A chronic, relapsing, inflammatory, and often febrile multisystemic disorder of connective tissue, characterized principally by involvement of the skin, joints, kidneys, and serosal membranes. It is of unknown etiology, but is thought to represent a failure of the regulatory mechanisms of the autoimmune system. The disease is marked by a wide range of system dysfunctions, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and the formation of LE cells in the blood or bone marrow.
Glomerulonephritis associated with autoimmune disease SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. Lupus nephritis is histologically classified into 6 classes: class I - normal glomeruli, class II - pure mesangial alterations, class III - focal segmental glomerulonephritis, class IV - diffuse glomerulonephritis, class V - diffuse membranous glomerulonephritis, and class VI - advanced sclerosing glomerulonephritis (The World Health Organization classification 1982).
A chronic form of cutaneous lupus erythematosus (LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, CUTANEOUS) in which the skin lesions mimic those of the systemic form but in which systemic signs are rare. It is characterized by the presence of discoid skin plaques showing varying degrees of edema, erythema, scaliness, follicular plugging, and skin atrophy. Lesions are surrounded by an elevated erythematous border. The condition typically involves the face and scalp, but widespread dissemination may occur.
Autoantibodies directed against various nuclear antigens including DNA, RNA, histones, acidic nuclear proteins, or complexes of these molecular elements. Antinuclear antibodies are found in systemic autoimmune diseases including systemic lupus erythematosus, Sjogren's syndrome, scleroderma, polymyositis, and mixed connective tissue disease.
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
Inbred NZB mice are a strain of laboratory mice that spontaneously develop an autoimmune disease similar to human systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), characterized by the production of autoantibodies, immune complex deposition, and glomerulonephritis.
A mouse substrain that is genetically predisposed to the development of systemic lupus erythematosus-like syndrome, which has been found to be clinically similar to the human disease. It has been determined that this mouse strain carries a mutation in the fas gene. Also, the MRL/lpr is a useful model to study behavioral and cognitive deficits found in autoimmune diseases and the efficacy of immunosuppressive agents.
Antiphospholipid antibodies found in association with systemic lupus erythematosus (LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC;), ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; and in a variety of other diseases as well as in healthy individuals. The antibodies are detected by solid-phase IMMUNOASSAY employing the purified phospholipid antigen CARDIOLIPIN.
Autoantibodies directed against phospholipids. These antibodies are characteristically found in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC;), ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; related autoimmune diseases, some non-autoimmune diseases, and also in healthy individuals.
The presence of antibodies directed against phospholipids (ANTIBODIES, ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID). The condition is associated with a variety of diseases, notably systemic lupus erythematosus and other connective tissue diseases, thrombopenia, and arterial or venous thromboses. In pregnancy it can cause abortion. Of the phospholipids, the cardiolipins show markedly elevated levels of anticardiolipin antibodies (ANTIBODIES, ANTICARDIOLIPIN). Present also are high levels of lupus anticoagulant (LUPUS COAGULATION INHIBITOR).
Endogenous tissue constituents that have the ability to interact with AUTOANTIBODIES and cause an immune response.
A chemotherapeutic agent that acts against erythrocytic forms of malarial parasites. Hydroxychloroquine appears to concentrate in food vacuoles of affected protozoa. It inhibits plasmodial heme polymerase. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p970)
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Disorders that are characterized by the production of antibodies that react with host tissues or immune effector cells that are autoreactive to endogenous peptides.
Process whereby the immune system reacts against the body's own tissues. Autoimmunity may produce or be caused by AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES.
The complex formed by the binding of antigen and antibody molecules. The deposition of large antigen-antibody complexes leading to tissue damage causes IMMUNE COMPLEX DISEASES.
The protein components that constitute the common core of small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles. These proteins are commonly referred as Sm nuclear antigens due to their antigenic nature.
Agents that suppress immune function by one of several mechanisms of action. Classical cytotoxic immunosuppressants act by inhibiting DNA synthesis. Others may act through activation of T-CELLS or by inhibiting the activation of HELPER CELLS. While immunosuppression has been brought about in the past primarily to prevent rejection of transplanted organs, new applications involving mediation of the effects of INTERLEUKINS and other CYTOKINES are emerging.
Inflammation of any part of the KIDNEY.
A subcomponent of complement C1, composed of six copies of three polypeptide chains (A, B, and C), each encoded by a separate gene (C1QA; C1QB; C1QC). This complex is arranged in nine subunits (six disulfide-linked dimers of A and B, and three disulfide-linked homodimers of C). C1q has binding sites for antibodies (the heavy chain of IMMUNOGLOBULIN G or IMMUNOGLOBULIN M). The interaction of C1q and immunoglobulin activates the two proenzymes COMPLEMENT C1R and COMPLEMENT C1S, thus initiating the cascade of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION via the CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY.
A glycoprotein that is important in the activation of CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY. C4 is cleaved by the activated COMPLEMENT C1S into COMPLEMENT C4A and COMPLEMENT C4B.
Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.
The presence of proteins in the urine, an indicator of KIDNEY DISEASES.
Inflammation of the renal glomeruli (KIDNEY GLOMERULUS) that can be classified by the type of glomerular injuries including antibody deposition, complement activation, cellular proliferation, and glomerulosclerosis. These structural and functional abnormalities usually lead to HEMATURIA; PROTEINURIA; HYPERTENSION; and RENAL INSUFFICIENCY.
Acidic phospholipids composed of two molecules of phosphatidic acid covalently linked to a molecule of glycerol. They occur primarily in mitochondrial inner membranes and in bacterial plasma membranes. They are the main antigenic components of the Wassermann-type antigen that is used in nontreponemal SYPHILIS SERODIAGNOSIS.
A glucocorticoid with the general properties of the corticosteroids. It is the drug of choice for all conditions in which routine systemic corticosteroid therapy is indicated, except adrenal deficiency states.
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
