Recirculating, dendritic, antigen-presenting cells containing characteristic racket-shaped granules (Birbeck granules). They are found principally in the stratum spinosum of the EPIDERMIS and are rich in Class II MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX molecules. Langerhans cells were the first dendritic cell to be described and have been a model of study for other dendritic cells (DCs), especially other migrating DCs such as dermal DCs and INTERSTITIAL DENDRITIC CELLS.
Irregular microscopic structures consisting of cords of endocrine cells that are scattered throughout the PANCREAS among the exocrine acini. Each islet is surrounded by connective tissue fibers and penetrated by a network of capillaries. There are four major cell types. The most abundant beta cells (50-80%) secrete INSULIN. Alpha cells (5-20%) secrete GLUCAGON. PP cells (10-35%) secrete PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE. Delta cells (~5%) secrete SOMATOSTATIN.
The transference of pancreatic islets within an individual, between individuals of the same species, or between individuals of different species.
A group of disorders resulting from the abnormal proliferation of and tissue infiltration by LANGERHANS CELLS which can be detected by their characteristic Birbeck granules (X bodies), or by monoclonal antibody staining for their surface CD1 ANTIGENS. Langerhans-cell granulomatosis can involve a single organ, or can be a systemic disorder.
A pancreatic beta-cell hormone that is co-secreted with INSULIN. It displays an anorectic effect on nutrient metabolism by inhibiting gastric acid secretion, gastric emptying and postprandial GLUCAGON secretion. Islet amyloid polypeptide can fold into AMYLOID FIBRILS that have been found as a major constituent of pancreatic AMYLOID DEPOSITS.
A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (GLYCOGENOLYSIS; GLUCONEOGENESIS) and indirectly by suppressing GLUCAGON secretion and LIPOLYSIS. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 1).
The external, nonvascular layer of the skin. It is made up, from within outward, of five layers of EPITHELIUM: (1) basal layer (stratum basale epidermidis); (2) spinous layer (stratum spinosum epidermidis); (3) granular layer (stratum granulosum epidermidis); (4) clear layer (stratum lucidum epidermidis); and (5) horny layer (stratum corneum epidermidis).
A subclass of lectins that are specific for CARBOHYDRATES that contain MANNOSE.
Rare malignant neoplasm of dendritic LANGERHANS CELLS exhibiting atypical cytology, frequent mitoses, and aggressive clinical behavior. They can be distinguished from other histiocytic and dendritic proliferations by immunohistochemical and ultrastructure studies. Cytologically benign proliferations of Langerhans cells are called LANGERHANS CELL HISTIOCYTOSIS.
A type of pancreatic cell representing about 50-80% of the islet cells. Beta cells secrete INSULIN.
A primary source of energy for living organisms. It is naturally occurring and is found in fruits and other parts of plants in its free state. It is used therapeutically in fluid and nutrient replacement.
The outer covering of the body that protects it from the environment. It is composed of the DERMIS and the EPIDERMIS.
A type of acute or chronic skin reaction in which sensitivity is manifested by reactivity to materials or substances coming in contact with the skin. It may involve allergic or non-allergic mechanisms.
Glycoproteins expressed on cortical thymocytes and on some dendritic cells and B-cells. Their structure is similar to that of MHC Class I and their function has been postulated as similar also. CD1 antigens are highly specific markers for human LANGERHANS CELLS.
A type of pancreatic cell representing about 5-20% of the islet cells. Alpha cells secrete GLUCAGON.
A nodular organ in the ABDOMEN that contains a mixture of ENDOCRINE GLANDS and EXOCRINE GLANDS. The small endocrine portion consists of the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS secreting a number of hormones into the blood stream. The large exocrine portion (EXOCRINE PANCREAS) is a compound acinar gland that secretes several digestive enzymes into the pancreatic ductal system that empties into the DUODENUM.
A subtype of DIABETES MELLITUS that is characterized by INSULIN deficiency. It is manifested by the sudden onset of severe HYPERGLYCEMIA, rapid progression to DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS, and DEATH unless treated with insulin. The disease may occur at any age, but is most common in childhood or adolescence.
A 29-amino acid pancreatic peptide derived from proglucagon which is also the precursor of intestinal GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDES. Glucagon is secreted by PANCREATIC ALPHA CELLS and plays an important role in regulation of BLOOD GLUCOSE concentration, ketone metabolism, and several other biochemical and physiological processes. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1511)
A benign tumor of the PANCREATIC BETA CELLS. Insulinoma secretes excess INSULIN resulting in HYPOGLYCEMIA.
Diabetes mellitus induced experimentally by administration of various diabetogenic agents or by PANCREATECTOMY.
The most benign and common form of Langerhans-cell histiocytosis which involves localized nodular lesions predominantly of the bones but also of the gastric mucosa, small intestine, lungs, or skin, with infiltration by EOSINOPHILS.
A class of animal lectins that bind to carbohydrate in a calcium-dependent manner. They share a common carbohydrate-binding domain that is structurally distinct from other classes of lectins.
Specialized cells of the hematopoietic system that have branch-like extensions. They are found throughout the lymphatic system, and in non-lymphoid tissues such as SKIN and the epithelia of the intestinal, respiratory, and reproductive tracts. They trap and process ANTIGENS, and present them to T-CELLS, thereby stimulating CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY. They are different from the non-hematopoietic FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS, which have a similar morphology and immune system function, but with respect to humoral immunity (ANTIBODY PRODUCTION).
Endocrine cells found throughout the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT and in islets of the PANCREAS. D cells secrete SOMATOSTATIN that acts in both an endocrine and paracrine manner. Somatostatin acts on a variety of tissues including the PITUITARY GLAND; gastrointestinal tract; pancreas; and KIDNEY by inhibiting the release of hormones, such as GROWTH HORMONE; GASTRIN; INSULIN; and RENIN.
A pancreatic polypeptide of about 110 amino acids, depending on the species, that is the precursor of insulin. Proinsulin, produced by the PANCREATIC BETA CELLS, is comprised sequentially of the N-terminal B-chain, the proteolytically removable connecting C-peptide, and the C-terminal A-chain. It also contains three disulfide bonds, two between A-chain and B-chain. After cleavage at two locations, insulin and C-peptide are the secreted products. Intact proinsulin with low bioactivity also is secreted in small amounts.
A layer of vascularized connective tissue underneath the EPIDERMIS. The surface of the dermis contains innervated papillae. Embedded in or beneath the dermis are SWEAT GLANDS; HAIR FOLLICLES; and SEBACEOUS GLANDS.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
A strain of non-obese diabetic mice developed in Japan that has been widely studied as a model for T-cell-dependent autoimmune insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in which insulitis is a major histopathologic feature, and in which genetic susceptibility is strongly MHC-linked.
Differentiation antigens residing on mammalian leukocytes. CD stands for cluster of differentiation, which refers to groups of monoclonal antibodies that show similar reactivity with certain subpopulations of antigens of a particular lineage or differentiation stage. The subpopulations of antigens are also known by the same CD designation.
The movement of cells from one location to another. Distinguish from CYTOKINESIS which is the process of dividing the CYTOPLASM of a cell.
The number of CELLS of a specific kind, usually measured per unit volume or area of sample.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
An antibiotic that is produced by Stretomyces achromogenes. It is used as an antineoplastic agent and to induce diabetes in experimental animals.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Glucose in blood.
Antigens on surfaces of cells, including infectious or foreign cells or viruses. They are usually protein-containing groups on cell membranes or walls and may be isolated.
Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
Irritants and reagents for labeling terminal amino acid groups.
Large, transmembrane, non-covalently linked glycoproteins (alpha and beta). Both chains can be polymorphic although there is more structural variation in the beta chains. The class II antigens in humans are called HLA-D ANTIGENS and are coded by a gene on chromosome 6. In mice, two genes named IA and IE on chromosome 17 code for the H-2 antigens. The antigens are found on B-lymphocytes, macrophages, epidermal cells, and sperm and are thought to mediate the competence of and cellular cooperation in the immune response. The term IA antigens used to refer only to the proteins encoded by the IA genes in the mouse, but is now used as a generic term for any class II histocompatibility antigen.
General term for the abnormal appearance of histiocytes in the blood. Based on the pathological features of the cells involved rather than on clinical findings, the histiocytic diseases are subdivided into three groups: HISTIOCYTOSIS, LANGERHANS CELL; HISTIOCYTOSIS, NON-LANGERHANS-CELL; and HISTIOCYTIC DISORDERS, MALIGNANT.
A primary malignant neoplasm of the pancreatic ISLET CELLS. Usually it involves the non-INSULIN-producing cell types, the PANCREATIC ALPHA CELLS and the pancreatic delta cells (SOMATOSTATIN-SECRETING CELLS) in GLUCAGONOMA and SOMATOSTATINOMA, respectively.
The survival of a graft in a host, the factors responsible for the survival and the changes occurring within the graft during growth in the host.
Glyceraldehyde is a triose sugar, a simple monosaccharide (sugar) that contains three carbon atoms, with the molecular formula C3H6O3, and it exists in two structural forms, namely D-glyceraldehyde and L-glyceraldehyde, which are diastereomers of each other, and it is a key intermediate in several biochemical pathways, including glycolysis and gluconeogenesis.
Ducts that collect PANCREATIC JUICE from the PANCREAS and supply it to the DUODENUM.
A fibrous protein complex that consists of proteins folded into a specific cross beta-pleated sheet structure. This fibrillar structure has been found as an alternative folding pattern for a variety of functional proteins. Deposits of amyloid in the form of AMYLOID PLAQUES are associated with a variety of degenerative diseases. The amyloid structure has also been found in a number of functional proteins that are unrelated to disease.
They are oval or bean shaped bodies (1 - 30 mm in diameter) located along the lymphatic system.
Small antigenic determinants capable of eliciting an immune response only when coupled to a carrier. Haptens bind to antibodies but by themselves cannot elicit an antibody response.
A contact dermatitis due to allergic sensitization to various substances. These substances subsequently produce inflammatory reactions in the skin of those who have acquired hypersensitivity to them as a result of prior exposure.
A delayed hypersensitivity involving the reaction between sunlight or other radiant energy source and a chemical substance to which the individual has been previously exposed and sensitized. It manifests as a papulovesicular, eczematous, or exudative dermatitis occurring chiefly on the light-exposed areas of the skin.
Epidermal cells which synthesize keratin and undergo characteristic changes as they move upward from the basal layers of the epidermis to the cornified (horny) layer of the skin. Successive stages of differentiation of the keratinocytes forming the epidermal layers are basal cell, spinous or prickle cell, and the granular cell.
A sulphonylurea hypoglycemic agent with actions and uses similar to those of CHLORPROPAMIDE. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p290)
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
The process by which antigen is presented to lymphocytes in a form they can recognize. This is performed by antigen presenting cells (APCs). Some antigens require processing before they can be recognized. Antigen processing consists of ingestion and partial digestion of the antigen by the APC, followed by presentation of fragments on the cell surface. (From Rosen et al., Dictionary of Immunology, 1989)
A 14-amino acid peptide named for its ability to inhibit pituitary GROWTH HORMONE release, also called somatotropin release-inhibiting factor. It is expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems, the gut, and other organs. SRIF can also inhibit the release of THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE; PROLACTIN; INSULIN; and GLUCAGON besides acting as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. In a number of species including humans, there is an additional form of somatostatin, SRIF-28 with a 14-amino acid extension at the N-terminal.
A benzothiadiazine derivative that is a peripheral vasodilator used for hypertensive emergencies. It lacks diuretic effect, apparently because it lacks a sulfonamide group.
"WF (Wistar Furth) rats are an inbred strain of albino rats that were developed through brother-sister mating for over 80 generations, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and predictability, making them widely used in biomedical research."
A CC-type chemokine with specificity for CCR6 RECEPTORS. It has activity towards DENDRITIC CELLS; T-LYMPHOCYTES; and B-LYMPHOCYTES.
Cell separation is the process of isolating and distinguishing specific cell types or individual cells from a heterogeneous mixture, often through the use of physical or biological techniques.
Condensed areas of cellular material that may be bounded by a membrane.
A transient reddening of the face that may be due to fever, certain drugs, exertion, stress, or a disease process.
A glucose transport facilitator that is expressed primarily in PANCREATIC BETA CELLS; LIVER; and KIDNEYS. It may function as a GLUCOSE sensor to regulate INSULIN release and glucose HOMEOSTASIS.
Skin diseases caused by viruses.
Macrophages found in the TISSUES, as opposed to those found in the blood (MONOCYTES) or serous cavities (SEROUS MEMBRANE).
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
Immunologic adjuvant and sensitizing agent.
The forcing into the skin of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle, piercing the top skin layer.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
Benign disorder of infants and children caused by proliferation of HISTIOCYTES, macrophages found in tissues. These histiocytes, usually lipid-laden non-Langerhans cells, form multiple yellow-red nodules most often in the skin, the eye, and sometimes in the viscera. Patients appear to have normal lipid metabolism and are classified as a normolipemic non-Langerhans cell histiocytosis.
Alloxan is a chemical compound, specifically an organic compound, that is used in scientific research to induce diabetes in laboratory animals by destroying their insulin-producing cells in the pancreas.
A 36-amino acid pancreatic hormone that is secreted mainly by endocrine cells found at the periphery of the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS and adjacent to cells containing SOMATOSTATIN and GLUCAGON. Pancreatic polypeptide (PP), when administered peripherally, can suppress gastric secretion, gastric emptying, pancreatic enzyme secretion, and appetite. A lack of pancreatic polypeptide (PP) has been associated with OBESITY in rats and mice.
The middle segment of proinsulin that is between the N-terminal B-chain and the C-terminal A-chain. It is a pancreatic peptide of about 31 residues, depending on the species. Upon proteolytic cleavage of proinsulin, equimolar INSULIN and C-peptide are released. C-peptide immunoassay has been used to assess pancreatic beta cell function in diabetic patients with circulating insulin antibodies or exogenous insulin. Half-life of C-peptide is 30 min, almost 8 times that of insulin.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
A soluble factor produced by MONOCYTES; MACROPHAGES, and other cells which activates T-lymphocytes and potentiates their response to mitogens or antigens. Interleukin-1 is a general term refers to either of the two distinct proteins, INTERLEUKIN-1ALPHA and INTERLEUKIN-1BETA. The biological effects of IL-1 include the ability to replace macrophage requirements for T-cell activation.
A test to determine the ability of an individual to maintain HOMEOSTASIS of BLOOD GLUCOSE. It includes measuring blood glucose levels in a fasting state, and at prescribed intervals before and after oral glucose intake (75 or 100 g) or intravenous infusion (0.5 g/kg).
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
A group of enzymes that catalyzes the conversion of ATP and D-glucose to ADP and D-glucose 6-phosphate. They are found in invertebrates and microorganisms, and are highly specific for glucose. (Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992) EC 2.7.1.2.
A hapten that generates suppressor cells capable of down-regulating the efferent phase of trinitrophenol-specific contact hypersensitivity. (Arthritis Rheum 1991 Feb;34(2):180).
A technique for maintaining or growing TISSUE in vitro, usually by DIFFUSION, perifusion, or PERFUSION. The tissue is cultured directly after removal from the host without being dispersed for cell culture.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
A subclass of DIABETES MELLITUS that is not INSULIN-responsive or dependent (NIDDM). It is characterized initially by INSULIN RESISTANCE and HYPERINSULINEMIA; and eventually by GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE; HYPERGLYCEMIA; and overt diabetes. Type II diabetes mellitus is no longer considered a disease exclusively found in adults. Patients seldom develop KETOSIS but often exhibit OBESITY.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
A heterogeneous group of immunocompetent cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens to the T-cells. Traditional antigen-presenting cells include MACROPHAGES; DENDRITIC CELLS; LANGERHANS CELLS; and B-LYMPHOCYTES. FOLLICULAR DENDRITIC CELLS are not traditional antigen-presenting cells, but because they hold antigen on their cell surface in the form of IMMUNE COMPLEXES for B-cell recognition they are considered so by some authors.
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum immediately below the visible range and extending into the x-ray frequencies. The longer wavelengths (near-UV or biotic or vital rays) are necessary for the endogenous synthesis of vitamin D and are also called antirachitic rays; the shorter, ionizing wavelengths (far-UV or abiotic or extravital rays) are viricidal, bactericidal, mutagenic, and carcinogenic and are used as disinfectants.
A technique for maintenance or growth of animal organs in vitro. It refers to three-dimensional cultures of undisaggregated tissue retaining some or all of the histological features of the tissue in vivo. (Freshney, Culture of Animal Cells, 3d ed, p1)
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
A costimulatory ligand expressed by ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS that binds to CD28 ANTIGEN with high specificity and to CTLA-4 ANTIGEN with low specificity. The interaction of CD86 with CD28 ANTIGEN provides a stimulatory signal to T-LYMPHOCYTES, while its interaction with CTLA-4 ANTIGEN may play a role in inducing PERIPHERAL TOLERANCE.
A subclass of HLA-D antigens that consist of alpha and beta chains. The inheritance of HLA-DR antigens differs from that of the HLA-DQ ANTIGENS and HLA-DP ANTIGENS.
Any inflammation of the skin.
Tumors or cancer of the PANCREAS. Depending on the types of ISLET CELLS present in the tumors, various hormones can be secreted: GLUCAGON from PANCREATIC ALPHA CELLS; INSULIN from PANCREATIC BETA CELLS; and SOMATOSTATIN from the SOMATOSTATIN-SECRETING CELLS. Most are malignant except the insulin-producing tumors (INSULINOMA).
A light microscopic technique in which only a small spot is illuminated and observed at a time. An image is constructed through point-by-point scanning of the field in this manner. Light sources may be conventional or laser, and fluorescence or transmitted observations are possible.
Transplantation of tissue typical of one area to a different recipient site. The tissue may be autologous, heterologous, or homologous.
A skin irritant that may cause dermatitis of both primary and allergic types. Contact sensitization with DNCB has been used as a measure of cellular immunity. DNCB is also used as a reagent for the detection and determination of pyridine compounds.
A critical subpopulation of T-lymphocytes involved in the induction of most immunological functions. The HIV virus has selective tropism for the T4 cell which expresses the CD4 phenotypic marker, a receptor for HIV. In fact, the key element in the profound immunosuppression seen in HIV infection is the depletion of this subset of T-lymphocytes.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Abnormally high BLOOD GLUCOSE level.
Glycoproteins found on the membrane or surface of cells.
A costimulatory ligand expressed by ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS that binds to CTLA-4 ANTIGEN with high specificity and to CD28 ANTIGEN with low specificity. The interaction of CD80 with CD28 ANTIGEN provides a costimulatory signal to T-LYMPHOCYTES, while its interaction with CTLA-4 ANTIGEN may play a role in inducing PERIPHERAL TOLERANCE.
Process of classifying cells of the immune system based on structural and functional differences. The process is commonly used to analyze and sort T-lymphocytes into subsets based on CD antigens by the technique of flow cytometry.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Group of chemokines with adjacent cysteines that are chemoattractants for lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils but not neutrophils.
An EPITHELIUM with MUCUS-secreting cells, such as GOBLET CELLS. It forms the lining of many body cavities, such as the DIGESTIVE TRACT, the RESPIRATORY TRACT, and the reproductive tract. Mucosa, rich in blood and lymph vessels, comprises an inner epithelium, a middle layer (lamina propria) of loose CONNECTIVE TISSUE, and an outer layer (muscularis mucosae) of SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS that separates the mucosa from submucosa.
Fluorescent probe capable of being conjugated to tissue and proteins. It is used as a label in fluorescent antibody staining procedures as well as protein- and amino acid-binding techniques.
The amount of a substance secreted by cells or by a specific organ or organism over a given period of time; usually applies to those substances which are formed by glandular tissues and are released by them into biological fluids, e.g., secretory rate of corticosteroids by the adrenal cortex, secretory rate of gastric acid by the gastric mucosa.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
Surgical removal of the pancreas. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Serum glycoprotein produced by activated MACROPHAGES and other mammalian MONONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES. It has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. Also known as TNF-alpha, it is only 30% homologous to TNF-beta (LYMPHOTOXIN), but they share TNF RECEPTORS.
The use of ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation in the treatment of disease, usually of the skin. This is the part of the sun's spectrum that causes sunburn and tanning. Ultraviolet A, used in PUVA, is closer to visible light and less damaging than Ultraviolet B, which is ionizing.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
In vivo method of screening investigative anticancer drugs and biologic response modifiers for individual cancer patients. Fresh tumor tissue is implanted under the kidney capsule of immunocompetent mice or rats; gross and histological assessments follow several days after tumor treatment in situ.
Transplantation between individuals of the same species. Usually refers to genetically disparate individuals in contradistinction to isogeneic transplantation for genetically identical individuals.
Transplantation between genetically identical individuals, i.e., members of the same species with identical histocompatibility antigens, such as monozygotic twins, members of the same inbred strain, or members of a hybrid population produced by crossing certain inbred strains.
'Skin diseases' is a broad term for various conditions affecting the skin, including inflammatory disorders, infections, benign and malignant tumors, congenital abnormalities, and degenerative diseases, which can cause symptoms such as rashes, discoloration, eruptions, lesions, itching, or pain.
The specific failure of a normally responsive individual to make an immune response to a known antigen. It results from previous contact with the antigen by an immunologically immature individual (fetus or neonate) or by an adult exposed to extreme high-dose or low-dose antigen, or by exposure to radiation, antimetabolites, antilymphocytic serum, etc.
One of the mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (compare with NECROSIS and AUTOPHAGOCYTOSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA; (DNA FRAGMENTATION); at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth.
Pathological processes of the VULVA.
A CC-type chemokine that is found at high levels in the THYMUS and has specificity for CCR4 RECEPTORS. It is synthesized by DENDRITIC CELLS; ENDOTHELIAL CELLS; KERATINOCYTES; and FIBROBLASTS.
The span of viability of a cell characterized by the capacity to perform certain functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, some form of responsiveness, and adaptability.
A chronic inflammatory genetically determined disease of the skin marked by increased ability to form reagin (IgE), with increased susceptibility to allergic rhinitis and asthma, and hereditary disposition to a lowered threshold for pruritus. It is manifested by lichenification, excoriation, and crusting, mainly on the flexural surfaces of the elbow and knee. In infants it is known as infantile eczema.
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.
Glycolipid-anchored membrane glycoproteins expressed on cells of the myelomonocyte lineage including monocytes, macrophages, and some granulocytes. They function as receptors for the complex of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS-binding protein.
An immune response with both cellular and humoral components, directed against an allogeneic transplant, whose tissue antigens are not compatible with those of the recipient.
A peptide of 36 or 37 amino acids that is derived from PROGLUCAGON and mainly produced by the INTESTINAL L CELLS. GLP-1(1-37 or 1-36) is further N-terminally truncated resulting in GLP-1(7-37) or GLP-1-(7-36) which can be amidated. These GLP-1 peptides are known to enhance glucose-dependent INSULIN release, suppress GLUCAGON release and gastric emptying, lower BLOOD GLUCOSE, and reduce food intake.
An acidic glycoprotein of MW 23 kDa with internal disulfide bonds. The protein is produced in response to a number of inflammatory mediators by mesenchymal cells present in the hemopoietic environment and at peripheral sites of inflammation. GM-CSF is able to stimulate the production of neutrophilic granulocytes, macrophages, and mixed granulocyte-macrophage colonies from bone marrow cells and can stimulate the formation of eosinophil colonies from fetal liver progenitor cells. GM-CSF can also stimulate some functional activities in mature granulocytes and macrophages.
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
'Rats, Inbred Lew' is a strain of laboratory rat that is widely used in biomedical research, known for its consistent genetic background and susceptibility to certain diseases, which makes it an ideal model for studying the genetic basis of complex traits and disease processes.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
Techniques where DNA is delivered directly into organelles at high speed using projectiles coated with nucleic acid, shot from a helium-powered gun (gene gun). One of these techniques involves immunization by DNA VACCINES, which delivers DNA-coated gold beads to the epidermis.
Glycoproteins found on immature hematopoietic cells and endothelial cells. They are the only molecules to date whose expression within the blood system is restricted to a small number of progenitor cells in the bone marrow.
CCR receptors with specificity for CHEMOKINE CCL20. They are expressed at high levels in T-LYMPHOCYTES; B-LYMPHOCYTES; and DENDRITIC CELLS.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
Proteins encoded by homeobox genes (GENES, HOMEOBOX) that exhibit structural similarity to certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA-binding proteins. Homeodomain proteins are involved in the control of gene expression during morphogenesis and development (GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION, DEVELOPMENTAL).
A group of islet cells (10-35%) which secrete PANCREATIC POLYPEPTIDE, a hormone that regulates APPETITE and FOOD INTAKE.
An integrin alpha subunit of approximately 150-kDa molecular weight. It is expressed at high levels on monocytes and combines with CD18 ANTIGEN to form the cell surface receptor INTEGRIN ALPHAXBETA2. The subunit contains a conserved I-domain which is characteristic of several of alpha integrins.
A potent cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase inhibitor; due to this action, the compound increases cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP in tissue and thereby activates CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDE-REGULATED PROTEIN KINASES
The application of suitable drug dosage forms to the skin for either local or systemic effects.
Transplantation between animals of different species.
A heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by HYPERGLYCEMIA and GLUCOSE INTOLERANCE.
An adenine nucleotide containing one phosphate group which is esterified to both the 3'- and 5'-positions of the sugar moiety. It is a second messenger and a key intracellular regulator, functioning as a mediator of activity for a number of hormones, including epinephrine, glucagon, and ACTH.
Process whereby the immune system reacts against the body's own tissues. Autoimmunity may produce or be caused by AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
The grafting of skin in humans or animals from one site to another to replace a lost portion of the body surface skin.
Methods of maintaining or growing biological materials in controlled laboratory conditions. These include the cultures of CELLS; TISSUES; organs; or embryo in vitro. Both animal and plant tissues may be cultured by a variety of methods. Cultures may derive from normal or abnormal tissues, and consist of a single cell type or mixed cell types.
Deliberate prevention or diminution of the host's immune response. It may be nonspecific as in the administration of immunosuppressive agents (drugs or radiation) or by lymphocyte depletion or may be specific as in desensitization or the simultaneous administration of antigen and immunosuppressive drugs.
'Keto acids', also known as ketone bodies, are water-soluble compounds - acetoacetic acid, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, and acetone - that are produced during fat metabolism when liver glycogen stores are depleted, providing an alternative energy source for the brain and other organs in states of carbohydrate restriction or intense physical exertion.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
The application of drug preparations to the surfaces of the body, especially the skin (ADMINISTRATION, CUTANEOUS) or mucous membranes. This method of treatment is used to avoid systemic side effects when high doses are required at a localized area or as an alternative systemic administration route, to avoid hepatic processing for example.
A member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily with specificity for CD40 LIGAND. It is found on mature B-LYMPHOCYTES and some EPITHELIAL CELLS, lymphoid DENDRITIC CELLS. Evidence suggests that CD40-dependent activation of B-cells is important for generation of memory B-cells within the germinal centers. Mutations of the gene for CD40 antigen result in HYPER-IGM IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME, TYPE 3. Signaling of the receptor occurs through its association with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS.
The processes whereby the internal environment of an organism tends to remain balanced and stable.
Peptide hormones secreted into the blood by cells in the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS of the pancreas. The alpha cells secrete glucagon; the beta cells secrete insulin; the delta cells secrete somatostatin; and the PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.
A methyl xanthine derivative from tea with diuretic, smooth muscle relaxant, bronchial dilation, cardiac and central nervous system stimulant activities. Theophylline inhibits the 3',5'-CYCLIC NUCLEOTIDE PHOSPHODIESTERASE that degrades CYCLIC AMP thus potentiates the actions of agents that act through ADENYLYL CYCLASES and cyclic AMP.
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
The major interferon produced by mitogenically or antigenically stimulated LYMPHOCYTES. It is structurally different from TYPE I INTERFERON and its major activity is immunoregulation. It has been implicated in the expression of CLASS II HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS in cells that do not normally produce them, leading to AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
Diseases of the bony orbit and contents except the eyeball.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Measure of histocompatibility at the HL-A locus. Peripheral blood lymphocytes from two individuals are mixed together in tissue culture for several days. Lymphocytes from incompatible individuals will stimulate each other to proliferate significantly (measured by tritiated thymidine uptake) whereas those from compatible individuals will not. In the one-way MLC test, the lymphocytes from one of the individuals are inactivated (usually by treatment with MITOMYCIN or radiation) thereby allowing only the untreated remaining population of cells to proliferate in response to foreign histocompatibility antigens.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
Techniques used to add in exogenous gene sequence such as mutated genes; REPORTER GENES, to study mechanisms of gene expression; or regulatory control sequences, to study effects of temporal changes to GENE EXPRESSION.
Diseases of BONES.
The transparent anterior portion of the fibrous coat of the eye consisting of five layers: stratified squamous CORNEAL EPITHELIUM; BOWMAN MEMBRANE; CORNEAL STROMA; DESCEMET MEMBRANE; and mesenchymal CORNEAL ENDOTHELIUM. It serves as the first refracting medium of the eye. It is structurally continuous with the SCLERA, avascular, receiving its nourishment by permeation through spaces between the lamellae, and is innervated by the ophthalmic division of the TRIGEMINAL NERVE via the ciliary nerves and those of the surrounding conjunctiva which together form plexuses. (Cline et al., Dictionary of Visual Science, 4th ed)
Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate BONE MARROW and released into the BLOOD; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
A benign tumor of the pancreatic ISLET CELLS. Usually it involves the INSULIN-producing PANCREATIC BETA CELLS, as in INSULINOMA, resulting in HYPERINSULINISM.
Substances which lower blood glucose levels.
Visible accumulations of fluid within or beneath the epidermis.
Study of intracellular distribution of chemicals, reaction sites, enzymes, etc., by means of staining reactions, radioactive isotope uptake, selective metal distribution in electron microscopy, or other methods.
A system of organs and tissues that process and transport immune cells and LYMPH.
(T-4)-Osmium oxide (OsO4). A highly toxic and volatile oxide of osmium used in industry as an oxidizing agent. It is also used as a histological fixative and stain and as a synovectomy agent in arthritic joints. Its vapor can cause eye, skin, and lung damage.
A critical subpopulation of regulatory T-lymphocytes involved in MHC Class I-restricted interactions. They include both cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and CD8+ suppressor T-lymphocytes.
Endogenous tissue constituents that have the ability to interact with AUTOANTIBODIES and cause an immune response.
A technique of culturing mixed cell types in vitro to allow their synergistic or antagonistic interactions, such as on CELL DIFFERENTIATION or APOPTOSIS. Coculture can be of different types of cells, tissues, or organs from normal or disease states.
A strain of Rattus norvegicus which is a model for spontaneous insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DIABETES MELLITUS, INSULIN-DEPENDENT).
Inbred C3H mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to maintain a high degree of genetic uniformity and share specific genetic characteristics, including susceptibility to certain diseases, which makes them valuable for biomedical research purposes.
Catalyzes the final step in the galactocerebroside biosynthesis pathway.
A serine endopeptidase that has specificity for cleavage at ARGININE. It cleaves a variety of prohormones including PRO-OPIOMELANOCORTIN, proluteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone, proenkephalins, prodynorphin, and PROINSULIN.
A 7-carbon keto sugar having the mannose configuration.
Methods for maintaining or growing CELLS in vitro.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
The increase in a measurable parameter of a PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS, including cellular, microbial, and plant; immunological, cardiovascular, respiratory, reproductive, urinary, digestive, neural, musculoskeletal, ocular, and skin physiological processes; or METABOLIC PROCESS, including enzymatic and other pharmacological processes, by a drug or other chemical.
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)

