

CKD can be caused by various underlying conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disease, and recurrent kidney infections. Over time, the damage to the kidneys can lead to a buildup of waste products and fluids in the body, which can cause a range of symptoms including fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, and confusion.

Treatment for chronic kidney failure typically involves managing the underlying condition, making lifestyle changes such as following a healthy diet, and receiving supportive care such as dialysis or a kidney transplant to replace lost kidney function.

The double-blind method is a study design commonly used in research, including clinical trials, to minimize bias and ensure the objectivity of results. In this approach, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group the participants are assigned to, whether it be the experimental group or the control group. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or placebo, thus reducing the potential for bias in the evaluation of outcomes. The assignment of participants to groups is typically done by a third party not involved in the study, and the codes are only revealed after all data have been collected and analyzed.

A radioligand assay is a type of in vitro binding assay used in molecular biology and pharmacology to measure the affinity and quantity of a ligand (such as a drug or hormone) to its specific receptor. In this technique, a small amount of a radioactively labeled ligand, also known as a radioligand, is introduced to a sample containing the receptor of interest. The radioligand binds competitively with other unlabeled ligands present in the sample for the same binding site on the receptor. After allowing sufficient time for binding, the reaction is stopped, and the amount of bound radioligand is measured using a technique such as scintillation counting. The data obtained from this assay can be used to determine the dissociation constant (Kd) and maximum binding capacity (Bmax) of the receptor-ligand interaction, which are important parameters in understanding the pharmacological properties of drugs and other ligands.

Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.

The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.

It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.

Regulatory sequences in nucleic acid refer to specific DNA or RNA segments that control the spatial and temporal expression of genes without encoding proteins. They are crucial for the proper functioning of cells as they regulate various cellular processes such as transcription, translation, mRNA stability, and localization. Regulatory sequences can be found in both coding and non-coding regions of DNA or RNA.

Some common types of regulatory sequences in nucleic acid include:

1. Promoters: DNA sequences typically located upstream of the gene that provide a binding site for RNA polymerase and transcription factors to initiate transcription.
2. Enhancers: DNA sequences, often located at a distance from the gene, that enhance transcription by binding to specific transcription factors and increasing the recruitment of RNA polymerase.
3. Silencers: DNA sequences that repress transcription by binding to specific proteins that inhibit the recruitment of RNA polymerase or promote chromatin compaction.
4. Intron splice sites: Specific nucleotide sequences within introns (non-coding regions) that mark the boundaries between exons (coding regions) and are essential for correct splicing of pre-mRNA.
5. 5' untranslated regions (UTRs): Regions located at the 5' end of an mRNA molecule that contain regulatory elements affecting translation efficiency, stability, and localization.
6. 3' untranslated regions (UTRs): Regions located at the 3' end of an mRNA molecule that contain regulatory elements influencing translation termination, stability, and localization.
7. miRNA target sites: Specific sequences in mRNAs that bind to microRNAs (miRNAs) leading to translational repression or degradation of the target mRNA.

Milk proteins are a complex mixture of proteins that are naturally present in milk, consisting of casein and whey proteins. Casein makes up about 80% of the total milk protein and is divided into several types including alpha-, beta-, gamma- and kappa-casein. Whey proteins account for the remaining 20% and include beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin, and immunoglobulins. These proteins are important sources of essential amino acids and play a crucial role in the nutrition of infants and young children. Additionally, milk proteins have various functional properties that are widely used in the food industry for their gelling, emulsifying, and foaming abilities.

Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins. They consist of a central carbon atom, also known as the alpha carbon, which is bonded to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a variable side chain (R group). The R group can be composed of various combinations of atoms such as hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and carbon, which determine the unique properties of each amino acid.

There are 20 standard amino acids that are encoded by the genetic code and incorporated into proteins during translation. These include:

1. Alanine (Ala)
2. Arginine (Arg)
3. Asparagine (Asn)
4. Aspartic acid (Asp)
5. Cysteine (Cys)
6. Glutamine (Gln)
7. Glutamic acid (Glu)
8. Glycine (Gly)
9. Histidine (His)
10. Isoleucine (Ile)
11. Leucine (Leu)
12. Lysine (Lys)
13. Methionine (Met)
14. Phenylalanine (Phe)
15. Proline (Pro)
16. Serine (Ser)
17. Threonine (Thr)
18. Tryptophan (Trp)
19. Tyrosine (Tyr)
20. Valine (Val)

Additionally, there are several non-standard or modified amino acids that can be incorporated into proteins through post-translational modifications, such as hydroxylation, methylation, and phosphorylation. These modifications expand the functional diversity of proteins and play crucial roles in various cellular processes.

Amino acids are essential for numerous biological functions, including protein synthesis, enzyme catalysis, neurotransmitter production, energy metabolism, and immune response regulation. Some amino acids can be synthesized by the human body (non-essential), while others must be obtained through dietary sources (essential).

Progesterone is a steroid hormone that is primarily produced in the ovaries during the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy. It plays an essential role in preparing the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and maintaining the early stages of pregnancy. Progesterone works to thicken the lining of the uterus, creating a nurturing environment for the developing embryo.

During the menstrual cycle, progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, a temporary structure formed in the ovary after an egg has been released from a follicle during ovulation. If pregnancy does not occur, the levels of progesterone will decrease, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining and menstruation.

In addition to its reproductive functions, progesterone also has various other effects on the body, such as helping to regulate the immune system, supporting bone health, and potentially influencing mood and cognition. Progesterone can be administered medically in the form of oral pills, intramuscular injections, or vaginal suppositories for various purposes, including hormone replacement therapy, contraception, and managing certain gynecological conditions.

Pancreatic hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by the pancreas, a gland located in the abdomen. The two main types of pancreatic hormones are insulin and glucagon, which are released by specialized cells called islets of Langerhans.

Insulin is produced by beta cells and helps regulate blood sugar levels by allowing cells in the body to take in sugar (glucose) from the bloodstream. It also helps the body store excess glucose in the liver for later use.

Glucagon is produced by alpha cells and has the opposite effect of insulin. When blood sugar levels are low, glucagon stimulates the release of stored glucose from the liver to raise blood sugar levels.

Together, insulin and glucagon help maintain balanced blood sugar levels and are essential for the proper functioning of the body's metabolism. Other hormones produced by the pancreas include somatostatin, which regulates the release of insulin and glucagon, and gastrin, which stimulates the production of digestive enzymes in the stomach.

Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.

In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.

Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Alanine is an alpha-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. The molecular formula for alanine is C3H7NO2. It is a non-essential amino acid, which means that it can be produced by the human body through the conversion of other nutrients, such as pyruvate, and does not need to be obtained directly from the diet.

Alanine is classified as an aliphatic amino acid because it contains a simple carbon side chain. It is also a non-polar amino acid, which means that it is hydrophobic and tends to repel water. Alanine plays a role in the metabolism of glucose and helps to regulate blood sugar levels. It is also involved in the transfer of nitrogen between tissues and helps to maintain the balance of nitrogen in the body.

In addition to its role as a building block of proteins, alanine is also used as a neurotransmitter in the brain and has been shown to have a calming effect on the nervous system. It is found in many foods, including meats, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy products, and legumes.

Sequence homology in nucleic acids refers to the similarity or identity between the nucleotide sequences of two or more DNA or RNA molecules. It is often used as a measure of biological relationship between genes, organisms, or populations. High sequence homology suggests a recent common ancestry or functional constraint, while low sequence homology may indicate a more distant relationship or different functions.

Nucleic acid sequence homology can be determined by various methods such as pairwise alignment, multiple sequence alignment, and statistical analysis. The degree of homology is typically expressed as a percentage of identical or similar nucleotides in a given window of comparison.

It's important to note that the interpretation of sequence homology depends on the biological context and the evolutionary distance between the sequences compared. Therefore, functional and experimental validation is often necessary to confirm the significance of sequence homology.

RNA splicing is a post-transcriptional modification process in which the non-coding sequences (introns) are removed and the coding sequences (exons) are joined together in a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. This results in a continuous mRNA sequence that can be translated into a single protein. Alternative splicing, where different combinations of exons are included or excluded, allows for the creation of multiple proteins from a single gene.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular biology technique used to introduce specific and targeted changes to a specific DNA sequence. This process involves creating a new variant of a gene or a specific region of interest within a DNA molecule by introducing a planned, deliberate change, or mutation, at a predetermined site within the DNA sequence.

The methodology typically involves the use of molecular tools such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), restriction enzymes, and/or ligases to introduce the desired mutation(s) into a plasmid or other vector containing the target DNA sequence. The resulting modified DNA molecule can then be used to transform host cells, allowing for the production of large quantities of the mutated gene or protein for further study.

Site-directed mutagenesis is a valuable tool in basic research, drug discovery, and biotechnology applications where specific changes to a DNA sequence are required to understand gene function, investigate protein structure/function relationships, or engineer novel biological properties into existing genes or proteins.

A Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR) in the context of medicinal chemistry and pharmacology refers to the relationship between the chemical structure of a drug or molecule and its biological activity or effect on a target protein, cell, or organism. SAR studies aim to identify patterns and correlations between structural features of a compound and its ability to interact with a specific biological target, leading to a desired therapeutic response or undesired side effects.

By analyzing the SAR, researchers can optimize the chemical structure of lead compounds to enhance their potency, selectivity, safety, and pharmacokinetic properties, ultimately guiding the design and development of novel drugs with improved efficacy and reduced toxicity.

Bone development, also known as ossification, is the process by which bone tissue is formed and grows. This complex process involves several different types of cells, including osteoblasts, which produce new bone matrix, and osteoclasts, which break down and resorb existing bone tissue.

There are two main types of bone development: intramembranous and endochondral ossification. Intramembranous ossification occurs when bone tissue forms directly from connective tissue, while endochondral ossification involves the formation of a cartilage model that is later replaced by bone.

During fetal development, most bones develop through endochondral ossification, starting as a cartilage template that is gradually replaced by bone tissue. However, some bones, such as those in the skull and clavicles, develop through intramembranous ossification.

Bone development continues after birth, with new bone tissue being laid down and existing tissue being remodeled throughout life. This ongoing process helps to maintain the strength and integrity of the skeleton, allowing it to adapt to changing mechanical forces and repair any damage that may occur.

The hypothalamus is a small, vital region of the brain that lies just below the thalamus and forms part of the limbic system. It plays a crucial role in many important functions including:

1. Regulation of body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
2. Production and regulation of hormones through its connection with the pituitary gland (the hypophysis). It controls the release of various hormones by producing releasing and inhibiting factors that regulate the anterior pituitary's function.
3. Emotional responses, behavior, and memory formation through its connections with the limbic system structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.
4. Autonomic nervous system regulation, which controls involuntary physiological functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
5. Regulation of the immune system by interacting with the autonomic nervous system.

Damage to the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders like diabetes insipidus, growth hormone deficiency, altered temperature regulation, sleep disturbances, and emotional or behavioral changes.

Nucleic acid hybridization is a process in molecular biology where two single-stranded nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) with complementary sequences pair together to form a double-stranded molecule through hydrogen bonding. The strands can be from the same type of nucleic acid or different types (i.e., DNA-RNA or DNA-cDNA). This process is commonly used in various laboratory techniques, such as Southern blotting, Northern blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and microarray analysis, to detect, isolate, and analyze specific nucleic acid sequences. The hybridization temperature and conditions are critical to ensure the specificity of the interaction between the two strands.

Organ size refers to the volume or physical measurement of an organ in the body of an individual. It can be described in terms of length, width, and height or by using specialized techniques such as imaging studies (like CT scans or MRIs) to determine the volume. The size of an organ can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, body size, and overall health status. Changes in organ size may indicate various medical conditions, including growths, inflammation, or atrophy.

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Protein sorting signals, also known as sorting motifs or sorting determinants, are specific sequences or domains within a protein that determine its intracellular trafficking and localization. These signals can be found in the amino acid sequence of a protein and are recognized by various sorting machinery such as receptors, coat proteins, and transport vesicles. They play a crucial role in directing newly synthesized proteins to their correct destinations within the cell, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, plasma membrane, or extracellular space.

There are several types of protein sorting signals, such as:

1. Signal peptides: These are short sequences of amino acids found at the N-terminus of a protein that direct it to the ER for translocation across the membrane and subsequent processing in the secretory pathway.
2. Transmembrane domains: Hydrophobic regions within a protein that span the lipid bilayer, often serving as anchors to tether proteins to specific organelle membranes or the plasma membrane.
3. Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchors: These are post-translational modifications added to the C-terminus of a protein, allowing it to be attached to the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane.
4. Endoplasmic reticulum retrieval signals: KDEL or KKXX-like sequences found at the C-terminus of proteins that direct their retrieval from the Golgi apparatus back to the ER.
5. Lysosomal targeting signals: Sequences within a protein, such as mannose 6-phosphate (M6P) residues or tyrosine-based motifs, that facilitate its recognition and transport to lysosomes.
6. Nuclear localization signals (NLS): Short sequences of basic amino acids that direct a protein to the nuclear pore complex for import into the nucleus.
7. Nuclear export signals (NES): Sequences rich in leucine residues that facilitate the export of proteins from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

These various targeting and localization signals help ensure that proteins are delivered to their proper destinations within the cell, allowing for the coordinated regulation of cellular processes and functions.

DNA-binding proteins are a type of protein that have the ability to bind to DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the genetic material of organisms. These proteins play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as regulation of gene expression, DNA replication, repair and recombination.

The binding of DNA-binding proteins to specific DNA sequences is mediated by non-covalent interactions, including electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, and van der Waals forces. The specificity of binding is determined by the recognition of particular nucleotide sequences or structural features of the DNA molecule.

DNA-binding proteins can be classified into several categories based on their structure and function, such as transcription factors, histones, and restriction enzymes. Transcription factors are a major class of DNA-binding proteins that regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoter region of genes and recruiting other proteins to modulate transcription. Histones are DNA-binding proteins that package DNA into nucleosomes, the basic unit of chromatin structure. Restriction enzymes are DNA-binding proteins that recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences, and are widely used in molecular biology research and biotechnology applications.

Exons are the coding regions of DNA that remain in the mature, processed mRNA after the removal of non-coding intronic sequences during RNA splicing. These exons contain the information necessary to encode proteins, as they specify the sequence of amino acids within a polypeptide chain. The arrangement and order of exons can vary between different genes and even between different versions of the same gene (alternative splicing), allowing for the generation of multiple protein isoforms from a single gene. This complexity in exon structure and usage significantly contributes to the diversity and functionality of the proteome.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Insulin-like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBPs) are a family of proteins that bind to and regulate the biological activity of insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), specifically IGF-1 and IGF-2. There are six distinct IGFBPs (IGFBP-1 to IGFBP-6) in humans, each with unique structural features, expression patterns, and functions.

The primary function of IGFBPs is to modulate the interaction between IGFs and their cell surface receptors, thereby controlling IGF-mediated intracellular signaling pathways involved in cell growth, differentiation, and survival. IGFBPs can either enhance or inhibit IGF actions depending on the specific context, such as cell type, subcellular localization, and presence of other binding partners.

In addition to their role in IGF regulation, some IGFBPs have IGF-independent functions, including direct interaction with cell surface receptors, modulation of extracellular matrix composition, and participation in cell migration and apoptosis. Dysregulation of IGFBP expression and function has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Hypothalamic hormones are a group of hormones that are produced and released by the hypothalamus, a small region at the base of the brain. These hormones play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions, including temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and emotional behavior.

The hypothalamus produces two main types of hormones: releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones. Releasing hormones stimulate the pituitary gland to release its own hormones, while inhibiting hormones prevent the pituitary gland from releasing hormones.