Any of several large carnivorous mammals of the family CANIDAE that usually hunt in packs.
Small RNAs found in the cytoplasm usually complexed with proteins in scRNPs (RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS, SMALL CYTOPLASMIC).
A glycoprotein that is central in both the classical and the alternative pathway of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION. C3 can be cleaved into COMPLEMENT C3A and COMPLEMENT C3B, spontaneously at low level or by C3 CONVERTASE at high level. The smaller fragment C3a is an ANAPHYLATOXIN and mediator of local inflammatory process. The larger fragment C3b binds with C3 convertase to form C5 convertase.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
Disorders of connective tissue, especially the joints and related structures, characterized by inflammation, degeneration, or metabolic derangement.
A cluster of convoluted capillaries beginning at each nephric tubule in the kidney and held together by connective tissue.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
A 44-kDa highly glycosylated plasma protein that binds phospholipids including CARDIOLIPIN; APOLIPOPROTEIN E RECEPTOR; membrane phospholipids, and other anionic phospholipid-containing moieties. It plays a role in coagulation and apoptotic processes. Formerly known as apolipoprotein H, it is an autoantigen in patients with ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID ANTIBODIES.
A latent susceptibility to disease at the genetic level, which may be activated under certain conditions.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disease in which the salivary and lacrimal glands undergo progressive destruction by lymphocytes and plasma cells resulting in decreased production of saliva and tears. The primary form, often called sicca syndrome, involves both KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS SICCA and XEROSTOMIA. The secondary form includes, in addition, the presence of a connective tissue disease, usually rheumatoid arthritis.
Mouse strains constructed to possess identical genotypes except for a difference at a single gene locus.
A chronic systemic disease, primarily of the joints, marked by inflammatory changes in the synovial membranes and articular structures, widespread fibrinoid degeneration of the collagen fibers in mesenchymal tissues, and by atrophy and rarefaction of bony structures. Etiology is unknown, but autoimmune mechanisms have been implicated.
Abnormal responses to sunlight or artificial light due to extreme reactivity of light-absorbing molecules in tissues. It refers almost exclusively to skin photosensitivity, including sunburn, reactions due to repeated prolonged exposure in the absence of photosensitizing factors, and reactions requiring photosensitizing factors such as photosensitizing agents and certain diseases. With restricted reference to skin tissue, it does not include photosensitivity of the eye to light, as in photophobia or photosensitive epilepsy.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
An immunosuppressive agent used in combination with cyclophosphamide and hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. According to the Fourth Annual Report on Carcinogens (NTP 85-002, 1985), this substance has been listed as a known carcinogen. (Merck Index, 11th ed)
A tumor necrosis factor superfamily member that plays a role in the regulation of B-LYMPHOCYTE survival. It occurs as a membrane-bound protein that is cleaved to release an biologically active soluble form with specificity to TRANSMEMBRANE ACTIVATOR AND CAML INTERACTOR PROTEIN; B-CELL ACTIVATION FACTOR RECEPTOR; and B-CELL MATURATION ANTIGEN.
Complexes of RNA-binding proteins with ribonucleic acids (RNA).
A heterogeneous group of disorders, some hereditary, others acquired, characterized by abnormal structure or function of one or more of the elements of connective tissue, i.e., collagen, elastin, or the mucopolysaccharides.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
An antibiotic substance derived from Penicillium stoloniferum, and related species. It blocks de novo biosynthesis of purine nucleotides by inhibition of the enzyme inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase. Mycophenolic acid is important because of its selective effects on the immune system. It prevents the proliferation of T-cells, lymphocytes, and the formation of antibodies from B-cells. It also may inhibit recruitment of leukocytes to inflammatory sites. (From Gilman et al., Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th ed, p1301)
Highly conserved nuclear RNA-protein complexes that function in RNA processing in the nucleus, including pre-mRNA splicing and pre-mRNA 3'-end processing in the nucleoplasm, and pre-rRNA processing in the nucleolus (see RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS, SMALL NUCLEOLAR).
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, that are involved in the blood coagulation process.
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
A PREDNISOLONE derivative with similar anti-inflammatory action.
Inflammation of any one of the blood vessels, including the ARTERIES; VEINS; and rest of the vasculature system in the body.
Inflammation of a serous membrane.
Procedure whereby plasma is separated and extracted from anticoagulated whole blood and the red cells retransfused to the donor. Plasmapheresis is also employed for therapeutic use.
A classification of B-lymphocytes based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.
The property of antibodies which enables them to react with some ANTIGENIC DETERMINANTS and not with others. Specificity is dependent on chemical composition, physical forces, and molecular structure at the binding site.
Serum glycoproteins participating in the host defense mechanism of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION that creates the COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX. Included are glycoproteins in the various pathways of complement activation (CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; ALTERNATIVE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; and LECTIN COMPLEMENT PATHWAY).
Historically, a heterogeneous group of acute and chronic diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, progressive systemic sclerosis, dermatomyositis, etc. This classification was based on the notion that "collagen" was equivalent to "connective tissue", but with the present recognition of the different types of collagen and the aggregates derived from them as distinct entities, the term "collagen diseases" now pertains exclusively to those inherited conditions in which the primary defect is at the gene level and affects collagen biosynthesis, post-translational modification, or extracellular processing directly. (From Cecil Textbook of Medicine, 19th ed, p1494)
A syndrome with overlapping clinical features of systemic lupus erythematosus, scleroderma, polymyositis, and Raynaud's phenomenon. The disease is differentially characterized by high serum titers of antibodies to ribonuclease-sensitive extractable (saline soluble) nuclear antigen and a "speckled" epidermal nuclear staining pattern on direct immunofluorescence.