Leptin suppression of insulin secretion and gene expression in human pancreatic islets: implications for the development of adipogenic diabetes mellitus. (1/7057)

Previously we demonstrated the expression of the long form of the leptin receptor in rodent pancreatic beta-cells and an inhibition of insulin secretion by leptin via activation of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. Here we examine pancreatic islets isolated from pancreata of human donors for their responses to leptin. The presence of leptin receptors on islet beta-cells was demonstrated by double fluorescence confocal microscopy after binding of a fluorescent derivative of human leptin (Cy3-leptin). Leptin (6.25 nM) suppressed insulin secretion of normal islets by 20% at 5.6 mM glucose. Intracellular calcium responses to 16.7 mM glucose were rapidly reduced by leptin. Proinsulin messenger ribonucleic acid expression in islets was inhibited by leptin at 11.1 mM, but not at 5.6 mM glucose. Leptin also reduced proinsulin messenger ribonucleic acid levels that were increased in islets by treatment with 10 nM glucagon-like peptide-1 in the presence of either 5.6 or 11.1 mM glucose. These findings demonstrate direct suppressive effects of leptin on insulin-producing beta-cells in human islets at the levels of both stimulus-secretion coupling and gene expression. The findings also further indicate the existence of an adipoinsular axis in humans in which insulin stimulates leptin production in adipocytes and leptin inhibits the production of insulin in beta-cells. We suggest that dysregulation of the adipoinsular axis in obese individuals due to defective leptin reception by beta-cells may result in chronic hyperinsulinemia and may contribute to the pathogenesis of adipogenic diabetes.  (+info)

Tissue-specific knockout of the insulin receptor in pancreatic beta cells creates an insulin secretory defect similar to that in type 2 diabetes. (2/7057)

Dysfunction of the pancreatic beta cell is an important defect in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes, although its exact relationship to the insulin resistance is unclear. To determine whether insulin signaling has a functional role in the beta cell we have used the Cre-loxP system to specifically inactivate the insulin receptor gene in the beta cells. The resultant mice exhibit a selective loss of insulin secretion in response to glucose and a progressive impairment of glucose tolerance. These data indicate an important functional role for the insulin receptor in glucose sensing by the pancreatic beta cell and suggest that defects in insulin signaling at the level of the beta cell may contribute to the observed alterations in insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes.  (+info)

Characterization of a mutant pancreatic eIF-2alpha kinase, PEK, and co-localization with somatostatin in islet delta cells. (3/7057)

Phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor-2alpha (eIF-2alpha) is one of the key steps where protein synthesis is regulated in response to changes in environmental conditions. The phosphorylation is carried out in part by three distinct eIF-2alpha kinases including mammalian double-stranded RNA-dependent eIF-2alpha kinase (PKR) and heme-regulated inhibitor kinase (HRI), and yeast GCN2. We report the identification and characterization of a related kinase, PEK, which shares common features with other eIF-2alpha kinases including phosphorylation of eIF-2alpha in vitro. We show that human PEK is regulated by different mechanisms than PKR or HRI. In contrast to PKR or HRI, which are dependent on autophosphorylation for their kinase activity, a point mutation that replaced the conserved Lys-614 with an alanine completely abolished the eIF-2alpha kinase activity, whereas the mutant PEK was still autophosphorylated when expressed in Sf-9 cells. Northern blot analysis indicates that PEK mRNA was predominantly expressed in pancreas, though low expression was also present in several tissues. Consistent with the high levels of mRNA in pancreas, the PEK protein was only detected in human pancreatic islets, and the kinase co-localized with somatostatin, a pancreatic delta cell-specific hormone. Thus PEK is believed to play an important role in regulating protein synthesis in the pancreatic islet, especially in islet delta cells.  (+info)

Characterization of a novel calcium response element in the glucagon gene. (4/7057)

To maintain blood glucose levels within narrow limits, the synthesis and secretion of pancreatic islet hormones is controlled by a variety of extracellular signals. Depolarization-induced calcium influx into islet cells has been shown to stimulate glucagon gene transcription through the transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein that binds to the glucagon cAMP response element. By transient transfection of glucagon-reporter fusion genes into islet cell lines, this study identified a second calcium response element in the glucagon gene (G2 element, from -165 to -200). Membrane depolarization was found to induce the binding of a nuclear complex with NFATp-like immunoreactivity to the G2 element. Consistent with nuclear translocation, a comigrating complex was found in cytosolic extracts of unstimulated cells, and the induction of nuclear protein binding was blocked by inhibition of calcineurin phosphatase activity by FK506. A mutational analysis of G2 function and nuclear protein binding as well as the effect of FK506 indicate that calcium responsiveness is conferred to the G2 element by NFATp functionally interacting with HNF-3beta binding to a closely associated site. Transcription factors of the NFAT family are known to cooperate with AP-1 proteins in T cells for calcium-dependent activation of cytokine genes. This study shows a novel pairing of NFATp with the cell lineage-specific transcription factor HNF-3beta in islet cells to form a novel calcium response element in the glucagon gene.  (+info)

Maternal adrenocortical hormones maintain the early development of pancreatic B cells in the fetal rat. (5/7057)

To investigate the effect of maternal adrenocortical hormones on the development of fetal pancreatic islet cells, pregnant rats were adrenalectomised on d 6 of gestation. On d 12-16 the growth patterns of fetal insulin-producing B cells, glucagon-producing A cells, and somatostatin-producing D cells were observed histometrically. Maternal adrenalectomy resulted in growth retardation of fetal B cells on d 12-15. Maternal corticosterone therapy prevented this retardation. Maternal adrenalectomy, however, did not affect the developmental patterns of A and D cells. By Western blotting and immunohistochemistry, glucocorticoid receptors were demonstrated to be present in the islet cells from d 12 to d 15. These results suggest that maternal adrenocortical hormones, glucocorticoids in particular, maintain the early development of fetal pancreatic B cells through their specific intracellular glucocorticoid receptor.  (+info)

Characterization of beta cells developed in vitro from rat embryonic pancreatic epithelium. (6/7057)

The present study evaluates the development and functional properties of beta cells differentiated in vitro. The authors have previously demonstrated that when E12.5 rat pancreatic rudiments are cultured in vitro in the absence of mesenchyme, the majority of the epithelial cells differentiate into endocrine beta cells. Thus, depletion of the mesenchyme provokes the expansion of endocrine tissue at the expense of exocrine tissue. The potential use of this procedure for the production of beta cells led the authors to characterize the beta cells differentiated in this model and to compare their properties with those of the endocrine cells of the embryonic and adult pancreas. This study shows that the beta cells that differentiate in vitro in the absence of mesenchyme express the homeodomain protein Nkx6.1, a transcription factor that is characteristic of adult mature beta cells. Further, electron microscopy analysis shows that these beta cells are highly granulated, and the ultrastructural analysis of the granules shows that they are characteristic of mature beta cells. The maturity of these granules was confirmed by a double-immunofluorescence study that demonstrated that Rab3A and SNAP-25, two proteins associated with the secretory pathway of insulin, are strongly expressed. Finally, the maturity of the differentiated beta cells in this model was confirmed when the cells responded to stimulation with 16 mM glucose by a 5-fold increase in insulin release. The authors conclude that the beta cells differentiated in vitro from rat embryonic pancreatic rudiments devoid of mesenchyme are mature beta cells.  (+info)

L-arginine stimulation of glucose-induced insulin secretion through membrane depolarization and independent of nitric oxide. (7/7057)

The mechanism of L-arginine stimulation of glucose-induced insulin secretion from mouse pancreatic islets was studied. At 16.7 mmol/l glucose, L-arginine (10 mmol/l) potentiated both phases 1 and 2 of glucose-induced insulin secretion. This potentiation of glucose-induced insulin secretion was mimicked by the membrane depolarizing agents tetraethylammonium (TEA, 20 mmol/l) and K+ (60 mmol/l), which at 16.7 mmol/l glucose obliterated L-arginine (10 mmol/l) modulation of insulin secretion. Thus L-arginine may potentiate glucose-induced insulin secretion by stimulation of membrane depolarization. At 3.3 mmol/l glucose, L-arginine (10 mmol/l) failed to stimulate insulin secretion. In accordance with membrane depolarization by the electrogenic transport of L-arginine, however, L-arginine (10 mmol/l) stimulation of insulin secretion was enabled by the K+ channel inhibitor TEA (20 mmol/l), which potentiates membrane depolarization by L-arginine. Furthermore, L-arginine (10 mmol/l) stimulation of insulin secretion was permitted by forskolin (10 micromol/l) or tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (0.16 micromol/l), which, by activation of protein kinases A and C respectively sensitize the exocytotic machinery to L-arginine-induced Ca2+ influx. Thus glucose may sensitize L-arginine stimulation of insulin secretion by potentiation of membrane depolarization and by activation of protein kinase A or protein kinase C. Finally, L-arginine stimulation of glucose-induced insulin secretion was mimicked by NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (10 mmol/l), which stimulates membrane depolarization but inhibits nitric oxide synthase, suggesting that L-arginine-derived nitric oxide neither inhibits nor stimulates insulin secretion. In conclusion, it is suggested that L-arginine potentiation of glucose-induced insulin secretion occurs independently of nitric oxide, but is mediated by membrane depolarization, which stimulates insulin secretion through protein kinase A- and C-sensitive mechanisms.  (+info)

Insulin-stimulated insulin secretion in single pancreatic beta cells. (8/7057)

Functional insulin receptors are known to occur in pancreatic beta cells; however, except for a positive feedback on insulin synthesis, their physiological effects are unknown. Amperometric measurements at single, primary pancreatic beta cells reveal that application of exogenous insulin in the presence or absence of nonstimulatory concentrations of glucose evokes exocytosis mediated by the beta cell insulin receptor. Insulin also elicits increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration in beta cells but has minimal effects on membrane potential. Conditions where the insulin receptor is blocked or cell surface concentration of free insulin is reduced during exocytosis diminishes secretion induced by other secretagogues, providing evidence for direct autocrine action of insulin upon secretion from the same cell. These results indicate that the beta cell insulin receptor can mediate positive feedback for insulin secretion. The presence of a positive feedback mechanism for insulin secretion mediated by the insulin receptor provides a potential link between impaired insulin secretion and insulin resistance.  (+info)

Langerhans cells are specialized dendritic cells that are found in the epithelium, including the skin (where they are named after Paul Langerhans who first described them in 1868) and mucous membranes. They play a crucial role in the immune system as antigen-presenting cells, contributing to the initiation of immune responses.

These cells contain Birbeck granules, unique organelles that are involved in the transportation of antigens from the cell surface to the lysosomes for processing and presentation to T-cells. Langerhans cells also produce cytokines, which help regulate immune responses and attract other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

It is important to note that although Langerhans cells are a part of the immune system, they can sometimes contribute to the development of certain skin disorders, such as allergic contact dermatitis and some forms of cancer, like Langerhans cell histiocytosis.

The Islets of Langerhans are clusters of specialized cells within the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach. These islets are named after Paul Langerhans, who first identified them in 1869. They constitute around 1-2% of the total mass of the pancreas and are distributed throughout its substance.

The Islets of Langerhans contain several types of cells, including:

1. Alpha (α) cells: These produce and release glucagon, a hormone that helps to regulate blood sugar levels by promoting the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver when blood sugar levels are low.
2. Beta (β) cells: These produce and release insulin, a hormone that promotes the uptake and utilization of glucose by cells throughout the body, thereby lowering blood sugar levels.
3. Delta (δ) cells: These produce and release somatostatin, a hormone that inhibits the release of both insulin and glucagon and helps regulate their secretion in response to changing blood sugar levels.
4. PP cells (gamma or γ cells): These produce and release pancreatic polypeptide, which plays a role in regulating digestive enzyme secretion and gastrointestinal motility.

Dysfunction of the Islets of Langerhans can lead to various endocrine disorders, such as diabetes mellitus, where insulin-producing beta cells are damaged or destroyed, leading to impaired blood sugar regulation.

Islets of Langerhans transplantation is a surgical procedure that involves the transplantation of isolated islets from a deceased donor's pancreas into another person with type 1 diabetes. The islets of Langerhans are clusters of cells within the pancreas that produce hormones, including insulin, which regulates blood sugar levels.

In type 1 diabetes, the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys these insulin-producing cells, leading to high blood sugar levels. Islet transplantation aims to replace the damaged islets with healthy ones from a donor, allowing the recipient's body to produce and regulate its own insulin again.

The procedure involves extracting the islets from the donor pancreas and infusing them into the recipient's liver through a small incision in the abdomen. Once inside the liver, the islets can sense glucose levels in the bloodstream and release insulin as needed to maintain normal blood sugar levels.

Islet transplantation has shown promising results in improving blood sugar control and reducing the risk of severe hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) in people with type 1 diabetes. However, it requires long-term immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection of the transplanted islets, which can have side effects and increase the risk of infections.

Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH) is a rare disorder characterized by the abnormal proliferation and accumulation of dendritic cells called Langerhans cells in various tissues and organs of the body. These cells are part of the immune system and normally help to fight infection. However, in LCH, an overactive immune response leads to the excessive buildup of these cells, forming granulomas that can damage organs and impair their function.

The exact cause of LCH is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve genetic mutations that lead to uncontrolled cell growth and division. The disorder can affect people of any age, although it is most commonly diagnosed in children under the age of 15.

LCH can affect a single organ or multiple organs, depending on the severity and extent of the disease. Commonly affected sites include the bones, skin, lymph nodes, lungs, liver, spleen, and pituitary gland. Symptoms vary widely depending on the location and severity of the disease, but may include bone pain, rashes, fatigue, fever, weight loss, cough, and difficulty breathing.

Treatment for LCH depends on the extent and severity of the disease. In mild cases, observation and monitoring may be sufficient. More severe cases may require chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery to remove affected tissues. In some cases, immunosuppressive drugs or targeted therapies that target specific genetic mutations may be used.

Overall, LCH is a complex and poorly understood disorder that requires careful evaluation and management by a team of medical specialists. While the prognosis for patients with LCH has improved in recent years, some cases can be life-threatening or lead to long-term complications.

Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP), also known as amylin, is a 37-amino acid peptide co-secreted with insulin from pancreatic beta-cells in response to meals. It plays crucial roles in regulating glucose homeostasis by suppressing glucagon secretion, slowing gastric emptying, and promoting satiety. In type 2 diabetes, IAPP can form amyloid fibrils, which deposit in pancreatic islets, contributing to beta-cell dysfunction and death. This contributes to the progressive nature of type 2 diabetes.

Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.

Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.

The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, composed mainly of stratified squamous epithelium. It forms a protective barrier that prevents water loss and inhibits the entry of microorganisms. The epidermis contains no blood vessels, and its cells are nourished by diffusion from the underlying dermis. The bottom-most layer of the epidermis, called the stratum basale, is responsible for generating new skin cells that eventually move up to replace dead cells on the surface. This process of cell turnover takes about 28 days in adults.

The most superficial part of the epidermis consists of dead cells called squames, which are constantly shed and replaced. The exact rate at which this happens varies depending on location; for example, it's faster on the palms and soles than elsewhere. Melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells, are also located in the epidermis, specifically within the stratum basale layer.

In summary, the epidermis is a vital part of our integumentary system, providing not only physical protection but also playing a crucial role in immunity and sensory perception through touch receptors called Pacinian corpuscles.

Mannose-binding lectins (MBLs) are a group of proteins that belong to the collectin family and play a crucial role in the innate immune system. They are primarily produced by the liver and secreted into the bloodstream. MBLs have a specific affinity for mannose sugar residues found on the surface of various microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

The primary function of MBLs is to recognize and bind to these mannose-rich structures, which triggers the complement system's activation through the lectin pathway. This process leads to the destruction of the microorganism by opsonization (coating the microbe to enhance phagocytosis) or direct lysis. MBLs also have the ability to neutralize certain viruses and inhibit the replication of others, further contributing to their antimicrobial activity.

Deficiencies in MBL levels or function have been associated with an increased susceptibility to infections, particularly in children and older adults. However, the clinical significance of MBL deficiency remains a subject of ongoing research.

Langerhans cell sarcoma is a very rare and aggressive type of cancer that affects a specific group of cells called Langerhans cells, which are part of the immune system. These cells are normally found in the skin and mucous membranes, where they help to fight infection. In Langerhans cell sarcoma, these cells become malignant (cancerous) and can multiply and spread to other parts of the body.

Langerhans cell sarcoma is distinct from a more common type of cancer called Langerhans cell histiocytosis, which is not considered a true cancer but rather a disorder of the immune system. The exact cause of Langerhans cell sarcoma is not known, but it is thought to arise from genetic mutations that occur in Langerhans cells.

Symptoms of Langerhans cell sarcoma can vary depending on the location and extent of the cancer. Common symptoms may include skin rashes or lesions, fever, fatigue, weight loss, and swollen lymph nodes. Treatment for Langerhans cell sarcoma typically involves a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. However, because this is such a rare and aggressive cancer, treatment options may vary depending on the individual case.

Insulin-secreting cells, also known as beta cells, are a type of cell found in the pancreas. They are responsible for producing and releasing insulin, a hormone that regulates blood glucose levels by allowing cells in the body to take in glucose from the bloodstream. Insulin-secreting cells are clustered together in the pancreatic islets, along with other types of cells that produce other hormones such as glucagon and somatostatin. In people with diabetes, these cells may not function properly, leading to an impaired ability to regulate blood sugar levels.

Glucose is a simple monosaccharide (or single sugar) that serves as the primary source of energy for living organisms. It's a fundamental molecule in biology, often referred to as "dextrose" or "grape sugar." Glucose has the molecular formula C6H12O6 and is vital to the functioning of cells, especially those in the brain and nervous system.

In the body, glucose is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates in food, and it's transported around the body via the bloodstream to cells where it can be used for energy. Cells convert glucose into a usable form through a process called cellular respiration, which involves a series of metabolic reactions that generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP)—the main currency of energy in cells.

Glucose is also stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, a polysaccharide (multiple sugar) that can be broken down back into glucose when needed for energy between meals or during physical activity. Maintaining appropriate blood glucose levels is crucial for overall health, and imbalances can lead to conditions such as diabetes mellitus.

In medical terms, the skin is the largest organ of the human body. It consists of two main layers: the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer), as well as accessory structures like hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands. The skin plays a crucial role in protecting us from external factors such as bacteria, viruses, and environmental hazards, while also regulating body temperature and enabling the sense of touch.

Contact dermatitis is a type of inflammation of the skin that occurs when it comes into contact with a substance that the individual has developed an allergic reaction to or that causes irritation. It can be divided into two main types: allergic contact dermatitis and irritant contact dermatitis.

Allergic contact dermatitis is caused by an immune system response to a substance, known as an allergen, which the individual has become sensitized to. When the skin comes into contact with this allergen, it triggers an immune reaction that results in inflammation and characteristic symptoms such as redness, swelling, itching, and blistering. Common allergens include metals (such as nickel), rubber, medications, fragrances, and cosmetics.

Irritant contact dermatitis, on the other hand, is caused by direct damage to the skin from a substance that is inherently irritating or corrosive. This can occur after exposure to strong acids, alkalis, solvents, or even prolonged exposure to milder irritants like water or soap. Symptoms of irritant contact dermatitis include redness, pain, burning, and dryness at the site of contact.

The treatment for contact dermatitis typically involves avoiding further exposure to the allergen or irritant, as well as managing symptoms with topical corticosteroids, antihistamines, or other medications as needed. In some cases, patch testing may be performed to identify specific allergens that are causing the reaction.