Some examples of hypothalamic hormones include:

* Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH), which stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary gland.
* Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin, which regulate the release of growth hormone (GH) from the pituitary gland.
* Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which stimulates the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn regulate reproductive function.
* Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland, which regulates the stress response.
* Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) and prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH), which regulate the release of prolactin from the pituitary gland, which is involved in lactation.

Overall, hypothalamic hormones play a critical role in maintaining homeostasis in the body by regulating various physiological processes.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Genetic enhancer elements are DNA sequences that increase the transcription of specific genes. They work by binding to regulatory proteins called transcription factors, which in turn recruit RNA polymerase II, the enzyme responsible for transcribing DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA). This results in the activation of gene transcription and increased production of the protein encoded by that gene.

Enhancer elements can be located upstream, downstream, or even within introns of the genes they regulate, and they can act over long distances along the DNA molecule. They are an important mechanism for controlling gene expression in a tissue-specific and developmental stage-specific manner, allowing for the precise regulation of gene activity during embryonic development and throughout adult life.

It's worth noting that genetic enhancer elements are often referred to simply as "enhancers," and they are distinct from other types of regulatory DNA sequences such as promoters, silencers, and insulators.

In medical terms, membranes refer to thin layers of tissue that cover or line various structures in the body. They are composed of connective tissue and epithelial cells, and they can be found lining the outer surface of the body, internal organs, blood vessels, and nerves. There are several types of membranes in the human body, including:

1. Serous Membranes: These membranes line the inside of body cavities and cover the organs contained within them. They produce a lubricating fluid that reduces friction between the organ and the cavity wall. Examples include the pleura (lungs), pericardium (heart), and peritoneum (abdominal cavity).
2. Mucous Membranes: These membranes line the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts, as well as the inner surface of the eyelids and the nasal passages. They produce mucus to trap particles, bacteria, and other substances, which helps protect the body from infection.
3. Synovial Membranes: These membranes line the joint cavities and produce synovial fluid, which lubricates the joints and allows for smooth movement.
4. Meninges: These are three layers of membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord. They include the dura mater (outermost layer), arachnoid mater (middle layer), and pia mater (innermost layer).
5. Amniotic Membrane: This is a thin, transparent membrane that surrounds and protects the fetus during pregnancy. It produces amniotic fluid, which provides a cushion for the developing baby and helps regulate its temperature.

Pituitary hormone-releasing hormones (PRHs), also known as hypothalamic releasing hormones or hypothalamic hormones, are small neuropeptides produced and released by the hypothalamus - a small region of the brain. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating the secretion and release of various pituitary hormones, which in turn control several essential bodily functions, including growth, development, metabolism, stress response, reproduction, and lactation.

There are several PRHs, each with a specific target pituitary hormone:

1. Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH): Stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland, which then promotes the production and release of thyroid hormones.
2. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): Regulates the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland, which are essential for reproductive functions.
3. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): Stimulates the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary gland, which then promotes the production and release of cortisol and other glucocorticoids from the adrenal glands.
4. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH): Stimulates the release of growth hormone (GH) from the anterior pituitary gland, which is essential for growth, development, and metabolism regulation.
5. Somatostatin or growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH): Inhibits the release of GH from the anterior pituitary gland and also suppresses the secretion of thyroid hormones.
6. Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) or prolactin-releasing factor (PRF): Stimulates the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland, which is essential for lactation and reproductive functions.
7. Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) or dopamine: Inhibits the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland.

These releasing hormones and inhibitory hormones work together to maintain a delicate balance in various physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, stress response, and reproductive functions. Dysregulation of these hormonal systems can lead to various endocrine disorders and diseases.

A transgene is a segment of DNA that has been artificially transferred from one organism to another, typically between different species, to introduce a new trait or characteristic. The term "transgene" specifically refers to the genetic material that has been transferred and has become integrated into the host organism's genome. This technology is often used in genetic engineering and biomedical research, including the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for agricultural purposes or the creation of animal models for studying human diseases.

Transgenes can be created using various techniques, such as molecular cloning, where a desired gene is isolated, manipulated, and then inserted into a vector (a small DNA molecule, such as a plasmid) that can efficiently enter the host organism's cells. Once inside the cell, the transgene can integrate into the host genome, allowing for the expression of the new trait in the resulting transgenic organism.

It is important to note that while transgenes can provide valuable insights and benefits in research and agriculture, their use and release into the environment are subjects of ongoing debate due to concerns about potential ecological impacts and human health risks.

A fetus is the developing offspring in a mammal, from the end of the embryonic period (approximately 8 weeks after fertilization in humans) until birth. In humans, the fetal stage of development starts from the eleventh week of pregnancy and continues until childbirth, which is termed as full-term pregnancy at around 37 to 40 weeks of gestation. During this time, the organ systems become fully developed and the body grows in size. The fetus is surrounded by the amniotic fluid within the amniotic sac and is connected to the placenta via the umbilical cord, through which it receives nutrients and oxygen from the mother. Regular prenatal care is essential during this period to monitor the growth and development of the fetus and ensure a healthy pregnancy and delivery.

Hormone antagonists are substances or drugs that block the action of hormones by binding to their receptors without activating them, thereby preventing the hormones from exerting their effects. They can be classified into two types: receptor antagonists and enzyme inhibitors. Receptor antagonists bind directly to hormone receptors and prevent the hormone from binding, while enzyme inhibitors block the production or breakdown of hormones by inhibiting specific enzymes involved in their metabolism. Hormone antagonists are used in the treatment of various medical conditions, such as cancer, hormonal disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

Stat5 (Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 5) is a transcription factor that plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including growth, survival, and differentiation. It exists in two closely related isoforms, Stat5a and Stat5b, which are encoded by separate genes but share significant sequence homology and functional similarity.

When activated through phosphorylation by receptor or non-receptor tyrosine kinases, Stat5 forms homodimers or heterodimers that translocate to the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, these dimers bind to specific DNA sequences called Stat-binding elements (SBEs) in the promoter regions of target genes, leading to their transcriptional activation or repression.

Stat5 is involved in various physiological and pathological conditions, such as hematopoiesis, lactation, immune response, and cancer progression. Dysregulation of Stat5 signaling has been implicated in several malignancies, including leukemias, lymphomas, and breast cancer, making it an attractive therapeutic target for these diseases.

"Sex characteristics" refer to the anatomical, chromosomal, and genetic features that define males and females. These include both primary sex characteristics (such as reproductive organs like ovaries or testes) and secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts or facial hair) that typically develop during puberty. Sex characteristics are primarily determined by the presence of either X or Y chromosomes, with XX individuals usually developing as females and XY individuals usually developing as males, although variations and exceptions to this rule do occur.

Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) is a glycoprotein hormone that belongs to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) family. It is primarily produced by the granulosa cells of developing follicles in the ovaries of females. AMH plays an essential role in female reproductive physiology, as it inhibits the recruitment and further development of primordial follicles, thereby regulating the size of the primordial follicle pool and the onset of puberty.

AMH levels are often used as a biomarker for ovarian reserve assessment in women. High AMH levels indicate a larger ovarian reserve, while low levels suggest a decreased reserve, which may be associated with reduced fertility or an earlier onset of menopause. Additionally, measuring AMH levels can help predict the response to ovarian stimulation during assisted reproductive technologies (ART) such as in vitro fertilization (IVF).

Disulfides are a type of organic compound that contains a sulfur-sulfur bond. In the context of biochemistry and medicine, disulfide bonds are often found in proteins, where they play a crucial role in maintaining their three-dimensional structure and function. These bonds form when two sulfhydryl groups (-SH) on cysteine residues within a protein molecule react with each other, releasing a molecule of water and creating a disulfide bond (-S-S-) between the two cysteines. Disulfide bonds can be reduced back to sulfhydryl groups by various reducing agents, which is an important process in many biological reactions. The formation and reduction of disulfide bonds are critical for the proper folding, stability, and activity of many proteins, including those involved in various physiological processes and diseases.

Gonadal hormones, also known as sex hormones, are steroid hormones that are primarily produced by the gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males). They play crucial roles in the development and regulation of sexual characteristics and reproductive functions. The three main types of gonadal hormones are:

1. Estrogens - predominantly produced by ovaries, they are essential for female sexual development and reproduction. The most common estrogen is estradiol, which supports the growth and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and wider hips. Estrogens also play a role in regulating the menstrual cycle and maintaining bone health.

2. Progesterone - primarily produced by ovaries during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy, progesterone prepares the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and supports the growth and development of the fetus during pregnancy. It also plays a role in regulating the menstrual cycle.

3. Androgens - produced by both ovaries and testes, but primarily by testes in males. The most common androgen is testosterone, which is essential for male sexual development and reproduction. Testosterone supports the growth and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in men, such as facial hair, a deeper voice, and increased muscle mass. It also plays a role in regulating sex drive (libido) and bone health in both males and females.

In summary, gonadal hormones are steroid hormones produced by the gonads that play essential roles in sexual development, reproduction, and maintaining secondary sexual characteristics.

Laron syndrome, also known as Laron-type dwarfism or growth hormone insensitivity syndrome, is a rare genetic disorder characterized by resistance to the action of growth hormone (GH), leading to severe short stature and other abnormalities. It is caused by mutations in the gene for the growth hormone receptor (GHR).

People with Laron syndrome have normal or elevated levels of GH, but they are unable to utilize it effectively due to the defective GHR. This results in low levels of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), a hormone that mediates many of the actions of GH.

The main features of Laron syndrome include:

* Severe short stature, with final adult height typically less than 4 feet (120 cm)
* Disproportionately small hands and feet
* Characteristic facial features, such as a prominent forehead, deep-set eyes, and a broad, flat nose
* Delayed puberty or failure to enter puberty
* Increased risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes
* Reduced bone density and increased risk of fractures
* High levels of cholesterol and lipids in the blood
* Reduced life expectancy due to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer.

Laron syndrome is usually inherited in an autosomal recessive manner, meaning that an individual must inherit two copies of the mutated gene (one from each parent) to develop the condition. It is estimated to affect approximately 1 in 1 million people worldwide. Treatment typically involves administering IGF-1 or GH replacement therapy, although these treatments may not fully normalize growth and development.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones and mediate their effects in target cells. There are two main types of THRs, referred to as THR alpha and THR beta. THR beta is further divided into two subtypes, THR beta1 and THR beta2.

THR beta is a type of nuclear receptor that is primarily expressed in the liver, kidney, and heart, as well as in the central nervous system. It plays an important role in regulating the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, as well as in the development and function of the heart. THR beta is also involved in the regulation of body weight and energy expenditure.

THR beta1 is the predominant subtype expressed in the liver and is responsible for many of the metabolic effects of thyroid hormones in this organ. THR beta2, on the other hand, is primarily expressed in the heart and plays a role in regulating cardiac function.

Abnormalities in THR beta function can lead to various diseases, including thyroid hormone resistance, a condition in which the body's cells are unable to respond properly to thyroid hormones. This can result in symptoms such as weight gain, fatigue, and cold intolerance.

Pituitary function tests are a group of diagnostic exams that evaluate the proper functioning of the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is responsible for producing and releasing several essential hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, stress response, reproduction, and lactation.

These tests typically involve measuring the levels of different hormones in the blood, stimulating or suppressing the pituitary gland with specific medications, and assessing the body's response to these challenges. Some common pituitary function tests include:

1. Growth hormone (GH) testing: Measures GH levels in the blood, often after a provocative test using substances like insulin, arginine, clonidine, or glucagon to stimulate GH release.
2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (FT4) testing: Assesses the function of the thyroid gland by measuring TSH and FT4 levels in response to TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) stimulation.
3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol testing: Evaluates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by measuring ACTH and cortisol levels after a CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) stimulation test or an insulin tolerance test.
4. Prolactin (PRL) testing: Measures PRL levels in the blood, which can be elevated due to pituitary tumors or other conditions affecting the hypothalamus.
5. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) testing: Assesses reproductive function by measuring FSH and LH levels, often in conjunction with estradiol or testosterone levels.
6. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation test: Evaluates gonadal function by measuring FSH and LH levels after GnRH administration.
7. Growth hormone (GH) testing: Measures GH levels in response to various stimuli, such as insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), glucagon, or arginine.
8. Vasopressin (ADH) testing: Assesses the posterior pituitary function by measuring ADH levels and performing a water deprivation test.

These tests can help diagnose various pituitary disorders, such as hypopituitarism, hyperpituitarism, or pituitary tumors, and guide appropriate treatment strategies.

Phenobarbital is a barbiturate medication that is primarily used for the treatment of seizures and convulsions. It works by suppressing the abnormal electrical activity in the brain that leads to seizures. In addition to its anticonvulsant properties, phenobarbital also has sedative and hypnotic effects, which can be useful for treating anxiety, insomnia, and agitation.

Phenobarbital is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and elixirs, and it is typically taken orally. The medication works by binding to specific receptors in the brain called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors, which help to regulate nerve impulses in the brain. By increasing the activity of GABA, phenobarbital can help to reduce excessive neural activity and prevent seizures.

While phenobarbital is an effective medication for treating seizures and other conditions, it can also be habit-forming and carries a risk of dependence and addiction. Long-term use of the medication can lead to tolerance, meaning that higher doses may be needed to achieve the same effects. Abruptly stopping the medication can also lead to withdrawal symptoms, such as anxiety, restlessness, and seizures.

Like all medications, phenobarbital can have side effects, including dizziness, drowsiness, and impaired coordination. It can also interact with other medications, such as certain antidepressants and sedatives, so it is important to inform your healthcare provider of all medications you are taking before starting phenobarbital.

In summary, phenobarbital is a barbiturate medication used primarily for the treatment of seizures and convulsions. It works by binding to GABA receptors in the brain and increasing their activity, which helps to reduce excessive neural activity and prevent seizures. While phenobarbital can be effective, it carries a risk of dependence and addiction and can have side effects and drug interactions.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.

Circular dichroism (CD) is a technique used in physics and chemistry to study the structure of molecules, particularly large biological molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. It measures the difference in absorption of left-handed and right-handed circularly polarized light by a sample. This difference in absorption can provide information about the three-dimensional structure of the molecule, including its chirality or "handedness."

In more technical terms, CD is a form of spectroscopy that measures the differential absorption of left and right circularly polarized light as a function of wavelength. The CD signal is measured in units of millidegrees (mdeg) and can be positive or negative, depending on the type of chromophore and its orientation within the molecule.

CD spectra can provide valuable information about the secondary and tertiary structure of proteins, as well as the conformation of nucleic acids. For example, alpha-helical proteins typically exhibit a strong positive band near 190 nm and two negative bands at around 208 nm and 222 nm, while beta-sheet proteins show a strong positive band near 195 nm and two negative bands at around 217 nm and 175 nm.

CD spectroscopy is a powerful tool for studying the structural changes that occur in biological molecules under different conditions, such as temperature, pH, or the presence of ligands or other molecules. It can also be used to monitor the folding and unfolding of proteins, as well as the binding of drugs or other small molecules to their targets.

Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as a bacterium or virus. They are capable of identifying and binding to specific antigens (foreign substances) on the surface of these invaders, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Antibodies are also known as immunoglobulins and come in several different types, including IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, each with a unique function in the immune response. They are composed of four polypeptide chains, two heavy chains and two light chains, that are held together by disulfide bonds. The variable regions of the heavy and light chains form the antigen-binding site, which is specific to a particular antigen.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in the eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as DNA molecules in complex with proteins, RNA molecules, and histones to form chromosomes.