Adrenal cortex hormones are steroid hormones produced by the outer portion of the adrenal gland, consisting of glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, and androgens, which play crucial roles in various physiological processes such as metabolism regulation, stress response, electrolyte balance, and sexual development and function.
Morphologic alteration of small B LYMPHOCYTES or T LYMPHOCYTES in culture into large blast-like cells able to synthesize DNA and RNA and to divide mitotically. It is induced by INTERLEUKINS; MITOGENS such as PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS, and by specific ANTIGENS. It may also occur in vivo as in GRAFT REJECTION.
The smaller fragment formed when complement C4 is cleaved by COMPLEMENT C1S. It is an anaphylatoxin that causes symptoms of immediate hypersensitivity (HYPERSENSITIVITY, IMMEDIATE) but its activity is weaker than that of COMPLEMENT C3A or COMPLEMENT C5A.
A chronic multi-system disorder of CONNECTIVE TISSUE. It is characterized by SCLEROSIS in the SKIN, the LUNGS, the HEART, the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, the KIDNEYS, and the MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM. Other important features include diseased small BLOOD VESSELS and AUTOANTIBODIES. The disorder is named for its most prominent feature (hard skin), and classified into subsets by the extent of skin thickening: LIMITED SCLERODERMA and DIFFUSE SCLERODERMA.
Specific molecular sites on the surface of various cells, including B-lymphocytes and macrophages, that combine with IMMUNOGLOBULIN Gs. Three subclasses exist: Fc gamma RI (the CD64 antigen, a low affinity receptor), Fc gamma RII (the CD32 antigen, a high affinity receptor), and Fc gamma RIII (the CD16 antigen, a low affinity receptor).
Precursor of an alkylating nitrogen mustard antineoplastic and immunosuppressive agent that must be activated in the LIVER to form the active aldophosphamide. It has been used in the treatment of LYMPHOMA and LEUKEMIA. Its side effect, ALOPECIA, has been used for defleecing sheep. Cyclophosphamide may also cause sterility, birth defects, mutations, and cancer.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
A class Ia antiarrhythmic drug that is structurally-related to PROCAINE.
A family of transcription factors that share an N-terminal HELIX-TURN-HELIX MOTIF and bind INTERFERON-inducible promoters to control GENE expression. IRF proteins bind specific DNA sequences such as interferon-stimulated response elements, interferon regulatory elements, and the interferon consensus sequence.
Abnormal immunoglobulins, especially IGG or IGM, that precipitate spontaneously when SERUM is cooled below 37 degrees Celsius. It is characteristic of CRYOGLOBULINEMIA.
A synthetic anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid derived from CORTISONE. It is biologically inert and converted to PREDNISOLONE in the liver.
Immunoglobulin molecules having a specific amino acid sequence by virtue of which they interact only with the ANTIGEN (or a very similar shape) that induced their synthesis in cells of the lymphoid series (especially PLASMA CELLS).
Formation and development of a thrombus or blood clot in the blood vessel.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
A type of glomerulonephritis that is characterized by the accumulation of immune deposits (COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX) on the outer aspect of the GLOMERULAR BASEMENT MEMBRANE. It progresses from subepithelial dense deposits, to basement membrane reaction and eventual thickening of the basement membrane.
Conditions or pathological processes associated with pregnancy. They can occur during or after pregnancy, and range from minor discomforts to serious diseases that require medical interventions. They include diseases in pregnant females, and pregnancies in females with diseases.
A group of CORTICOSTEROIDS that affect carbohydrate metabolism (GLUCONEOGENESIS, liver glycogen deposition, elevation of BLOOD SUGAR), inhibit ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE secretion, and possess pronounced anti-inflammatory activity. They also play a role in fat and protein metabolism, maintenance of arterial blood pressure, alteration of the connective tissue response to injury, reduction in the number of circulating lymphocytes, and functioning of the central nervous system.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
Antibodies which react with the individual structural determinants (idiotopes) on the variable region of other antibodies.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
One of the type I interferons produced by peripheral blood leukocytes or lymphoblastoid cells. In addition to antiviral activity, it activates NATURAL KILLER CELLS and B-LYMPHOCYTES, and down-regulates VASCULAR ENDOTHELIAL GROWTH FACTOR expression through PI-3 KINASE and MAPK KINASES signaling pathways.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
Unique genetically-controlled determinants present on ANTIBODIES whose specificity is limited to a single group of proteins (e.g., another antibody molecule or an individual myeloma protein). The idiotype appears to represent the antigenicity of the antigen-binding site of the antibody and to be genetically codetermined with it. The idiotypic determinants have been precisely located to the IMMUNOGLOBULIN VARIABLE REGION of both immunoglobin polypeptide chains.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
The worsening of a disease over time. This concept is most often used for chronic and incurable diseases where the stage of the disease is an important determinant of therapy and prognosis.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
The large fragment formed when COMPLEMENT C4 is cleaved by COMPLEMENT C1S. The membrane-bound C4b binds COMPLEMENT C2A, a SERINE PROTEASE, to form C4b2a (CLASSICAL PATHWAY C3 CONVERTASE) and subsequent C4b2a3b (CLASSICAL PATHWAY C5 CONVERTASE).
A single nucleotide variation in a genetic sequence that occurs at appreciable frequency in the population.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
The time required for the appearance of FIBRIN strands following the mixing of PLASMA with phospholipid platelet substitute (e.g., crude cephalins, soybean phosphatides). It is a test of the intrinsic pathway (factors VIII, IX, XI, and XII) and the common pathway (fibrinogen, prothrombin, factors V and X) of BLOOD COAGULATION. It is used as a screening test and to monitor HEPARIN therapy.
Test for tissue antigen using either a direct method, by conjugation of antibody with fluorescent dye (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, DIRECT) or an indirect method, by formation of antigen-antibody complex which is then labeled with fluorescein-conjugated anti-immunoglobulin antibody (FLUORESCENT ANTIBODY TECHNIQUE, INDIRECT). The tissue is then examined by fluorescence microscopy.
Multi-subunit proteins which function in IMMUNITY. They are produced by B LYMPHOCYTES from the IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES. They are comprised of two heavy (IMMUNOGLOBULIN HEAVY CHAINS) and two light chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN LIGHT CHAINS) with additional ancillary polypeptide chains depending on their isoforms. The variety of isoforms include monomeric or polymeric forms, and transmembrane forms (B-CELL ANTIGEN RECEPTORS) or secreted forms (ANTIBODIES). They are divided by the amino acid sequence of their heavy chains into five classes (IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; IMMUNOGLOBULIN D; IMMUNOGLOBULIN E; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M) and various subclasses.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Pathological processes of the KIDNEY or its component tissues.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