CD1 antigens are a group of molecules found on the surface of certain immune cells, including dendritic cells and B cells. They play a role in the immune system by presenting lipid antigens to T cells, which helps initiate an immune response against foreign substances such as bacteria and viruses. CD1 molecules are distinct from other antigen-presenting molecules like HLA because they present lipids rather than peptides. There are five different types of CD1 molecules (CD1a, CD1b, CD1c, CD1d, and CD1e) that differ in their tissue distribution and the types of lipid antigens they present.

Glucagon-secreting cells, also known as alpha (α) cells, are a type of cell located in the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. These cells are responsible for producing and secreting the hormone glucagon, which plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels.

Glucagon works in opposition to insulin, another hormone produced by different cells in the pancreas called beta (β) cells. When blood glucose levels are low, such as during fasting or exercise, glucagon is released into the bloodstream and travels to the liver, where it stimulates the breakdown of glycogen (stored glucose) into glucose, which is then released into the bloodstream to raise blood glucose levels.

Abnormalities in glucagon-secreting cells can contribute to various endocrine disorders, such as diabetes and hypoglycemia.

The pancreas is a glandular organ located in the abdomen, posterior to the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine portion of the pancreas consists of acinar cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These enzymes help in the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in food.

The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which include alpha, beta, delta, and F cells. These cells produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are critical regulators of blood sugar levels, with insulin promoting glucose uptake and storage in tissues and glucagon stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise blood glucose when it is low.

Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by the destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to an absolute deficiency of insulin. This results in an inability to regulate blood glucose levels, causing hyperglycemia (high blood sugar). Type 1 diabetes typically presents in childhood or early adulthood, although it can develop at any age. It is usually managed with regular insulin injections or the use of an insulin pump, along with monitoring of blood glucose levels and adjustments to diet and physical activity. Uncontrolled type 1 diabetes can lead to serious complications such as kidney damage, nerve damage, blindness, and cardiovascular disease.

Glucagon is a hormone produced by the alpha cells of the pancreas. Its main function is to regulate glucose levels in the blood by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which can then be released into the bloodstream. This process helps to raise blood sugar levels when they are too low, such as during hypoglycemia.

Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide that is derived from the preproglucagon protein. It works by binding to glucagon receptors on liver cells, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation of enzymes involved in glycogen breakdown.

In addition to its role in glucose regulation, glucagon has also been shown to have other physiological effects, such as promoting lipolysis (the breakdown of fat) and inhibiting gastric acid secretion. Glucagon is often used clinically in the treatment of hypoglycemia, as well as in diagnostic tests to assess pancreatic function.

Insulinoma is a rare type of neuroendocrine tumor that originates from the beta cells of the pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans). These tumors produce and secrete excessive amounts of insulin, leading to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar levels) even when the person hasn't eaten for a while. Insulinomas are typically slow-growing and benign (noncancerous), but about 10% of them can be malignant (cancerous) and may spread to other parts of the body. Common symptoms include sweating, confusion, dizziness, and weakness due to low blood sugar levels. The diagnosis is often confirmed through imaging tests like CT scans or MRI, and measuring insulin and C-peptide levels in the blood during a fasting test. Treatment usually involves surgical removal of the tumor.

I couldn't find a medical definition specifically for "Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental." However, I can provide you with information about experimental diabetes research and its relevance to understanding the disease.

Experimental diabetes models are used in biomedical research to study the pathophysiology of diabetes mellitus and to test potential therapies or treatments. These models can be broadly categorized into two types: chemically-induced and genetically modified.

1. Chemically-induced diabetes models: These involve administering chemicals, such as alloxan or streptozotocin, to animals (commonly mice or rats) to destroy their pancreatic β-cells, which produce insulin. This results in hyperglycemia and symptoms similar to those seen in type 1 diabetes in humans.
2. Genetically modified diabetes models: These involve altering the genes of animals (commonly mice) to create a diabetes phenotype. Examples include non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice, which develop an autoimmune form of diabetes similar to human type 1 diabetes, and various strains of obese mice with insulin resistance, such as ob/ob or db/db mice, which model aspects of type 2 diabetes.

These experimental models help researchers better understand the mechanisms behind diabetes development and progression, identify new therapeutic targets, and test potential treatments before moving on to human clinical trials. However, it's essential to recognize that these models may not fully replicate all aspects of human diabetes, so findings from animal studies should be interpreted with caution.

Eosinophilic granuloma is a term used in pathology to describe a specific type of inflammatory lesion that is characterized by the accumulation of eosinophils, a type of white blood cell, and the formation of granulomas. A granuloma is a small nodular structure formed by the accumulation of immune cells, typically including macrophages, lymphocytes, and other inflammatory cells.

Eosinophilic granulomas can occur in various organs of the body, but they are most commonly found in the lungs, skin, and bones. In the lungs, eosinophilic granulomas are often associated with hypersensitivity reactions to inhaled antigens, such as dust mites or fungal spores. They can also be seen in association with certain diseases, such as Langerhans cell histiocytosis, an uncommon disorder characterized by the abnormal proliferation of a type of immune cell called Langerhans cells.

The symptoms of eosinophilic granuloma depend on the location and extent of the lesion. In the lungs, eosinophilic granulomas may cause cough, chest pain, or shortness of breath. In the skin, they may present as nodules, plaques, or ulcers. In the bones, they can cause pain, swelling, and fractures.

The diagnosis of eosinophilic granuloma is typically made based on a combination of clinical, radiological, and pathological findings. Treatment may include avoidance of known antigens, corticosteroids, or other immunosuppressive medications, depending on the severity and location of the lesion.

C-type lectins are a family of proteins that contain one or more carbohydrate recognition domains (CRDs) with a characteristic pattern of conserved sequence motifs. These proteins are capable of binding to specific carbohydrate structures in a calcium-dependent manner, making them important in various biological processes such as cell adhesion, immune recognition, and initiation of inflammatory responses.

C-type lectins can be further classified into several subfamilies based on their structure and function, including selectins, collectins, and immunoglobulin-like receptors. They play a crucial role in the immune system by recognizing and binding to carbohydrate structures on the surface of pathogens, facilitating their clearance by phagocytic cells. Additionally, C-type lectins are involved in various physiological processes such as cell development, tissue repair, and cancer progression.

It is important to note that some C-type lectins can also bind to self-antigens and contribute to autoimmune diseases. Therefore, understanding the structure and function of these proteins has important implications for developing new therapeutic strategies for various diseases.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are a type of immune cell that play a critical role in the body's defense against infection and cancer. They are named for their dendrite-like projections, which they use to interact with and sample their environment. DCs are responsible for processing antigens (foreign substances that trigger an immune response) and presenting them to T cells, a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune system's response to infection and cancer.

DCs can be found throughout the body, including in the skin, mucous membranes, and lymphoid organs. They are able to recognize and respond to a wide variety of antigens, including those from bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. Once they have processed an antigen, DCs migrate to the lymph nodes, where they present the antigen to T cells. This interaction activates the T cells, which then go on to mount a targeted immune response against the invading pathogen or cancerous cells.

DCs are a diverse group of cells that can be divided into several subsets based on their surface markers and function. Some DCs, such as Langerhans cells and dermal DCs, are found in the skin and mucous membranes, where they serve as sentinels for invading pathogens. Other DCs, such as plasmacytoid DCs and conventional DCs, are found in the lymphoid organs, where they play a role in activating T cells and initiating an immune response.

Overall, dendritic cells are essential for the proper functioning of the immune system, and dysregulation of these cells has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including autoimmune disorders and cancer.

Somatostatin-secreting cells, also known as delta cells or D cells, are a type of neuroendocrine cell found in the pancreatic islets and the central nervous system. These cells produce and secrete somatostatin, a peptide hormone that inhibits the release of several other hormones such as insulin, glucagon, and gastrin.

Somatostatin has a wide range of physiological effects, including inhibition of gastrointestinal motility, secretion, and blood flow; modulation of neurotransmission; and regulation of cell growth and differentiation. Somatostatin-secreting cells play an essential role in maintaining hormonal homeostasis by regulating the release of other hormones in response to various physiological stimuli.

In the pancreas, somatostatin-secreting cells are located in the islets of Langerhans, where they represent about 10% of the endocrine cell population. They are scattered among the insulin-producing beta cells and glucagon-producing alpha cells and form a dense network of fine processes that surround other islet cells. Somatostatin released from these cells acts in a paracrine manner to regulate the secretion of insulin, glucagon, and other hormones produced by the islet cells.

In the central nervous system, somatostatin-secreting cells are found in various regions, including the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and cortex. They play a role in regulating neurotransmission, neuronal excitability, and synaptic plasticity. Dysfunction of somatostatin-secreting cells has been implicated in several neurological and endocrine disorders, such as diabetes, acromegaly, and certain types of tumors.

Proinsulin is the precursor protein to insulin, produced in the beta cells of the pancreas. It has a molecular weight of around 9,000 daltons and is composed of three distinct regions: the A-chain, the B-chain, and the C-peptide. The A-chain and B-chain are linked together by disulfide bonds and will eventually become the insulin molecule after a series of enzymatic cleavages. The C-peptide is removed during this process and is released into the bloodstream in equimolar amounts to insulin. Proinsulin levels can be measured in the blood and are sometimes used as a marker for beta cell function in certain clinical settings, such as diagnosing or monitoring insulinoma (a tumor of the pancreas that produces insulin) or assessing the risk of diabetes-related complications.

The dermis is the layer of skin located beneath the epidermis, which is the outermost layer of the skin. It is composed of connective tissue and provides structure and support to the skin. The dermis contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, sweat glands, and oil glands. It is also responsible for the production of collagen and elastin, which give the skin its strength and flexibility. The dermis can be further divided into two layers: the papillary dermis, which is the upper layer and contains finger-like projections called papillae that extend upwards into the epidermis, and the reticular dermis, which is the lower layer and contains thicker collagen bundles. Together, the epidermis and dermis make up the true skin.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Inbred NOD (Nonobese Diabetic) mice are a strain of laboratory mice that are genetically predisposed to develop autoimmune diabetes. This strain was originally developed in Japan and has been widely used as an animal model for studying type 1 diabetes and its complications.

NOD mice typically develop diabetes spontaneously at around 12-14 weeks of age, although the onset and severity of the disease can vary between individual mice. The disease is caused by a breakdown in immune tolerance, leading to an autoimmune attack on the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas.

Inbred NOD mice are highly valuable for research purposes because they exhibit many of the same genetic and immunological features as human patients with type 1 diabetes. By studying these mice, researchers can gain insights into the underlying mechanisms of the disease and develop new treatments and therapies.

CD (cluster of differentiation) antigens are cell-surface proteins that are expressed on leukocytes (white blood cells) and can be used to identify and distinguish different subsets of these cells. They are important markers in the field of immunology and hematology, and are commonly used to diagnose and monitor various diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases.

CD antigens are designated by numbers, such as CD4, CD8, CD19, etc., which refer to specific proteins found on the surface of different types of leukocytes. For example, CD4 is a protein found on the surface of helper T cells, while CD8 is found on cytotoxic T cells.

CD antigens can be used as targets for immunotherapy, such as monoclonal antibody therapy, in which antibodies are designed to bind to specific CD antigens and trigger an immune response against cancer cells or infected cells. They can also be used as markers to monitor the effectiveness of treatments and to detect minimal residual disease (MRD) after treatment.

It's important to note that not all CD antigens are exclusive to leukocytes, some can be found on other cell types as well, and their expression can vary depending on the activation state or differentiation stage of the cells.

Cell movement, also known as cell motility, refers to the ability of cells to move independently and change their location within tissue or inside the body. This process is essential for various biological functions, including embryonic development, wound healing, immune responses, and cancer metastasis.

There are several types of cell movement, including:

1. **Crawling or mesenchymal migration:** Cells move by extending and retracting protrusions called pseudopodia or filopodia, which contain actin filaments. This type of movement is common in fibroblasts, immune cells, and cancer cells during tissue invasion and metastasis.
2. **Amoeboid migration:** Cells move by changing their shape and squeezing through tight spaces without forming protrusions. This type of movement is often observed in white blood cells (leukocytes) as they migrate through the body to fight infections.
3. **Pseudopodial extension:** Cells extend pseudopodia, which are temporary cytoplasmic projections containing actin filaments. These protrusions help the cell explore its environment and move forward.
4. **Bacterial flagellar motion:** Bacteria use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel themselves through their environment. The rotation of the flagellum is driven by a molecular motor in the bacterial cell membrane.
5. **Ciliary and ependymal movement:** Ciliated cells, such as those lining the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes, have hair-like structures called cilia that beat in coordinated waves to move fluids or mucus across the cell surface.

Cell movement is regulated by a complex interplay of signaling pathways, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and adhesion molecules, which enable cells to respond to environmental cues and navigate through tissues.

"Cell count" is a medical term that refers to the process of determining the number of cells present in a given volume or sample of fluid or tissue. This can be done through various laboratory methods, such as counting individual cells under a microscope using a specialized grid called a hemocytometer, or using automated cell counters that use light scattering and electrical impedance techniques to count and classify different types of cells.

Cell counts are used in a variety of medical contexts, including hematology (the study of blood and blood-forming tissues), microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms), and pathology (the study of diseases and their causes). For example, a complete blood count (CBC) is a routine laboratory test that includes a white blood cell (WBC) count, red blood cell (RBC) count, hemoglobin level, hematocrit value, and platelet count. Abnormal cell counts can indicate the presence of various medical conditions, such as infections, anemia, or leukemia.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Streptozocin is an antibiotic and antineoplastic agent, which is primarily used in the treatment of metastatic pancreatic islet cell carcinoma (a type of pancreatic cancer). It is a naturally occurring compound produced by the bacterium Streptomyces achromogenes.

Medically, streptozocin is classified as an alkylating agent due to its ability to interact with DNA and RNA, disrupting the growth and multiplication of malignant cells. However, it can also have adverse effects on non-cancerous cells, particularly in the kidneys and pancreas, leading to potential side effects such as nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) and hyperglycemia (high blood sugar).

It is essential that streptozocin be administered under the supervision of a healthcare professional, who can monitor its effectiveness and potential side effects. The drug is typically given through intravenous infusion, with the dosage and duration tailored to individual patient needs and treatment responses.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.

The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.

Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.

Surface antigens are molecules found on the surface of cells that can be recognized by the immune system as being foreign or different from the host's own cells. Antigens are typically proteins or polysaccharides that are capable of stimulating an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies and activation of immune cells such as T-cells.

Surface antigens are important in the context of infectious diseases because they allow the immune system to identify and target infected cells for destruction. For example, viruses and bacteria often display surface antigens that are distinct from those found on host cells, allowing the immune system to recognize and attack them. In some cases, these surface antigens can also be used as targets for vaccines or other immunotherapies.

In addition to their role in infectious diseases, surface antigens are also important in the context of cancer. Tumor cells often display abnormal surface antigens that differ from those found on normal cells, allowing the immune system to potentially recognize and attack them. However, tumors can also develop mechanisms to evade the immune system, making it difficult to mount an effective response.

Overall, understanding the properties and behavior of surface antigens is crucial for developing effective immunotherapies and vaccines against infectious diseases and cancer.

Cell differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell, or stem cell, becomes a more specialized cell type with specific functions and structures. This process involves changes in gene expression, which are regulated by various intracellular signaling pathways and transcription factors. Differentiation results in the development of distinct cell types that make up tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. It is a crucial aspect of embryonic development, tissue repair, and maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

Dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) is a chemical compound that is often used in laboratory settings for research purposes. It is an aromatic organic compound that contains two nitro groups and a fluorine atom attached to a benzene ring. Dinitrofluorobenzene is primarily known for its ability to act as a hapten, which means it can bind to proteins in the body and stimulate an immune response.

In medical research, DNFB has been used as a contact sensitizer to study the mechanisms of allergic contact dermatitis, a type of skin reaction that occurs when the immune system becomes sensitized to a particular substance and then reacts to it upon subsequent exposure. When applied to the skin, DNFB can cause a red, itchy, and painful rash in individuals who have been previously sensitized to the compound. By studying this reaction, researchers can gain insights into the immune responses that underlie allergic reactions more broadly.

It is important to note that dinitrofluorobenzene is not used as a therapeutic agent in clinical medicine and should only be handled by trained professionals in a controlled laboratory setting due to its potential hazards, including skin and eye irritation, respiratory problems, and potential long-term health effects.

Histocompatibility antigens Class II are a group of cell surface proteins that play a crucial role in the immune system's response to foreign substances. They are expressed on the surface of various cells, including immune cells such as B lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and activated T lymphocytes.

Class II histocompatibility antigens are encoded by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II genes, which are located on chromosome 6 in humans. These antigens are composed of two non-covalently associated polypeptide chains, an alpha (α) and a beta (β) chain, which form a heterodimer. There are three main types of Class II histocompatibility antigens, known as HLA-DP, HLA-DQ, and HLA-DR.

Class II histocompatibility antigens present peptide antigens to CD4+ T helper cells, which then activate other immune cells, such as B cells and macrophages, to mount an immune response against the presented antigen. Because of their role in initiating an immune response, Class II histocompatibility antigens are important in transplantation medicine, where mismatches between donor and recipient can lead to rejection of the transplanted organ or tissue.

Histiocytosis is a term used to describe a group of rare disorders characterized by an abnormal increase in the number of histiocytes, which are a type of white blood cell that helps fight infection and helps in healing processes. These disorders can affect various organs and tissues in the body, leading to different symptoms and severity.

There are several types of histiocytosis, including Langerhans cell histiocytosis (LCH), Erdheim-Chester disease (ECD), and hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH). Each type has its own specific features and diagnostic criteria.

For example, LCH is characterized by the abnormal accumulation of Langerhans cells, a type of histiocyte found in the skin and mucous membranes. These cells can form tumors or lesions in various organs, such as the bones, lungs, liver, and skin.

HLH, on the other hand, is a life-threatening condition that occurs when there is an overactive immune response leading to excessive activation of histiocytes and other immune cells. This can result in fever, enlargement of the liver and spleen, and decreased blood cell counts.

The exact cause of histiocytosis is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve genetic mutations that lead to uncontrolled proliferation and accumulation of histiocytes. Treatment for histiocytosis depends on the type and severity of the disorder and may include chemotherapy, radiation therapy, immunosuppressive drugs, or stem cell transplantation.

Carcinoma, islet cell, also known as pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor or pancreatic endocrine carcinoma, is a type of malignancy that arises from the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas. These tumors can produce and release hormones such as insulin, glucagon, gastrin, and somatostatin, leading to various clinical syndromes depending on the specific hormone produced.

Islet cell carcinomas are relatively rare, accounting for less than 5% of all pancreatic malignancies. They can occur at any age but are more common in adults between 40 and 60 years old. The prognosis for islet cell carcinoma varies widely depending on the stage and grade of the tumor, as well as the presence or absence of metastases. Treatment options may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapies.

Graft survival, in medical terms, refers to the success of a transplanted tissue or organ in continuing to function and integrate with the recipient's body over time. It is the opposite of graft rejection, which occurs when the recipient's immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and attacks it, leading to its failure.

Graft survival depends on various factors, including the compatibility between the donor and recipient, the type and location of the graft, the use of immunosuppressive drugs to prevent rejection, and the overall health of the recipient. A successful graft survival implies that the transplanted tissue or organ has been accepted by the recipient's body and is functioning properly, providing the necessary physiological support for the recipient's survival and improved quality of life.

Glyceraldehyde is a triose, a simple sugar consisting of three carbon atoms. It is a clear, colorless, sweet-tasting liquid that is used as a sweetener and preservative in the food industry. In the medical field, glyceraldehyde is used in research and diagnostics, particularly in the study of carbohydrate metabolism and enzyme function.

Glyceraldehyde is also an important intermediate in the glycolytic pathway, which is a series of reactions that convert glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH as energy-rich compounds. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate in this pathway.

In addition, glyceraldehyde has been studied for its potential role in the development of diabetic complications and other diseases associated with carbohydrate metabolism disorders.

The pancreatic ducts are a set of tubular structures within the pancreas that play a crucial role in the digestive system. The main pancreatic duct, also known as the duct of Wirsung, is responsible for transporting pancreatic enzymes and bicarbonate-rich fluid from the pancreas to the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine.

The exocrine portion of the pancreas contains numerous smaller ducts called interlobular ducts and intralobular ducts that merge and ultimately join the main pancreatic duct. This system ensures that the digestive enzymes and fluids produced by the pancreas are effectively delivered to the small intestine, where they aid in the breakdown and absorption of nutrients from food.

In addition to the main pancreatic duct, there is an accessory pancreatic duct, also known as Santorini's duct, which can sometimes join the common bile duct before emptying into the duodenum through a shared opening called the ampulla of Vater. However, in most individuals, the accessory pancreatic duct usually drains into the main pancreatic duct before entering the duodenum.

Amyloid is a term used in medicine to describe abnormally folded protein deposits that can accumulate in various tissues and organs of the body. These misfolded proteins can form aggregates known as amyloid fibrils, which have a characteristic beta-pleated sheet structure. Amyloid deposits can be composed of different types of proteins, depending on the specific disease associated with the deposit.

In some cases, amyloid deposits can cause damage to organs and tissues, leading to various clinical symptoms. Some examples of diseases associated with amyloidosis include Alzheimer's disease (where amyloid-beta protein accumulates in the brain), systemic amyloidosis (where amyloid fibrils deposit in various organs such as the heart, kidneys, and liver), and type 2 diabetes (where amyloid deposits form in the pancreas).

It's important to note that not all amyloid deposits are harmful or associated with disease. However, when they do cause problems, treatment typically involves managing the underlying condition that is leading to the abnormal protein accumulation.

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that are part of the immune system. They are found throughout the body, especially in the neck, armpits, groin, and abdomen. Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid, which carries waste and unwanted substances such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. They contain white blood cells called lymphocytes that help fight infections and diseases by attacking and destroying the harmful substances found in the lymph fluid. When an infection or disease is present, lymph nodes may swell due to the increased number of immune cells and fluid accumulation as they work to fight off the invaders.

A hapten is a small molecule that can elicit an immune response only when it is attached to a larger carrier protein. On its own, a hapten is too small to be recognized by the immune system as a foreign substance. However, when it binds to a carrier protein, it creates a new antigenic site that can be detected by the immune system. This process is known as haptenization.

Haptens are important in the study of immunology and allergies because they can cause an allergic response when they bind to proteins in the body. For example, certain chemicals found in cosmetics, drugs, or industrial products can act as haptens and trigger an allergic reaction when they come into contact with the skin or mucous membranes. The resulting immune response can cause symptoms such as rash, itching, or inflammation.

Haptens can also be used in the development of vaccines and diagnostic tests, where they are attached to carrier proteins to stimulate an immune response and produce specific antibodies that can be measured or used for therapy.

Allergic contact dermatitis is a type of inflammatory skin reaction that occurs when the skin comes into contact with a substance (allergen) that the immune system recognizes as foreign and triggers an allergic response. This condition is characterized by redness, itching, swelling, blistering, and cracking of the skin, which usually develops within 24-48 hours after exposure to the allergen. Common allergens include metals (such as nickel), rubber, medications, fragrances, and cosmetics. It is important to note that a person must first be sensitized to the allergen before developing an allergic response upon subsequent exposures.

Photoallergic dermatitis is a type of contact dermatitis that occurs as a result of an allergic reaction to a substance after it has been exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light. This means that when the substance (allergen) comes into contact with the skin and is then exposed to UV light, usually from the sun, an immune response is triggered, leading to an inflammatory reaction in the skin.

The symptoms of photoallergic dermatitis include redness, swelling, itching, and blistering or crusting of the skin. These symptoms typically appear within 24-72 hours after exposure to the allergen and UV light. The rash can occur anywhere on the body but is most commonly found in areas that have been exposed to the sun, such as the face, neck, arms, and hands.

Common allergens that can cause photoallergic dermatitis include certain medications, fragrances, sunscreens, and topical skin products. Once a person has become sensitized to a particular allergen, even small amounts of it can trigger a reaction when exposed to UV light.

Prevention measures for photoallergic dermatitis include avoiding known allergens, wearing protective clothing, and using broad-spectrum sunscreens that protect against both UVA and UVB rays. If a reaction does occur, topical corticosteroids or oral antihistamines may be prescribed to help relieve symptoms.

Keratinocytes are the predominant type of cells found in the epidermis, which is the outermost layer of the skin. These cells are responsible for producing keratin, a tough protein that provides structural support and protection to the skin. Keratinocytes undergo constant turnover, with new cells produced in the basal layer of the epidermis and older cells moving upward and eventually becoming flattened and filled with keratin as they reach the surface of the skin, where they are then shed. They also play a role in the immune response and can release cytokines and other signaling molecules to help protect the body from infection and injury.

Tolbutamide is defined as a first-generation sulfonylurea oral hypoglycemic agent used in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus. It acts by stimulating the release of insulin from the pancreas, thereby reducing blood glucose levels. Tolbutamide is metabolized and excreted rapidly, with a half-life of about 6 hours, making it useful in patients with renal impairment.

Common side effects of tolbutamide include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as skin reactions such as rash and itching. Hypoglycemia is a potential adverse effect, particularly if the medication is dosed improperly or if the patient skips meals. Tolbutamide should be used with caution in patients with hepatic impairment, kidney disease, and the elderly due to an increased risk of hypoglycemia.

It's important to note that tolbutamide is not commonly used as a first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes mellitus due to the availability of newer medications with more favorable side effect profiles and efficacy.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the adaptive immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are several different types of T-cells, including CD4+ helper T-cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, and regulatory T-cells (Tregs).