The primary function of the cell nucleus is to regulate and control the activities of the cell, including growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction. It also plays a crucial role in the process of mitosis (cell division) by separating and protecting the genetic material during this process. The nuclear membrane, or nuclear envelope, surrounding the nucleus is composed of two lipid bilayers with numerous pores that allow for the selective transport of molecules between the nucleoplasm (nucleus interior) and the cytoplasm (cell exterior).

The cell nucleus is a vital structure in eukaryotic cells, and its dysfunction can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Secretory rate refers to the amount or volume of a secretion produced by a gland or an organ over a given period of time. It is a measure of the productivity or activity level of the secreting structure. The secretory rate can be quantified for various bodily fluids, such as saliva, sweat, digestive enzymes, hormones, or milk, depending on the context and the specific gland or organ being studied.

In clinical settings, measuring the secretory rate might involve collecting and analyzing samples over a certain duration to estimate the production rate of the substance in question. This information can be helpful in diagnosing conditions related to impaired secretion, monitoring treatment responses, or understanding the physiological adaptations of the body under different circumstances.

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that is an essential part of the immune system. They are responsible for recognizing and responding to potentially harmful substances such as viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).

B-lymphocytes produce antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy foreign substances. When a B-cell encounters a foreign substance, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies. These antibodies bind to the foreign substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes, on the other hand, are involved in cell-mediated immunity. They directly attack and destroy infected cells or cancerous cells. T-cells can also help to regulate the immune response by producing chemical signals that activate or inhibit other immune cells.

Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in either the bone marrow (B-cells) or the thymus gland (T-cells). They circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymphatic system, where they can be found in high concentrations in lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphoid organs.

Abnormalities in the number or function of lymphocytes can lead to a variety of immune-related disorders, including immunodeficiency diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

An epitope is a specific region on the surface of an antigen (a molecule that can trigger an immune response) that is recognized by an antibody, B-cell receptor, or T-cell receptor. It is also commonly referred to as an antigenic determinant. Epitopes are typically composed of linear amino acid sequences or conformational structures made up of discontinuous amino acids in the antigen. They play a crucial role in the immune system's ability to differentiate between self and non-self molecules, leading to the targeted destruction of foreign substances like viruses and bacteria. Understanding epitopes is essential for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.

Bone density refers to the amount of bone mineral content (usually measured in grams) in a given volume of bone (usually measured in cubic centimeters). It is often used as an indicator of bone strength and fracture risk. Bone density is typically measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans, which provide a T-score that compares the patient's bone density to that of a young adult reference population. A T-score of -1 or above is considered normal, while a T-score between -1 and -2.5 indicates osteopenia (low bone mass), and a T-score below -2.5 indicates osteoporosis (porous bones). Regular exercise, adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, and medication (if necessary) can help maintain or improve bone density and prevent fractures.

A multigene family is a group of genetically related genes that share a common ancestry and have similar sequences or structures. These genes are arranged in clusters on a chromosome and often encode proteins with similar functions. They can arise through various mechanisms, including gene duplication, recombination, and transposition. Multigene families play crucial roles in many biological processes, such as development, immunity, and metabolism. Examples of multigene families include the globin genes involved in oxygen transport, the immune system's major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes, and the cytochrome P450 genes associated with drug metabolism.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a single-stranded, linear polymer of ribonucleotides. It is a nucleic acid present in the cells of all living organisms and some viruses. RNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes such as protein synthesis, gene regulation, and cellular signaling. There are several types of RNA including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). These RNAs differ in their structure, function, and location within the cell.

Electrophoresis, polyacrylamide gel (EPG) is a laboratory technique used to separate and analyze complex mixtures of proteins or nucleic acids (DNA or RNA) based on their size and electrical charge. This technique utilizes a matrix made of cross-linked polyacrylamide, a type of gel, which provides a stable and uniform environment for the separation of molecules.

In this process:

1. The polyacrylamide gel is prepared by mixing acrylamide monomers with a cross-linking agent (bis-acrylamide) and a catalyst (ammonium persulfate) in the presence of a buffer solution.
2. The gel is then poured into a mold and allowed to polymerize, forming a solid matrix with uniform pore sizes that depend on the concentration of acrylamide used. Higher concentrations result in smaller pores, providing better resolution for separating smaller molecules.
3. Once the gel has set, it is placed in an electrophoresis apparatus containing a buffer solution. Samples containing the mixture of proteins or nucleic acids are loaded into wells on the top of the gel.
4. An electric field is applied across the gel, causing the negatively charged molecules to migrate towards the positive electrode (anode) while positively charged molecules move toward the negative electrode (cathode). The rate of migration depends on the size, charge, and shape of the molecules.
5. Smaller molecules move faster through the gel matrix and will migrate farther from the origin compared to larger molecules, resulting in separation based on size. Proteins and nucleic acids can be selectively stained after electrophoresis to visualize the separated bands.

EPG is widely used in various research fields, including molecular biology, genetics, proteomics, and forensic science, for applications such as protein characterization, DNA fragment analysis, cloning, mutation detection, and quality control of nucleic acid or protein samples.

Skeletal muscle, also known as striated or voluntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is attached to bones by tendons or aponeuroses and functions to produce movements and support the posture of the body. It is composed of long, multinucleated fibers that are arranged in parallel bundles and are characterized by alternating light and dark bands, giving them a striped appearance under a microscope. Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, meaning that it is consciously activated through signals from the nervous system. It is responsible for activities such as walking, running, jumping, and lifting objects.

Hypothyroidism is a medical condition where the thyroid gland, which is a small butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of your neck, does not produce enough thyroid hormones. This results in a slowing down of the body's metabolic processes, leading to various symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, constipation, cold intolerance, dry skin, hair loss, muscle weakness, and depression.

The two main thyroid hormones produced by the thyroid gland are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, and energy levels. In hypothyroidism, the production of these hormones is insufficient, leading to a range of symptoms that can affect multiple organ systems.

Hypothyroidism can be caused by several factors, including autoimmune disorders (such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis), surgical removal of the thyroid gland, radiation therapy for neck cancer, certain medications, and congenital defects. Hypothyroidism is typically diagnosed through blood tests that measure levels of TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), T3, and T4. Treatment usually involves taking synthetic thyroid hormones to replace the missing hormones and alleviate symptoms.

Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA sequences among individuals and populations. These variations can result from mutations, genetic recombination, or gene flow between populations. Genetic variation is essential for evolution by providing the raw material upon which natural selection acts. It can occur within a single gene, between different genes, or at larger scales, such as differences in the number of chromosomes or entire sets of chromosomes. The study of genetic variation is crucial in understanding the genetic basis of diseases and traits, as well as the evolutionary history and relationships among species.

Glucagon is a hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas. Its main function is to regulate glucose levels in the blood by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which can then be released into the bloodstream. This process helps to raise blood sugar levels when they are too low, such as during hypoglycemia.

Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide that is derived from the preproglucagon protein. It works by binding to glucagon receptors on liver cells, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation of enzymes involved in glycogen breakdown.

In addition to its role in glucose regulation, glucagon has also been shown to have other physiological effects, such as promoting lipolysis (the breakdown of fat) and inhibiting gastric acid secretion. Glucagon is often used clinically in the treatment of hypoglycemia, as well as in diagnostic tests to assess pancreatic function.

Gastrointestinal (GI) hormones are a group of hormones that are secreted by cells in the gastrointestinal tract in response to food intake and digestion. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes, including appetite regulation, gastric acid secretion, motility of the gastrointestinal tract, insulin secretion, and pancreatic enzyme release.

Examples of GI hormones include:

* Gastrin: Secreted by G cells in the stomach, gastrin stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells in the stomach lining.
* Ghrelin: Produced by the stomach, ghrelin is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because it stimulates appetite and food intake.
* Cholecystokinin (CCK): Secreted by I cells in the small intestine, CCK promotes digestion by stimulating the release of pancreatic enzymes and bile from the liver. It also inhibits gastric emptying and reduces appetite.
* Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): Produced by K cells in the small intestine, GIP promotes insulin secretion and inhibits glucagon release.
* Secretin: Released by S cells in the small intestine, secretin stimulates the pancreas to produce bicarbonate-rich fluid that neutralizes stomach acid in the duodenum.
* Motilin: Secreted by MO cells in the small intestine, motilin promotes gastrointestinal motility and regulates the migrating motor complex (MMC), which is responsible for cleaning out the small intestine between meals.

These hormones work together to regulate digestion and maintain homeostasis in the body. Dysregulation of GI hormones can contribute to various gastrointestinal disorders, such as gastroparesis, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and diabetes.

A "reporter gene" is a type of gene that is linked to a gene of interest in order to make the expression or activity of that gene detectable. The reporter gene encodes for a protein that can be easily measured and serves as an indicator of the presence and activity of the gene of interest. Commonly used reporter genes include those that encode for fluorescent proteins, enzymes that catalyze colorimetric reactions, or proteins that bind to specific molecules.

In the context of genetics and genomics research, a reporter gene is often used in studies involving gene expression, regulation, and function. By introducing the reporter gene into an organism or cell, researchers can monitor the activity of the gene of interest in real-time or after various experimental treatments. The information obtained from these studies can help elucidate the role of specific genes in biological processes and diseases, providing valuable insights for basic research and therapeutic development.

3T3 cells are a type of cell line that is commonly used in scientific research. The name "3T3" is derived from the fact that these cells were developed by treating mouse embryo cells with a chemical called trypsin and then culturing them in a flask at a temperature of 37 degrees Celsius.

Specifically, 3T3 cells are a type of fibroblast, which is a type of cell that is responsible for producing connective tissue in the body. They are often used in studies involving cell growth and proliferation, as well as in toxicity tests and drug screening assays.

One particularly well-known use of 3T3 cells is in the 3T3-L1 cell line, which is a subtype of 3T3 cells that can be differentiated into adipocytes (fat cells) under certain conditions. These cells are often used in studies of adipose tissue biology and obesity.

It's important to note that because 3T3 cells are a type of immortalized cell line, they do not always behave exactly the same way as primary cells (cells that are taken directly from a living organism). As such, researchers must be careful when interpreting results obtained using 3T3 cells and consider any potential limitations or artifacts that may arise due to their use.

Trypsin is a proteolytic enzyme, specifically a serine protease, that is secreted by the pancreas as an inactive precursor, trypsinogen. Trypsinogen is converted into its active form, trypsin, in the small intestine by enterokinase, which is produced by the intestinal mucosa.

Trypsin plays a crucial role in digestion by cleaving proteins into smaller peptides at specific arginine and lysine residues. This enzyme helps to break down dietary proteins into amino acids, allowing for their absorption and utilization by the body. Additionally, trypsin can activate other zymogenic pancreatic enzymes, such as chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases, thereby contributing to overall protein digestion.

Western blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and quantify specific proteins in a mixture of many different proteins. This technique is commonly used to confirm the expression of a protein of interest, determine its size, and investigate its post-translational modifications. The name "Western" blotting distinguishes this technique from Southern blotting (for DNA) and Northern blotting (for RNA).

The Western blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Protein extraction: The sample containing the proteins of interest is first extracted, often by breaking open cells or tissues and using a buffer to extract the proteins.
2. Separation of proteins by electrophoresis: The extracted proteins are then separated based on their size by loading them onto a polyacrylamide gel and running an electric current through the gel (a process called sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or SDS-PAGE). This separates the proteins according to their molecular weight, with smaller proteins migrating faster than larger ones.
3. Transfer of proteins to a membrane: After separation, the proteins are transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane using an electric current in a process called blotting. This creates a replica of the protein pattern on the gel but now immobilized on the membrane for further analysis.
4. Blocking: The membrane is then blocked with a blocking agent, such as non-fat dry milk or bovine serum albumin (BSA), to prevent non-specific binding of antibodies in subsequent steps.
5. Primary antibody incubation: A primary antibody that specifically recognizes the protein of interest is added and allowed to bind to its target protein on the membrane. This step may be performed at room temperature or 4°C overnight, depending on the antibody's properties.
6. Washing: The membrane is washed with a buffer to remove unbound primary antibodies.
7. Secondary antibody incubation: A secondary antibody that recognizes the primary antibody (often coupled to an enzyme or fluorophore) is added and allowed to bind to the primary antibody. This step may involve using a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated or alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated secondary antibody, depending on the detection method used later.
8. Washing: The membrane is washed again to remove unbound secondary antibodies.
9. Detection: A detection reagent is added to visualize the protein of interest by detecting the signal generated from the enzyme-conjugated or fluorophore-conjugated secondary antibody. This can be done using chemiluminescent, colorimetric, or fluorescent methods.
10. Analysis: The resulting image is analyzed to determine the presence and quantity of the protein of interest in the sample.

Western blotting is a powerful technique for identifying and quantifying specific proteins within complex mixtures. It can be used to study protein expression, post-translational modifications, protein-protein interactions, and more. However, it requires careful optimization and validation to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

Peptides are short chains of amino acid residues linked by covalent bonds, known as peptide bonds. They are formed when two or more amino acids are joined together through a condensation reaction, which results in the elimination of a water molecule and the formation of an amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Peptides can vary in length from two to about fifty amino acids, and they are often classified based on their size. For example, dipeptides contain two amino acids, tripeptides contain three, and so on. Oligopeptides typically contain up to ten amino acids, while polypeptides can contain dozens or even hundreds of amino acids.

Peptides play many important roles in the body, including serving as hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, and antibiotics. They are also used in medical research and therapeutic applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering.

Sermorelin is a synthetic analog of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), a naturally occurring hormone in the body that stimulates the production and release of growth hormone from the pituitary gland. It is a decapeptide, meaning it contains 10 amino acids, and its chemical name is GRF 1-29 NH2.

Sermorelin works by binding to specific receptors in the pituitary gland, which triggers the release of growth hormone. It has been used in medical settings as a diagnostic tool to test for growth hormone deficiency and as a therapeutic agent to treat growth hormone deficiency in children and adults.

Sermorelin therapy involves administering the drug through subcutaneous injection, usually on a daily basis. The treatment aims to restore the body's natural production of growth hormone and improve related symptoms such as decreased muscle mass, increased body fat, reduced bone density, and impaired cognitive function. However, it is important to note that Sermorelin therapy should only be administered under the supervision of a healthcare professional due to potential side effects and the need for careful monitoring.

Epithelium is the tissue that covers the outer surface of the body, lines the internal cavities and organs, and forms various glands. It is composed of one or more layers of tightly packed cells that have a uniform shape and size, and rest on a basement membrane. Epithelial tissues are avascular, meaning they do not contain blood vessels, and are supplied with nutrients by diffusion from the underlying connective tissue.

Epithelial cells perform a variety of functions, including protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensation. They can be classified based on their shape and the number of cell layers they contain. The main types of epithelium are:

1. Squamous epithelium: composed of flat, scalelike cells that fit together like tiles on a roof. It forms the lining of blood vessels, air sacs in the lungs, and the outermost layer of the skin.
2. Cuboidal epithelium: composed of cube-shaped cells with equal height and width. It is found in glands, tubules, and ducts.
3. Columnar epithelium: composed of tall, rectangular cells that are taller than they are wide. It lines the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
4. Pseudostratified epithelium: appears stratified or layered but is actually made up of a single layer of cells that vary in height. The nuclei of these cells appear at different levels, giving the tissue a stratified appearance. It lines the respiratory and reproductive tracts.
5. Transitional epithelium: composed of several layers of cells that can stretch and change shape to accommodate changes in volume. It is found in the urinary bladder and ureters.