Administration of high doses of pharmaceuticals over short periods of time.
Inflammation of a transverse portion of the spinal cord characterized by acute or subacute segmental demyelination or necrosis. The condition may occur sporadically, follow an infection or vaccination, or present as a paraneoplastic syndrome (see also ENCEPHALOMYELITIS, ACUTE DISSEMINATED). Clinical manifestations include motor weakness, sensory loss, and incontinence. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, pp1242-6)
Group of diseases mediated by the deposition of large soluble complexes of antigen and antibody with resultant damage to tissue. Besides SERUM SICKNESS and the ARTHUS REACTION, evidence supports a pathogenic role for immune complexes in many other IMMUNE SYSTEM DISEASES including GLOMERULONEPHRITIS, systemic lupus erythematosus (LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS, SYSTEMIC) and POLYARTERITIS NODOSA.
Variant forms of the same gene, occupying the same locus on homologous CHROMOSOMES, and governing the variants in production of the same gene product.
A subnormal level of BLOOD PLATELETS.
Drugs that are used to treat RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS.
Chronic glomerulonephritis characterized histologically by proliferation of MESANGIAL CELLS, increase in the MESANGIAL EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX, and a thickening of the glomerular capillary walls. This may appear as a primary disorder or secondary to other diseases including infections and autoimmune disease SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. Various subtypes are classified by their abnormal ultrastructures and immune deposits. Hypocomplementemia is a characteristic feature of all types of MPGN.
'Skin diseases' is a broad term for various conditions affecting the skin, including inflammatory disorders, infections, benign and malignant tumors, congenital abnormalities, and degenerative diseases, which can cause symptoms such as rashes, discoloration, eruptions, lesions, itching, or pain.
A pattern recognition receptor that binds several forms of imidazo-quinoline including the antiviral compound Imiquimod.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
A component of the CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY. C2 is cleaved by activated COMPLEMENT C1S into COMPLEMENT C2B and COMPLEMENT C2A. C2a, the COOH-terminal fragment containing a SERINE PROTEASE, combines with COMPLEMENT C4B to form C4b2a (CLASSICAL PATHWAY C3 CONVERTASE) and subsequent C4b2a3b (CLASSICAL PATHWAY C5 CONVERTASE).
Antibodies obtained from a single clone of cells grown in mice or rats.
Deliberate breeding of two different individuals that results in offspring that carry part of the genetic material of each parent. The parent organisms must be genetically compatible and may be from different varieties or closely related species.
The regular and simultaneous occurrence in a single interbreeding population of two or more discontinuous genotypes. The concept includes differences in genotypes ranging in size from a single nucleotide site (POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE) to large nucleotide sequences visible at a chromosomal level.
A plasma protein that is the inactive precursor of thrombin. It is converted to thrombin by a prothrombin activator complex consisting of factor Xa, factor V, phospholipid, and calcium ions. Deficiency of prothrombin leads to hypoprothrombinemia.
A critical subpopulation of T-lymphocytes involved in the induction of most immunological functions. The HIV virus has selective tropism for the T4 cell which expresses the CD4 phenotypic marker, a receptor for HIV. In fact, the key element in the profound immunosuppression seen in HIV infection is the depletion of this subset of T-lymphocytes.
Mature LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES transported by the blood to the body's extravascular space. They are morphologically distinguishable from mature granulocytic leukocytes by their large, non-lobed nuclei and lack of coarse, heavily stained cytoplasmic granules.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
A pattern recognition receptor that binds unmethylated CPG CLUSTERS. It mediates cellular responses to bacterial pathogens by distinguishing between self and bacterial DNA.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
Biologically active substances whose activities affect or play a role in the functioning of the immune system.
Acquired hemolytic anemia due to the presence of AUTOANTIBODIES which agglutinate or lyse the patient's own RED BLOOD CELLS.
White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
Persons living in the United States having origins in any of the black groups of Africa.
A member of tumor necrosis factor superfamily found on MACROPHAGES; DENDRITIC CELLS and T-LYMPHOCYTES. It occurs as transmembrane protein that can be cleaved to release a secreted form that specifically binds to TRANSMEMBRANE ACTIVATOR AND CAML INTERACTOR PROTEIN; and B CELL MATURATION ANTIGEN.
Impaired conduction of cardiac impulse that can occur anywhere along the conduction pathway, such as between the SINOATRIAL NODE and the right atrium (SA block) or between atria and ventricles (AV block). Heart blocks can be classified by the duration, frequency, or completeness of conduction block. Reversibility depends on the degree of structural or functional defects.
The classes of immunoglobulins found in any species of animal. In man there are nine classes that migrate in five different groups in electrophoresis; they each consist of two light and two heavy protein chains, and each group has distinguishing structural and functional properties.
Substances that reduce or suppress INFLAMMATION.
Laboratory tests for evaluating the individual's clotting mechanism.
Diseases of LYMPH; LYMPH NODES; or LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
Antibodies found in adult RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS patients that are directed against GAMMA-CHAIN IMMUNOGLOBULINS.
Interferon secreted by leukocytes, fibroblasts, or lymphoblasts in response to viruses or interferon inducers other than mitogens, antigens, or allo-antigens. They include alpha- and beta-interferons (INTERFERON-ALPHA and INTERFERON-BETA).
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease that can affect almost any organ or system in the body. In SLE, the immune system produces an exaggerated response, leading to the production of autoantibodies that attack the body's own cells and tissues, causing inflammation and damage. The symptoms and severity of SLE can vary widely from person to person, but common features include fatigue, joint pain, skin rashes (particularly a "butterfly" rash across the nose and cheeks), fever, hair loss, and sensitivity to sunlight.