CD4+ helper T-cells assist in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages. They also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response. CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic substances. Regulatory T-cells help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes are important in the immune response to viral infections, cancer, and other diseases. Dysfunction or depletion of T-cells can lead to immunodeficiency and increased susceptibility to infections. On the other hand, an overactive T-cell response can contribute to autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Antigen presentation is the process by which certain cells in the immune system, known as antigen presenting cells (APCs), display foreign or abnormal proteins (antigens) on their surface to other immune cells, such as T-cells. This process allows the immune system to recognize and mount a response against harmful pathogens, infected or damaged cells.

There are two main types of antigen presentation: major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and MHC class II presentation.

1. MHC class I presentation: APCs, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B-cells, process and load antigens onto MHC class I molecules, which are expressed on the surface of almost all nucleated cells in the body. The MHC class I-antigen complex is then recognized by CD8+ T-cells (cytotoxic T-cells), leading to the destruction of infected or damaged cells.
2. MHC class II presentation: APCs, particularly dendritic cells and B-cells, process and load antigens onto MHC class II molecules, which are mainly expressed on the surface of professional APCs. The MHC class II-antigen complex is then recognized by CD4+ T-cells (helper T-cells), leading to the activation of other immune cells, such as B-cells and macrophages, to eliminate the pathogen or damaged cells.

In summary, antigen presentation is a crucial step in the adaptive immune response, allowing for the recognition and elimination of foreign or abnormal substances that could potentially harm the body.

Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the release of several hormones and also has a role in slowing down digestion. It is produced by the body in various parts of the body, including the hypothalamus (a part of the brain), the pancreas, and the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin exists in two forms: somatostatin-14 and somatostatin-28, which differ in their length. Somatostatin-14 is the predominant form found in the brain, while somatostatin-28 is the major form found in the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin has a wide range of effects on various physiological processes, including:

* Inhibiting the release of several hormones such as growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, and gastrin
* Slowing down digestion by inhibiting the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and reducing blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract
* Regulating neurotransmission in the brain

Somatostatin is used clinically as a diagnostic tool for detecting certain types of tumors that overproduce growth hormone or other hormones, and it is also used as a treatment for some conditions such as acromegaly (a condition characterized by excessive growth hormone production) and gastrointestinal disorders.

Diazoxide is a medication that is primarily used to treat hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) in newborns and infants. It works by inhibiting the release of insulin from the pancreas, which helps to prevent the blood sugar levels from dropping too low. Diazoxide may also be used in adults with certain rare conditions that cause hypoglycemia.

In addition to its use as a hypoglycemic agent, diazoxide has been used off-label for other indications, such as the treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure) that is resistant to other medications. It works as a vasodilator, relaxing the smooth muscle in the walls of blood vessels and causing them to widen, which reduces the resistance to blood flow and lowers blood pressure.

Diazoxide is available as an injection and is typically administered in a hospital setting under the close supervision of a healthcare professional. Common side effects of diazoxide include fluid retention, headache, nausea, and vomiting. It may also cause rare but serious side effects such as heart rhythm disturbances and allergic reactions.

I'm happy to help! However, I believe there may be a slight error in your question. "WF" is not a recognized strain identifier for inbred rats used in scientific research. Instead, "WI" or "Wistar-Imamichi" is sometimes used to refer to an inbred strain of rat developed in Japan.

Assuming you meant to ask about "Rats, Inbred WI," here's a definition:

Inbred WI rats are a strain of laboratory rats that have been selectively bred for research purposes. "Inbred" means that the rats have been brother-sister mated for at least 20 generations, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity within the strain. This uniformity makes it easier to control variables and repeat experiments.

WI rats were developed in Japan by crossing outbred Wistar rats with an inbred strain called F344. They have since been maintained as an independent inbred strain.

These rats are often used in biomedical research due to their well-characterized genetic background and consistent phenotypic traits, such as their size, behavior, and susceptibility to certain diseases. However, like all animal models, they have limitations and may not always accurately reflect human physiology or disease processes.

Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20, also known as CCL20 or EXODUS, is a small signaling protein that belongs to the chemokine family. Chemokines are a group of cytokines, or cell signaling molecules, that play crucial roles in immune responses and inflammation by recruiting various immune cells to the sites of infection or injury.

CCL20 specifically binds to its receptor CCR6 and plays an essential role in attracting immune cells like T lymphocytes (T cells), dendritic cells, and B lymphocytes (B cells) to the site of inflammation. It is produced by various cell types, including epithelial cells, fibroblasts, and immune cells, in response to infection, injury, or other stimuli.

CCL20 has been implicated in several physiological and pathological processes, such as:

1. Homeostatic regulation of immune cell trafficking: CCL20 helps maintain the normal migration and positioning of immune cells in various tissues under steady-state conditions.
2. Inflammatory responses: CCL20 is upregulated during inflammation, contributing to the recruitment of immune cells to the affected area.
3. Autoimmune diseases: Overexpression or dysregulation of CCL20 has been associated with several autoimmune disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and multiple sclerosis.
4. Cancer: CCL20 is involved in tumorigenesis and cancer progression by promoting the recruitment of immune cells that can either support or suppress tumor growth.
5. Infectious diseases: CCL20 plays a role in host defense against various pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and parasites, by attracting immune cells to the site of infection.

Cell separation is a process used to separate and isolate specific cell types from a heterogeneous mixture of cells. This can be accomplished through various physical or biological methods, depending on the characteristics of the cells of interest. Some common techniques for cell separation include:

1. Density gradient centrifugation: In this method, a sample containing a mixture of cells is layered onto a density gradient medium and then centrifuged. The cells are separated based on their size, density, and sedimentation rate, with denser cells settling closer to the bottom of the tube and less dense cells remaining near the top.

2. Magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS): This technique uses magnetic beads coated with antibodies that bind to specific cell surface markers. The labeled cells are then passed through a column placed in a magnetic field, which retains the magnetically labeled cells while allowing unlabeled cells to flow through.

3. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS): In this method, cells are stained with fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies that recognize specific cell surface or intracellular markers. The stained cells are then passed through a laser beam, which excites the fluorophores and allows for the detection and sorting of individual cells based on their fluorescence profile.

4. Filtration: This simple method relies on the physical size differences between cells to separate them. Cells can be passed through filters with pore sizes that allow smaller cells to pass through while retaining larger cells.

5. Enzymatic digestion: In some cases, cells can be separated by enzymatically dissociating tissues into single-cell suspensions and then using various separation techniques to isolate specific cell types.

These methods are widely used in research and clinical settings for applications such as isolating immune cells, stem cells, or tumor cells from biological samples.

Cytoplasmic granules are small, membrane-bound organelles or inclusions found within the cytoplasm of cells. They contain various substances such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and genetic material. Cytoplasmic granules have diverse functions depending on their specific composition and cellular location. Some examples include:

1. Secretory granules: These are found in secretory cells and store hormones, neurotransmitters, or enzymes before they are released by exocytosis.
2. Lysosomes: These are membrane-bound organelles that contain hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion of waste materials, foreign substances, and damaged organelles.
3. Melanosomes: Found in melanocytes, these granules produce and store the pigment melanin, which is responsible for skin, hair, and eye color.
4. Weibel-Palade bodies: These are found in endothelial cells and store von Willebrand factor and P-selectin, which play roles in hemostasis and inflammation.
5. Peroxisomes: These are single-membrane organelles that contain enzymes for various metabolic processes, such as β-oxidation of fatty acids and detoxification of harmful substances.
6. Lipid bodies (also called lipid droplets): These are cytoplasmic granules that store neutral lipids, such as triglycerides and cholesteryl esters. They play a role in energy metabolism and intracellular signaling.
7. Glycogen granules: These are cytoplasmic inclusions that store glycogen, a polysaccharide used for energy storage in animals.
8. Protein bodies: Found in plants, these granules store excess proteins and help regulate protein homeostasis within the cell.
9. Electron-dense granules: These are found in certain immune cells, such as mast cells and basophils, and release mediators like histamine during an allergic response.
10. Granules of unknown composition or function may also be present in various cell types.

"Flushing" is a medical term that refers to a sudden, temporary reddening of the skin, often accompanied by feelings of warmth. This occurs when the blood vessels beneath the skin dilate or expand, allowing more blood to flow through them. Flushing can be caused by various factors such as emotional stress, alcohol consumption, spicy foods, certain medications, or medical conditions like carcinoid syndrome or menopause. It is generally harmless but can sometimes indicate an underlying issue that requires medical attention.

Glucose Transporter Type 2 (GLUT2) is a protein responsible for the facilitated diffusion of glucose across the cell membrane. It is a member of the solute carrier family 2 (SLC2), also known as the facilitative glucose transporter family. GLUT2 is primarily expressed in the liver, kidney, and intestines, where it plays a crucial role in regulating glucose homeostasis.

In the pancreas, GLUT2 is found in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans, where it facilitates the uptake of glucose from the bloodstream into the cells. Once inside the cell, glucose is metabolized, leading to an increase in ATP levels and the closure of ATP-sensitive potassium channels. This results in the depolarization of the cell membrane and the subsequent opening of voltage-gated calcium channels, allowing for the release of insulin from secretory vesicles into the bloodstream.

In the intestines, GLUT2 is expressed in the enterocytes of the small intestine, where it facilitates the absorption of glucose and other monosaccharides from the lumen into the bloodstream. In the kidneys, GLUT2 is found in the proximal tubules, where it plays a role in reabsorbing glucose from the filtrate back into the bloodstream.

Mutations in the gene that encodes GLUT2 (SLC2A2) can lead to several genetic disorders, including Fanconi-Bickel syndrome, which is characterized by impaired glucose and galactose absorption in the intestines, hepatic glycogen accumulation, and renal tubular dysfunction.

Skin diseases of viral origin are conditions that affect the skin caused by viral infections. These infections can lead to various symptoms such as rashes, blisters, papules, and skin lesions. Some common examples of viral skin diseases include:

1. Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) infection: This causes cold sores or genital herpes, which are characterized by small, painful blisters on the skin.
2. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) infection: This causes chickenpox and shingles, which are characterized by itchy, fluid-filled blisters on the skin.
3. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) infection: This causes warts, which are small, rough growths on the skin.
4. Molluscum contagiosum: This is a viral infection that causes small, raised, and pearly white bumps on the skin.
5. Measles: This is a highly contagious viral disease characterized by fever, cough, runny nose, and a rash that spreads all over the body.
6. Rubella: Also known as German measles, this viral infection causes a red rash on the face and neck that spreads to the rest of the body.

Viral skin diseases can be spread through direct contact with an infected person or contaminated objects, such as towels or bedding. Some viral skin diseases can be prevented through vaccination, while others can be treated with antiviral medications or other therapies.

Histiocytes are a type of immune cell that are part of the mononuclear phagocyte system. They originate from monocytes, which are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. Histiocytes play an important role in the immune system by engulfing and destroying foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as removing dead cells and other debris from the body. They can be found in various tissues throughout the body, including the skin, lymph nodes, spleen, and liver.

Histiocytes include several different types of cells, such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and Langerhans cells. These cells have different functions but all play a role in the immune response. For example, macrophages are involved in inflammation and tissue repair, while dendritic cells are important for presenting antigens to T cells and initiating an immune response.

Abnormal accumulations or dysfunction of histiocytes can lead to various diseases, such as histiocytosis, which is a group of disorders characterized by the abnormal proliferation and accumulation of histiocytes in various tissues.

Electron microscopy (EM) is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the sample being examined, resulting in much higher magnification and resolution than light microscopy. There are several types of electron microscopy, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and reflection electron microscopy (REM).

In TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin slice of the sample, and the electrons that pass through the sample are focused to form an image. This technique can provide detailed information about the internal structure of cells, viruses, and other biological specimens, as well as the composition and structure of materials at the atomic level.

In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of the sample, and the electrons that are scattered back from the surface are detected to create an image. This technique can provide information about the topography and composition of surfaces, as well as the structure of materials at the microscopic level.

REM is a variation of SEM in which the beam of electrons is reflected off the surface of the sample, rather than scattered back from it. This technique can provide information about the surface chemistry and composition of materials.

Electron microscopy has a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and materials science, including the study of cellular structure and function, disease diagnosis, and the development of new materials and technologies.

Oxazolone is not a medical condition or diagnosis, but rather a chemical compound. It is commonly used in research and scientific studies as an experimental contact sensitizer to induce allergic contact dermatitis in animal models. Here's the general definition:

Oxazolone (C8H7NO3): An organic compound that belongs to the class of heterocyclic compounds known as oxazoles, which contain a benzene fused to a five-membered ring containing one oxygen atom and one nitrogen atom. It is used in research as an allergen to induce contact hypersensitivity reactions in skin sensitization studies.

An "injection, intradermal" refers to a type of injection where a small quantity of a substance is introduced into the layer of skin between the epidermis and dermis, using a thin gauge needle. This technique is often used for diagnostic or research purposes, such as conducting allergy tests or administering immunizations in a way that stimulates a strong immune response. The injection site typically produces a small, raised bump (wheal) that disappears within a few hours. It's important to note that intradermal injections should be performed by trained medical professionals to minimize the risk of complications.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Juvenile xanthogranuloma (JXG) is a rare, benign type of histiocytic tumor that typically presents in infancy or early childhood. It is characterized by the proliferation of lipid-laden macrophages called xanthoma cells, along with Touton giant cells and other inflammatory cells. JXG usually appears as a single or multiple, firm, yellowish to reddish-brown papules or nodules on the skin. While most cases of JXG are self-limited and resolve without treatment, some may involve extracutaneous sites such as the eyes, mouth, bones, and internal organs, which can lead to complications. The exact cause of JXG remains unknown, but it is not considered a hereditary condition.

Alloxan is a chemical compound that is primarily used in laboratory research. Its medical definition is:

A toxic, crystalline substance, C6H4O6, derived from uric acid, and used experimentally to produce diabetes in animals by destroying their insulin-producing cells (beta cells) in the pancreas. Alloxan monohydrate is a white crystalline powder that is soluble in water and alcohol. It is used as a reagent in analytical chemistry and in photography.

In scientific research, alloxan is often used to induce diabetes in laboratory animals (like rats and mice) in order to study the disease and potential treatments. The compound is toxic to the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas, leading to a decrease in insulin production and an increase in blood glucose levels, similar to what occurs in type 1 diabetes in humans. However, it's important to note that alloxan-induced diabetes does not perfectly mimic the human form of the disease, and results from such studies may not always translate directly to human treatments.

Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is a hormone that is produced and released by the pancreas, specifically by the F cells located in the islets of Langerhans. It is a small protein consisting of 36 amino acids, and it plays a role in regulating digestive functions, particularly by inhibiting pancreatic enzyme secretion and gastric acid secretion.

PP is released into the bloodstream in response to food intake, especially when nutrients such as proteins and fats are present in the stomach. It acts on the brain to produce a feeling of fullness or satiety, which helps to regulate appetite and eating behavior. Additionally, PP has been shown to have effects on glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and energy balance.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the potential therapeutic uses of PP for a variety of conditions, including obesity, diabetes, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and clinical applications.

C-peptide is a byproduct that is produced when the hormone insulin is generated in the body. Insulin is a hormone that helps regulate blood sugar levels, and it is produced in the pancreas by specialized cells called beta cells. When these cells produce insulin, they also generate C-peptide as a part of the same process.

C-peptide is often used as a marker to measure the body's insulin production. By measuring C-peptide levels in the blood, healthcare providers can get an idea of how much insulin the body is producing on its own. This can be helpful in diagnosing and monitoring conditions such as diabetes, which is characterized by impaired insulin production or function.

It's worth noting that C-peptide is not typically used as a treatment for any medical conditions. Instead, it is primarily used as a diagnostic tool to help healthcare providers better understand their patients' health status and make informed treatment decisions.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Calcium is an essential mineral that is vital for various physiological processes in the human body. The medical definition of calcium is as follows:

Calcium (Ca2+) is a crucial cation and the most abundant mineral in the human body, with approximately 99% of it found in bones and teeth. It plays a vital role in maintaining structural integrity, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, hormonal secretion, blood coagulation, and enzyme activation.

Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated through the interplay of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D. Dietary calcium intake, absorption, and excretion are also critical factors in maintaining optimal calcium levels in the body.

Hypocalcemia refers to low serum calcium levels, while hypercalcemia indicates high serum calcium levels. Both conditions can have detrimental effects on various organ systems and require medical intervention to correct.

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) is a type of cytokine, which are proteins that play a crucial role in cell signaling. Specifically, IL-1 is a pro-inflammatory cytokine that is involved in the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses in the body. It is produced by various cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, in response to infection or injury.

IL-1 exists in two forms, IL-1α and IL-1β, which have similar biological activities but are encoded by different genes. Both forms of IL-1 bind to the same receptor, IL-1R, and activate intracellular signaling pathways that lead to the production of other cytokines, chemokines, and inflammatory mediators.

IL-1 has a wide range of biological effects, including fever induction, activation of immune cells, regulation of hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells), and modulation of bone metabolism. Dysregulation of IL-1 production or activity has been implicated in various inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, gout, and inflammatory bowel disease. Therefore, IL-1 is an important target for the development of therapies aimed at modulating the immune response and reducing inflammation.

A Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) is a medical test used to diagnose prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, and gestational diabetes. It measures how well your body is able to process glucose, which is a type of sugar.

During the test, you will be asked to fast (not eat or drink anything except water) for at least eight hours before the test. Then, a healthcare professional will take a blood sample to measure your fasting blood sugar level. After that, you will be given a sugary drink containing a specific amount of glucose. Your blood sugar levels will be measured again after two hours and sometimes also after one hour.

The results of the test will indicate how well your body is able to process the glucose and whether you have normal, impaired, or diabetic glucose tolerance. If your blood sugar levels are higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed with diabetes, you may have prediabetes, which means that you are at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the future.

It is important to note that a Glucose Tolerance Test should be performed under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as high blood sugar levels can be dangerous if not properly managed.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Glucokinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in regulating glucose metabolism. It is primarily found in the liver, pancreas, and brain. In the pancreas, glucokinase helps to trigger the release of insulin in response to rising blood glucose levels. In the liver, it plays a key role in controlling glucose storage and production.

Glucokinase has a unique property among hexokinases (enzymes that phosphorylate six-carbon sugars) in that it is not inhibited by its product, glucose-6-phosphate. This allows it to continue functioning even when glucose levels are high, making it an important regulator of glucose metabolism.

Defects in the gene that codes for glucokinase can lead to several types of inherited diabetes and other metabolic disorders.

Picryl Chloride, also known as 2,4,6-Trinitrophenyl Chloride, is not a medical term. It is a chemical compound with the formula C6H2Cl3O6. It is a yellow crystalline solid that is used in organic synthesis and as a reagent for detecting nucleophiles.

Picryl Chloride is highly reactive and can cause severe burns and eye damage. It is also an explosive compound, and should be handled with care. It is not typically used in medical contexts, but may come up in discussions of chemical safety or laboratory procedures.

Tissue culture techniques refer to the methods used to maintain and grow cells, tissues or organs from multicellular organisms in an artificial environment outside of the living body, called an in vitro culture. These techniques are widely used in various fields such as biology, medicine, and agriculture for research, diagnostics, and therapeutic purposes.

The basic components of tissue culture include a sterile growth medium that contains nutrients, growth factors, and other essential components to support the growth of cells or tissues. The growth medium is often supplemented with antibiotics to prevent contamination by microorganisms. The cells or tissues are cultured in specialized containers called culture vessels, which can be plates, flasks, or dishes, depending on the type and scale of the culture.

There are several types of tissue culture techniques, including:

1. Monolayer Culture: In this technique, cells are grown as a single layer on a flat surface, allowing for easy observation and manipulation of individual cells.
2. Organoid Culture: This method involves growing three-dimensional structures that resemble the organization and function of an organ in vivo.
3. Co-culture: In co-culture, two or more cell types are grown together to study their interactions and communication.
4. Explant Culture: In this technique, small pieces of tissue are cultured to maintain the original structure and organization of the cells within the tissue.
5. Primary Culture: This refers to the initial culture of cells directly isolated from a living organism. These cells can be further subcultured to generate immortalized cell lines.

Tissue culture techniques have numerous applications, such as studying cell behavior, drug development and testing, gene therapy, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose (or sugar) levels resulting from the body's inability to produce sufficient amounts of insulin or effectively use the insulin it produces. This form of diabetes usually develops gradually over several years and is often associated with older age, obesity, physical inactivity, family history of diabetes, and certain ethnicities.

In Type 2 diabetes, the body's cells become resistant to insulin, meaning they don't respond properly to the hormone. As a result, the pancreas produces more insulin to help glucose enter the cells. Over time, the pancreas can't keep up with the increased demand, leading to high blood glucose levels and diabetes.

Type 2 diabetes is managed through lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, regular exercise, and a healthy diet. Medications, including insulin therapy, may also be necessary to control blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications associated with the disease, such as heart disease, nerve damage, kidney damage, and vision loss.

Inbred strains of mice are defined as lines of mice that have been brother-sister mated for at least 20 consecutive generations. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the mice of an inbred strain are genetically identical to one another, with the exception of spontaneous mutations.

Inbred strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research due to their genetic uniformity and stability, which makes them useful for studying the genetic basis of various traits, diseases, and biological processes. They also provide a consistent and reproducible experimental system, as compared to outbred or genetically heterogeneous populations.

Some commonly used inbred strains of mice include C57BL/6J, BALB/cByJ, DBA/2J, and 129SvEv. Each strain has its own unique genetic background and phenotypic characteristics, which can influence the results of experiments. Therefore, it is important to choose the appropriate inbred strain for a given research question.

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are a group of specialized cells in the immune system that play a critical role in initiating and regulating immune responses. They have the ability to engulf, process, and present antigens (molecules derived from pathogens or other foreign substances) on their surface in conjunction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. This presentation of antigens allows APCs to activate T cells, which are crucial for adaptive immunity.

There are several types of APCs, including:

1. Dendritic cells (DCs): These are the most potent and professional APCs, found in various tissues throughout the body. DCs can capture antigens from their environment, process them, and migrate to lymphoid organs where they present antigens to T cells.
2. Macrophages: These large phagocytic cells are found in many tissues and play a role in both innate and adaptive immunity. They can engulf and digest pathogens, then present processed antigens on their MHC class II molecules to activate CD4+ T helper cells.
3. B cells: These are primarily responsible for humoral immune responses by producing antibodies against antigens. When activated, B cells can also function as APCs and present antigens on their MHC class II molecules to CD4+ T cells.

The interaction between APCs and T cells is critical for the development of an effective immune response against pathogens or other foreign substances. This process helps ensure that the immune system can recognize and eliminate threats while minimizing damage to healthy tissues.

According to the medical definition, ultraviolet (UV) rays are invisible radiations that fall in the range of the electromagnetic spectrum between 100-400 nanometers. UV rays are further divided into three categories: UVA (320-400 nm), UVB (280-320 nm), and UVC (100-280 nm).

UV rays have various sources, including the sun and artificial sources like tanning beds. Prolonged exposure to UV rays can cause damage to the skin, leading to premature aging, eye damage, and an increased risk of skin cancer. UVA rays penetrate deeper into the skin and are associated with skin aging, while UVB rays primarily affect the outer layer of the skin and are linked to sunburns and skin cancer. UVC rays are the most harmful but fortunately, they are absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere and do not reach the surface.

Healthcare professionals recommend limiting exposure to UV rays, wearing protective clothing, using broad-spectrum sunscreen with an SPF of at least 30, and avoiding tanning beds to reduce the risk of UV-related health problems.

Organ culture techniques refer to the methods used to maintain or grow intact organs or pieces of organs under controlled conditions in vitro, while preserving their structural and functional characteristics. These techniques are widely used in biomedical research to study organ physiology, pathophysiology, drug development, and toxicity testing.

Organ culture can be performed using a variety of methods, including:

1. Static organ culture: In this method, the organs or tissue pieces are placed on a porous support in a culture dish and maintained in a nutrient-rich medium. The medium is replaced periodically to ensure adequate nutrition and removal of waste products.
2. Perfusion organ culture: This method involves perfusing the organ with nutrient-rich media, allowing for better distribution of nutrients and oxygen throughout the tissue. This technique is particularly useful for studying larger organs such as the liver or kidney.
3. Microfluidic organ culture: In this approach, microfluidic devices are used to create a controlled microenvironment for organ cultures. These devices allow for precise control over the flow of nutrients and waste products, as well as the application of mechanical forces.

Organ culture techniques can be used to study various aspects of organ function, including metabolism, secretion, and response to drugs or toxins. Additionally, these methods can be used to generate three-dimensional tissue models that better recapitulate the structure and function of intact organs compared to traditional two-dimensional cell cultures.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

CD86 is a type of protein found on the surface of certain immune cells called antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. These proteins are known as co-stimulatory molecules and play an important role in activating T cells, a type of white blood cell that is crucial for adaptive immunity.

When APCs encounter a pathogen or foreign substance, they engulf it, break it down into smaller peptides, and display these peptides on their surface in conjunction with another protein called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecule. This presentation of antigenic peptides to T cells is not sufficient to activate them fully. Instead, APCs must also provide a co-stimulatory signal through interactions between co-stimulatory molecules like CD86 and receptors on the surface of T cells, such as CD28.

CD86 binds to its receptor CD28 on T cells, providing a critical second signal that promotes T cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation into effector cells. This interaction is essential for the development of an effective immune response against pathogens or foreign substances. In addition to its role in activating T cells, CD86 also helps regulate immune tolerance by contributing to the suppression of self-reactive T cells that could otherwise attack the body's own tissues and cause autoimmune diseases.