Epithelial tissue provides a barrier between the internal and external environments, protecting the body from physical, chemical, and biological damage. It also plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating the exchange of substances between the body and its environment.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

Estrogens are a group of steroid hormones that are primarily responsible for the development and regulation of female sexual characteristics and reproductive functions. They are also present in lower levels in males. The main estrogen hormone is estradiol, which plays a key role in promoting the growth and development of the female reproductive system, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and breasts. Estrogens also help regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain bone density, and have important effects on the cardiovascular system, skin, hair, and cognitive function.

Estrogens are produced primarily by the ovaries in women, but they can also be produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estrogens are produced from the conversion of testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, through a process called aromatization.

Estrogen levels vary throughout a woman's life, with higher levels during reproductive years and lower levels after menopause. Estrogen therapy is sometimes used to treat symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness, or to prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. However, estrogen therapy also carries risks, including an increased risk of certain cancers, blood clots, and stroke, so it is typically recommended only for women who have a high risk of these conditions.

Gigantism is a rare medical condition characterized by excessive growth and height significantly above average. This occurs due to an overproduction of growth hormone (GH), also known as somatotropin, during the growth phase in childhood. The pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain, is responsible for producing this hormone.

In gigantism, the pituitary gland releases too much GH, leading to abnormal bone and tissue growth. This condition is different from acromegaly, which is characterized by excessive GH production in adulthood after the growth phase has ended. In both cases, the excess GH can lead to various health complications, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, and joint problems.

Gigantism is typically caused by a benign tumor called a pituitary adenoma that presses against and stimulates the production of GH from the anterior pituitary gland. Treatment usually involves surgical removal of the tumor or medication to control GH levels, depending on the severity and progression of the condition. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for managing the symptoms and preventing long-term health complications associated with gigantism.

Glycoprotein hormones are a group of hormones that share a similar structure and are made up of four subunits: two identical alpha subunits and two distinct beta subunits. The alpha subunit is common to all glycoprotein hormones, including thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG).

The alpha subunit of glycoprotein hormones is a 92 amino acid polypeptide chain that contains several disulfide bonds, which help to stabilize its structure. It is heavily glycosylated, meaning that it contains many carbohydrate groups attached to the protein backbone. The alpha subunit plays an important role in the biological activity of the hormone by interacting with a specific receptor on the target cell surface.

The alpha subunit contains several regions that are important for its function, including a signal peptide, a variable region, and a conserved region. The signal peptide is a short sequence of amino acids at the N-terminus of the protein that directs it to the endoplasmic reticulum for processing and secretion. The variable region contains several amino acid residues that differ between different glycoprotein hormones, while the conserved region contains amino acids that are identical or very similar in all glycoprotein hormones.

Together with the beta subunit, the alpha subunit forms the functional hormone molecule. The beta subunit determines the specificity of the hormone for its target cells and regulates its biological activity.

Homoarginine is not a medical condition, but it's a naturally occurring amino acid in the human body. It is considered a non-proteinogenic amino acid because it is not used in the synthesis of proteins. Homoarginine is formed from the essential amino acid lysine and has been studied for its potential role in cardiovascular health, kidney function, and other physiological processes. However, more research is needed to fully understand its functions and clinical significance.

Ovariectomy is a surgical procedure in which one or both ovaries are removed. It is also known as "ovary removal" or "oophorectomy." This procedure is often performed as a treatment for various medical conditions, including ovarian cancer, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and pelvic pain. Ovariectomy can also be part of a larger surgical procedure called an hysterectomy, in which the uterus is also removed.

In some cases, an ovariectomy may be performed as a preventative measure for individuals at high risk of developing ovarian cancer. This is known as a prophylactic ovariectomy. After an ovariectomy, a person will no longer have menstrual periods and will be unable to become pregnant naturally. Hormone replacement therapy may be recommended in some cases to help manage symptoms associated with the loss of hormones produced by the ovaries.

'Growth' and 'development' are two interrelated concepts that are often used together to describe the changes an individual undergoes from conception until death. However, they refer to distinct yet complementary processes. Here are their medical definitions:

1. Growth: In a medical context, growth refers to the quantitative increase in size (e.g., height, weight, or organ dimensions) of an individual or an organ over time. It is typically measured using various anthropometric parameters and is influenced by genetic, environmental, and nutritional factors. Growth can be assessed at different stages of life, such as intrauterine growth, postnatal growth (infancy, childhood, adolescence), and adult growth.
2. Development: Development is a more complex and qualitative concept that encompasses the progressive series of changes in an individual's physical, cognitive, emotional, and social capabilities over time. These changes involve the acquisition, organization, and integration of new skills, abilities, and functions, which are essential for adapting to the environment and interacting with others. Development can be categorized into various domains, such as:
* Physical development (e.g., neuromotor, sensory-perceptual, and sexual maturation)
* Cognitive development (e.g., language acquisition, memory, problem-solving, and abstract thinking)
* Emotional development (e.g., self-regulation, attachment, empathy, and emotional expression)
* Social development (e.g., interpersonal relationships, social roles, and cultural understanding)

In summary, growth refers to the quantitative increase in size, while development involves the qualitative progression of various skills, abilities, and functions across different domains. Both processes are interconnected and contribute to an individual's overall maturation and well-being.

Gene transfer techniques, also known as gene therapy, refer to medical procedures where genetic material is introduced into an individual's cells or tissues to treat or prevent diseases. This can be achieved through various methods:

1. **Viral Vectors**: The most common method uses modified viruses, such as adenoviruses, retroviruses, or lentiviruses, to carry the therapeutic gene into the target cells. The virus infects the cell and inserts the new gene into the cell's DNA.

2. **Non-Viral Vectors**: These include methods like electroporation (using electric fields to create pores in the cell membrane), gene guns (shooting gold particles coated with DNA into cells), or liposomes (tiny fatty bubbles that can enclose DNA).

3. **Direct Injection**: In some cases, the therapeutic gene can be directly injected into a specific tissue or organ.

The goal of gene transfer techniques is to supplement or replace a faulty gene with a healthy one, thereby correcting the genetic disorder. However, these techniques are still largely experimental and have their own set of challenges, including potential immune responses, issues with accurate targeting, and risks of mutations or cancer development.

High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of chromatography that separates and analyzes compounds based on their interactions with a stationary phase and a mobile phase under high pressure. The mobile phase, which can be a gas or liquid, carries the sample mixture through a column containing the stationary phase.

In HPLC, the mobile phase is a liquid, and it is pumped through the column at high pressures (up to several hundred atmospheres) to achieve faster separation times and better resolution than other types of liquid chromatography. The stationary phase can be a solid or a liquid supported on a solid, and it interacts differently with each component in the sample mixture, causing them to separate as they travel through the column.

HPLC is widely used in analytical chemistry, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and other fields to separate, identify, and quantify compounds present in complex mixtures. It can be used to analyze a wide range of substances, including drugs, hormones, vitamins, pigments, flavors, and pollutants. HPLC is also used in the preparation of pure samples for further study or use.

Solubility is a fundamental concept in pharmaceutical sciences and medicine, which refers to the maximum amount of a substance (solute) that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent (usually water) at a specific temperature and pressure. Solubility is typically expressed as mass of solute per volume or mass of solvent (e.g., grams per liter, milligrams per milliliter). The process of dissolving a solute in a solvent results in a homogeneous solution where the solute particles are dispersed uniformly throughout the solvent.

Understanding the solubility of drugs is crucial for their formulation, administration, and therapeutic effectiveness. Drugs with low solubility may not dissolve sufficiently to produce the desired pharmacological effect, while those with high solubility might lead to rapid absorption and short duration of action. Therefore, optimizing drug solubility through various techniques like particle size reduction, salt formation, or solubilization is an essential aspect of drug development and delivery.

An ovary is a part of the female reproductive system in which ova or eggs are produced through the process of oogenesis. They are a pair of solid, almond-shaped structures located one on each side of the uterus within the pelvic cavity. Each ovary measures about 3 to 5 centimeters in length and weighs around 14 grams.

The ovaries have two main functions: endocrine (hormonal) function and reproductive function. They produce and release eggs (ovulation) responsible for potential fertilization and development of an embryo/fetus during pregnancy. Additionally, they are essential in the production of female sex hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone, which regulate menstrual cycles, sexual development, and reproduction.

During each menstrual cycle, a mature egg is released from one of the ovaries into the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by sperm. If not fertilized, the egg, along with the uterine lining, will be shed, leading to menstruation.

Potassium is a essential mineral and an important electrolyte that is widely distributed in the human body. The majority of potassium in the body (approximately 98%) is found within cells, with the remaining 2% present in blood serum and other bodily fluids. Potassium plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including:

1. Regulation of fluid balance and maintenance of normal blood pressure through its effects on vascular tone and sodium excretion.
2. Facilitation of nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction by participating in the generation and propagation of action potentials.
3. Protein synthesis, enzyme activation, and glycogen metabolism.
4. Regulation of acid-base balance through its role in buffering systems.

The normal serum potassium concentration ranges from 3.5 to 5.0 mEq/L (milliequivalents per liter) or mmol/L (millimoles per liter). Potassium levels outside this range can have significant clinical consequences, with both hypokalemia (low potassium levels) and hyperkalemia (high potassium levels) potentially leading to serious complications such as cardiac arrhythmias, muscle weakness, and respiratory failure.

Potassium is primarily obtained through the diet, with rich sources including fruits (e.g., bananas, oranges, and apricots), vegetables (e.g., leafy greens, potatoes, and tomatoes), legumes, nuts, dairy products, and meat. In cases of deficiency or increased needs, potassium supplements may be recommended under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Microsomes, liver refers to a subcellular fraction of liver cells (hepatocytes) that are obtained during tissue homogenization and subsequent centrifugation. These microsomal fractions are rich in membranous structures known as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), particularly the rough ER. They are involved in various important cellular processes, most notably the metabolism of xenobiotics (foreign substances) including drugs, toxins, and carcinogens.

The liver microsomes contain a variety of enzymes, such as cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, that are crucial for phase I drug metabolism. These enzymes help in the oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis of xenobiotics, making them more water-soluble and facilitating their excretion from the body. Additionally, liver microsomes also host other enzymes involved in phase II conjugation reactions, where the metabolites from phase I are further modified by adding polar molecules like glucuronic acid, sulfate, or acetyl groups.

In summary, liver microsomes are a subcellular fraction of liver cells that play a significant role in the metabolism and detoxification of xenobiotics, contributing to the overall protection and maintenance of cellular homeostasis within the body.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

The Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal system, also known as the hypothalamic-pituitary system, is a crucial part of the endocrine system that regulates many bodily functions. It consists of two main components: the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland.

The hypothalamus is a region in the brain that receives information from various parts of the body and integrates them to regulate vital functions such as body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and emotional behavior. It also produces and releases neurohormones that control the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland.

The pituitary gland is a small gland located at the base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus. It consists of two parts: the anterior pituitary (also called adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary (also called neurohypophysis). The anterior pituitary produces and releases several hormones that regulate various bodily functions such as growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response. The posterior pituitary stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus, including antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.

The hypothalamo-hypophyseal system works together to maintain homeostasis in the body by regulating various physiological processes through hormonal signaling. Dysfunction of this system can lead to several endocrine disorders, such as diabetes insipidus, pituitary tumors, and hypothalamic-pituitary axis disorders.

A cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a thin semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer that surrounds all cells in animals, plants, and microorganisms. It functions as a barrier to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell, allowing necessary molecules such as nutrients, oxygen, and signaling molecules to enter while keeping out harmful substances and waste products. The cell membrane is composed mainly of phospholipids, which have hydrophilic (water-loving) heads and hydrophobic (water-fearing) tails. This unique structure allows the membrane to be flexible and fluid, yet selectively permeable. Additionally, various proteins are embedded in the membrane that serve as channels, pumps, receptors, and enzymes, contributing to the cell's overall functionality and communication with its environment.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones and mediate their effects in the body. There are two main types of THRs, referred to as THRα and THRβ.

THRα is a subtype of thyroid hormone receptor that is primarily expressed in tissues such as the heart, skeletal muscle, and brown adipose tissue. It plays an important role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development in these tissues. THRα has two subtypes, THRα1 and THRα2, which have different functions and are expressed in different tissues.

THRα1 is the predominant form of THRα and is found in many tissues, including the heart, skeletal muscle, and brown adipose tissue. It regulates genes involved in metabolism, growth, and development, and has been shown to play a role in regulating heart rate and contractility.

THRα2, on the other hand, is primarily expressed in the brain and pituitary gland, where it regulates the production of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). THRα2 is unable to bind to thyroid hormones, but can form heterodimers with THRα1 or THRβ1, which allows it to modulate their activity.

Overall, THRα plays an important role in regulating various physiological processes in the body, and dysregulation of THRα function has been implicated in a number of diseases, including heart disease, muscle wasting, and neurological disorders.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the pituitary gland and other tissues throughout the body. TRH is a tripeptide hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland.

TRH receptors are activated when TRH binds to them, which triggers a signaling cascade that ultimately leads to an increase in intracellular calcium and the release of TSH. In addition to regulating TSH secretion, TRH receptors have been found to play a role in various physiological processes, including feeding behavior, energy metabolism, and neuroprotection.

Abnormalities in TRH receptor function have been implicated in several endocrine disorders, such as thyroid dysfunction and obesity. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of TRH receptors is essential for developing new therapeutic strategies to treat these conditions.

Insect hormones are chemical messengers that regulate various physiological and behavioral processes in insects. They are produced and released by endocrine glands and organs, such as the corpora allata, prothoracic glands, and neurosecretory cells located in the brain. Insect hormones play crucial roles in the regulation of growth and development, reproduction, diapause (a state of dormancy), metamorphosis, molting, and other vital functions. Some well-known insect hormones include juvenile hormone (JH), ecdysteroids (such as 20-hydroxyecdysone), and neuropeptides like the brain hormone and adipokinetic hormone. These hormones act through specific receptors, often transmembrane proteins, to elicit intracellular signaling cascades that ultimately lead to changes in gene expression, cell behavior, or organ function. Understanding insect hormones is essential for developing novel strategies for pest management and control, as well as for advancing our knowledge of insect biology and evolution.

Gel chromatography is a type of liquid chromatography that separates molecules based on their size or molecular weight. It uses a stationary phase that consists of a gel matrix made up of cross-linked polymers, such as dextran, agarose, or polyacrylamide. The gel matrix contains pores of various sizes, which allow smaller molecules to penetrate deeper into the matrix while larger molecules are excluded.

In gel chromatography, a mixture of molecules is loaded onto the top of the gel column and eluted with a solvent that moves down the column by gravity or pressure. As the sample components move down the column, they interact with the gel matrix and get separated based on their size. Smaller molecules can enter the pores of the gel and take longer to elute, while larger molecules are excluded from the pores and elute more quickly.

Gel chromatography is commonly used to separate and purify proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules based on their size and molecular weight. It is also used in the analysis of polymers, colloids, and other materials with a wide range of applications in chemistry, biology, and medicine.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

Endocrine glands are ductless glands in the human body that release hormones directly into the bloodstream, which then carry the hormones to various tissues and organs in the body. These glands play a crucial role in regulating many of the body's functions, including metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood.

Examples of endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pineal gland, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Each of these glands produces specific hormones that have unique effects on various target tissues in the body.

The endocrine system works closely with the nervous system to regulate many bodily functions through a complex network of feedback mechanisms. Disorders of the endocrine system can result in a wide range of symptoms and health problems, including diabetes, thyroid disease, growth disorders, and sexual dysfunction.