Systemic lupus erythematosus can also affect the kidneys, heart, lungs, brain, blood vessels, and other organs, leading to a wide range of symptoms such as kidney dysfunction, chest pain, shortness of breath, seizures, and anemia. The exact cause of SLE is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Treatment typically involves medications to suppress the immune system and manage symptoms, and may require long-term management by a team of healthcare professionals.

Lupus nephritis is a type of kidney inflammation (nephritis) that can occur in people with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease. In lupus nephritis, the immune system produces abnormal antibodies that attack the tissues of the kidneys, leading to inflammation and damage. The condition can cause a range of symptoms, including proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), hypertension (high blood pressure), and eventually kidney failure if left untreated. Lupus nephritis is typically diagnosed through a combination of medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment may include medications to suppress the immune system and control inflammation, such as corticosteroids and immunosuppressive drugs.

Discoid Lupus Erythematosus (DLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the skin. It is a subtype of Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (CLE). DLE is characterized by coin-shaped, disc-like rashes on the face, scalp, and other sun-exposed areas of the body. These lesions are often red, scaly, and may cause scarring and pigmentation changes. Unlike Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), DLE typically does not affect internal organs, but in some cases, it can progress to SLE. The exact cause of DLE is unknown, but it is believed to be related to a combination of genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors that trigger an abnormal immune response. Treatment for DLE may include topical creams, oral medications, and avoidance of sun exposure.