Overall, CD86 is an important player in the regulation of the immune response, helping to ensure that T cells are activated appropriately in response to pathogens or foreign substances while also contributing to the maintenance of self-tolerance.

HLA-DR antigens are a type of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class II molecule that plays a crucial role in the immune system. They are found on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B lymphocytes. HLA-DR molecules present peptide antigens to CD4+ T cells, also known as helper T cells, thereby initiating an immune response.

HLA-DR antigens are highly polymorphic, meaning that there are many different variants of these molecules in the human population. This diversity allows for a wide range of potential peptide antigens to be presented and recognized by the immune system. HLA-DR antigens are encoded by genes located on chromosome 6 in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region.

In transplantation, HLA-DR compatibility between donor and recipient is an important factor in determining the success of the transplant. Incompatibility can lead to a heightened immune response against the transplanted organ or tissue, resulting in rejection. Additionally, certain HLA-DR types have been associated with increased susceptibility to autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis.

Dermatitis is a general term that describes inflammation of the skin. It is often characterized by redness, swelling, itching, and tenderness. There are many different types of dermatitis, including atopic dermatitis (eczema), contact dermatitis, seborrheic dermatitis, and nummular dermatitis.

Atopic dermatitis is a chronic skin condition that often affects people with a family history of allergies, such as asthma or hay fever. It typically causes dry, scaly patches on the skin that can be extremely itchy.

Contact dermatitis occurs when the skin comes into contact with an irritant or allergen, such as poison ivy or certain chemicals. This type of dermatitis can cause redness, swelling, and blistering.

Seborrheic dermatitis is a common condition that causes a red, itchy rash, often on the scalp, face, or other areas of the body where oil glands are located. It is thought to be related to an overproduction of oil by the skin's sebaceous glands.

Nummular dermatitis is a type of eczema that causes round, coin-shaped patches of dry, scaly skin. It is more common in older adults and often occurs during the winter months.

Treatment for dermatitis depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. In some cases, over-the-counter creams or lotions may be sufficient to relieve symptoms. Prescription medications, such as corticosteroids or immunosuppressants, may be necessary in more severe cases. Avoiding triggers and irritants can also help prevent flare-ups of dermatitis.

Pancreatic neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the pancreas that can be benign or malignant. The pancreas is a gland located behind the stomach that produces hormones and digestive enzymes. Pancreatic neoplasms can interfere with the normal functioning of the pancreas, leading to various health complications.

Benign pancreatic neoplasms are non-cancerous growths that do not spread to other parts of the body. They are usually removed through surgery to prevent any potential complications, such as blocking the bile duct or causing pain.

Malignant pancreatic neoplasms, also known as pancreatic cancer, are cancerous growths that can invade and destroy surrounding tissues and organs. They can also spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body, such as the liver, lungs, or bones. Pancreatic cancer is often aggressive and difficult to treat, with a poor prognosis.

There are several types of pancreatic neoplasms, including adenocarcinomas, neuroendocrine tumors, solid pseudopapillary neoplasms, and cystic neoplasms. The specific type of neoplasm is determined through various diagnostic tests, such as imaging studies, biopsies, and blood tests. Treatment options depend on the type, stage, and location of the neoplasm, as well as the patient's overall health and preferences.

Confocal microscopy is a powerful imaging technique used in medical and biological research to obtain high-resolution, contrast-rich images of thick samples. This super-resolution technology provides detailed visualization of cellular structures and processes at various depths within a specimen.

In confocal microscopy, a laser beam focused through a pinhole illuminates a small spot within the sample. The emitted fluorescence or reflected light from this spot is then collected by a detector, passing through a second pinhole that ensures only light from the focal plane reaches the detector. This process eliminates out-of-focus light, resulting in sharp images with improved contrast compared to conventional widefield microscopy.

By scanning the laser beam across the sample in a raster pattern and collecting fluorescence at each point, confocal microscopy generates optical sections of the specimen. These sections can be combined to create three-dimensional reconstructions, allowing researchers to study cellular architecture and interactions within complex tissues.

Confocal microscopy has numerous applications in medical research, including studying protein localization, tracking intracellular dynamics, analyzing cell morphology, and investigating disease mechanisms at the cellular level. Additionally, it is widely used in clinical settings for diagnostic purposes, such as analyzing skin lesions or detecting pathogens in patient samples.

Heterotopic transplantation is a type of organ or tissue transplant where the graft is placed in a different location from where it normally resides while still maintaining its original site. This is often done to supplement the function of the existing organ rather than replacing it. A common example of heterotopic transplantation is a heart transplant, where the donor's heart is placed in a new location in the recipient's body, while the recipient's own heart remains in place but is typically nonfunctional. This allows for the possibility of returning the function of the recipient's heart if the transplanted organ fails.

In heterotopic kidney transplantation, the donor kidney is placed in a different location, usually in the lower abdomen, while the recipient's own kidneys are left in place. This approach can be beneficial for recipients with poor renal function or other medical conditions that make traditional kidney transplantation too risky.

Heterotopic transplantation is also used in liver transplantation, where a portion of the donor liver is placed in a different location, typically in the recipient's abdomen, while the recipient's own liver remains in place. This approach can be useful for recipients with acute liver failure or other conditions that make traditional liver transplantation too risky.

One advantage of heterotopic transplantation is that it allows for the possibility of returning the function of the recipient's organ if the transplanted organ fails, as well as reducing the risk of rejection and improving overall outcomes for the recipient. However, this approach also has some disadvantages, such as increased complexity of the surgical procedure, potential for complications related to the placement of the graft, and the need for ongoing immunosuppression therapy to prevent rejection.

Dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) is a chemical compound that is classified as an aromatic organic compound. Its medical definition relates to its use as a topical immunotherapy for the treatment of certain skin conditions. DNCB is a potent sensitizer and hapten, which means that it can cause an immune response when it comes into contact with the skin.

When applied to the skin, DNCB can stimulate the production of antibodies and activate immune cells, leading to an inflammatory reaction. This property has been exploited in the treatment of conditions such as alopecia areata, a type of hair loss that is thought to be caused by an autoimmune response. By sensitizing the patient's immune system to DNCB, it may be possible to modulate the immune response and promote hair growth.

However, the use of DNCB as a therapeutic agent is not without risks. It can cause significant local reactions, including redness, swelling, and blistering, and there is a risk of systemic toxicity if it is absorbed into the bloodstream. As such, its use is generally restricted to specialized medical settings where it can be administered under close supervision.

CD4-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD4+ T cells or helper T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune response. They express the CD4 receptor on their surface and help coordinate the immune system's response to infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria.

CD4+ T cells recognize and bind to specific antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages. Once activated, they can differentiate into various subsets of effector cells, including Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells, each with distinct functions in the immune response.

CD4+ T cells are particularly important in the immune response to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which targets and destroys these cells, leading to a weakened immune system and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections. The number of CD4+ T cells is often used as a marker of disease progression in HIV infection, with lower counts indicating more advanced disease.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

Hyperglycemia is a medical term that refers to an abnormally high level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. Fasting hyperglycemia is defined as a fasting blood glucose level greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL (milligrams per deciliter) on two separate occasions. Alternatively, a random blood glucose level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL in combination with symptoms of hyperglycemia (such as increased thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, and fatigue) can also indicate hyperglycemia.

Hyperglycemia is often associated with diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels due to insulin resistance or insufficient insulin production. However, hyperglycemia can also occur in other conditions such as stress, surgery, infection, certain medications, and hormonal imbalances.

Prolonged or untreated hyperglycemia can lead to serious complications such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS), and long-term damage to various organs such as the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and blood vessels. Therefore, it is essential to monitor blood glucose levels regularly and maintain them within normal ranges through proper diet, exercise, medication, and lifestyle modifications.

Membrane glycoproteins are proteins that contain oligosaccharide chains (glycans) covalently attached to their polypeptide backbone. They are integral components of biological membranes, spanning the lipid bilayer and playing crucial roles in various cellular processes.

The glycosylation of these proteins occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus during protein folding and trafficking. The attached glycans can vary in structure, length, and composition, which contributes to the diversity of membrane glycoproteins.

Membrane glycoproteins can be classified into two main types based on their orientation within the lipid bilayer:

1. Type I (N-linked): These glycoproteins have a single transmembrane domain and an extracellular N-terminus, where the oligosaccharides are predominantly attached via asparagine residues (Asn-X-Ser/Thr sequon).
2. Type II (C-linked): These glycoproteins possess two transmembrane domains and an intracellular C-terminus, with the oligosaccharides linked to tryptophan residues via a mannose moiety.

Membrane glycoproteins are involved in various cellular functions, such as:

* Cell adhesion and recognition
* Receptor-mediated signal transduction
* Enzymatic catalysis
* Transport of molecules across membranes
* Cell-cell communication
* Immunological responses

Some examples of membrane glycoproteins include cell surface receptors (e.g., growth factor receptors, cytokine receptors), adhesion molecules (e.g., integrins, cadherins), and transporters (e.g., ion channels, ABC transporters).

CD80 (also known as B7-1) is a cell surface protein that functions as a costimulatory molecule in the immune system. It is primarily expressed on antigen presenting cells such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells. CD80 binds to the CD28 receptor on T cells, providing a critical second signal necessary for T cell activation and proliferation. This interaction plays a crucial role in the initiation of an effective immune response against pathogens and tumors.

CD80 can also interact with another receptor called CTLA-4 (cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4), which is expressed on activated T cells. The binding of CD80 to CTLA-4 delivers a negative signal that helps regulate the immune response and prevent overactivation, contributing to the maintenance of self-tolerance and preventing autoimmunity.

In summary, CD80 is an important antigen involved in the regulation of the adaptive immune response by modulating T cell activation and proliferation through its interactions with CD28 and CTLA-4 receptors.

Immunophenotyping is a medical laboratory technique used to identify and classify cells, usually in the context of hematologic (blood) disorders and malignancies (cancers), based on their surface or intracellular expression of various proteins and antigens. This technique utilizes specific antibodies tagged with fluorochromes, which bind to the target antigens on the cell surface or within the cells. The labeled cells are then analyzed using flow cytometry, allowing for the detection and quantification of multiple antigenic markers simultaneously.

Immunophenotyping helps in understanding the distribution of different cell types, their subsets, and activation status, which can be crucial in diagnosing various hematological disorders, immunodeficiencies, and distinguishing between different types of leukemias, lymphomas, and other malignancies. Additionally, it can also be used to monitor the progression of diseases, evaluate the effectiveness of treatments, and detect minimal residual disease (MRD) during follow-up care.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Chemokines are a family of small proteins that are involved in immune responses and inflammation. They mediate the chemotaxis (directed migration) of various cells, including leukocytes (white blood cells). Chemokines are classified into four major subfamilies based on the arrangement of conserved cysteine residues near the amino terminus: CXC, CC, C, and CX3C.

CC chemokines, also known as β-chemokines, are characterized by the presence of two adjacent cysteine residues near their N-terminal end. There are 27 known human CC chemokines, including MCP-1 (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1), RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted), and eotaxin.

CC chemokines play important roles in the recruitment of immune cells to sites of infection or injury, as well as in the development and maintenance of immune responses. They bind to specific G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) on the surface of target cells, leading to the activation of intracellular signaling pathways that regulate cell migration, proliferation, and survival.

Dysregulation of CC chemokines and their receptors has been implicated in various inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, as well as in cancer. Therefore, targeting CC chemokine-mediated signaling pathways has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of these conditions.

A mucous membrane is a type of moist, protective lining that covers various body surfaces inside the body, including the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts, as well as the inner surface of the eyelids and the nasal cavity. These membranes are composed of epithelial cells that produce mucus, a slippery secretion that helps trap particles, microorganisms, and other foreign substances, preventing them from entering the body or causing damage to tissues. The mucous membrane functions as a barrier against infection and irritation while also facilitating the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between the body and its environment.

Fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate (FITC) is not a medical term per se, but a chemical compound commonly used in biomedical research and clinical diagnostics. Therefore, I will provide a general definition of this term:

Fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate (FITC) is a fluorescent dye with an absorption maximum at approximately 492-495 nm and an emission maximum at around 518-525 nm. It is widely used as a labeling reagent for various biological molecules, such as antibodies, proteins, and nucleic acids, to study their structure, function, and interactions in techniques like flow cytometry, immunofluorescence microscopy, and western blotting. The isothiocyanate group (-N=C=S) in the FITC molecule reacts with primary amines (-NH2) present in biological molecules to form a stable thiourea bond, enabling specific labeling of target molecules for detection and analysis.

Secretory rate refers to the amount or volume of a secretion produced by a gland or an organ over a given period of time. It is a measure of the productivity or activity level of the secreting structure. The secretory rate can be quantified for various bodily fluids, such as saliva, sweat, digestive enzymes, hormones, or milk, depending on the context and the specific gland or organ being studied.

In clinical settings, measuring the secretory rate might involve collecting and analyzing samples over a certain duration to estimate the production rate of the substance in question. This information can be helpful in diagnosing conditions related to impaired secretion, monitoring treatment responses, or understanding the physiological adaptations of the body under different circumstances.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

A pancreatectomy is a surgical procedure in which all or part of the pancreas is removed. There are several types of pancreatectomies, including:

* **Total pancreatectomy:** Removal of the entire pancreas, as well as the spleen and nearby lymph nodes. This type of pancreatectomy is usually done for patients with cancer that has spread throughout the pancreas or for those who have had multiple surgeries to remove pancreatic tumors.
* **Distal pancreatectomy:** Removal of the body and tail of the pancreas, as well as nearby lymph nodes. This type of pancreatectomy is often done for patients with tumors in the body or tail of the pancreas.
* **Partial (or segmental) pancreatectomy:** Removal of a portion of the head or body of the pancreas, as well as nearby lymph nodes. This type of pancreatectomy is often done for patients with tumors in the head or body of the pancreas that can be removed without removing the entire organ.
* **Pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy (PPPD):** A type of surgery used to treat tumors in the head of the pancreas, as well as other conditions such as chronic pancreatitis. In this procedure, the head of the pancreas, duodenum, gallbladder, and bile duct are removed, but the stomach and lower portion of the esophagus (pylorus) are left in place.

After a pancreatectomy, patients may experience problems with digestion and blood sugar regulation, as the pancreas plays an important role in these functions. Patients may need to take enzyme supplements to help with digestion and may require insulin therapy to manage their blood sugar levels.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a cytokine, a type of small signaling protein involved in immune response and inflammation. It is primarily produced by activated macrophages, although other cell types such as T-cells, natural killer cells, and mast cells can also produce it.

TNF-α plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and tissue injury by mediating inflammatory responses, activating immune cells, and inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in certain types of cells. It does this by binding to its receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, which are found on the surface of many cell types.

In addition to its role in the immune response, TNF-α has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis, as well as cancer, where it can promote tumor growth and metastasis.

Therapeutic agents that target TNF-α, such as infliximab, adalimumab, and etanercept, have been developed to treat these conditions. However, these drugs can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects, so their use must be carefully monitored.

Ultraviolet (UV) therapy, also known as phototherapy, is a medical treatment that uses ultraviolet light to treat various skin conditions. The UV light can be delivered through natural sunlight or artificial sources, such as specialized lamps or lasers.

In medical settings, controlled doses of UV light are used to target specific areas of the skin. The most common type of UV therapy is narrowband UVB (NB-UVB) phototherapy, which uses a specific wavelength of UVB light to treat conditions such as psoriasis, eczema, vitiligo, and dermatitis.

The goal of UV therapy is to reduce inflammation, slow skin cell growth, and improve the overall appearance of the skin. It is important to note that while UV therapy can be effective in treating certain skin conditions, it also carries risks such as skin aging and an increased risk of skin cancer. Therefore, it should only be administered under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Subrenal Capsule Assay" is not a widely recognized or established term in medicine or physiology. It appears that this term may be specific to certain research or experimental contexts.

In general, a capsule assay is a type of experimental setup where cells or tissues are encapsulated within a semi-permeable membrane, allowing for the study of cellular behavior and interactions with the external environment while being protected from immune system attack.

The term "subrenal" suggests that it may have something to do with the kidney, specifically below the renal capsule, which is the outermost layer of the kidney. However, without more context or information about the specific research or experimental procedure, it's difficult to provide a precise medical definition for this term.

If you could provide more context or details about where you encountered this term, I may be able to give a more accurate and helpful explanation.

Homologous transplantation is a type of transplant surgery where organs or tissues are transferred between two genetically non-identical individuals of the same species. The term "homologous" refers to the similarity in structure and function of the donated organ or tissue to the recipient's own organ or tissue.

For example, a heart transplant from one human to another is an example of homologous transplantation because both organs are hearts and perform the same function. Similarly, a liver transplant, kidney transplant, lung transplant, and other types of organ transplants between individuals of the same species are also considered homologous transplantations.

Homologous transplantation is in contrast to heterologous or xenogeneic transplantation, where organs or tissues are transferred from one species to another, such as a pig heart transplanted into a human. Homologous transplantation is more commonly performed than heterologous transplantation due to the increased risk of rejection and other complications associated with xenogeneic transplants.

Isogeneic transplantation is a type of transplant where the donor and recipient are genetically identical, meaning they are identical twins or have the same genetic makeup. In this case, the immune system recognizes the transplanted organ or tissue as its own and does not mount an immune response to reject it. This reduces the need for immunosuppressive drugs, which are typically required in other types of transplantation to prevent rejection.

In medical terms, isogeneic transplantation is defined as the transfer of genetic identical tissues or organs between genetically identical individuals, resulting in minimal risk of rejection and no need for immunosuppressive therapy.

Skin diseases, also known as dermatological conditions, refer to any medical condition that affects the skin, which is the largest organ of the human body. These diseases can affect the skin's function, appearance, or overall health. They can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, allergies, environmental factors, and aging.

Skin diseases can present in many different forms, such as rashes, blisters, sores, discolorations, growths, or changes in texture. Some common examples of skin diseases include acne, eczema, psoriasis, dermatitis, fungal infections, viral infections, bacterial infections, and skin cancer.

The symptoms and severity of skin diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and individual factors. Some skin diseases are mild and can be treated with over-the-counter medications or topical creams, while others may require more intensive treatments such as prescription medications, light therapy, or even surgery.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any unusual or persistent changes in your skin, as some skin diseases can be serious or indicative of other underlying health conditions. A dermatologist is a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of skin diseases.

Immune tolerance, also known as immunological tolerance or specific immune tolerance, is a state of unresponsiveness or non-reactivity of the immune system towards a particular substance (antigen) that has the potential to elicit an immune response. This occurs when the immune system learns to distinguish "self" from "non-self" and does not attack the body's own cells, tissues, and organs.

In the context of transplantation, immune tolerance refers to the absence of a destructive immune response towards the transplanted organ or tissue, allowing for long-term graft survival without the need for immunosuppressive therapy. Immune tolerance can be achieved through various strategies, including hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, costimulation blockade, and regulatory T cell induction.

In summary, immune tolerance is a critical mechanism that prevents the immune system from attacking the body's own structures while maintaining the ability to respond appropriately to foreign pathogens and antigens.

Apoptosis is a programmed and controlled cell death process that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a natural process that helps maintain tissue homeostasis by eliminating damaged, infected, or unwanted cells. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes a series of morphological changes, including cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, and fragmentation into membrane-bound vesicles called apoptotic bodies. These bodies are then recognized and engulfed by neighboring cells or phagocytic cells, preventing an inflammatory response. Apoptosis is regulated by a complex network of intracellular signaling pathways that involve proteins such as caspases, Bcl-2 family members, and inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs).

Vulvar diseases refer to a range of medical conditions that affect the vulva, which is the external female genital area including the mons pubis, labia majora and minora, clitoris, and the vaginal opening. These conditions can cause various symptoms such as itching, burning, pain, soreness, irritation, or abnormal growths or lesions. Some common vulvar diseases include:

1. Vulvitis: inflammation of the vulva that can be caused by infection, allergies, or irritants.
2. Lichen sclerosus: a chronic skin condition that causes thin, white patches on the vulva.
3. Lichen planus: an inflammatory condition that affects the skin and mucous membranes, including the vulva.
4. Vulvar cancer: a rare type of cancer that develops in the tissues of the vulva.
5. Genital warts: caused by human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, these are small growths or bumps on the vulva.
6. Pudendal neuralgia: a nerve condition that causes pain in the vulvar area.
7. Vestibulodynia: pain or discomfort in the vestibule, the area surrounding the vaginal opening.

It is important to consult a healthcare professional if experiencing any symptoms related to vulvar diseases for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 17 (CCL17), also known as thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC), is a small signaling protein that belongs to the CC chemokine family. Chemokines are a group of cytokines, or cell signaling molecules, that play an important role in immune function by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or inflammation.

CCL17 is produced by various types of cells, including dendritic cells, macrophages, and endothelial cells, in response to stimulation by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-4 and IL-13. CCL17 binds to its receptor, CCR4, which is expressed on the surface of Th2 cells, regulatory T cells, and some other immune cells.

CCL17 plays a role in the recruitment of these cells to sites of inflammation, and has been implicated in the pathogenesis of various diseases, including allergies, asthma, atopic dermatitis, and certain types of cancer. In particular, CCL17 has been shown to promote the migration of Th2 cells, which are involved in the immune response to parasites and allergens, to sites of inflammation.

In addition to its role in immune function, CCL17 has also been found to have angiogenic properties, meaning it can stimulate the growth of new blood vessels. This has led to interest in its potential as a therapeutic target for diseases characterized by abnormal blood vessel formation, such as cancer and diabetic retinopathy.

Cell survival refers to the ability of a cell to continue living and functioning normally, despite being exposed to potentially harmful conditions or treatments. This can include exposure to toxins, radiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or other stressors that can damage cells or interfere with their normal processes.

In scientific research, measures of cell survival are often used to evaluate the effectiveness of various therapies or treatments. For example, researchers may expose cells to a particular drug or treatment and then measure the percentage of cells that survive to assess its potential therapeutic value. Similarly, in toxicology studies, measures of cell survival can help to determine the safety of various chemicals or substances.

It's important to note that cell survival is not the same as cell proliferation, which refers to the ability of cells to divide and multiply. While some treatments may promote cell survival, they may also inhibit cell proliferation, making them useful for treating diseases such as cancer. Conversely, other treatments may be designed to specifically target and kill cancer cells, even if it means sacrificing some healthy cells in the process.

Atopic dermatitis is a chronic, inflammatory skin condition that is commonly known as eczema. It is characterized by dry, itchy, and scaly patches on the skin that can become red, swollen, and cracked over time. The condition often affects the skin on the face, hands, feet, and behind the knees, and it can be triggered or worsened by exposure to certain allergens, irritants, stress, or changes in temperature and humidity. Atopic dermatitis is more common in people with a family history of allergies, such as asthma or hay fever, and it often begins in infancy or early childhood. The exact cause of atopic dermatitis is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors that affect the immune system and the skin's ability to maintain a healthy barrier function.

Lymphocyte activation is the process by which B-cells and T-cells (types of lymphocytes) become activated to perform effector functions in an immune response. This process involves the recognition of specific antigens presented on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages.

The activation of B-cells leads to their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies, while the activation of T-cells results in the production of cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+ T-cells) that can directly kill infected cells or helper T-cells (CD4+ T-cells) that assist other immune cells.

Lymphocyte activation involves a series of intracellular signaling events, including the binding of co-stimulatory molecules and the release of cytokines, which ultimately result in the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and effector functions. The activation process is tightly regulated to prevent excessive or inappropriate immune responses that can lead to autoimmunity or chronic inflammation.

CD14 is a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells in the human body, including monocytes, macrophages, and some types of dendritic cells. These cells are part of the immune system and play a crucial role in detecting and responding to infections and other threats.

CD14 is not an antigen itself, but it can bind to certain types of antigens, such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS) found on the surface of gram-negative bacteria. When CD14 binds to an LPS molecule, it helps to activate the immune response and trigger the production of cytokines and other inflammatory mediators.

CD14 can also be found in soluble form in the bloodstream, where it can help to neutralize LPS and prevent it from causing damage to tissues and organs.

It's worth noting that while CD14 plays an important role in the immune response, it is not typically used as a target for vaccines or other immunotherapies. Instead, it is often studied as a marker of immune activation and inflammation in various diseases, including sepsis, atherosclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease.

Graft rejection is an immune response that occurs when transplanted tissue or organ (the graft) is recognized as foreign by the recipient's immune system, leading to the activation of immune cells to attack and destroy the graft. This results in the failure of the transplant and the need for additional medical intervention or another transplant. There are three types of graft rejection: hyperacute, acute, and chronic. Hyperacute rejection occurs immediately or soon after transplantation due to pre-existing antibodies against the graft. Acute rejection typically occurs within weeks to months post-transplant and is characterized by the infiltration of T-cells into the graft. Chronic rejection, which can occur months to years after transplantation, is a slow and progressive process characterized by fibrosis and tissue damage due to ongoing immune responses against the graft.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) is a hormone that is secreted by the intestines in response to food intake. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar levels through several mechanisms, including stimulation of insulin secretion from the pancreas, inhibition of glucagon release, slowing gastric emptying, and promoting satiety. GLP-1 is an important target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes due to its insulin-secretory and glucose-lowering effects. In addition, GLP-1 receptor agonists are used in the management of obesity due to their ability to promote weight loss by reducing appetite and increasing feelings of fullness.

Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF) is a type of cytokine, which is a small signaling protein involved in immune response and hematopoiesis (the formation of blood cells). GM-CSF's specific role is to stimulate the production, proliferation, and activation of granulocytes (a type of white blood cell that fights against infection) and macrophages (large white blood cells that eat foreign substances, bacteria, and dead or dying cells).