Pituitary diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the pituitary gland, a small endocrine gland located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is responsible for producing and secreting several important hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including growth and development, metabolism, stress response, and reproduction.

Pituitary diseases can be classified into two main categories:

1. Pituitary tumors: These are abnormal growths in or around the pituitary gland that can affect its function. Pituitary tumors can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous), and they can vary in size. Some pituitary tumors produce excess hormones, leading to a variety of symptoms, while others may not produce any hormones but can still cause problems by compressing nearby structures in the brain.
2. Pituitary gland dysfunction: This refers to conditions that affect the normal function of the pituitary gland without the presence of a tumor. Examples include hypopituitarism, which is a condition characterized by decreased production of one or more pituitary hormones, and Sheehan's syndrome, which occurs when the pituitary gland is damaged due to severe blood loss during childbirth.

Symptoms of pituitary diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the hormones that are affected. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, medication, or a combination of these approaches.

The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) is a type of immunofluorescence assay used in laboratory medicine and pathology for the detection and localization of specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, cells, or microorganisms. In this technique, a fluorescein-labeled antibody is used to selectively bind to the target antigen or antibody, forming an immune complex. When excited by light of a specific wavelength, the fluorescein label emits light at a longer wavelength, typically visualized as green fluorescence under a fluorescence microscope.

The FAT is widely used in diagnostic microbiology for the identification and characterization of various bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It has also been applied in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and certain cancers by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in patient samples. The main advantage of FAT is its high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for accurate detection and differentiation of various pathogens and disease markers. However, it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel to perform and interpret the results.

Invertebrate hormones refer to the chemical messengers that regulate various physiological processes in invertebrate animals, which include insects, mollusks, worms, and other animals without a backbone. These hormones are produced by specialized endocrine cells or glands and released into the bloodstream to target organs, where they elicit specific responses that help control growth, development, reproduction, metabolism, and behavior.

Examples of invertebrate hormones include:

1. Ecdysteroids: These are steroid hormones found in arthropods such as insects and crustaceans. They regulate molting (ecdysis) and metamorphosis by stimulating the growth and differentiation of new cuticle layers.
2. Juvenile hormone (JH): This is a sesquiterpenoid hormone produced by the corpora allata glands in insects. JH plays a crucial role in maintaining the juvenile stage, regulating reproduction, and controlling diapause (a period of suspended development during unfavorable conditions).
3. Neuropeptides: These are short chains of amino acids that act as hormones or neurotransmitters in invertebrates. They regulate various functions such as feeding behavior, growth, reproduction, and circadian rhythms. Examples include the neuropeptide F (NPF), which controls food intake and energy balance, and the insulin-like peptides (ILPs) that modulate metabolism and growth.
4. Molluscan cardioactive peptides: These are neuropeptides found in mollusks that regulate heart function by controlling heart rate and contractility. An example is FMRFamide, which has been identified in various mollusk species and influences several physiological processes, including feeding behavior, muscle contraction, and reproduction.
5. Vertebrate-like hormones: Some invertebrates produce hormones that are structurally and functionally similar to those found in vertebrates. For example, some annelids (segmented worms) and cephalopods (squid and octopus) have insulin-like peptides that regulate metabolism and growth, while certain echinoderms (starfish and sea urchins) produce steroid hormones that control reproduction.

In summary, invertebrates utilize various types of hormones to regulate their physiological functions, including neuropeptides, cardioactive peptides, insulin-like peptides, and vertebrate-like hormones. These hormones play crucial roles in controlling growth, development, reproduction, feeding behavior, and other essential processes that maintain homeostasis and ensure survival. Understanding the mechanisms of hormone action in invertebrates can provide valuable insights into the evolution of hormonal systems and their functions across different animal taxa.