Antinuclear antibodies (ANA) are a type of autoantibody that target structures found in the nucleus of a cell. These antibodies are produced by the immune system and attack the body's own cells and tissues, leading to inflammation and damage. The presence of ANA is often used as a marker for certain autoimmune diseases, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjogren's syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, and polymyositis.

ANA can be detected through a blood test called the antinuclear antibody test. A positive result indicates the presence of ANA in the blood, but it does not necessarily mean that a person has an autoimmune disease. Further testing is usually needed to confirm a diagnosis and determine the specific type of autoantibodies present.

It's important to note that ANA can also be found in healthy individuals, particularly as they age. Therefore, the test results should be interpreted in conjunction with other clinical findings and symptoms.

Autoantibodies are defined as antibodies that are produced by the immune system and target the body's own cells, tissues, or organs. These antibodies mistakenly identify certain proteins or molecules in the body as foreign invaders and attack them, leading to an autoimmune response. Autoantibodies can be found in various autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and thyroiditis. The presence of autoantibodies can also be used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions.

'NZB mice' is a term used to refer to an inbred strain of laboratory mice that are genetically identical to each other and have been used extensively in biomedical research. The 'NZB' designation stands for "New Zealand Black," which refers to the coat color of these mice.

NZB mice are known to spontaneously develop an autoimmune disease that is similar to human systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a chronic inflammatory disorder caused by an overactive immune system. This makes them a valuable model for studying the genetic and environmental factors that contribute to the development of SLE, as well as for testing new therapies and treatments.

It's important to note that while NZB mice are an inbred strain, they may still exhibit some variability in their disease phenotype due to genetic modifiers or environmental influences. Therefore, researchers often use large cohorts of mice and standardized experimental conditions to ensure the reproducibility and reliability of their findings.

'Mice, Inbred MRL-lpr' refers to a specific strain of laboratory mice that are used in biomedical research. The 'MRL' part of the name stands for the breeding colony where they were originally developed, which is the Mouse Repository at the Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine. The 'lpr' designation indicates that these mice carry a mutation in the Fas gene, also known as lpr (lymphoproliferation) gene, which leads to an autoimmune disorder characterized by lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph nodes), splenomegaly (enlarged spleen), and production of autoantibodies.

The MRL-lpr mice are known for their accelerated aging phenotype, which includes the development of a variety of age-related diseases such as atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, and cancer. They also develop a severe form of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease that affects many organs in the body. The MRL-lpr mice are widely used as a model to study the pathogenesis of SLE and other autoimmune diseases, as well as to test potential therapies for these conditions.

It is important to note that while inbred mouse strains like MRL-lpr provide valuable insights into human disease mechanisms, they do not perfectly replicate all aspects of human disease, and results obtained in mice may not always translate directly to humans. Therefore, findings from mouse studies should be interpreted with caution and validated in human studies before being applied in clinical practice.

Anticardiolipin antibodies are a type of autoantibody that targets and binds to cardiolipin, a phospholipid component found in the inner mitochondrial membrane of cells. These antibodies are clinically significant because they have been associated with a variety of autoimmune disorders, including antiphospholipid syndrome (APS).

APS is a condition characterized by recurrent blood clots, pregnancy losses, and thrombocytopenia (low platelet count). Anticardiolipin antibodies are one of the three main types of autoantibodies found in APS, along with lupus anticoagulant and anti-β2 glycoprotein I antibodies.

The presence of high levels of anticardiolipin antibodies in the blood can lead to abnormal blood clotting, which can cause serious complications such as deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and stroke. Anticardiolipin antibodies can also contribute to pregnancy losses by causing placental insufficiency or abnormal blood clotting in the placenta.

Anticardiolipin antibodies are typically detected through a blood test that measures their levels in the serum. A positive result is usually confirmed with a second test performed at least 12 weeks later to establish persistence. Treatment for anticardiolipin antibody-related disorders typically involves anticoagulation therapy to prevent blood clots and other complications.

Antiphospholipid antibodies are a type of autoantibody that targets and binds to certain proteins found in the blood that attach to phospholipids (a type of fat molecule). These antibodies are associated with an increased risk of developing antiphospholipid syndrome, a disorder characterized by abnormal blood clotting.

There are several types of antiphospholipid antibodies, including:

1. Lupus anticoagulant: This type of antiphospholipid antibody can interfere with blood clotting tests and may increase the risk of thrombosis (blood clots) in both arteries and veins.
2. Anticardiolipin antibodies: These antibodies target a specific phospholipid called cardiolipin, which is found in the inner membrane of mitochondria. High levels of anticardiolipin antibodies are associated with an increased risk of thrombosis and pregnancy complications such as recurrent miscarriage.
3. Anti-β2 glycoprotein I antibodies: These antibodies target a protein called β2 glycoprotein I, which binds to negatively charged phospholipids on the surface of cells. High levels of anti-β2 glycoprotein I antibodies are associated with an increased risk of thrombosis and pregnancy complications.