In medical terms, GM-CSF is often used in therapeutic settings to boost the production of white blood cells in patients undergoing chemotherapy or radiation treatment for cancer. This can help to reduce the risk of infection during these treatments. It can also be used to promote the growth and differentiation of stem cells in bone marrow transplant procedures.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

I'm happy to help! "Rats, Inbred Lew" is a specific strain of laboratory rats that have been inbred for research purposes. The "Lew" part of the name refers to the location where they were first developed, the Lewis Institute in Lake Bluff, Illinois, USA.

Inbreeding is a process of mating closely related individuals over many generations to create a genetically homogeneous population. This results in a high degree of genetic similarity among members of the strain, making them ideal for use as experimental models because any differences observed between individuals are more likely to be due to the experimental manipulation rather than genetic variation.

Inbred Lew rats have been widely used in biomedical research, particularly in studies related to hypertension and cardiovascular disease. They exhibit a number of unique characteristics that make them useful for these types of studies, including their susceptibility to developing high blood pressure when fed a high-salt diet or given certain drugs.

It's important to note that while inbred strains like Lew rats can be very useful tools for researchers, they are not perfect models for human disease. Because they have been bred in a controlled environment and selected for specific traits, they may not respond to experimental manipulations in the same way that humans or other animals would. Therefore, it's important to interpret findings from these studies with caution and consider multiple lines of evidence before drawing any firm conclusions.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

Biolistics is a term used in the medical and scientific fields to describe a method of delivering biological material, such as DNA or RNA, into cells or tissues using physical force. It is also known as gene gun or particle bombardment. This technique typically involves coating tiny particles, such as gold or tungsten beads, with the desired genetic material and then propelling them at high speeds into the target cells using pressurized gas or an electrical discharge. The particles puncture the cell membrane and release the genetic material inside, allowing it to be taken up by the cell. This technique is often used in research settings for various purposes, such as introducing new genes into cells for study or therapeutic purposes.

CD34 is a type of antigen that is found on the surface of certain cells in the human body. Specifically, CD34 antigens are present on hematopoietic stem cells, which are immature cells that can develop into different types of blood cells. These stem cells are found in the bone marrow and are responsible for producing red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

CD34 antigens are a type of cell surface marker that is used in medical research and clinical settings to identify and isolate hematopoietic stem cells. They are also used in the development of stem cell therapies and transplantation procedures. CD34 antigens can be detected using various laboratory techniques, such as flow cytometry or immunohistochemistry.

It's important to note that while CD34 is a useful marker for identifying hematopoietic stem cells, it is not exclusive to these cells and can also be found on other cell types, such as endothelial cells that line blood vessels. Therefore, additional markers are often used in combination with CD34 to more specifically identify and isolate hematopoietic stem cells.

CCR6 (C-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 6) is a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells, including immune cells. It is a type of chemokine receptor, which are proteins that help cells migrate to specific locations in the body in response to chemical signals called chemokines.

CCR6 specifically binds to a chemokine known as CCL20 (C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 20). When CCL20 binds to CCR6, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that can lead to the activation and migration of immune cells, particularly T cells and dendritic cells.

CCR6 has been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, including inflammation, immune responses, and cancer. For example, CCR6 has been shown to play a role in the recruitment of Th17 cells, a type of T cell that is involved in the development of autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. Additionally, CCR6 has been found to be overexpressed in certain types of cancer, where it may contribute to tumor growth and metastasis.

The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) is a type of immunofluorescence assay used in laboratory medicine and pathology for the detection and localization of specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, cells, or microorganisms. In this technique, a fluorescein-labeled antibody is used to selectively bind to the target antigen or antibody, forming an immune complex. When excited by light of a specific wavelength, the fluorescein label emits light at a longer wavelength, typically visualized as green fluorescence under a fluorescence microscope.

The FAT is widely used in diagnostic microbiology for the identification and characterization of various bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It has also been applied in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and certain cancers by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in patient samples. The main advantage of FAT is its high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for accurate detection and differentiation of various pathogens and disease markers. However, it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel to perform and interpret the results.

Homeodomain proteins are a group of transcription factors that play crucial roles in the development and differentiation of cells in animals and plants. They are characterized by the presence of a highly conserved DNA-binding domain called the homeodomain, which is typically about 60 amino acids long. The homeodomain consists of three helices, with the third helix responsible for recognizing and binding to specific DNA sequences.

Homeodomain proteins are involved in regulating gene expression during embryonic development, tissue maintenance, and organismal growth. They can act as activators or repressors of transcription, depending on the context and the presence of cofactors. Mutations in homeodomain proteins have been associated with various human diseases, including cancer, congenital abnormalities, and neurological disorders.

Some examples of homeodomain proteins include PAX6, which is essential for eye development, HOX genes, which are involved in body patterning, and NANOG, which plays a role in maintaining pluripotency in stem cells.

Pancreatic polypeptide (PP)-secreting cells, also known as F cells, are a type of neuroendocrine cell found in the islets of Langerhans within the pancreas. These cells produce and secrete the hormone pancreatic polypeptide, which plays a role in regulating digestive functions, including controlling the release of enzymes from the exocrine pancreas and modulating gastric emptying. PP-secreting cells are relatively rare, making up only about 1-3% of the total cell population in the islets of Langerhans. They are typically small and round, with a centrally located nucleus and few secretory granules. Changes in the number or function of these cells have been implicated in various gastrointestinal disorders, such as dumping syndrome and chronic pancreatitis.

CD11c is a type of integrin molecule found on the surface of certain immune cells, including dendritic cells and some types of macrophages. Integrins are proteins that help cells adhere to each other and to the extracellular matrix, which provides structural support for tissues.

CD11c is a heterodimer, meaning it is composed of two different subunits: CD11c (also known as ITGAX) and CD18 (also known as ITGB2). Dendritic cells express high levels of CD11c on their surface, and this molecule plays an important role in the activation of T cells, which are key players in the adaptive immune response.

CD11c has been used as a marker to identify dendritic cells and other immune cells in research and clinical settings. Antigens are substances that can stimulate an immune response, and CD11c is not typically considered an antigen itself. However, certain viruses or bacteria may be able to bind to CD11c on the surface of infected cells, which could potentially trigger an immune response against the pathogen.

1-Methyl-3-isobutylxanthine is a chemical compound that belongs to the class of xanthines. It is a methylated derivative of xanthine and is commonly found in some types of tea, coffee, and chocolate. This compound acts as a non-selective phosphodiesterase inhibitor, which means it can increase the levels of intracellular cyclic AMP (cAMP) by preventing its breakdown.

In medical terms, 1-Methyl-3-isobutylxanthine is often used as a bronchodilator and a stimulant of central nervous system. It is also known to have diuretic properties. This compound is sometimes used in the treatment of asthma, COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease), and other respiratory disorders.

It's important to note that 1-Methyl-3-isobutylxanthine can have side effects, including increased heart rate, blood pressure, and anxiety. It should be used under the supervision of a medical professional and its use should be carefully monitored to avoid potential adverse reactions.

"Cutaneous administration" is a route of administering medication or treatment through the skin. This can be done through various methods such as:

1. Topical application: This involves applying the medication directly to the skin in the form of creams, ointments, gels, lotions, patches, or solutions. The medication is absorbed into the skin and enters the systemic circulation slowly over a period of time. Topical medications are often used for local effects, such as treating eczema, psoriasis, or fungal infections.

2. Iontophoresis: This method uses a mild electrical current to help a medication penetrate deeper into the skin. A positive charge is applied to a medication with a negative charge, or vice versa, causing it to be attracted through the skin. Iontophoresis is often used for local pain management and treating conditions like hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating).

3. Transdermal delivery systems: These are specialized patches that contain medication within them. The patch is applied to the skin, and as time passes, the medication is released through the skin and into the systemic circulation. This method allows for a steady, controlled release of medication over an extended period. Common examples include nicotine patches for smoking cessation and hormone replacement therapy patches.

Cutaneous administration offers several advantages, such as avoiding first-pass metabolism (which can reduce the effectiveness of oral medications), providing localized treatment, and allowing for self-administration in some cases. However, it may not be suitable for all types of medications or conditions, and potential side effects include skin irritation, allergic reactions, and systemic absorption leading to unwanted systemic effects.

Heterologous transplantation is a type of transplantation where an organ or tissue is transferred from one species to another. This is in contrast to allogeneic transplantation, where the donor and recipient are of the same species, or autologous transplantation, where the donor and recipient are the same individual.

In heterologous transplantation, the immune systems of the donor and recipient are significantly different, which can lead to a strong immune response against the transplanted organ or tissue. This is known as a graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), where the immune cells in the transplanted tissue attack the recipient's body.

Heterologous transplantation is not commonly performed in clinical medicine due to the high risk of rejection and GVHD. However, it may be used in research settings to study the biology of transplantation and to develop new therapies for transplant rejection.

Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by elevated levels of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) due to absolute or relative deficiency in insulin secretion and/or insulin action. There are two main types: Type 1 diabetes, which results from the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leading to insulin deficiency, and Type 2 diabetes, which is associated with insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency.

Type 1 diabetes typically presents in childhood or young adulthood, while Type 2 diabetes tends to occur later in life, often in association with obesity and physical inactivity. Both types of diabetes can lead to long-term complications such as damage to the eyes, kidneys, nerves, and cardiovascular system if left untreated or not well controlled.

The diagnosis of diabetes is usually made based on fasting plasma glucose levels, oral glucose tolerance tests, or hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels. Treatment typically involves lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise, along with medications to lower blood glucose levels and manage associated conditions.

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a key secondary messenger in many biological processes, including the regulation of metabolism, gene expression, and cellular excitability. It is synthesized from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the enzyme adenylyl cyclase and is degraded by the enzyme phosphodiesterase.

In the body, cAMP plays a crucial role in mediating the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on target cells. For example, when a hormone binds to its receptor on the surface of a cell, it can activate a G protein, which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP. The increased levels of cAMP then activate various effector proteins, such as protein kinases, which go on to regulate various cellular processes.

Overall, the regulation of cAMP levels is critical for maintaining proper cellular function and homeostasis, and abnormalities in cAMP signaling have been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Autoimmunity is a medical condition in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy tissues within the body. In normal function, the immune system recognizes and fights off foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. However, when autoimmunity occurs, the immune system identifies self-molecules or tissues as foreign and produces an immune response against them.

This misguided response can lead to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and impaired organ function. Autoimmune diseases can affect various parts of the body, including the joints, skin, glands, muscles, and blood vessels. Some common examples of autoimmune diseases are rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and Graves' disease.

The exact cause of autoimmunity is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that trigger an abnormal immune response in susceptible individuals. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves managing symptoms, reducing inflammation, and suppressing the immune system's overactive response using medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and biologics.

Skin transplantation, also known as skin grafting, is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of healthy skin from one part of the body (donor site) and its transfer to another site (recipient site) that has been damaged or lost due to various reasons such as burns, injuries, infections, or diseases. The transplanted skin can help in healing wounds, restoring functionality, and improving the cosmetic appearance of the affected area. There are different types of skin grafts, including split-thickness grafts, full-thickness grafts, and composite grafts, which vary in the depth and size of the skin removed and transplanted. The success of skin transplantation depends on various factors, including the size and location of the wound, the patient's overall health, and the availability of suitable donor sites.

Culture techniques are methods used in microbiology to grow and multiply microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses, in a controlled laboratory environment. These techniques allow for the isolation, identification, and study of specific microorganisms, which is essential for diagnostic purposes, research, and development of medical treatments.

The most common culture technique involves inoculating a sterile growth medium with a sample suspected to contain microorganisms. The growth medium can be solid or liquid and contains nutrients that support the growth of the microorganisms. Common solid growth media include agar plates, while liquid growth media are used for broth cultures.

Once inoculated, the growth medium is incubated at a temperature that favors the growth of the microorganisms being studied. During incubation, the microorganisms multiply and form visible colonies on the solid growth medium or turbid growth in the liquid growth medium. The size, shape, color, and other characteristics of the colonies can provide important clues about the identity of the microorganism.

Other culture techniques include selective and differential media, which are designed to inhibit the growth of certain types of microorganisms while promoting the growth of others, allowing for the isolation and identification of specific pathogens. Enrichment cultures involve adding specific nutrients or factors to a sample to promote the growth of a particular type of microorganism.

Overall, culture techniques are essential tools in microbiology and play a critical role in medical diagnostics, research, and public health.

Immunosuppression is a state in which the immune system's ability to mount an immune response is reduced, compromised or inhibited. This can be caused by certain medications (such as those used to prevent rejection of transplanted organs), diseases (like HIV/AIDS), or genetic disorders. As a result, the body becomes more susceptible to infections and cancer development. It's important to note that immunosuppression should not be confused with immunity, which refers to the body's ability to resist and fight off infections and diseases.

Keto acids, also known as ketone bodies, are not exactly the same as "keto acids" in the context of amino acid metabolism.

In the context of metabolic processes, ketone bodies are molecules that are produced as byproducts when the body breaks down fat for energy instead of carbohydrates. When carbohydrate intake is low, the liver converts fatty acids into ketone bodies, which can be used as a source of energy by the brain and other organs. The three main types of ketone bodies are acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone.

However, in the context of amino acid metabolism, "keto acids" refer to the carbon skeletons of certain amino acids that remain after their nitrogen-containing groups have been removed during the process of deamination. These keto acids can then be converted into glucose or used in other metabolic pathways. For example, the keto acid produced from the amino acid leucine is called beta-ketoisocaproate.

Therefore, it's important to clarify the context when discussing "keto acids" as they can refer to different things depending on the context.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Topical administration refers to a route of administering a medication or treatment directly to a specific area of the body, such as the skin, mucous membranes, or eyes. This method allows the drug to be applied directly to the site where it is needed, which can increase its effectiveness and reduce potential side effects compared to systemic administration (taking the medication by mouth or injecting it into a vein or muscle).

Topical medications come in various forms, including creams, ointments, gels, lotions, solutions, sprays, and patches. They may be used to treat localized conditions such as skin infections, rashes, inflammation, or pain, or to deliver medication to the eyes or mucous membranes for local or systemic effects.

When applying topical medications, it is important to follow the instructions carefully to ensure proper absorption and avoid irritation or other adverse reactions. This may include cleaning the area before application, covering the treated area with a dressing, or avoiding exposure to sunlight or water after application, depending on the specific medication and its intended use.

CD40 is a type of protein known as a tumor necrosis factor receptor that is found on the surface of various cells in the body, including B cells, dendritic cells, and activated T cells. It plays an important role in the immune system by interacting with another protein called CD154 (also known as CD40 ligand) to activate immune responses.

CD40 antigens are molecules that can stimulate an immune response when introduced into the body because they are recognized as foreign substances by the immune system. They may be used in vaccines or other immunotherapies to induce an immune response against specific targets, such as cancer cells or infectious agents.

CD40 antigens can also be found on some types of tumor cells, and activating CD40 with CD154 has been shown to enhance the anti-tumor immune response in preclinical models. Therefore, CD40 agonists are being investigated as potential cancer therapies.

In summary, CD40 antigens are proteins that can stimulate an immune response and are involved in activating immune cells. They have potential applications in vaccines, immunotherapies, and cancer treatments.

Homeostasis is a fundamental concept in the field of medicine and physiology, referring to the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment, despite changes in external conditions. It is the process by which biological systems regulate their internal environment to remain in a state of dynamic equilibrium. This is achieved through various feedback mechanisms that involve sensors, control centers, and effectors, working together to detect, interpret, and respond to disturbances in the system.

For example, the body maintains homeostasis through mechanisms such as temperature regulation (through sweating or shivering), fluid balance (through kidney function and thirst), and blood glucose levels (through insulin and glucagon secretion). When homeostasis is disrupted, it can lead to disease or dysfunction in the body.

In summary, homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within biological systems, through various regulatory mechanisms that respond to changes in external conditions.

Pancreatic hormones are chemical messengers produced and released by the pancreas, a gland located in the abdomen. The two main types of pancreatic hormones are insulin and glucagon, which are released by specialized cells called islets of Langerhans.

Insulin is produced by beta cells and helps regulate blood sugar levels by allowing cells in the body to take in sugar (glucose) from the bloodstream. It also helps the body store excess glucose in the liver for later use.

Glucagon is produced by alpha cells and has the opposite effect of insulin. When blood sugar levels are low, glucagon stimulates the release of stored glucose from the liver to raise blood sugar levels.

Together, insulin and glucagon help maintain balanced blood sugar levels and are essential for the proper functioning of the body's metabolism. Other hormones produced by the pancreas include somatostatin, which regulates the release of insulin and glucagon, and gastrin, which stimulates the production of digestive enzymes in the stomach.

Theophylline is a medication that belongs to a class of drugs called methylxanthines. It is used in the management of respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other conditions that cause narrowing of the airways in the lungs.

Theophylline works by relaxing the smooth muscle around the airways, which helps to open them up and make breathing easier. It also acts as a bronchodilator, increasing the flow of air into and out of the lungs. Additionally, theophylline has anti-inflammatory effects that can help reduce swelling in the airways and relieve symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.

Theophylline is available in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquid solutions. It is important to take this medication exactly as prescribed by a healthcare provider, as the dosage may vary depending on individual factors such as age, weight, and liver function. Regular monitoring of blood levels of theophylline is also necessary to ensure safe and effective use of the medication.

Immunosuppressive agents are medications that decrease the activity of the immune system. They are often used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. These drugs work by interfering with the immune system's normal responses, which helps to reduce inflammation and damage to tissues. However, because they suppress the immune system, people who take immunosuppressive agents are at increased risk for infections and other complications. Examples of immunosuppressive agents include corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and sirolimus.

Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) is a soluble cytokine that is primarily produced by the activation of natural killer (NK) cells and T lymphocytes, especially CD4+ Th1 cells and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of the immune response against viral and intracellular bacterial infections, as well as tumor cells. IFN-γ has several functions, including activating macrophages to enhance their microbicidal activity, increasing the presentation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and II molecules on antigen-presenting cells, stimulating the proliferation and differentiation of T cells and NK cells, and inducing the production of other cytokines and chemokines. Additionally, IFN-γ has direct antiproliferative effects on certain types of tumor cells and can enhance the cytotoxic activity of immune cells against infected or malignant cells.

Orbital diseases refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the orbit, which is the bony cavity in the skull that contains the eye, muscles, nerves, fat, and blood vessels. These diseases can cause various symptoms such as eyelid swelling, protrusion or displacement of the eyeball, double vision, pain, and limited extraocular muscle movement.

Orbital diseases can be broadly classified into inflammatory, infectious, neoplastic (benign or malignant), vascular, traumatic, and congenital categories. Some examples of orbital diseases include:

* Orbital cellulitis: a bacterial or fungal infection that causes swelling and inflammation in the orbit
* Graves' disease: an autoimmune disorder that affects the thyroid gland and can cause protrusion of the eyeballs (exophthalmos)
* Orbital tumors: benign or malignant growths that develop in the orbit, such as optic nerve gliomas, lacrimal gland tumors, and lymphomas
* Carotid-cavernous fistulas: abnormal connections between the carotid artery and cavernous sinus, leading to pulsatile proptosis and other symptoms
* Orbital fractures: breaks in the bones surrounding the orbit, often caused by trauma
* Congenital anomalies: structural abnormalities present at birth, such as craniofacial syndromes or dermoid cysts.

Proper diagnosis and management of orbital diseases require a multidisciplinary approach involving ophthalmologists, neurologists, radiologists, and other specialists.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

A Lymphocyte Culture Test, Mixed (LCTM) is not a standardized medical test with a universally accepted definition. However, in some contexts, it may refer to a laboratory procedure where both T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes are cultured together from a sample of peripheral blood or other tissues. This test is sometimes used in research or specialized diagnostic settings to evaluate the immune function or to study the interactions between T-cells and B-cells in response to various stimuli, such as antigens or mitogens.

The test typically involves isolating lymphocytes from a sample, adding them to a culture medium along with appropriate stimulants, and then incubating the mixture for a period of time. The resulting responses, such as proliferation, differentiation, or production of cytokines, can be measured and analyzed to gain insights into the immune function or dysfunction.

It's important to note that LCTM is not a routine diagnostic test and its use and interpretation may vary depending on the specific laboratory or research setting.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Immunoenzyme techniques are a group of laboratory methods used in immunology and clinical chemistry that combine the specificity of antibody-antigen reactions with the sensitivity and amplification capabilities of enzyme reactions. These techniques are primarily used for the detection, quantitation, or identification of various analytes (such as proteins, hormones, drugs, viruses, or bacteria) in biological samples.

In immunoenzyme techniques, an enzyme is linked to an antibody or antigen, creating a conjugate. This conjugate then interacts with the target analyte in the sample, forming an immune complex. The presence and amount of this immune complex can be visualized or measured by detecting the enzymatic activity associated with it.

There are several types of immunoenzyme techniques, including:

1. Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): A widely used method for detecting and quantifying various analytes in a sample. In ELISA, an enzyme is attached to either the capture antibody or the detection antibody. After the immune complex formation, a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme, producing a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.
2. Immunoblotting (Western blot): A method used for detecting specific proteins in a complex mixture, such as a protein extract from cells or tissues. In this technique, proteins are separated by gel electrophoresis and transferred to a membrane, where they are probed with an enzyme-conjugated antibody directed against the target protein.
3. Immunohistochemistry (IHC): A method used for detecting specific antigens in tissue sections or cells. In IHC, an enzyme-conjugated primary or secondary antibody is applied to the sample, and the presence of the antigen is visualized using a chromogenic substrate that produces a colored product at the site of the antigen-antibody interaction.
4. Immunofluorescence (IF): A method used for detecting specific antigens in cells or tissues by employing fluorophore-conjugated antibodies. The presence of the antigen is visualized using a fluorescence microscope.
5. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A method used for detecting and quantifying specific antigens or antibodies in liquid samples, such as serum or culture supernatants. In ELISA, an enzyme-conjugated detection antibody is added after the immune complex formation, and a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme to produce a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.

These techniques are widely used in research and diagnostic laboratories for various applications, including protein characterization, disease diagnosis, and monitoring treatment responses.

"Gene knock-in techniques" refer to a group of genetic engineering methods used in molecular biology to precisely insert or "knock-in" a specific gene or DNA sequence into a specific location within the genome of an organism. This is typically done using recombinant DNA technology and embryonic stem (ES) cells, although other techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 can also be used.

The goal of gene knock-in techniques is to create a stable and heritable genetic modification in which the introduced gene is expressed at a normal level and in the correct spatial and temporal pattern. This allows researchers to study the function of individual genes, investigate gene regulation, model human diseases, and develop potential therapies for genetic disorders.

In general, gene knock-in techniques involve several steps: first, a targeting vector is constructed that contains the desired DNA sequence flanked by homologous regions that match the genomic locus where the insertion will occur. This vector is then introduced into ES cells, which are cultured and allowed to undergo homologous recombination with the endogenous genome. The resulting modified ES cells are selected for and characterized to confirm the correct integration of the DNA sequence. Finally, the modified ES cells are used to generate chimeric animals, which are then bred to produce offspring that carry the genetic modification in their germline.

Overall, gene knock-in techniques provide a powerful tool for studying gene function and developing new therapies for genetic diseases.

Bone diseases is a broad term that refers to various medical conditions that affect the bones. These conditions can be categorized into several groups, including:

1. Developmental and congenital bone diseases: These are conditions that affect bone growth and development before or at birth. Examples include osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease), achondroplasia (dwarfism), and cleidocranial dysostosis.
2. Metabolic bone diseases: These are conditions that affect the body's ability to maintain healthy bones. They are often caused by hormonal imbalances, vitamin deficiencies, or problems with mineral metabolism. Examples include osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and Paget's disease of bone.
3. Inflammatory bone diseases: These are conditions that cause inflammation in the bones. They can be caused by infections, autoimmune disorders, or other medical conditions. Examples include osteomyelitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
4. Degenerative bone diseases: These are conditions that cause the bones to break down over time. They can be caused by aging, injury, or disease. Examples include osteoarthritis, avascular necrosis, and diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH).
5. Tumors and cancers of the bone: These are conditions that involve abnormal growths in the bones. They can be benign or malignant. Examples include osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, and Ewing sarcoma.
6. Fractures and injuries: While not strictly a "disease," fractures and injuries are common conditions that affect the bones. They can result from trauma, overuse, or weakened bones. Examples include stress fractures, compound fractures, and dislocations.

Overall, bone diseases can cause a wide range of symptoms, including pain, stiffness, deformity, and decreased mobility. Treatment for these conditions varies depending on the specific diagnosis but may include medication, surgery, physical therapy, or lifestyle changes.

The cornea is the clear, dome-shaped surface at the front of the eye. It plays a crucial role in focusing vision. The cornea protects the eye from harmful particles and microorganisms, and it also serves as a barrier against UV light. Its transparency allows light to pass through and get focused onto the retina. The cornea does not contain blood vessels, so it relies on tears and the fluid inside the eye (aqueous humor) for nutrition and oxygen. Any damage or disease that affects its clarity and shape can significantly impact vision and potentially lead to blindness if left untreated.

Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that are part of the immune system. They are large cells with a round or oval shape and a nucleus that is typically indented or horseshoe-shaped. Monocytes are produced in the bone marrow and then circulate in the bloodstream, where they can differentiate into other types of immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells.

Monocytes play an important role in the body's defense against infection and tissue damage. They are able to engulf and digest foreign particles, microorganisms, and dead or damaged cells, which helps to clear them from the body. Monocytes also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response.