Genes for human growth hormone, known as growth hormone 1 (somatotropin; pituitary growth hormone) and growth hormone 2 ( ... Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin, also known as human growth hormone (hGH or HGH) in its human form, is a peptide hormone ... In 1985, biosynthetic human growth hormone replaced pituitary-derived human growth hormone for therapeutic use in the U.S. and ... These cells release the peptides growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH or somatocrinin) and growth hormone-inhibiting hormone ...
"Evidence and interpretation". Human growth hormone (somatropin) in adults with growth hormone deficiency. National Institute ... in adults with growth hormone deficiency by normative reference limits: Data of the German KIMS cohort". Growth Hormone & IGF ... The score of the QoL-AGHDA is used to determine the extent to which growth hormone deficiency has affected the patient's ... The QoL-AGHDA addresses seven different areas of concern for growth hormone deficient (GHD) patients. They are: body image and ...
"Nonsense mutation in the human growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor causes growth failure analogous to the little (lit) ... The growth-hormone-releasing hormone receptor (GHRHR) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that binds growth hormone-releasing ... Gaylinn BD (Apr 1999). "Molecular and cell biology of the growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor". Growth Hormone & IGF ... Gaylinn BD, von Kap-Herr C, Golden WL, Thorner MO (Jan 1994). "Assignment of the human growth hormone-releasing hormone ...
The role of human growth hormone's C-terminal disulfide bridge. Growth Horm IGF Res. 2013;23(3):62-7 Carlsson LM, Rosberg S, ... "GHR growth hormone receptor [Homo sapiens (human)]". NCBI. Fisker S (Feb 2006). "Physiology and pathophysiology of growth ... Assays estimate that growth hormone and growth hormone binding protein form a natural complex at a 1:1 ratio for transport and ... Growth hormone-binding protein (GHBP) is a soluble carrier protein for growth hormone (GH). The full range of functions of GHBP ...
... (GHD), or human growth hormone deficiency, is a medical condition resulting from not enough growth ... Treatment is by growth hormone replacement using synthetic human growth hormone. The frequency of the condition is unclear. ... Since 1985, recombinant human growth hormone (rHGH) is a recombinant form of human GH produced by genetically engineered ... Until 1985, growth hormone for treatment was obtained by extraction from human pituitary glands collected at autopsy. ...
"Two distinct species of human growth hormone-variant mRNA in the human placenta predict the expression of novel growth hormone ... Growth hormone 2 (GH2), also known more commonly as placental growth hormone (PGH) or growth hormone variant (GH-V), is a ... 1980). "Genes for growth hormone, chorionic somatommammotropin, and growth hormones-like gene on chromosome 17 in humans". ... 1990). "Identification of placental human growth hormone as the growth hormone-V gene expression product". J. Clin. Endocrinol ...
... also known as pituitary growth hormone or simply as growth hormone (GH) somatotropin, is a protein that in humans is encoded by ... "Entrez Gene: GH1 growth hormone 1". Binder G (2003). "Isolated growth hormone deficiency and the GH-1 gene: update 2002". Horm ... Mutations in or deletions of the gene lead to growth hormone deficiency and short stature. Placental growth hormone ... Cattini PA, Yang X, Jin Y, Detillieux KA (2006). "Regulation of the human growth hormone gene family: possible role for Pit-1 ...
"Human Safety of Hormone Implants Used to Promote Growth in Cattle". National Cattlemen's Foundation. Archived from the original ... use of growth hormones. No concrete evidence linking premature puberty to growth hormones was found, in part because no samples ... as opposed to growth hormone, the specific peptide hormone produced in the brain. In 1993, FDA approved the use of bovine ... all animal growth-promoting hormones allowed in the US were sex hormones (steroids and analogues that target the same receptor ...
Human growth hormone occurs naturally in the human body where it functions by stimulating growth of essentially all tissues, ... "Growth hormone replacement therapy increases handgrip strength in 21 growth hormone-deficient adults". Growth Hormone & IGF ... Biogenesis scandal Growth hormone treatment HGH controversies Lionel Messi "Human Growth Hormone/Steroids Statutory Overview". ... Growth hormones in sports refers to the use of growth hormones (GH or HGH) for athletic enhancement, as opposed to growth ...
"The growth hormone receptor associates with Jak1, Jak2 and Tyk2 in human liver". Growth Hormone & IGF Research. 9 (3): 212-8. ... and growth hormone receptor (GHR) expression by growth hormone (GH) in mouse liver". Growth Hormone & IGF Research. 17 (2): 104 ... This gene encodes a protein that is a transmembrane receptor for growth hormone. Binding of growth hormone to the receptor ... Growth hormone receptor is a protein that in humans is encoded by the GHR gene. GHR orthologs have been identified in most ...
In the past, growth hormone was extracted from human pituitary glands. Growth hormone is now produced by recombinant DNA ... growth hormone in sports, and growth hormone for cows. Growth hormone deficiency is treated by replacing growth hormone. ... Growth hormone therapy refers to the use of growth hormone (GH) as a prescription medication-it is one form of hormone therapy ... Growth hormone is a peptide hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that stimulates growth and cell reproduction. ...
There are at least eight important hormones that decline with age: 1. human growth hormone (HGH); 2. the sexual hormones: ... and homeopathic substances that claim to contain growth hormones. Authentic growth hormones are only effective when injected, ... In theory, if all or some of these hormones are replaced, the body will respond to them as it did when it was younger, thus ... Of course animal cells are not able to be included in human tissue, but they can secrete factors for rejuvenating. That's why ...
Human Growth Hormone (hGH): endogenous hormone that can help decrease fat mass while increasing lean body mass. hGH is one of ... "The history of doping and growth hormone abuse in sport". Growth Hormone & IGF Research. 19 (4): 320-326. doi:10.1016/j.ghir. ... Saugy, M; Robinson, N; Saudan, C; Baume, N; Avois, L; Mangin, P (July 2006). "Human growth hormone doping in sport". British ... Siebert, David M.; Rao, Ashwin L. (October 2018). "The Use and Abuse of Human Growth Hormone in Sports". Sports Health. 10 (5 ...
HGH stands for human growth hormone. HGH may also refer to: Atlantic Air Lift, a French airline Hamilton General Hospital, in ...
Extrapituitary growth hormone synthesis in humans. Growth hormone & IGF research: official journal of the Growth Hormone ... "The human growth hormone locus: Nucleotide sequence, biology, and evolution". Genomics. 4 (4): 479-497. doi:10.1016/0888-7543( ... among which stand out his publications about the Growth Hormone family, human genome sequencing and development of HPV ... Barrera-Saldaña, Hugo A (April 1998). "Growth hormone and placental lactogen: biology, medicine and biotechnology". Gene. 211 ( ...
"Sentencing of human growth hormone offenses". Thomas Perls. 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2013. "Provision or Distribution of Growth ... "Anti-Aging Quackery: Human Growth Hormone and Tricks of the Trade-More Dangerous Than Ever". Oxford Press. 2004. Retrieved 18 ... "Committee holds hearing on myths and facts about human growth hormone, B12, and other substances". U.S. House of ... Perls is the author of several academic articles about the medical misuse and illegal distribution of growth hormone and ...
"Physiological Role of Human Placental Growth Hormone". Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 140 (1-2): 121-27. doi:10.1016/ ... Human Endogenous Retrovirus-W (HERV-W) is a family of Human Endogenous Retroviruses, or HERVs. HERVs are part of a superfamily ... The HERV-W envelope glycoprotein could fuse parental TE671 cells (human embryo cells, identical to human rhabdomyosarcoma RD ... "Human endogenous retrovirus (HERV)-W ENV and GAG proteins: Physiological expression in human brain and pathophysiological ...
... , sold under the brand name Sogroya, is a growth hormone medication. Somapacitan is a human growth hormone analog. ... growth hormone deficiency who had never received growth hormone treatment or had stopped treatment with other growth hormone ... Somapacitan is indicated for replacement of endogenous growth hormone in adults with growth hormone deficiency (GHD). GHD is a ... Somapacitan is the first human growth hormone (hGH) therapy that adults only take once a week by injection under the skin; ...
Juskevich JC, Guyer CG (August 1990). "Bovine growth hormone: human food safety evaluation". Science. 249 (4971): 875-84. ... The FDA has been criticised for allowing the use of recombinant bovine growth hormone (rBGH) in dairy cows. rBGH-treated cows ... The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is ... IGF-1 signalling is thought to play a role in sustaining the growth of some tumors, although there is little or no evidence ...
Glick, S. M.; Roth, J.; Yalow, R. S.; Berson, S. A. (24 August 1963). "Immunoassay of Human Growth Hormone in Plasma". Nature. ... First to Isolate Growth Hormone - with Jesse Roth MD First to measure Growth Hormone - with Jesse Roth MD First to discover ... Nefesh BeNefesh Immunoassay of Human Growth Hormone in Plasma (August 1963), authored together with doctors Jesse Roth, Rosalyn ... Growth Hormone - Insulin relationship with Jesse Roth MD[citation needed] Before moving to Israel in 1974, Glick was Chief of ...
Examples from the past include prion contamination in growth hormone extracted from pituitary glands harvested from human ... ISBN 978-0-471-21386-4. Alexander Dorozynski (2002). "Parents sue over contaminated human growth hormone". British Medical ... These peptide and protein pharmaceuticals may be hormones, vaccines, antibiotics, antibodies, and enzymes. The first human ... Kim DW, Uetsuki T, Kaziro Y, Yamaguchi N, Sugano S (1990). "Use of the human elongation factor 1 alpha promoter as a versatile ...
2315-. ISBN 978-0-323-32195-2. Roy G. Smith; Michael O. Thorner (28 January 2000). Human Growth Hormone: Research and Clinical ... Somatopause is the progressive decline in the levels of growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), hormones ...
Biochemist Choh Hao Li discovered human growth hormone (and subsequently used it to treat a form of dwarfism caused by growth ... Maugh II, Thomas (2 December 1987). "Discovered Human Growth Hormone: Choh Hao Li, 74; Endocrinologist at UC". Los Angeles ... follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone (the key hormone used in fertility testing, an example is the ovulation ... They have had the most significant influence in shaping the development and growth of Chinese civilization. In Taiwan, they ...
He covers the effects of steroids on the human body. He also touches on human growth hormone effects. He reports on baseball's ...
Williams, Lance; Fainaru-Wada, Mark (October 21, 2007). "Cleveland pitcher spent thousands on human growth hormone". San ... 25,000 worth of human growth hormone and syringes from a Florida anti-aging clinic that was targeted by law enforcement for ... Williams, Lance; Fainaru-Wada, Mark; Slusser, Susan (October 22, 2007). "Indians pitcher Byrd says growth hormone was ...
He covers the effects of steroids on the human body. He also touches on human growth hormone effects. He reports on baseball's ... Players are also subject to announced blood tests for the use of human growth hormone (HGH) during the season, off-seasons, and ... In 2013, Armstrong finally admitted to cheating with performance enhancing drugs, including EPO, human growth hormone, and ... Starting in 2011 the NFL implemented random blood test for the use of the human growth hormone (HGH). NFL sanctions include a ...
Friesen H, Guyda H, Hardy J (December 1970). "The biosynthesis of human growth hormone and prolactin". The Journal of Clinical ... Hormones of the hypothalamic-pituitary-prolactin axis, Hormones of the pregnant female, Human hormones, Human female endocrine ... Human prolactin receptors are insensitive to mouse prolactin. Prolactin levels may be checked as part of a sex hormone workup, ... The structure of prolactin is similar to that of growth hormone and placental lactogen. The molecule is folded due to the ...
"Human Growth Hormone: Not a Life Extender After All?". Johns Hopkins Medicine. 26 January 2010. Paolini, Giulia Valentina; ... "Familial growth hormone deficiency with mutated GHRH receptor gene: clinical and hormonal findings in homozygous and ...
Felig P, Marliss EB, Cahill GF (February 1971). "Metabolic response to human growth hormone during prolonged starvation". J. ... This response is extremely important in human evolution and allowed for humans to continue to find food effectively even in the ... Because the human brain can use ketone bodies as major fuel sources, the body is not forced to break down skeletal muscles at a ... Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 2008. pg. 111 Yamaguchi; et al. (2004). "CGI-58 interacts with perilipin and is localized to ...
De Clercq used human growth hormone and Aranesp, a synthetic drug which increases red blood cell levels, which Museeuw obtained ... Museeuw used human growth hormone which he obtained from Landuyt. The police recorded phone calls where Museeuw spoke of wasps ... He was found to have used human growth hormone on two occasions in 2003 and the anabolic steroid DHEA twice in 2003 and once in ... On 9 June, it was announced that Petr Ignatenko of Rusvelo had tested positive to human growth hormone on 8 April 2015. He was ...
... and what does it do to the human body? ... What is human growth hormone? Growth hormone is a powerful ... There is also an increased risk of cancers due to the abnormal growth of cells. What about CJD? Creutzfeld-Jakob Disease is a ... anabolic hormone that occurs naturally in the human body. It is produced by the pituitary gland in the brain and stimulates the ... Growth of the facial bones causes the face to change shape too. The jaw becomes larger, with spaces appearing between the teeth ...
... a consistent exercise and sleep schedule will help promote healthy hormone release. ... Although theres no single magical exercise to promote the most human growth hormone, ... Exercise and Human Growth Hormone HGH is the primary hormone your body uses for growth and cell reproduction. Levels are ... Harvard Health Publishing: Growth hormone, athletic performance, and aging * Growth Hormone & IGF Research: Acute resistance ...
ChartAttack.com is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com. Amazon, the Amazon logo, AmazonSupply, and the AmazonSupply logo are trademarks of Amazon.com, Inc. or its affiliates ...
This may aid researchers in the development of therapeutics for growth hormone defects and lead to a greater understanding of ... recently discovered a novel mechanism that works over an extensive genomic distance and controls the expression of human growth ... hormone (hGH) in the pituitary gland. This mechanism involves a newly discovered set of "non-coding RNAs" expressed in the ... As a result, the transgenic mice expressed high levels of human growth hormone in the pituitary as well as mouse growth hormone ...
Studies of healthy adults taking human growth hormone are limited and contradictory. Although it appears that human growth ... Adults who have a growth hormone deficiency - not the expected decline in growth hormone due to aging - might be prescribed ... Anti-aging hormones. Hormone Health Network. https://www.hormone.org/your-health-and-hormones/steroid-and-hormone-abuse/ ... Human growth hormone is described by some as the key to slowing the aging process. Get the facts about these claims. ...
Human Growth Hormone Supplements: Safety of HGH Patches As baby boomers age, anti-aging supplements are becoming one of the ...
Home Topics Drug Discovery Prolor Biotech to Use The University of Queenslands Human Growth Hormone Cell... ... Current manufacturers of human growth hormone assay for potency by using hypophysectomized rodents. HGH is then administered to ... Prolor Biotech obtained a nonexclusive license to The University of Queenslands (UQ) human growth hormone (HGH) receptor cell ... Prolor Biotech to Use The University of Queenslands Human Growth Hormone Cell Line. ...
Human Growth Hormone (HGH) refers to a hormone that naturally occurs in our bodies. It regulates several physiological ... If you have ever searched for the best human growth hormone product, chances are youve been bombarded with a ton of confusing ... We hope this article has given you a little insight into what human growth hormone supplements are all about! ... What is the best human growth hormone product?. 24 Apr, 2023 by Dane Raynor ...
Find out the facts about human growth hormone (HGH) and how it rapidly builds muscle, slash fat, increase libido, and energy ... What is human growth hormone?. The body naturally produces growth hormone (HGH or simply GH) in the pituitary gland, and, as ... Everything You Need to Know About Human Growth Hormone. Get the facts about this powerful anabolic hormone, then decide if HGH ... Human growth hormone can turn back your bodys internal clock, helping you rapidly build muscle, slash fat, and increase libido ...
FTC Targets Bogus Anti-Aging Claims for Pills and Sprays Promising Human Growth Hormone Benefits. Settlement Provides Up To $20 ... human growth hormone (HGH) levels and provide anti-aging benefits, including weight loss and increased cognitive function. In ... HGH is a hormone released by the pituitary gland that plays a role in human development. The new FTC brochure, entitled "HGH ... Pills and Sprays: Human Growth Hype?," warns that neither the FTC nor the Food and Drug Administration is aware of any reliable ...
Evidence-based recommendations on human growth hormone (somatropin; Genotropin, Humatrope, Norditropin, NutropinAq, Omnitrope, ... Saizen, Zomacton) for treating growth failure in children ... Faltering growth Human growth hormone (somatropin) for the ... This guidance replaces NICE technology appraisal guidance on human growth hormone for the treatment of growth failure in ... Evidence-based recommendations on human growth hormone (somatropin; Genotropin, Humatrope, Norditropin, NutropinAq, Omnitrope, ...
... July 24, 2022. by admin Leave a Comment Human Growth Hormone (HGH) is produced, stored and secreted by ... ways that have been documented in the scientific literature to increase the circulating blood levels of Human Growth Hormone. ... It is a hormone that is widely known for its powerful anabolic (muscle building) effects as well as its lipotropic (breakdown ...
Iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease from Commercial Cadaveric Human Growth Hormone Brian S. Appleby. , Mei Lu, Alberto Bizzi, ... Iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease from Commercial Cadaveric Human Growth Hormone. ... Department of Health and Human Services, the Public Health Service, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, or the ...
... idiopathic growth hormone deficiency and idiopathic or gestational short sta ... recombinant human growth hormone is used in the pediatric population to treat short stature due to growth hormone deficiency ( ... idiopathic growth hormone deficiency and idiopathic or gestational short stature) treated with recombinant human growth hormone ... Recombinant human growth hormone is a protein that is manufactured to be nearly identical to the main form of the naturally ...
... despite apparently normal daytime levels of major metabolic hormones, induces significant increases in circulating lipid fuel ... Impact of 2 weeks high dose growth hormone treatment on basal and insulin stimulated substrate metabolism in humans Clin ... Objective: Short-term, high dose growth hormone (GH) treatment has been advocated in many catabolic disease states. It is ... despite apparently normal daytime levels of major metabolic hormones, induces significant increases in circulating lipid fuel ...
The research report mainly introduced the global Human Growth Hormone market basics: a market overview, classifications, ... The report is divided into various key Regions, production, and growth rate of Human Growth Hormone in these regions, from 2019 ... The segmentation study equips interested parties to identify high-growth portions of the global Human Growth Hormone market and ... The global Human Growth Hormone market is segmented on the basis of the type of product, application, and region. ...
Effect of Recombinant Human Growth Hormone on Cellular Sodium Metabolism Hans Herlitz; Hans Herlitz ... Hans Herlitz, Olof Jonsson, Bengt-Åke Bengtsson; Effect of Recombinant Human Growth Hormone on Cellular Sodium Metabolism. Clin ... 3. One week of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone caused a decrease in urinary sodium excretion in 9/10 patients ... 1. The effect of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone on urinary sodium excretion, total body water, the renin- ...
"Human Growth Hormone" by people in this website by year, and whether "Human Growth Hormone" was a major or minor topic of these ... Human Growth and Growth Hormone: From Antiquity to the Recominant Age to the Future. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2021; 12: ... "Human Growth Hormone" is a descriptor in the National Library of Medicines controlled vocabulary thesaurus, MeSH (Medical ... Morgan K, Van Dommelen P, Batista AR, Koledova E. Observed High Adherence to Recombinant Human Growth Hormone Treatment Using a ...
... by the production of model mice harbouring human growth hormone, and thwe identification of the transgenic mice. ... "A Transgenic Mouse Model with Human Growth Hormone," Turkish Journal of Biology: Vol. 20: No. 4, Article 1. Available at: https ... by the production of model mice harbouring human growth hormone, and thwe identification of the transgenic mice. ...
Top 3 Natural Human Growth Hormone Boosters in Pills GenF20 Plus Pills And Spray Reviews 2023 Male Extra Review - Is It A ... Provacyl Review - Natural Human Growth Hormone Booster. Provacyl Pills: Ingredients, Side Effects, User Reviews 2021. If you ... At a certain point in a mans life, he starts producing less testosterone and human growth hormone, leading to male menopause. ... Amino Acids Which Stimulate Growth Hormone. Provacyl contains essential amino acids like L-Glutamine, GABA or Gamma- ...
The topic of this article will be 5 things you need to know about human growth hormone therapy. Read the post till the end to ... 5 Things You Need to Know About Human Growth Hormone Therapy. Nina Smith 15/12/2021 Health ... Home/Health/5 Things You Need to Know About Human Growth Hormone Therapy. ... we are going to list some things that you need to know about human growth hormone therapy. Keep on reading to learn more about ...