The exact mechanism by which antiphospholipid antibodies cause blood clotting is not fully understood, but it is thought to involve the activation of platelets, the inhibition of natural anticoagulants, and the promotion of inflammation. Antiphospholipid syndrome can be treated with medications that thin the blood or prevent clots from forming, such as aspirin, warfarin, or heparin.

Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies in the blood. These antibodies are directed against phospholipids, a type of fat molecule found in cell membranes and plasma lipoproteins. The presence of these antibodies can lead to abnormal blood clotting, which can cause serious complications such as stroke, heart attack, deep vein thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism.

APS can occur either on its own (primary APS) or in conjunction with other autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (secondary APS). The exact cause of APS is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors.

Symptoms of APS can vary widely depending on the location and severity of the blood clots. They may include:

* Recurrent miscarriages or stillbirths
* Blood clots in the legs, lungs, or other parts of the body
* Skin ulcers or lesions
* Headaches, seizures, or stroke-like symptoms
* Kidney problems
* Heart valve abnormalities

Diagnosis of APS typically involves blood tests to detect the presence of antiphospholipid antibodies. Treatment may include medications to prevent blood clots, such as anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents, as well as management of any underlying autoimmune disorders.

Autoantigens are substances that are typically found in an individual's own body, but can stimulate an immune response because they are recognized as foreign by the body's own immune system. In autoimmune diseases, the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages healthy tissues and organs because it recognizes some of their components as autoantigens. These autoantigens can be proteins, DNA, or other molecules that are normally present in the body but have become altered or exposed due to various factors such as infection, genetics, or environmental triggers. The immune system then produces antibodies and activates immune cells to attack these autoantigens, leading to tissue damage and inflammation.

Hydroxychloroquine is an antimalarial and autoimmune disease medication. It's primarily used to prevent or treat malaria, a disease caused by parasites that enter the body through the bites of infected mosquitoes. It works by killing the malaria parasite in the red blood cells of the human body.

In addition, hydroxychloroquine is also used to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. In these conditions, the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissues, causing inflammation and damage. Hydroxychloroquine helps to regulate the immune system and reduce inflammation.

It is important to note that while hydroxychloroquine has been studied as a potential treatment for COVID-19, current evidence does not support its use outside of a clinical trial setting due to lack of efficacy and potential for harm.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Autoimmune diseases are a group of disorders in which the immune system, which normally protects the body from foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses, mistakenly attacks the body's own cells and tissues. This results in inflammation and damage to various organs and tissues in the body.

In autoimmune diseases, the body produces autoantibodies that target its own proteins or cell receptors, leading to their destruction or malfunction. The exact cause of autoimmune diseases is not fully understood, but it is believed that a combination of genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development.

There are over 80 different types of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms can vary widely depending on the specific autoimmune disease and the organs or tissues affected. Treatment typically involves managing symptoms and suppressing the immune system to prevent further damage.

Autoimmunity is a medical condition in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys healthy tissues within the body. In normal function, the immune system recognizes and fights off foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. However, when autoimmunity occurs, the immune system identifies self-molecules or tissues as foreign and produces an immune response against them.

This misguided response can lead to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and impaired organ function. Autoimmune diseases can affect various parts of the body, including the joints, skin, glands, muscles, and blood vessels. Some common examples of autoimmune diseases are rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and Graves' disease.

The exact cause of autoimmunity is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that trigger an abnormal immune response in susceptible individuals. Treatment for autoimmune diseases typically involves managing symptoms, reducing inflammation, and suppressing the immune system's overactive response using medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and biologics.

An antigen-antibody complex is a type of immune complex that forms when an antibody binds to a specific antigen. An antigen is any substance that triggers an immune response, while an antibody is a protein produced by the immune system to neutralize or destroy foreign substances like antigens.

When an antibody binds to an antigen, it forms a complex that can be either soluble or insoluble. Soluble complexes are formed when the antigen is small and can move freely through the bloodstream. Insoluble complexes, on the other hand, are formed when the antigen is too large to move freely, such as when it is part of a bacterium or virus.

The formation of antigen-antibody complexes plays an important role in the immune response. Once formed, these complexes can be recognized and cleared by other components of the immune system, such as phagocytes, which help to prevent further damage to the body. However, in some cases, the formation of large numbers of antigen-antibody complexes can lead to inflammation and tissue damage, contributing to the development of certain autoimmune diseases.

SnRNP (small nuclear ribonucleoprotein) core proteins are a group of proteins that are associated with small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) to form small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles. These particles play crucial roles in various aspects of RNA processing, such as splicing, 3' end formation, and degradation.

The snRNP core proteins include seven Sm proteins (B, D1, D2, D3, E, F, and G) that form a heptameric ring-like structure called the Sm core, which binds to a conserved sequence motif in the snRNAs called the Sm site. In addition to the Sm proteins, there are also other core proteins such as Sm like (L) proteins and various other protein factors that associate with specific snRNP particles.