Elevated levels of monocytes in the bloodstream can be a sign of an ongoing infection, inflammation, or other medical conditions such as cancer or autoimmune disorders.

The spleen is an organ in the upper left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays multiple supporting roles in the body:

1. It fights infection by acting as a filter for the blood. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there.
2. The spleen also helps to control the amount of blood in the body by removing excess red blood cells and storing platelets.
3. It has an important role in immune function, producing antibodies and removing microorganisms and damaged red blood cells from the bloodstream.

The spleen can be removed without causing any significant problems, as other organs take over its functions. This is known as a splenectomy and may be necessary if the spleen is damaged or diseased.

An islet cell adenoma is a rare, typically benign tumor that develops in the islets of Langerhans, which are clusters of hormone-producing cells in the pancreas. The islets of Langerhans contain several types of cells, including beta cells that produce insulin, alpha cells that produce glucagon, and delta cells that produce somatostatin.

Islet cell adenomas can cause various endocrine disorders depending on the type of hormone-producing cells involved. For example, if the tumor consists mainly of beta cells, it may secrete excessive amounts of insulin, leading to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). Conversely, if the tumor is composed primarily of alpha cells, it may produce too much glucagon, resulting in hyperglycemia (high blood sugar) and a condition known as glucagonoma.

Islet cell adenomas are usually slow-growing and small but can become quite large in some cases. They are typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as CT scans or MRI, and hormone levels may be measured to determine the type of cells involved. Treatment options include surgical removal of the tumor, medication to manage hormonal imbalances, and, in rare cases, radiofrequency ablation or embolization.

Hypoglycemic agents are a class of medications that are used to lower blood glucose levels in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. These medications work by increasing insulin sensitivity, stimulating insulin release from the pancreas, or inhibiting glucose production in the liver. Examples of hypoglycemic agents include sulfonylureas, meglitinides, biguanides, thiazolidinediones, DPP-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists. It's important to note that the term "hypoglycemic" refers to a condition of abnormally low blood glucose levels, but in this context, the term is used to describe agents that are used to treat high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) associated with diabetes.

A blister is a small fluid-filled bubble that forms on the skin due to friction, burns, or contact with certain chemicals or irritants. Blisters are typically filled with a clear fluid called serum, which is a component of blood. They can also be filled with blood (known as blood blisters) if the blister is caused by a more severe injury.

Blisters act as a natural protective barrier for the underlying skin and tissues, preventing infection and promoting healing. It's generally recommended to leave blisters intact and avoid breaking them, as doing so can increase the risk of infection and delay healing. If a blister is particularly large or painful, medical attention may be necessary to prevent complications.

Histochemistry is the branch of pathology that deals with the microscopic localization of cellular or tissue components using specific chemical reactions. It involves the application of chemical techniques to identify and locate specific biomolecules within tissues, cells, and subcellular structures. This is achieved through the use of various staining methods that react with specific antigens or enzymes in the sample, allowing for their visualization under a microscope. Histochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to identify different types of tissues, cells, and structures, as well as in research to study cellular and molecular processes in health and disease.

The lymphatic system is a complex network of organs, tissues, vessels, and cells that work together to defend the body against infectious diseases and also play a crucial role in the immune system. It is made up of:

1. Lymphoid Organs: These include the spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, and Peyer's patches (in the intestines). They produce and mature immune cells.

2. Lymphatic Vessels: These are thin tubes that carry clear fluid called lymph towards the heart.

3. Lymph: This is a clear-to-white fluid that contains white blood cells, mainly lymphocytes, which help fight infections.

4. Other tissues and cells: These include bone marrow where immune cells are produced, and lymphocytes (T cells and B cells) which are types of white blood cells that help protect the body from infection and disease.

The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph throughout the body, collecting waste products, bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances from the tissues, and filtering them out through the lymph nodes. The lymphatic system also helps in the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from food in the digestive tract.

Osmium tetroxide is not a medical term per se, but it is a chemical compound with the formula OsO4. It is used in some medical and scientific applications due to its properties as a strong oxidizing agent and its ability to form complexes with organic compounds.

In histology, osmium tetroxide is sometimes used as a fixative for electron microscopy because it reacts with unsaturated lipids and proteins in biological tissue, creating an electron-dense deposit that can be visualized under the microscope. It is also used to stain fatty acids and other lipids in biological samples.

However, osmium tetroxide is highly toxic and volatile, and it can cause damage to the eyes, skin, and respiratory system if not handled with appropriate precautions. Therefore, its use in medical and scientific settings is typically limited to specialized applications where its unique properties are required.

CD8-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD8+ T cells or cytotoxic T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the adaptive immune system. They are named after the CD8 molecule found on their surface, which is a protein involved in cell signaling and recognition.

CD8+ T cells are primarily responsible for identifying and destroying virus-infected cells or cancerous cells. When activated, they release cytotoxic granules that contain enzymes capable of inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in the target cells. They also produce cytokines such as interferon-gamma, which can help coordinate the immune response and activate other immune cells.

CD8+ T cells are generated in the thymus gland and are a type of T cell, which is a lymphocyte that matures in the thymus and plays a central role in cell-mediated immunity. They recognize and respond to specific antigens presented on the surface of infected or cancerous cells in conjunction with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules.

Overall, CD8+ T cells are an essential component of the immune system's defense against viral infections and cancer.

Autoantigens are substances that are typically found in an individual's own body, but can stimulate an immune response because they are recognized as foreign by the body's own immune system. In autoimmune diseases, the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy tissues and organs because it recognizes some of their components as autoantigens. These autoantigens can be proteins, DNA, or other molecules that are normally present in the body but have become altered or exposed due to various factors such as infection, genetics, or environmental triggers. The immune system then produces antibodies and activates immune cells to attack these autoantigens, leading to tissue damage and inflammation.

Coculture techniques refer to a type of experimental setup in which two or more different types of cells or organisms are grown and studied together in a shared culture medium. This method allows researchers to examine the interactions between different cell types or species under controlled conditions, and to study how these interactions may influence various biological processes such as growth, gene expression, metabolism, and signal transduction.

Coculture techniques can be used to investigate a wide range of biological phenomena, including the effects of host-microbe interactions on human health and disease, the impact of different cell types on tissue development and homeostasis, and the role of microbial communities in shaping ecosystems. These techniques can also be used to test the efficacy and safety of new drugs or therapies by examining their effects on cells grown in coculture with other relevant cell types.

There are several different ways to establish cocultures, depending on the specific research question and experimental goals. Some common methods include:

1. Mixed cultures: In this approach, two or more cell types are simply mixed together in a culture dish or flask and allowed to grow and interact freely.
2. Cell-layer cultures: Here, one cell type is grown on a porous membrane or other support structure, while the second cell type is grown on top of it, forming a layered coculture.
3. Conditioned media cultures: In this case, one cell type is grown to confluence and its culture medium is collected and then used to grow a second cell type. This allows the second cell type to be exposed to any factors secreted by the first cell type into the medium.
4. Microfluidic cocultures: These involve growing cells in microfabricated channels or chambers, which allow for precise control over the spatial arrangement and flow of nutrients, waste products, and signaling molecules between different cell types.

Overall, coculture techniques provide a powerful tool for studying complex biological systems and gaining insights into the mechanisms that underlie various physiological and pathological processes.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Rats, Inbred BB" is not a widely recognized medical term or abbreviation in human or veterinary medicine. The term "inbred" is used in genetics to describe an organism that has resulted from many generations of mating between closely related individuals, which can lead to a higher incidence of homozygosity (the same allele inherited from both parents) and expression of recessive traits.

The "BB" strain could refer to a specific inbred rat strain, but without more context, it's difficult to provide a precise definition. The BB Wistar rat strain is sometimes used in research, and it has been used as a model for studying various medical conditions such as diabetes and hypertension.

If you are looking for information about a specific scientific study or medical condition related to an "Inbred BB" rat strain, I would be happy to help you if you could provide more context or details.

'C3H' is the name of an inbred strain of laboratory mice that was developed at the Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine. The mice are characterized by their uniform genetic background and have been widely used in biomedical research for many decades.

The C3H strain is particularly notable for its susceptibility to certain types of cancer, including mammary tumors and lymphomas. It also has a high incidence of age-related macular degeneration and other eye diseases. The strain is often used in studies of immunology, genetics, and carcinogenesis.

Like all inbred strains, the C3H mice are the result of many generations of brother-sister matings, which leads to a high degree of genetic uniformity within the strain. This makes them useful for studying the effects of specific genes or environmental factors on disease susceptibility and other traits. However, it also means that they may not always be representative of the genetic diversity found in outbred populations, including humans.

Ganglioside Galactosyltransferase is a type of enzyme that plays a role in the biosynthesis of gangliosides, which are complex glycosphingolipids found in high concentrations in the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane of cells, particularly in the nervous system.

Gangliosides contain one or more sialic acid residues and are involved in various cellular processes such as cell recognition, signal transduction, and cell adhesion. The enzyme Ganglioside Galactosyltransferase catalyzes the transfer of a galactose molecule from a donor (usually UDP-galactose) to an acceptor molecule, which is a specific ganglioside substrate.

The reaction facilitated by Ganglioside Galactosyltransferase results in the formation of a new glycosidic bond and the production of more complex gangliosides. Defects in this enzyme have been associated with certain neurological disorders, highlighting its importance in maintaining normal brain function.

Proprotein convertase 2 (PCSK2) is a type of enzyme known as a proprotein convertase. It plays a role in the activation of other proteins by cleaving off specific peptide sequences and allowing them to become biologically active. PCSK2 is primarily involved in the processing of hormones and neurotransmitters, including insulin, prolactin, and members of the bombesin family.

Defects in the gene that encodes PCSK2 have been associated with certain medical conditions, such as congenital hyperinsulinism, a disorder characterized by low blood sugar levels due to excessive insulin secretion. However, more research is needed to fully understand the relationship between PCSK2 and these conditions.

Mannoheptulose is a type of sugar that occurs naturally in some plants, including avocados and a few other fruits. Its chemical formula is C7H14O7, and it's a heptose (a monosaccharide or simple sugar with seven carbon atoms) with a mannose configuration.

In the context of medical definitions, mannoheptulose might be mentioned in relation to certain metabolic disorders or dietary considerations. For instance, some research has suggested that mannoheptulose may have an impact on insulin secretion and glucose metabolism, although its effects are not fully understood and it is not widely used in clinical practice.

It's worth noting that while mannoheptulose does occur naturally in some foods, it's not a common or well-known sugar, and it's not typically included as an added ingredient in processed foods. As with any sugar or sweetener, it's generally a good idea to consume it in moderation as part of a balanced diet.

Cell culture is a technique used in scientific research to grow and maintain cells from plants, animals, or humans in a controlled environment outside of their original organism. This environment typically consists of a sterile container called a cell culture flask or plate, and a nutrient-rich liquid medium that provides the necessary components for the cells' growth and survival, such as amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and hormones.

There are several different types of cell culture techniques used in research, including:

1. Adherent cell culture: In this technique, cells are grown on a flat surface, such as the bottom of a tissue culture dish or flask. The cells attach to the surface and spread out, forming a monolayer that can be observed and manipulated under a microscope.
2. Suspension cell culture: In suspension culture, cells are grown in liquid medium without any attachment to a solid surface. These cells remain suspended in the medium and can be agitated or mixed to ensure even distribution of nutrients.
3. Organoid culture: Organoids are three-dimensional structures that resemble miniature organs and are grown from stem cells or other progenitor cells. They can be used to study organ development, disease processes, and drug responses.
4. Co-culture: In co-culture, two or more different types of cells are grown together in the same culture dish or flask. This technique is used to study cell-cell interactions and communication.
5. Conditioned medium culture: In this technique, cells are grown in a medium that has been conditioned by previous cultures of other cells. The conditioned medium contains factors secreted by the previous cells that can influence the growth and behavior of the new cells.

Cell culture techniques are widely used in biomedical research to study cellular processes, develop drugs, test toxicity, and investigate disease mechanisms. However, it is important to note that cell cultures may not always accurately represent the behavior of cells in a living organism, and results from cell culture experiments should be validated using other methods.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

A chemical stimulation in a medical context refers to the process of activating or enhancing physiological or psychological responses in the body using chemical substances. These chemicals can interact with receptors on cells to trigger specific reactions, such as neurotransmitters and hormones that transmit signals within the nervous system and endocrine system.

Examples of chemical stimulation include the use of medications, drugs, or supplements that affect mood, alertness, pain perception, or other bodily functions. For instance, caffeine can chemically stimulate the central nervous system to increase alertness and decrease feelings of fatigue. Similarly, certain painkillers can chemically stimulate opioid receptors in the brain to reduce the perception of pain.

It's important to note that while chemical stimulation can have therapeutic benefits, it can also have adverse effects if used improperly or in excessive amounts. Therefore, it's essential to follow proper dosing instructions and consult with a healthcare provider before using any chemical substances for stimulation purposes.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