Submit a product review for Simple Plex Human Growth Hormone Cartridge SPCKB-PS-000492 ... Home » Growth Hormone » Simple Plex Human Growth Hormone Cartridge » Submit a Review ...
Human Growth Hormone Penis Size - Who Do I See For Erectile Dysfunction , Able UK. Posted on the : 2023-10-31 ... I know that human nature is not only evil, but also light, but compared with the whole human being, that light, compared with ... Why do you always have this kind of thing After you are beaten, you say that there is a guy who is not human Are you noble Can ... As for whether he can wake up, Benign Growths On Penis no one knows when he will wake up.But in the later stage of Li Shiming s ...
The aim was to establish a selective human Growth Hormone (hgh) microarray which can be used in hgh doping control by detecting ... of Microarray Technology for the Detection of Changes in Gene Expression after Doping with Recombinant Human Growth Hormone ... tool into the field of doping control analysis to gain insight in specific effects of recombinant human growth hormone (hgh) on ... used to search for changes in leukocyte gene expression which are directly related to the application of human growth hormone ( ...
Adult, Cross-Over Studies, Double-Blind Method, Female, Growth Hormone/deficiency, Health Status, Humans, Male, Mental Health, ... Quality of life in adults with growth hormone (GH) deficiency : response to treatment with recombinant human GH in a placebo- ... Growth Hormone/deficiency; Health Status; Humans; Male; Mental Health; Middle Aged; Placebos; Quality of Life; Recombinant ... Quality of life in adults with growth hormone (GH) deficiency : response to treatment with recombinant human GH in a placebo- ...
Save up to 70% when buying Buy HGH human growth hormone () online. Generic and brand-name medications free shipping! ... Purchase generic Buy HGH human growth hormone tablets online at low price, for sale Without Prescription. ... CADTH does not make any HGH human growth hormone for sale guarantee buy HGH pills buy HGH human growth hormone UK to that ... Growth HGH buy hormone human. Blood levels of TSH, T3, T4 status in prepubertal children with cystic fibrosis you have been ...
... best time to take growth hormone injections - Buy legal anabolic steroids Human growth hormone supplements side effects I was ... lilly growth hormone price - Legal steroids for sale Human growth hormone lilly HGH (Human Growth Hormone) Human growth hormone ... Here are the steps to take for all of them: Lilly growth hormone price Growth hormone stack: The growth hormone stack is ... human growth hormone side effects. David S, human growth hormone side effects. Schwartz, lead author of the study and professor ...
The treatment of TS differs according to age and Recombinant Human Growth Hormone (RHGH) therapy is usually given for the ... The treatment of TS differs according to age and Recombinant Human Growth Hormone (RHGH) therapy is usually given for the ... Lichen planus-like drug reaction associated with recombinant human growth hormone therapy in a child patient with Turner ...
  • Adults who have a growth hormone deficiency - not the expected decline in growth hormone due to aging - might be prescribed synthetic HGH by their health care provider. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Growth hormone deficiency is usually caused by a benign tumor on the pituitary gland (pituitary adenoma) or by treatment of an adenoma with surgery or radiotherapy. (mayoclinic.org)
  • HGH treatment is also approved to treat adults with AIDS- or HIV-related growth hormone deficiency that causes irregular distribution of body fat. (mayoclinic.org)
  • HGH treatment is approved in the United States only for treatment of growth hormone deficiency - and related problems associated with HIV infection. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Growth hormone deficiency in adults. (mayoclinic.org)
  • In the United States, recombinant human growth hormone is used in the pediatric population to treat short stature due to growth hormone deficiency (including idiopathic [of unknown cause] growth hormone deficiency), Turner syndrome, Noonan syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, short stature homeobox-containing gene (SHOX) deficiency, chronic renal insufficiency, idiopathic short stature and children small for gestational age. (fda.gov)
  • The risk of death was reported to be increased when doses of recombinant growth hormone that are higher than what is normally prescribed for pediatric growth hormone deficiency were used. (fda.gov)
  • The approved doses in the United States for pediatric growth hormone deficiency are below 50 mcg/kg/day, except during puberty, when a higher dose regimen is approved for a limited duration of time.For short stature indications other than growth hormone deficiency, doses up to 69 mcg/kg/day (0.48 mg/kg/week) are currently approved. (fda.gov)
  • 1. The effect of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone on urinary sodium excretion, total body water, the renin-angiotensin system and erythrocyte sodium metabolism was investigated in 16 adults with growth hormone deficiency. (portlandpress.com)
  • Synthetic growth hormone, termed somatropin, has replaced the natural form in therapeutic usage such as treatment of dwarfism in children with growth hormone deficiency. (umassmed.edu)
  • Type 3 renal tubular acidosis associated with growth hormone deficiency. (umassmed.edu)
  • The statistics have shown that one in every 4 to 10 thousand individuals in the world has a growth hormone deficiency, and this could lead to a lot of health issues, and discomfort in everyday tasks. (hiboox.com)
  • On websites like www.hghtherapydoctor.us , you can find out more about the Serostim benefits, and how you can get tested for GH deficiency, and what to do in case you are lacking the hormone and need treatment. (hiboox.com)
  • Some patients are diagnosed at a really early age that they have the growth hormone deficiency, and they need to undergo the needed treatment. (hiboox.com)
  • The body Good Somatropin Dosage Bodybuilding placed by regulatory bodies on physicians writing prescriptions for hGH with complete growth hormone deficiency. (tools4thegarden.co.uk)
  • HGH injections are approved to treat adults and children who have growth hormone deficiency, for people who are undergoing organ transplants, and for AIDS-related muscle wastingin adults. (paradiseessentials2020.com)
  • Some medical practitioners recommend human growth hormone (HGH) therapy to children with serious growth hormone deficiency that is causing poor bone development. (amitguptaneedsyou.com)
  • HGH has applications beyond the athletic realm, including in the field of age-related hormone deficiency. (spacecoastdaily.com)
  • HGH is approved for specific medical conditions, such as growth hormone deficiency in children and adults. (spacecoastdaily.com)
  • Hyposomatotropism is a deficiency in the release of pituitary growth hormone (somatotropin), resulting in short stature. (medscape.com)
  • Patients with growth hormone deficiency (GHD) typically have hyperlipidemia, increased body fat, premature atherosclerotic plaques, delayed bone maturation, and impaired cardiac function. (medscape.com)
  • The diagnosis of growth hormone (GH) deficiency (GHD), or hyposomatotropism, remains controversial. (medscape.com)
  • The aging system incorporates the lessening of the human growth hormone and buy hgh online bringing about a deficiency of bone and muscle mass, just as an increment of fat stores, and by and large slightness. (snowdusters.com)
  • To use HGH legally and safely, you'll need a doctor's prescription, and getting one typically involves diagnosing a growth hormone deficiency or a specific medical condition that warrants its use. (foodfight.org)
  • A recombinant form of HGH called somatropin (INN) is used as a prescription drug to treat children's growth disorders and adult growth hormone deficiency. (wikipedia.org)
  • Somatropin injection is used to replace growth hormone (a natural hormone produced by your body) in adults and children with growth hormone deficiency. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Medications used in hypopituitarism vary depending on the specific hormone deficiency that exists. (medscape.com)
  • These hormones are used for replacement therapy in hypogonadism associated with a deficiency or absence of endogenous testosterone or estrogen. (medscape.com)
  • Secretion is an independent risk factor for increased abdominal obesity and cardiovascular acids to be effective, certain other substances growth hormone can be a possible treatment option to improve cognitive function and mood in adults who are growth hormone-deficient. (tools4thegarden.co.uk)
  • Comparison of the intravenous insulin and oral clonidine tolerance tests for growth hormone secretion. (bmj.com)
  • It is concluded that clonidine and insulin have similar reliability as test of growth hormone secretion, but that clonidine may be the safer. (bmj.com)
  • More than 65 years ago, scientists learned of the brain's pea-sized pituitary gland, its secretion of growth hormones and the stimulants to which it responds. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • While previous studies showed that exercise can increase growth hormones (GH) secretion, environmental temperatures can affect the release of GH. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • In contrast, exercise performed at 4°C, a cold temperature, could only result in suppression of growth hormone secretion. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • Apparently, increase in temperature is an accompanying condition to growth hormone secretion. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • The role played by the neurotransmitters involved in the secretion of growth hormones remains a mystery. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • Yet the discussion above shows that human growth hormone (HGH) secretion does not respond to protein intakes alone. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • Secretion of growth hormone (GH) in the pituitary is regulated by the neurosecretory nuclei of the hypothalamus. (wikipedia.org)
  • The neurohumoral regulation of growth hormone secretion is mediated in part by two hypothalamic peptides that reach the anterior pituitary via the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal blood system 1 . (northwestern.edu)
  • Somatostatin inhibits the release of growth hormone 2 , whereas growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF) positively regulates both growth hormone synthesis 3,4 and secretion 5,6 . (northwestern.edu)
  • This modification significantly improves the Tat-dependent secretion of human growth hormone (hGH) into the bacterial periplasm, to the extent that secreted hGH is the dominant periplasmic protein after only 1 hr induction. (aston.ac.uk)
  • To compare the effects of Hubble-Bubble Goza] smoking with those of cigarette smoking on insulin, growth hormone and catecholamines secretion, 10 healthy male smokers were studied. (who.int)
  • It stimulates growth in children and plays an important role in adult metabolism. (bbc.co.uk)
  • It regulates several physiological processes such as growth, metabolism, cell repair, muscle development and even facial features. (dane101.com)
  • Lead to higher levels of metabolism, which make that form HGH have anti-aging date of publication, CADTH does not make any HGH human growth hormone for sale guarantee buy HGH pills buy HGH human growth hormone UK to that effect. (tools4thegarden.co.uk)
  • HGH's ability to stimulate muscle growth and enhance fat metabolism has led to its popularity among bodybuilders and fitness enthusiasts. (spacecoastdaily.com)
  • After the physical growth is complete, the human growth hormone helps to maintain a healthy metabolism and body composition. (outlookindia.com)
  • Effects of growth hormone on glucose, lipid, and protein metabolism in human subjects. (scienceopen.com)
  • GH is a counterregulatory hormone that antagonizes the hepatic and peripheral effects of insulin on glucose metabolism via mechanisms involving the concomitant increase in FFA flux and uptake. (scienceopen.com)
  • In addition to the above, Human Growth Hormone promotes metabolism and the way the body uses energy. (healthcareformen.info)
  • It is involved in normal growth, metabolism, and development. (medscape.com)
  • Her buy HGH human growth hormone newest release the First rating Geref Diagnostic Generic name: sermorelin 0 reviews Add rating Macrilen (Pro) Generic name: macimorelin 0 reviews Add rating Norditropin FlexPro Generic name: somatropin 0 reviews Add rating Zorbtive (Pro) Generic name: somatropin 0 reviews Add rating. (tools4thegarden.co.uk)
  • And Safety Study of Pegylated Somatropin to Treat Growth Hormone hGH levels drop the maximal insulin rate doubled during GH treatment. (tools4thegarden.co.uk)
  • The main growth hormone produced by recombinant DNA technology has the approved generic name (INN) somatropin and the brand name Humatrope, and is properly abbreviated rhGH in the scientific literature. (wikipedia.org)
  • Somatropin injection is also used to increase growth in children with certain conditions that affect normal growth and development. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Somatropin injection (Serostim) is used to increase body weight and physical endurance in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) who have HIV-associated wasting syndrome. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Somatropin is a human growth hormone (hGH) analog. (medlineplus.gov)
  • When somatropin injection is given to replace growth hormone in adults, it is usually given once a day. (medlineplus.gov)
  • When somatropin injection to replace growth hormone or increase growth in children, it is usually given once daily on 3 to 7 days each week. (medlineplus.gov)
  • 1-3 It was designed to assess the long-term mortality of patients treated with recombinant human growth hormone during childhood. (fda.gov)
  • FDA is aware of the results of a long-term epidemiological study called SAGhE (Santé Adulte GH Enfant), which was designed to assess the long-term mortality of patients treated with recombinant human growth hormone during childhood. (fda.gov)
  • It is produced by the pituitary gland in the brain and stimulates the growth of muscle, cartilage, and bone. (bbc.co.uk)
  • Human Growth Hormone, often referred to as the "youth hormone," is a naturally occurring substance produced by the pituitary gland. (spacecoastdaily.com)
  • HGH is a natural chemical (hormone) produced by the pituitary gland that provides for the growth and maintenance of human tissue. (healthcareformen.info)
  • This seems perfectly reasonable and as a result a large number of amateur athletes are taking steroids to try and win, human growth hormone recombinant dna technology. (paradiseessentials2020.com)
  • The rapid growth of recombinant DNA technology in pharmaceutical, chemical, agricultur al, energy and food processing facets of the economy indicated the need for careful evaluation of health risks to workers in these areas. (cdc.gov)
  • There are several ways to increase your body's level of HGH production such as exercise or simply getting enough sleep but sometimes these natural ways aren't enough to achieve optimal results - this is where human growth hormone supplements come into play. (dane101.com)
  • We hope this article has given you a little insight into what human growth hormone supplements are all about! (dane101.com)
  • The amazing benefits of human growth hormone supplements and how to be amazing benefit to your user for rather rapid muscle gains and fat loss. (video-bookmark.com)
  • There are many human growth supplements or HGH supplements available on the market. (climatechange2013.org)
  • The HGH supplements enhance the human growth hormones in the body and you need not to produce prescriptions for buying such supplements nor resort to any injection for stimulating the production of HGH. (climatechange2013.org)
  • Therefore, it is better to start with the fundamentals and resort to natural diets and supplements for muscle growth. (outlookindia.com)
  • With the development of wellness and sports industries, many supplements that mimic the positive effects of human growth hormones have been launched in the market. (outlookindia.com)
  • Do not use any drugs, herbs or supplements, including hgh human growth hormone, releasers or precursors, without consulting with your physician first. (hghmed.com)
  • People with any underlying medical or health conditions are required to consult with their local licensed physician before taking any HGH hormone or other hgh nutritional supplements. (hghmed.com)
  • Now the good news, human growth hormone supplements can help break the cycle. (newshunt360.com)
  • Imagine winding back the clock just by adding human growth hormone dietary supplements to your everyday schedule! (newshunt360.com)
  • With that in mind, human growth hormone supplements may be just the lift you need to get your life and your weight back on line. (newshunt360.com)
  • Increased energy isn't the only effect of human growth hormone supplements , though it's closely woven to others. (newshunt360.com)
  • Some folks take human growth hormone supplements only for the known anti aging benefits. (newshunt360.com)
  • A human growth hormone releaser and other human growth hormone dietary supplements can deliver you the energy you need to make the most of your life. (newshunt360.com)
  • Growth hormone is a powerful anabolic hormone that occurs naturally in the human body. (bbc.co.uk)
  • Get the facts about this powerful anabolic hormone, then decide if HGH is right for you. (muscleandfitness.com)
  • To help you decide whether you need HGH, check out our straightforward Q&A, which answers some of the more commonly asked questions and learn how you can boost your own natural levels of this powerful anabolic hormone. (muscleandfitness.com)
  • Not only physical gains, the anabolic hormone HGH also improves mental abilities. (climatechange2013.org)
  • Whereas insulin dominates periprandially, GH may be viewed as the primary anabolic hormone during stress and fasting. (scienceopen.com)
  • A 191-amino acid polypeptide hormone secreted by the human adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR), also known as GH or somatotropin. (umassmed.edu)
  • It is commonly referred to as hGH, and somatotropin is a naturally occurring hormone that the pituitary gland produces and releases. (outlookindia.com)
  • Instead, let's spotlight somatotropin - a more sophisticated alias for our well-known friend, human growth hormone (HGH). (foodfight.org)
  • Growth hormone (GH) or somatotropin, also known as human growth hormone (hGH or HGH) in its human form, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration in humans and other animals. (wikipedia.org)
  • The names somatotropin (STH) or somatotropic hormone refer to the growth hormone produced naturally in animals and extracted from carcasses. (wikipedia.org)
  • Prolor Biotech obtained a nonexclusive license to The University of Queensland's (UQ) human growth hormone (HGH) receptor cell line. (genengnews.com)
  • Despite marked structural similarities between growth hormone from different species, only human and Old World monkey growth hormones have significant effects on the human growth hormone receptor. (wikipedia.org)
  • Furthermore, these variants circulate partially bound to a protein (growth hormone-binding protein, GHBP), which is the truncated part of the growth hormone receptor, and an acid-labile subunit (ALS). (wikipedia.org)
  • CDK4/6 inhibitors for hormone receptor-positive/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 negative advanced breast cancer: A rapid health technology assessment. (bvsalud.org)
  • Achondroplasia is caused by mutations in the fibroblast growth factor receptor-3 ( FGFR3 ) gene. (medscape.com)
  • For example, the 2015 annual report showed breast cancer incidence by molecular subtypes using tumor biomarkers for hormone receptor (HR) and human growth factor-neu receptor (HER2) expression. (cdc.gov)
  • Breast cancers are increasingly recognized as heterogeneous based on expression of receptors for estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). (cdc.gov)
  • Data regarding all 5,605 AYA breast cancers diagnosed in California during the period 2005 to 2009, including ER and PR status (referred to jointly as hormone receptor (HR) status) and HER2 status, was obtained from the population-based California Cancer Registry. (cdc.gov)
  • When breast cancer occurs in AYAs, it differs from that occurring in older women in several ways: a worse prognosis and more-aggressive phenotype, higher proportions of high-grade and later stage tumors, lower estrogen receptor (ER) positivity, and overexpression of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) [ 1 , 3 , 4 ]. (cdc.gov)
  • We recently reported in a large, population-based series from California that the hormone receptor negative, HER2 positive (HR - /HER2 + ) and triple-negative (ER negative/progesterone receptor (PR) negative/HER2 negative) tumors were more common in younger women [ 4 , 6 ]. (cdc.gov)
  • These agents are used in the treatment of children who have growth failure associated with chronic renal insufficiency up to the time of renal transplantation. (medscape.com)
  • Recombinant human growth hormone is a protein that is manufactured to be nearly identical to the main form of the naturally occurring human growth hormone. (fda.gov)
  • The human growth hormone likewise controls protein, carb, and fat digestion. (snowdusters.com)
  • However, while anabolic steroids are synthetic variations of testosterone, HGH is a protein-based hormone produced naturally in our bodies. (foodfight.org)
  • The major isoform of the human growth hormone is a protein of 191 amino acids and a molecular weight of 22,124 daltons. (wikipedia.org)
  • They are protein hormone in the body. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • Analysis of human GRF complementary DNA 10,11 and genomic 12 clones indicates that the GRF peptides are first synthesized as a 107- or 108-amino-acid precursor protein. (northwestern.edu)
  • We report that expression of the human GRF precursor protein in these animals results in measurable levels of human GRF and increased levels of mouse growth hormone in plasma and accelerated growth rates relative to control littermates. (northwestern.edu)
  • The natural human growth hormone is produced in the body's pituitary gland and this protein blend has several roles. (newshunt360.com)
  • When secreted, GH remains active in the bloodstream for only a few minutes, but this is enough time for the liver to convert it into growth factors, the most crucial of which is insulin-like growth factor-1, or IGF-1, which boasts a host of anabolic properties. (muscleandfitness.com)
  • Administration of GH in a therapeutic dose for 2 weeks, despite apparently normal daytime levels of major metabolic hormones, induces significant increases in circulating lipid fuel substrates, increased energy expenditure and lipid oxidation, together with insulin resistance. (nih.gov)
  • THP-1 cells, a model system for monocytes, were least sensitive to the application of hgh due to the lack of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) production. (wada-ama.org)
  • The plasma growth hormone response to intravenous insulin was compared with that of oral clonidine in a multicentre trial in 64 patients being investigated for short stature. (bmj.com)
  • HGH functions as a messenger that prompts the liver to produce insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). (spacecoastdaily.com)
  • When subjects are well nourished, the GH-induced stimulation of IGF-I and insulin is important for anabolic storage and growth of lean body mass (LBM), adipose tissue, and glycogen reserves. (scienceopen.com)
  • High levels of HGH can stimulate growth, sure, but it can also cause side effects like joint pain, insulin resistance, and even an increased risk of certain cancers. (foodfight.org)
  • Blood samles were assayed for plasma glucose, insulin, growth hormone, adrenaline and noradernaline in the fasting state and 10, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 180 minutes after the end of smoking by the glucose oxidase method for glucose, radioimmunoassay for insulin and growth hormone, and flourometry for catecholamines. (who.int)
  • A recent National Institutes of Health workshop addressed the question of risks related to Escherichia-coli-K-12 production of insulin and human growth hormone. (cdc.gov)
  • Human growth hormone can turn back your body's internal clock, helping you rapidly build muscle , slash fat , and increase libido , all while sending energy levels through the roof. (muscleandfitness.com)
  • While this may be a very generalised observation we can also take this to mean that if you take steroids your body is forced to use them, this can be in many different situations, such as training sessions or when your body's natural defenses are depleted, best time to take growth hormone injections. (paradiseessentials2020.com)
  • Simply said, the Human Growth Hormone is the kind of hormone that promotes the body's youthful and fresh look. (video-bookmark.com)
  • Nonetheless, scientists found out from further investigations that a certain gut hormone called 'ghrelin' has stimulatory effect on the body's level of food intakes, far absorption and deposition, as well as release of growth hormones. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • In knowing that several factors influence the human body's capability to secrete growth hormones, it's easier to understand why physicians prescribe steroids but only under their medical supervision. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • At a certain point in a man's life, he starts producing less testosterone and human growth hormone , leading to male menopause. (healthkicker.com)
  • Provacyl is a safe and effective hormone supplement that is carefully formulated to boost testosterone hormones and HGH production without adding external sources. (healthkicker.com)
  • Each ingredient is vital as they work hand in hand to boost testosterone and HGH hormones in the body. (healthkicker.com)
  • This component helps maintain the natural balance of estrogen and testosterone hormone levels. (healthkicker.com)
  • When taken, testosterone is the hormone of choice for muscle-strengthening and strength training, hygetropin side effects. (paradiseessentials2020.com)
  • The term growth hormone has been incorrectly applied to refer to anabolic sex hormones in the European beef hormone controversy, which initially restricts the use of estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, zeranol, melengestrol acetate and trenbolone acetate. (wikipedia.org)
  • Delivered in the human body normally, the human growth hormone HGH comprises of a multi-layered organization of amino acids and is created by the front pituitary organ. (snowdusters.com)
  • It is a peptide hormone and it is comprised of a mix of 191 amino acids. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • Two forms of human GRF, 40 and 44 amino acids long, have been characterized from extra-hypothalamic tumours 7,8 as well as from the hypothalamus 9 . (northwestern.edu)
  • While a human growth hormone supplement like GenF20 Plus for example, doubtlessly isn't going to have you turning cartwheels by tomorrow, it is likely to help you find the energy to get started on a realistic exercise regimen. (newshunt360.com)
  • As a result, the transgenic mice expressed high levels of human growth hormone in the pituitary as well as mouse growth hormone. (sciencedaily.com)
  • The objective of this research was the optimization of transgenic manipulation in the laboratory, by the production of model mice harbouring human growth hormone, and thwe identification of the transgenic mice. (tubitak.gov.tr)
  • To examine the physiological consequences of GRF expression, we have established strains of transgenic mice containing a fusion gene including the promoter/regulatory region of the mouse metal-lothionein-I (MT-I) gene 13 and the coding region of the human GRF gene 12 . (northwestern.edu)
  • Unexpectedly, female transgenic mice carrying the MT-GRF fusion gene are fertile, in contrast to female transgenic mice expressing human or rat growth hormone, which are generally infertile. (northwestern.edu)
  • Does hgh (human growth hormone) promote tics the way steroids do? (latitudes.org)
  • It's certainly an interesting business model, but do other athletes really stand to benefit from gaining size and strength without anabolic steroids being necessary, or do those who take them face a similar uphill battle, human growth hormone medical uses? (paradiseessentials2020.com)
  • regardless, note ought to be made that HGH Human Growth Hormone weight decrease Steroids have certified unwanted effects that specialists alert against, especially if the treatment is offered with no expert is direction. (juliamunrompp.com)
  • HGH is often mistaken for anabolic steroids due to some overlap in benefits like muscle growth and performance enhancement. (foodfight.org)
  • In addition, many people also make use of Human Growth Hormone because they believe that it can effectively act as an alternative to anabolic steroids. (jbhnews.com)
  • These cells release the peptides growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH or somatocrinin) and growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH or somatostatin) into the hypophyseal portal venous blood surrounding the pituitary. (wikipedia.org)
  • Although many forms of exercise can stimulate hormone release, more HGH doesn't necessarily mean more muscle or strength. (livestrong.com)
  • Interestingly, women experienced a higher increase in hormone levels than men. (livestrong.com)
  • Two Florida businesses have agreed to a federal court order requiring them to pay up to $20 million in consumer redress - the largest monetary judgment ever obtained in an FTC health fraud case - to settle charges that they deceptively claimed that their pills and sprays would increase consumers' human growth hormone (HGH) levels and provide anti-aging benefits, including weight loss and increased cognitive function. (ftc.gov)
  • There are five ways that have been documented in the scientific literature to increase the circulating blood levels of Human Growth Hormone. (betterbodz.com)
  • Ordinary levels of the human growth hormone will keep us in balance all through our lifetime yet there are those conditions that outcome from an under - or over - creation of HGH. (snowdusters.com)
  • For certain youngsters who have not exactly typical levels of the human growth hormone, growth will be hindered. (snowdusters.com)
  • According to studies about 'ghrelin,' levels of this gut hormone tend to increase and decrease with the amount and type of food and beverage, including water, taken in by the body. (sealthedeal2009.org)
  • Companies like https://www.blugenix.com/ and many others work to optimize a man's hormone levels. (articlecity.com)
  • Since the process of aging is not something to be desired for, you may benefit from taking HGH Human Growth Hormone as your IGF-1 levels drop. (hghmed.com)
  • Humans begin to produce HGH at birth and varying levels of HGH circulate in the bloodstream until death. (healthcareformen.info)
  • Growth hormone levels were significantly and progressively elevated in both types of smoking. (who.int)
  • The goal of pharmacotherapy is to restore target hormones to physiologic levels. (medscape.com)
  • Super popular among gym-goers is another supplement that pledges rapid growths abs keenness from its usage. (dane101.com)
  • The supplement does not provide your body with artificial hormones but naturally boosts their body products to help bring back the youth in you . (healthkicker.com)
  • This natural slowdown has triggered an interest in using synthetic human growth hormone (HGH) as a way to stave off some of the changes linked to aging, such as decreased muscle and bone mass. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Increasing muscle mass and bone density are impossible without GH, but it also plays a major role in maintaining the health of all human tissue, including that of the brain and other vital organs. (muscleandfitness.com)
  • This happens as the human growth hormone is emitted from the pituitary organ, invigorating the liver and different tissues to animate bone growth and muscle mass. (snowdusters.com)
  • Combined with other hormones and substances, HGH facilitates the building of bone and muscle as well as the production of cells that help organs and tissues grow and repair themselves. (healthcareformen.info)
  • Growth factors may emerge as an interesting alternative in the reconstruction of tissues, highlighting the growth hormone (GH), a regulator of bone growth and remodeling, which plays a key role affecting chondrocytes, osteoclasts, and osteoblasts. (bvsalud.org)
  • It stimulates the growth of linear bone, skeletal muscle, and organs and stimulates erythropoietin, increasing red blood cell mass. (medscape.com)
  • Organs like the heart, liver and kidneys will also undergo excessive growth, leading to potentially life-threatening problems - one of which is cardiomyopathy, a disease of the heart muscle. (bbc.co.uk)
  • Growth hormone fuels childhood growth and helps maintain tissues and organs throughout life. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Hormones are substances that communicate with the organs, muscles, and other tissues through the blood to coordinate various bodily operations. (outlookindia.com)
  • Human Growth Hormone is an indispensable hormone blended in the body normally by the pituitary organ which is answerable for the growth of the body and other inner organs. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • Helps in the growth of the inward imperative organs of the body. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • In most cases it is transported via the blood vessels, hormones reach other organs or tissues where they produce various effects. (jbhnews.com)
  • Hormonal problems are common, and the function of the reproductive organs is abnormally decreased, which limits growth and sexual development. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Estrogen is important in the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics, promoting the growth and development of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and breasts. (medscape.com)
  • Human Growth Hormone works by stimulating the tissues and the liver to generate a growth factor referred to as IGF-1. (jbhnews.com)
  • In active form, levothyroxine influences the growth and maturation of tissues. (medscape.com)
  • Each Humatrope HGH bottle contains 15 IU (5mg) of biosynthetic human growth hormone (from recombinant DNA), excipients include Glycine, mannitol, bibasic sodium phosphate. (hghmed.com)
  • Our body produces over 50 hormones, many of which communicate with one another to form a complex network of physiological processes. (outlookindia.com)
  • The treatment of TS differs according to age and Recombinant Human Growth Hormone (RHGH) therapy is usually given for the treatment of short stature in girls with TS in childhood. (cdlib.org)
  • The study population was based on a mandatory registry of patients in France who received recombinant human growth hormone treatment during childhood between 1985 and 1996 and whose vital status and cause of death was determined through September 2009. (fda.gov)
  • 1-3 This study was based on a mandatory registry of patients in France treated with recombinant growth hormone during childhood between 1985 and 1996. (fda.gov)
  • The commercial introduction of recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) in 1985 dramatically changed the field of therapy for growth hormone (GH). (medscape.com)
  • Three years later, NHS doctors began to use it in the treatment of children suffering from stunted growth. (bbc.co.uk)
  • This guidance replaces NICE technology appraisal guidance on human growth hormone for the treatment of growth failure in children (TA42). (nice.org.uk)
  • At this time, FDA recommends that patients continue their recombinant human growth hormone treatment as prescribed by their healthcare provider. (fda.gov)
  • Short-term, high dose growth hormone (GH) treatment has been advocated in many catabolic disease states. (nih.gov)
  • 3. One week of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone caused a decrease in urinary sodium excretion in 9/10 patients and an increase in erythrocyte sodium content. (portlandpress.com)
  • 4. Six months of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone caused significant increases in total body water, erythrocyte sodium content and sodium transmembrane influx. (portlandpress.com)
  • 5. The enhanced erythrocyte sodium transport, if this reflects what happens in the renal tubular cell, combined with a decrease in urinary sodium excretion, during treatment with recombinant human growth hormone could indicate an increase in tubular sodium reabsorption induced by the hormone. (portlandpress.com)
  • Morgan K, Van Dommelen P, Batista AR, Koledova E. Observed High Adherence to Recombinant Human Growth Hormone Treatment Using a Multi-Component Approach to Improve Adherence in Individuals with Growth Disorders. (umassmed.edu)
  • Achievement of final adult height consistent with a child's genetic potential remains the primary therapeutic endpoint for recombinanat human growth hormone (rhGH) therapy in the pediatric population. (medscape.com)
  • In addition to serving as a major contributor to height growth during childhood, hGH plays a role in strengthening bones and increasing muscle mass throughout life. (sciencedaily.com)
  • The pituitary glands were removed from cadavers, processed and the hormones made available in injectable form. (bbc.co.uk)
  • Hormone extracted from human cadavers is abbreviated hGH. (wikipedia.org)
  • Supplementing the growth hormone for anyone you to get some real improvements were a teen and your body just hurt a lot for no reason. (tools4thegarden.co.uk)
  • Specifically, heavy resistance exercise has been shown to increase growth hormone in both men and women, according to a small June 2015 study published in Growth Hormone & IGF Research . (livestrong.com)
  • Although it appears that human growth hormone can increase muscle mass and reduce the amount of body fat in healthy older adults, the increase in muscle doesn't translate into increased strength. (mayoclinic.org)
  • In recent years in the United States, some health care providers are prescribing growth hormone in the elderly to increase vitality. (wikipedia.org)
  • Although it appears that human growth hormone can increase muscle mass and reduce the amount of body fat in healthy older adults, the increase in muscle does not translate into increased strength, and it may lead to muscle atrophy. (kordulakovac.de)
  • In addition, research suggests that even though growth hormone increases muscle mass, it does not increase strength. (kordulakovac.de)
  • This is known as hypertrophy (a term that has been around since the days of Hoyle's and the work of Dr, human growth hormone how to increase. (kordulakovac.de)
  • Clements, among others), and can lead to muscle imbalances and problems such as muscle pain and numbness, which can lead to injury or muscle weakness, human growth hormone how to increase. (kordulakovac.de)
  • The human genome is comprised of both non-coding DNA and coding regions, or genes. (sciencedaily.com)
  • At the genomic level, a 14,000 base-pair separation is equal to the size of 10 growth hormone genes lined end to end. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Genes clustering in the categories fatty acid beta oxidation, cell adhesion, DNA replication and polyamine biosynthesis were up-regulated indicating increased lipolysis, cell attachment, proliferation and growth. (wada-ama.org)
  • growth hormone variant), are localized in the q22-24 region of chromosome 17 and are closely related to human chorionic somatomammotropin (also known as placental lactogen) genes. (wikipedia.org)
  • In fact, you might have read several articles on the web that talk about these naturally produced hormones but it is only now that you thought of them as important because of what you discovered. (video-bookmark.com)
  • Although human growth hormone is naturally produced in the body, it is also administered medically to treat certain conditions due to its benefits. (outlookindia.com)
  • Every body responds a little differently to exercise, which makes researching and understanding human growth hormone (HGH) release difficult. (livestrong.com)
  • HGH is the primary hormone your body uses for growth and cell reproduction. (livestrong.com)
  • Exercise is among the most powerful stimulants for HGH production and can also promote better sleep, which is when your body releases the hormone most. (livestrong.com)
  • The body naturally produces growth hormone ( HGH or simply GH ) in the pituitary gland, and, as its name implies, it is responsible for cell growth and regeneration. (muscleandfitness.com)
  • It is a hormone that is widely known for its powerful anabolic (muscle building) effects as well as its lipotropic (breakdown and utilization of body fat) effects. (betterbodz.com)
  • After 6 months on recombinant human growth hormone total body water showed a significant negative correlation with plasma renin activity. (portlandpress.com)
  • It is a crucial part in the body and the creation of this hormone are informed here. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • The human growth hormone in the body is to be in right rate. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • It will cause gigantism in kids bringing about the over growth of all pieces of the body. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • You should know the elements of the human growth hormone in a human body and buy hgh online to get benefits. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • Human growth hormone also known as HGH is, basically, a hormone that is responsible for the growth and development of the body. (jbhnews.com)
  • It is a very important hormone because it plays a key role on the wellbeing of your body in many different ways. (jbhnews.com)
  • A hormone is a kind of fluid manufactured in a body organ known as a gland. (jbhnews.com)
  • In a nutshell, Human Growth Hormone is central to the process of body growth and during old age, it helps to maintain the ageing body. (jbhnews.com)
  • Since we are now aware that the human growth hormone is very important in life, it should be considered as indispensable for maintenance of the body. (jbhnews.com)
  • The hormone is emitted in the front piece of the pituitary organ in the hypo thalamus area. (waitthouseinc.org)
  • Human Growth Hormone (HGH) is produced, stored and secreted by the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain. (betterbodz.com)
  • The investigators report a 30% increased risk of death with recombinant human growth hormone therapy compared to the general population, with 93 observed deaths in the treated group versus 70 expected deaths in the general population in France. (fda.gov)
  • Quintos JB, Hodax JK, Gonzales-Ellis BA, Phornphutkul C, Wajnrajch MP, Boney CM. Efficacy of growth hormone therapy in Kearns-Sayre syndrome: the KIGS experience. (umassmed.edu)
  • Not many people have all the information about this condition, and in this article, we are going to list some things that you need to know about human growth hormone therapy. (hiboox.com)
  • IU) buy HGH human growth hormone can be taken post training with another should be stopped study subjects received concomitant antiretroviral therapy. (tools4thegarden.co.uk)
  • Both men and women often turn to hormone replacement therapy to combat the loss. (articlecity.com)
  • In this guide, we're going over what you need to know about hormone therapy for men. (articlecity.com)
  • This is one of the most common reasons men seek hormone replacement therapy. (articlecity.com)
  • How Does Hormone Therapy for Men Work? (articlecity.com)
  • But, it's worth noting that hormone therapy for men also has many benefits. (articlecity.com)
  • Beginning in middle age, however, the pituitary gland slowly reduces the amount of growth hormone it produces. (mayoclinic.org)
  • IGF-1, in turn, stimulates cell growth and regeneration. (spacecoastdaily.com)
  • HGH Growth Hormone is responsible for growth stimulation, cell reproduction, and cell regeneration. (hghmed.com)
  • Possible that counterfeit products due to the problems inherent with age-related decline in growth hormone to be a disease, even when it results in serious disability and death. (tools4thegarden.co.uk)
  • The report is divided into various key Regions, production, and growth rate of Human Growth Hormone in these regions, from 2019 to 2024. (pharmiweb.com)
  • And drinking alcohol can not only inhibit exercise-induced muscle growth, according to a January 2017 study published in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research , but it can also negatively affect your sleep. (livestrong.com)
  • Muscle versus fat is shed much faster when working with HGH Human Growth Hormone considering the way that it extends the absorption similarly as the circulatory system. (juliamunrompp.com)
  • Assuming that you have been including in weight training or muscle building for quite a while, you most likely have been presented to this term HGH or so call Human Growth Hormone. (snowdusters.com)
  • In older adults whose muscles are still contracting, growth hormone may cause the muscle to swell. (kordulakovac.de)
  • With decrease in the level of growth hormone, cognitive remembrance is also affected. (jbhnews.com)