The islets of Langerhans are part of the pancreas. Larry Talbot wants to die, but cannot unless he first knows the exact ... "Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans: Latitude 38° 54' N, Longitude 77° 00' 13" W" is a 1974 science fiction novelette by ...
Islets of Langerhans were first discussed by Paul Langerhans in his medical thesis in 1869. This same year, Laguesse named them ... Alpha cells (α cells) are endocrine cells that are found in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Alpha cells secrete the ... 2015). Islets of Langerhans. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6686-0. ISBN 978-94-007-6685-3. S2CID ... Alpha cells are typically found in compact Islets of Langerhans, which are themselves typically found in the body of the ...
Insulin originates from beta cells located in the islets of Langerhans. Since each islet contains up to 2000 beta cells and ... The islets of Langerhans. Md. Shahidul Islam. Dordrecht: Springer. 2010. ISBN 978-90-481-3271-3. OCLC 663096203. Insulin ... within an islet of Langerhans the oscillations become synchronized by electrical coupling between closely located beta cells ... This signal is believed to entrain pulsatile insulin release from the islets into a common pancreatic rhythm. The insulin ...
Paul Langerhans discovers the pancreatic islets. Friedrich Miescher discovers deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in the pus of ...
November 1975). "Cell contacts in human islets of Langerhans". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 41 (5): 841-4. doi:10.1210/jcem-41-5 ... human islet of Langerhans, goldfish and hamster pressure sensing acoustico-vestibular receptors, lamprey and tunicate heart, ...
"The Islets of Langerhans in Pancreatic Fibrosis". Pediatrics. Hofvander, Yngve (2010). 50 years of Ethio-Swedish Collaboration ...
Dunn, J. S.; Sheehan, H. L.; McLetchie, N. G. B. (1943). "Necrosis of Islets of Langerhans Produced Experimentally". Lancet. ... "Species Differences in Susceptibility of Transplanted and Cultured Pancreatic Islets to the β-Cell Toxin Alloxan". General and ...
Boschero AC, Negreiros de Paiva CE (1977). "Transplantation of islets of Langerhans in diabetic rats". Acta Physiol Lat Am. 27 ...
The encoded protein plays an important role in the embryogenesis of pancreatic islets of Langerhans. In mouse embryos, a ... Larsson LI (November 1998). "On the development of the islets of Langerhans". Microscopy Research and Technique. 43 (4): 284- ... Dong J, Asa SL, Drucker DJ (November 1991). "Islet cell and extrapancreatic expression of the LIM domain homeobox gene isl-1". ... "Entrez Gene: ISL1 ISL1 transcription factor, LIM/homeodomain, (islet-1)". Gay F, Anglade I, Gong Z, Salbert G (October 2000). " ...
Islets of Langerhans Groups of cells in the pancreas. Some of them make and secrete hormones that help the body break down and ... Insulin a hormone produced by the beta cells in the Islet of Langerhans' beta cells. It is a very small protein and has effects ... Delta cell A type of cell in the pancreas clumped with other cells (in the islets of Langerhans). Delta cells make somatostatin ... Aldose reductase inhibitor Alpha cell one of the types of cell in the pancreas (in areas called the Islets of Langerhans). ...
Lacy PE, Kostianovsky M (January 1967). "Method for the isolation of intact islets of Langerhans from the rat pancreas". ... Scharp DW, Murphy JJ, Newton WT, Ballinger WF, Lacy PE (January 1975). "Transplantation of islets of Langerhans in diabetic ... The goal of islet transplantation is to infuse enough islets to control the blood glucose level removing the need for insulin ... Lacy) to isolate islets, paving the way for future in vitro and in vivo islet experiments. Subsequent studies showed that ...
Islet resident macrophages are the predominant myeloid cell of the pancreatic islets of langerhans. Islet resident macrophages ... Pancreas Macrophage Islet of Langerhans Microglia Calderon, B (2016). "The pancreas anatomy conditions the origin and ... Calderon, B (2014). "The Central Role of Antigen Presentation in Islets of Langerhans in Autoimmune Diabetes". Curr Opin ... This as well as other observations, showing that islet resident macrophages promote beta cell proliferation suggest that islet ...
"Single Cell Peptide Heterogeneity of Rat Islets of Langerhans". ACS Chemical Biology. American Chemical Society (ACS). 11 (9): ...
... named after him as the islets of Langerhans. Islets of Langerhans - Pancreatic cells which include insulin-producing cells. ... Hausen BM (1988). Die Inseln des Paul Langerhans. Eine Biographie in Bildern und Dokumenten [The islets of Paul Langerhans. A ... Layer of Langerhans - In the same paper in which he described Langerhans cells, he described the granular cells in the exterior ... Langerhans discovered these cells during his studies for his doctorate at the Berlin Pathological Institute in 1869. Langerhans ...
At 31 weeks of development, the islets of Langerhans have differentiated.[citation needed] While the fetal pancreas has ... As such, while the fetal pancreatic alpha and beta islet cells have fully developed and are capable of hormone synthesis during ... In addition, the fetal pancreatic islets cells are unable to sufficiently produce cAMP and rapidly degrade cAMP by ... the remaining fetal maturation, the islet cells are relatively immature in their capacity to produce glucagon and insulin. This ...
Beta cells 60% of the cells present in islet of Langerhans are beta cells. Beta cells secrete insulin. Along with glucagon, ... At 31 weeks of development, the islets of Langerhans have differentiated. While the fetal pancreas has functional beta cells by ... Thymus Gland Adrenal glands Adrenal cortex Adrenal medulla Pancreas Pancreas contain nearly 1 to 2 million islets of Langerhans ... As such, while the fetal pancreatic alpha and beta islet cells have fully developed and are capable of hormone synthesis during ...
Matschinsky FM, Ellerman JE: Metabolism of glucose in islets of Langerhans. J Biol Chem 243:2730-2736, 1968 "Researchgate: F.M ... After moving to the US he studied the metabolism of the insulin-producing pancreatic islets and ultimately discovered the ... Dr Matschinsky illuminated a role for manipulation of glucokinase in correcting metabolic defects in human pancreatic islet ... IDF Medal of the International Diabetes Federation 1992 Elliott Proctor Joslin Medal 1994 Banting Medal 1996 Paul Langerhans ...
... by Paul Langerhans in 1869, might play a regulatory role in digestion. These cells were named Islets of Langerhans after the ... by Paul Langerhans in 1869, might play a regulatory role in digestion. These cells were named Islets of Langerhans after the ... and if it did come from the islets of Langerhans, and if it was the acinar cells but not the islets that degenerated after the ... Soon after, it was established that the role of the pancreas in carbohydrate metabolism could be localized to the islets; ...
Islets of Langerhans, Langerhans cell, Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Samuel Pierpont Langley, American astronomer and ... Edwin Henry Landseer, British painter and sculptor - Landseer (dog). Paul Langerhans, German biologist - ...
Kohnert KD, Hahn HJ, Zuhlke H, Schmidt S, Fiedler H (1974). "Breakdown of exogenous insulin by Langerhans islets of the ...
... while leaving the islets of Langerhans intact. He reasoned that a relatively pure extract could be made from the islets once ... Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans release insulin in two phases. The first-phase release is rapidly triggered in response ... The function of the "little heaps of cells", later known as the islets of Langerhans, initially remained unknown, but Édouard ... when he isolated the role of the pancreas to the islets of Langerhans: "Diabetes mellitus when the result of a lesion of the ...
"Epsilon Cells, Ghrelin Cells Development in the Islets of Langerhans - LifeMap Discovery". discovery.lifemapsc.com. Retrieved ... Some ε-cells express cytokeratin 20, a marker of duct cells and islet precursor cells, hinting that these islet cells originate ... are one of the five types of endocrine cells found in regions of the pancreas called Islets of Langerhans. Epsilon cells ... of adult islet cells. Estimates of the average number of ε-cells per islet in adults vary in number with differing results. One ...
"Novel expression of liver FBPase in Langerhans islets of human and rat pancreas". Journal of Cellular Physiology. 205 (1): 19- ...
"Oscillation of gap junction electrical coupling in the mouse pancreatic islets of Langerhans". Journal of Physiology. 498 (3): ... "On-line analysis of gap junctions reveals more efficient electrical than dye coupling between islet cells". American Journal of ...
Insulin is produced by the pancreas in a region called Islets of Langerhans. In the islets of Langerhans, there are beta-cells ... The glucose that goes into the bloodstream after food consumption also enters the beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans in the ... Insulin is synthesized and secreted in the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans. Once insulin is synthesized, the beta cells ... The exposure of rat Langerhans islets to glucose for 1 hour is able to remarkably induce the intracellular proinsulin levels. ...
had found PYY-producing cells located in the islets of Langerhans in rats. They were observed either alone or co-localized with ...
When blood glucose is high, insulin is released from the Islets of Langerhans. Insulin, among other things, will then ...
2003). "Inflammatory mediators expressed in human islets of Langerhans: implications for islet transplantation". Biochem. ...
"Deletion of SOCS7 leads to enhanced insulin action and enlarged islets of Langerhans". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. ...
Persaud obtained a BSc degree in physiology and pharmacology and a PhD in the area of islets of langerhans. She started working ... Persaud, Shanta Jean (1989). Intracellular signalling in the regulation of insulin release from rat islets of Langerhans. OCLC ... Her current research focuses in the area of islet β-cells, receptors in islet function, and insulin secretagogues. According to ... Atanes P., Ruz-Maldonado I., Olaniru O.E., Persaud S.J. (2020). "Assessing Mouse Islet Function". In: King A. (eds) Animal ...
The islets of Langerhans are part of the pancreas. Larry Talbot wants to die, but cannot unless he first knows the exact ... "Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans: Latitude 38° 54 N, Longitude 77° 00 13" W" is a 1974 science fiction novelette by ...
The islets of Langerhans are small groups of cells in the pancreas that function as an endocrine gland. ... The islets of Langerhans are named after their discoverer, the German anatomist and microscopist Paul Langerhans (1847-1888). ... The islets of Langerhans are small groups of cells in the pancreas that function as an endocrine gland. The alpha (or A) cells ...
This website will be inaccessible between Sun, Sep 24, 7:00 AM EDT and Sun, Sep 24, 8:00 AM EDT because of routine maintenance. × ...
Interleukin 1 beta induces the formation of nitric oxide by beta-cells purified from rodent islets of Langerhans. Evidence for ... Interleukin 1 beta induces the formation of nitric oxide by beta-cells purified from rodent islets of Langerhans. Evidence for ... These results demonstrate that the islet beta-cell is a source of IL-1 beta-induced nitric oxide production, and that beta-cell ... The pancreatic islet represents a heterogeneous cell population containing both endocrine cells (beta-[insulin], alpha-] ...
The islet cell types, alpha, beta, and delta cells, each secrete different hormones and regulate the concentration of glucose ... also called islands of Langerhans, are the endocrine part of the pancreas. They exist largely in the tail of the pancreas. ... Visualizing the α and ß Cells of the Islets of Langerhans. What are the islets of Langerhans? The islets of Langerhans, also ... Islet cells and their functions The pancreas can be divided into the head, body, and tail parts; the islets of Langerhans are ...
The Institute is the largest Croatian scientific research center of a multidisciplinary character
Long-term effect of pH on B-cell function in isolated islets of Langerhans in tissue culture. Publikation: Bidrag til ... which was longer than islets cultured at the other pH values. During the first weeks, the islets cultured at pH 7.6 had a ... It was found that islets cultured at pH 7.2 maintained the ability to release insulin into the medium for at least 5 months, ... Collagenase isolated mouse pancreatic islets were maintained in tissue culture for up to 5 months in a culture medium buffered ...
Treatment of Streptozotocine Induced Diabetes Mellitus in Male Rats by Immunoisolated Transplantation of Purified Langerhans ... Biopsy of pancreas tissue of diabetic and normal rats showed that the Langerhans islet beta cells of diabetic rats have been ... In the process of purification of islet cells, after collagenase digestion of pancreases, islets were isolated and dissociated ... the first step in the process of purification of pancreatic Langerhans islet cells of normal rats for transplantation under the ...
... on glucose-induced insulin secretion from isolated rat islets of Langerhans have been examined. IL-1 both inhibits and stimu ... Interleukin 1 is Potent Modulator of Insulin Secretion from Isolated Rat Islets of Langerhans Patricia G Comens; Patricia G ... The effects of interleukin 1 (IL-1) on glucose-induced insulin secretion from isolated rat islets of Langerhans have been ... Interleukin 1 is Potent Modulator of Insulin Secretion from Isolated Rat Islets of Langerhans. Diabetes 1 August 1987; 36 (8): ...
A unique combination of plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase isoforms is expressed in islets of Langerhans and pancreatic beta-cell ... Identification of functional ionotropic glutamate receptor proteins in pancreatic beta-cells and in islets of Langerhans.. ... ATPases in pancreatic beta-cells and in islets of Langerhans.. ...
The Islets Of Langerhans album is a beautiful, but sadly, posthumous tribute to Alison OMelia, one-half of the couple that ... ALBUM REVIEW: ROOKERY ENSEMBLE - ISLETS OF LANGERHANS. Skip to entry content Rookery Ensemble are an experimental and ... But their new album, Islets Of Langerhans, has had a troubled journey. Its inception was on a day in 2019 where Alison and ... Islets Of Langerhans has rescued beauty from sadness and hearing Alisons voice inevitably brings added poignancy when ...
Pancreatic islets of Langerhans dysfunction. Diabetic muscle infarction (spontaneous diabetic myonecrosis) is a rare condition ... pancreatic islands of Langerhans dysfunction (as in diabetic muscle infarction). Steroid myopathy is the most common endocrine ... and the islands of Langerhans of the pancreas, usually result in multisystem signs and symptoms. A myopathy can very often be ...
... CellR4 2021; 9: e3093 DOI: 10.32113/cellr4_20213_3093 The pancreatic islet: a micro-organ ... Why pancreatic islets should be regarded and regulated like organs. Weir G. C.. Section on Islet Cell and Regenerative Biology ... Transplanting islet cells can fix brittle diabetes. Why isnt it available in the U.S.?. Ricordi C.. Department of Surgery and ... Islet transplantation in Italy. Bertuzzi F.. SSD Diabetology, Niguarda Hospital, Milan, Italy Federico.Bertuzzi@ ...
The pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine (hormone-producing) ... "Islets of Langerhans" redirects here. Not to be confused with Langerhans cell. ... Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans, a novelette by Harlan Ellison ... A large amount of blood flows through the islets, 5-6 mL/min per 1 g of islet. It is up to 15 times more than in exocrine ...
What is an islet cell transplantation? Read on to learn more about this experimental procedure, what it involves, and if it can ... islets of Langerhans. , or islet cells. .. The islets of Langerhans consist of different cell types. , with many being ... https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/islet-cell. *. Pancreas - Islets of Langerhans. (n.d.). https ... They slowly transfer the donated islet cells through the catheter. The islet cells then become lodged in the blood vessels of ...
Stokes, C. L. ; Rinzel, J. / Diffusion of extracellular K+ can synchronize bursting oscillations in a model islet of Langerhans ... Diffusion of extracellular K+ can synchronize bursting oscillations in a model islet of Langerhans. / Stokes, C. L.; Rinzel, J. ... Diffusion of extracellular K+ can synchronize bursting oscillations in a model islet of Langerhans. Biophysical journal. 1993; ... title = "Diffusion of extracellular K+ can synchronize bursting oscillations in a model islet of Langerhans", ...
The device is based on hydrodynamic trapping principle and enables real-time analysis of islet cellular responses to insulin ... we present a microfluidic array for high-resolution imaging of individual pancreatic islets. ... Islets of Langerhans / cytology* * Lab-On-A-Chip Devices* * Mice * Molecular Imaging / instrumentation* ... A microfluidic array for real-time live-cell imaging of human and rodent pancreatic islets Lab Chip. 2016 Apr 21;16(8):1466-72. ...
Islets of Langerhans (LANG-er-hahns).. Groups of cells located in the pancreas that make hormones that help the body break down ... Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans make the insulin that the body needs for using blood glucose (blood sugar). ... Islet cell transplantation Moving the islet cells from a donor pancreas into a person whose pancreas has stopped producing ... Islet cell autoantibodies (ICAs) (EYE-let aw-toe-AN-ti-bod-eez). Proteins found in the blood of people newly diagnosed with ...
An Insatiable Appetite , Restaurant Reviews and Revelations - SW Fla to the Islets of Langerhans ...
It is used in medicine for treating certain cancers of the islets of Langerhans and used in medical research to produce an ...
... Loss of sympathetic innervation to islets of Langerhans in canine diabetes and pancreatiti ... We found evidence of decreased islet sympathetic innervation but no significant infiltration of islets with leukocytes in all ... We compared pan-leukocyte and sympathetic innervation markers in pancreatic islets of adult dogs with spontaneous DM (sDM), ...
Learn the types, stages, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of islet cell tumors. ... Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors form in the pancreas and are also known as islet cell tumors. ... Endocrine cells or islets of Langerhans: Responsible for producing hormones such as insulin to control blood sugar ... An islet cell tumor, also known as a pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor, forms in hormone-producing cells (islet cells) of the ...
Islets of Langerhans / drug effects * Islets of Langerhans / metabolism* * RNA, Messenger / analysis* ...
Cluster-assembled zirconia substrates promote long-term differentiation and functioning of human islets of Langerhans. ... Cluster-assembled zirconia substrates promote long-term differentiation and functioning of human islets of Langerhans. ...
Statement 2: Alpha cells are present in the Islets of Langerhans. ... Q. Which cells in the 'Islets of Langerhans' secrete ... The alpha cells and beta cells are present in the Islets of Langerhans, a special group of cells in the pancreas. The beta ... Q. Name the hormone secreted by the alpha cells of islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. ... Q. Glucagon secreted by the alpha-cells of the islets of Langerhans does this function. ...
An Insatiable Appetite , Restaurant Reviews and Revelations - SW Fla to the Islets of Langerhans ...
Interleukin (IL)-1β-induced inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in rat islets of Langerhans is mediated in part ... N2 - Interleukin (IL)-1β-induced inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in rat islets of Langerhans is mediated in ... AB - Interleukin (IL)-1β-induced inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in rat islets of Langerhans is mediated in ... Interleukin 1β- induced nitric oxide production and inhibition of insulin secretion in rat islets of Langerhans is dependent ...
... using the technology of different islets of Langerhans to seize the market of biological agents for diabetes treatment in China ... Optipharm: using the technology of different islets of Langerhans to seize the market of biological agents for diabetes ... Optipharm: using the technology of different islets of Langerhans to seize the market of biological agents for diabetes ... Optipharm: using the technology of different islets of Langerhans to seize the market of biological agents for diabetes ...
Dictionary Definition: islets. islets. Groups of cells located in your pancreas that make hormones to help your body break down ...
  • The islets of Langerhans are part of the pancreas. (wikipedia.org)
  • The islets of Langerhans are small groups of cells in the pancreas that function as an endocrine gland . (daviddarling.info)
  • The islets of Langerhans, also called the islands of Langerhans, are the endocrine part of the pancreas. (keyence.com)
  • the islets of Langerhans are mostly distributed in the tail of the pancreas. (keyence.com)
  • Biopsy of pancreas tissue of diabetic and normal rats showed that the Langerhans islet beta cells of diabetic rats have been clearly degenerated. (scialert.net)
  • Diseases of the endocrine system, including the thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal gland, pituitary gland, and the islands of Langerhans of the pancreas, usually result in multisystem signs and symptoms. (medscape.com)
  • The pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans are the regions of the pancreas that contain its endocrine (hormone-producing) cells, discovered in 1869 by German pathological anatomist Paul Langerhans . (wikipedia.org)
  • [1] The pancreatic islets constitute 1-2% of the pancreas volume and receive 10-15% of its blood flow. (wikipedia.org)
  • [2] [3] The pancreatic islets are arranged in density routes throughout the human pancreas, and are important in the metabolism of glucose . (wikipedia.org)
  • There are about 1 million islets distributed throughout the pancreas of a healthy adult human, each of which measures an average of about 0.2 mm in diameter. (wikipedia.org)
  • :928 Each islet is separated from the surrounding pancreatic tissue by a thin fibrous connective tissue capsule which is continuous with the fibrous connective tissue that is interwoven throughout the rest of the pancreas. (wikipedia.org)
  • Because the beta cells in the pancreatic islets are selectively destroyed by an autoimmune process in type 1 diabetes , clinicians and researchers are actively pursuing islet transplantation as a means of restoring physiological beta cell function, which would offer an alternative to a complete pancreas transplant or artificial pancreas . (wikipedia.org)
  • While an islet cell transplant involves the transfer of cells from a donor pancreas, a pancreas transplant involves a person receiving a whole, healthy donor pancreas. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • We further found selective loss of islet-associated beta cells in dogs with sDM and sDMPanc, suggesting that collateral damage from inflammation in the exocrine pancreas is not a likely cause of DM in these dogs . (bvsalud.org)
  • An islet cell tumor, also known as a pancreatic neuroendocrine tumor , forms in hormone-producing cells (islet cells) of the pancreas. (medicinenet.com)
  • The alpha cells and beta cells are present in the Islets of Langerhans, a special group of cells in the pancreas. (byjus.com)
  • Taken together, space flight research, ground-based studies, and bioreactor studies of pancreatic islets of Langerhans support the hypothesis that the pancreas is unable to overcome peripheral insulin resistance and amino acid dysregulation during space flight. (nih.gov)
  • An insulin-producing cell type found in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. (mayo.edu)
  • The peri-islet membrane, which encapsulates the islets, separates the endocrine cells from the exocrine pancreas and serves as a barrier from immune cell infiltration to the islets. (nature.com)
  • In the tail region of the pancreas of patients with the Megas form, there was a significant and positive correlation (r = +0.73) between the area and density of pancreatic islets. (scielo.br)
  • Individuals with the Megas form of Chagas' disease showed increased area and density of pancreatic islets in the tail of the pancreas. (scielo.br)
  • Endocrine pancreas cells cluster together in many small groups (islets) throughout the pancreas. (cancer.gov)
  • Endocrine pancreas cells are also called islet cells or islets of Langerhans. (cancer.gov)
  • These were not predominantly located in situ within the mature islets of Langerhans, but in small clusters of endocrine cells throughout the pancreas. (bepress.com)
  • The effects of interleukin 1 (IL-1) on glucose-induced insulin secretion from isolated rat islets of Langerhans have been examined. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Inhibition of glucose-induoed insulin secretion was observed after a 15-h treatment of islets with either purified IL-1, murine recombinant IL-1 (rIL-1), or human rIL-1. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Finally, the viability of islets treated 15 h with murine rIL-1 was demonstrated by the observation that the inhibitory effects of murine rIL-1 on glucose-induced insulin secretion were reversible. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • These studies suggest that IL-1 may have a physiological role as a potent modulator of insulin secretion by islets of Langerhans. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Pseudoislets comprising clonal cells have emerged as an alternative to study islet-cell interactions and insulin secretion. (ulster.ac.uk)
  • Interleukin (IL)-1β-induced inhibition of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in rat islets of Langerhans is mediated in part by nitric oxide (NO). The NO synthase cofactor 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) supports NO synthesis in many cell types and IL-1β-induced NO generation and inhibition of insulin secretion have been previously correlated with intracellular BH4 levels in rat insulinoma cells. (brighton.ac.uk)
  • Using rat islets and the beta cell line BRIN-BD11, we have investigated whether synthesis of BH4 limits IL-1β-induced NO generation and inhibition of glucose-induced insulin secretion. (brighton.ac.uk)
  • DAHP reversed IL-1β-induced inhibition of islet insulin secretion, an effect prevented by sepiapterin. (brighton.ac.uk)
  • While a contribution of non-NO mediators cannot be excluded, our results support the proposal that IL-1β-induced, NO-mediated inhibition of insulin secretion in rat islets is dependent on the NOS cofactor BH4. (brighton.ac.uk)
  • We present data showing alterations in tumor necrosis factor-alpha production, insulin secretion, and amino acid metabolism in pancreatic islets of Langerhans cultured in a ground-based cell culture bioreactor that mimics some of the effects of microgravity. (nih.gov)
  • In addition to providing biomechanical support to the islets, ECM components are required for β-cell development, proliferation, survival, and proper insulin secretion. (nature.com)
  • We have shown that risk individuals exhibit reduced insulin secretion due to an enhanced inhibitory effect of melatonin in islets. (lu.se)
  • Our research aims to understand the impact of deregulated insulin- and glucagon-secretion from pancreatic islet of Langerhans in the aetiology of type 2 diabetes. (lu.se)
  • The main focus of our research is to investigate the regulation of insulin and glucagon secretion from a cell physiological perspective and with a specific interest in how non-coding RNAs such as microRNA are involved in the control of islet cell function. (lu.se)
  • An overall better understanding of the islet cell function will improve therapeutic treatment of diabetes, and we anticipate finding novel therapeutic targets to adjust deregulated insulin and glucagon secretion. (lu.se)
  • The islets of Langerhans are named after their discoverer, the German anatomist and microscopist Paul Langerhans (1847-1888). (daviddarling.info)
  • These clusters were named the "islets of Langerhans" after German pathologist Paul Langerhans, who discovered them. (keyence.com)
  • Induction of experimental diabetes mellitus is indeed, the first step in the process of purification of pancreatic Langerhans islet cells of normal rats for transplantation under the testis subcutaneous of experimentally induced diabetic rats. (scialert.net)
  • Encapsulation of pancreatic islet cells allows for transplantation in the absence of immunosuppression. (scialert.net)
  • It involves the transplantation of pancreatic islet cells to help improve blood glucose levels. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • In this article, we discuss how the islet cell transplantation procedure works and why it may be a future treatment option for type 1 diabetes. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Diabetic patients see the pancreatic islet transplantation (IT) as an idealized form of cure of the disease, and put great expectations in this treatment. (bvsalud.org)
  • Insulin and other hormones secreted from the islets of Langerhans adjust blood glucose levels, and a weakening of this function is understood to cause diabetes. (keyence.com)
  • Section on Islet Cell and Regenerative Biology, Joslin Diabetes Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA [email protected] , Bonner-Weir S. (cellr4.org)
  • Transplanting islet cells can fix brittle diabetes. (cellr4.org)
  • The beta cells of the pancreatic islets secrete insulin , and so play a significant role in diabetes . (wikipedia.org)
  • Islet cell transplant: Can it help treat type 1 diabetes? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Islet cell transplants are a promising experimental treatment for difficult to control type 1 diabetes. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Loss of sympathetic innervation to islets of Langerhans in canine diabetes and pancreatitis is not associated with insulitis. (bvsalud.org)
  • This platform demonstrates the feasibility of array-based islet cellular analysis and opens up a new modality to conduct informative and quantitive evaluation of islets and cell-based screening for new diabetes treatments. (nih.gov)
  • South Korean life science firm optipharm will use xeno islet technology to enter the 27 trillion won Chinese diabetes treatment market, according to South Korean portal naver. (xenolife.cn)
  • It is used in medicine for treating certain cancers of the islets of Langerhans and used in medical research to produce an animal model for hyperglycemia and Alzheimer's in a large dose, as well as type 2 diabetes or type 1 diabetes with multiple low doses. (streptozotocininhibitor.com)
  • Loss of the ECM during the islet isolation process is considered to be a significant factor in the poor engraftment rate of transplanted β-cells, thus limiting cell replacement therapy to diabetes 6 . (nature.com)
  • Dr. Benninger's research focuses on understanding the mechanisms underlying pancreatic islet function and decline in type1 and type2 diabetes. (cuanschutz.edu)
  • A major focus has been understanding the role of intra-islet communication and functional sub-populations of cells in islet function, and how disruption to intra-islet communication mechanisms and changes in sub-populations occur in diabetes and may contribute to islet decline. (cuanschutz.edu)
  • Complimentary to these studies, Dr Benninger's lab is also developing ultrasound-based imaging diagnostics for non-invasively detecting islet decline in pre-symptomatic diabetes and as a platform for image-guided drug delivery. (cuanschutz.edu)
  • We also have an interest in islet cell function in more rare diabetes types, such as cystic fibrosis-related diabetes (CFRD) and glucocorticoid-induced diabetes. (lu.se)
  • Our findings suggest differential expression of microRNAs in the islets during development of type 2 diabetes, and that microRNAs can be utilized as therapeutic targets in the islets or as blood-based biomarkers for disease detection. (lu.se)
  • To decipher human islet microRNA networks and blood-based microRNA biomarkers to disclose central microRNAs in diabetes development. (lu.se)
  • To investigate how islet cell function is regulated by external and internal signals, to understand if and how nutrient and drugs, exocrine-endocrine crosstalk, and paracrine islet signalling are part of the development of diabetes. (lu.se)
  • Interleukin 1 beta induces the formation of nitric oxide by beta-cells purified from rodent islets of Langerhans. (jci.org)
  • This is further demonstrated by IL-1 beta-induced inhibition of glucose oxidation by purified beta-cells, mitochondrial aconitase activity of dispersed islet cells, and mitochondrial aconitase activity of Rin-m5F cells, all of which are prevented by NMMA. (jci.org)
  • The islet cell types, alpha, beta, and delta cells, each secrete different hormones, and regulate the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream. (keyence.com)
  • Fluorescent immunostaining using anti-glucagon antibodies and anti-insulin antibodies allows for visualization of glucagon-positive cells as α cells and insulin-positive cells as β cells, clarifying each cell type's distribution in the islets of Langerhans. (keyence.com)
  • employing enzymes like DNase and trypsine, so the islet cells were changed into single cells and these cells were assayed by flow cytometry. (scialert.net)
  • Hormones produced in the pancreatic islets are secreted directly into the blood flow by (at least) five types of cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Islets can influence each other through paracrine and autocrine communication, and beta cells are coupled electrically to six to seven other beta cells, but not to other cell types. (wikipedia.org)
  • A pancreatic islet, showing beta cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • It has turned out that the behavior of cells in intact islets differs significantly from the behavior of dispersed cells. (wikipedia.org)
  • Islet cell transplants involve the transfer of insulin-producing cells from a donor that may be able to replace the destroyed cells. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • What are islet cells? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Its endocrine function involves a group of cells known as the islets of Langerhans , or islet cells . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • One of the most studied islet cell types is beta cells, which secrete insulin in response to a high concentration of glucose in the blood. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • An islet cell transplant is a medical procedure that involves the transfer of healthy beta cells from a donor. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • They slowly transfer the donated islet cells through the catheter. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The islet cells then become lodged in the blood vessels of the liver. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • During the transplant, the individual will take immunosuppressants to help prevent their immune system from rejecting the transplanted islet cells. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Electrical bursting oscillations of mammalian pancreatic beta-cells are synchronous among cells within an islet. (nyu.edu)
  • The results of our model suggest that diffusion of extracellular K+ may contribute to coupling and synchronization of electrical oscillations in beta-cells within an islet. (nyu.edu)
  • Statement 2: Alpha cells are present in the Islets of Langerhans. (byjus.com)
  • IL-1β-induced NO generation by BRIN cells and islets was reduced by 2,4-diamino-6-hydroxypyrimidine (DAHP), an inhibitor of de novo BH4 synthesis. (brighton.ac.uk)
  • Sepiapterin, the substrate for salvage pathway BH4 synthesis, reversed this inhibitory effect of DAHP in islets but not BRIN cells. (brighton.ac.uk)
  • We conclude that BH4 generation is necessary for IL-1β-induced NO generation in rat islets and BRIN cells. (brighton.ac.uk)
  • β-Cells depend on the islet basement membrane (BM). (nature.com)
  • While some islet BM components are produced by endothelial cells (ECs), the source of others remains unknown. (nature.com)
  • β-Cells depend on the islet niche for their mass and functionality. (nature.com)
  • Hence, recapitulating the islet ECM in both isolated islets and stem-cell-derived β-cells is of high therapeutic value. (nature.com)
  • The vascular BM surrounds the islet capillary network and directly contacts mouse endocrine cells. (nature.com)
  • Thus, human endocrine cells are not in direct contact with the vascular BM components but with the invaginated peri-islet membrane. (nature.com)
  • The focus of Dr. Baker's research is to understand how islet-reactive CD4 T cells are activated in the context of T1D. (cuanschutz.edu)
  • The drug's action depends on functional beta cells in pancreatic islets. (medscape.com)
  • My scientific work has focused on the insulin-secreting beta-cells in the islets of Langerhans. (lu.se)
  • The approach has allowed us to further map and understand metabolism in islets and beta-cells. (lu.se)
  • Pancreatic alpha cells of islets of Langerhans produce glucagon, a polypeptide hormone. (medscape.com)
  • The islets of Langerhans consist of different cell types , with many being responsible for the production and release of hormones that regulate glucose levels. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The islets produce hormones. (msdmanuals.com)
  • In recent years, my research activities have been devoted to metabolism in islets but I started my scientific career by examining islet hormones other than insulin. (lu.se)
  • The topic of my first scientific endeavour was the, at that time, newly discovered islet hormone islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), also known as amylin. (lu.se)
  • These results demonstrate that the islet beta-cell is a source of IL-1 beta-induced nitric oxide production, and that beta-cell mitochondrial iron-sulfur containing enzymes are one site of action of nitric oxide. (jci.org)
  • Islets treated 15 h with inhibitory concentrations of murine IL-1 were morphologically intact, well granulated, and retained normal concentrations of insulin compared with control islets. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Collagenase isolated mouse pancreatic islets were maintained in tissue culture for up to 5 months in a culture medium buffered with Hepes and the pH varying between 6.8 and 7.6. (ku.dk)
  • This has implications both for normal control of insulin release as well as disease processes in islets, also known as lipotoxicity. (lu.se)
  • Experiments using isolated islets of Langerhans are hampered by lack of supply and the consuming isolation process. (ulster.ac.uk)
  • and (5) pancreatic islands of Langerhans dysfunction (as in diabetic muscle infarction). (medscape.com)
  • We found evidence of decreased islet sympathetic innervation but no significant infiltration of islets with leukocytes in all disease groups. (bvsalud.org)
  • Conclusions: The current study found that MIN6 pseudoislets share many important functional and molecular features with islets of Langerhans. (ulster.ac.uk)
  • Most pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (islet cell tumors) are functional tumors. (medicinenet.com)
  • Furthermore, human rIL-1 treatment did not affect the islet plasma membrane permeability as assessed by the measurement of the islet intracellular volume. (diabetesjournals.org)
  • Studies utilize the tissue culture of animal and human connective tissue cell types, including myoblasts, fibroblasts and chondrocytes, hepatocytes, and isolated pancreatic islets of Langerhans. (bepress.com)
  • Not to be confused with Langerhans cell . (wikipedia.org)
  • What is an islet cell transplant? (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Individuals who undergo a successful islet cell transplant may experience normal insulin production. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Research suggests that islet cell transplants may be a more promising option due to their lower surgical risk and lower toxicity from immunosuppressants, and may provide better glycemic control. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Is Islet Cell Tumor a Neuroendocrine Tumor? (medicinenet.com)
  • Is an Islet Cell Tumor a Neuroendocrine Tumor? (medicinenet.com)
  • The islet array, with live-cell multiparametric imaging integration, provides a better tool to understand the physiological and pathophysiological changes of pancreatic islets through the analysis of single islet responses. (nih.gov)
  • Whereas α2 laminins promoted islet cell clustering, they did not affect gene expression. (nature.com)
  • Thus, alongside ECs, pericytes are a significant source of the islet BM, which is essential for proper β-cell function. (nature.com)
  • Islet cell tumors may occur in children with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) syndrome. (cancer.gov)
  • The most common types of islet cell tumors are insulinomas and gastrinomas . (cancer.gov)
  • Other types of islet cell tumors are ACTHoma and VIPoma . (cancer.gov)
  • We showed that IAPP is expressed in several islet cell subtypes, as well as in the gastrointestinal tract and the sensory nervous system. (lu.se)
  • 1988) and K+ diffusion in the extracellular space of an islet. (nyu.edu)
  • Stokes, CL & Rinzel, J 1993, ' Diffusion of extracellular K+ can synchronize bursting oscillations in a model islet of Langerhans ', Biophysical journal , vol. 65, no. 2, pp. 597-607. (nyu.edu)
  • Islet-cel antibodies (ICA) were (36.5%).ThemeanC-peptidelevelwas consideredtobeacharacteristicfea- detectedbyindirectimmunofluores- 1.07(SD0.80)ng/mLatfastingand tureoftype1diabetes[ 3 ].However, cenceusingmonkeypancreassections 1.42(SD1.07)ng/mLafterglucagon. (who.int)
  • During the first weeks, the islets cultured at pH 7.6 had a higher response to both glucose and glucose plus theophylline than islets cultured at the other pH values, but later they lost their insulin releasing ability. (ku.dk)
  • PURPOSE: Hyperglycemia and abnormal glucose tolerance tests observed in some patients with chronic Chagas' disease suggest the possibility of morphological changes in pancreatic islets and/or denervation. (scielo.br)
  • Compared to ECs, pancreatic pericytes produce significantly higher levels of α2 and α4 laminin chains, which constitute the peri-islet and vascular BM. (nature.com)
  • likewise, the density of the pancreatic islets (PI) was greater (1.2 ± 0.7 vs. 0.9 ± 0.6 vs. 1.9 ± 1.0 PI/mm², respectively). (scielo.br)
  • Results: Mouse islets were found to have greater insulin content than pseudoislets. (ulster.ac.uk)
  • It has been recognized that the cytoarchitecture of pancreatic islets differs between species. (wikipedia.org)
  • The current study compared MIN6 pseudoislets and freshly isolated mouse islets. (ulster.ac.uk)
  • Here, we show that pericytes produce multiple components of the mouse pancreatic and islet interstitial and BM matrices. (nature.com)
  • We compared pan- leukocyte and sympathetic innervation markers in pancreatic islets of adult dogs with spontaneous DM (sDM), spontaneous pancreatitis (sPanc), both (sDMPanc), toxin-induced DM (iDM) and controls. (bvsalud.org)
  • The purpose of this study was to describe the morphology and morphometry of pancreatic islets in chronic Chagas' disease. (scielo.br)
  • Discrete fibrosis and leukocytic infiltrates were found in pancreatic ganglia and pancreatic islets of the patients with Chagas' disease. (scielo.br)