Together, these snRNP core proteins help to stabilize the snRNA, facilitate its assembly into functional ribonucleoprotein complexes, and participate in the recognition and processing of target RNAs during post-transcriptional regulation.

Immunosuppressive agents are medications that decrease the activity of the immune system. They are often used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases, where the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues. These drugs work by interfering with the immune system's normal responses, which helps to reduce inflammation and damage to tissues. However, because they suppress the immune system, people who take immunosuppressive agents are at increased risk for infections and other complications. Examples of immunosuppressive agents include corticosteroids, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide, mycophenolate mofetil, tacrolimus, and sirolimus.

Nephritis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the kidneys, specifically affecting the glomeruli - the tiny filtering units inside the kidneys. The condition can cause damage to the glomeruli, leading to impaired kidney function and the leakage of protein and blood into the urine.

Nephritis can result from a variety of causes, including infections, autoimmune disorders, and exposure to certain medications or toxins. Depending on the severity and underlying cause, nephritis may be treated with medications, dietary modifications, or other therapies aimed at reducing inflammation and preserving kidney function. In severe cases, hospitalization and more intensive treatments may be necessary.

Complement C1q is a protein that is part of the complement system, which is a group of proteins in the blood that help to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. C1q is the first component of the classical complement pathway, which is activated by the binding of C1q to antibodies that are attached to the surface of a pathogen or damaged cell.

C1q is composed of six identical polypeptide chains, each containing a collagen-like region and a globular head region. The globular heads can bind to various structures, including the Fc regions of certain antibodies, immune complexes, and some types of cells. When C1q binds to an activating surface, it triggers a series of proteolytic reactions that lead to the activation of other complement components and the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which can punch holes in the membranes of pathogens or damaged cells, leading to their destruction.

In addition to its role in the immune system, C1q has also been found to have roles in various physiological processes, including tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, and the clearance of apoptotic cells. Dysregulation of the complement system, including abnormalities in C1q function, has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, inflammatory diseases, and neurodegenerative conditions.

Complement C4 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Complement C4 is involved in the early stages of the complement activation cascade, where it helps to identify and tag foreign or abnormal cells for destruction by other components of the immune system.

Specifically, Complement C4 can be cleaved into two smaller proteins, C4a and C4b, during the complement activation process. C4b then binds to the surface of the target cell and helps to initiate the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which creates a pore in the cell membrane and leads to lysis or destruction of the target cell.

Deficiencies or mutations in the Complement C4 gene can lead to various immune disorders, including certain forms of autoimmune diseases and susceptibility to certain infections.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system's response to infection. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.

When a B-lymphocyte encounters a pathogen, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies specific to the antigens on the surface of the pathogen. These antibodies bind to the pathogen, marking it for destruction by other immune cells such as neutrophils and macrophages.

B-lymphocytes also have a role in presenting antigens to T-lymphocytes, another type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. This helps to stimulate the activation and proliferation of T-lymphocytes, which can then go on to destroy infected cells or help to coordinate the overall immune response.

Overall, B-lymphocytes are an essential part of the adaptive immune system, providing long-lasting immunity to previously encountered pathogens and helping to protect against future infections.

Proteinuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of excess proteins, particularly albumin, in the urine. Under normal circumstances, only small amounts of proteins should be found in the urine because the majority of proteins are too large to pass through the glomeruli, which are the filtering units of the kidneys.

However, when the glomeruli become damaged or diseased, they may allow larger molecules such as proteins to leak into the urine. Persistent proteinuria is often a sign of kidney disease and can indicate damage to the glomeruli. It is usually detected through a routine urinalysis and may be confirmed with further testing.

The severity of proteinuria can vary, and it can be a symptom of various underlying conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, and other kidney diseases. Treatment for proteinuria depends on the underlying cause and may include medications to control blood pressure, manage diabetes, or reduce protein loss in the urine.

Glomerulonephritis is a medical condition that involves inflammation of the glomeruli, which are the tiny blood vessel clusters in the kidneys that filter waste and excess fluids from the blood. This inflammation can impair the kidney's ability to filter blood properly, leading to symptoms such as proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), edema (swelling), hypertension (high blood pressure), and eventually kidney failure.

Glomerulonephritis can be acute or chronic, and it may occur as a primary kidney disease or secondary to other medical conditions such as infections, autoimmune disorders, or vasculitis. The diagnosis of glomerulonephritis typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, urinalysis, blood tests, and imaging studies, with confirmation often requiring a kidney biopsy. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and severity of the disease but may include medications to suppress inflammation, control blood pressure, and manage symptoms.

Cardiolipins are a type of phospholipid that are primarily found in the inner mitochondrial membrane of cells. They play a crucial role in several important cellular processes, including energy production, apoptosis (programmed cell death), and maintenance of the structural integrity of the mitochondria.

Cardiolipins are unique because they contain four fatty acid chains, whereas most other phospholipids contain only two. This gives cardiolipins a distinctive conical shape that is important for their function in maintaining the curvature and stability of the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Cardiolipins have also been implicated in various diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, and bacterial infections. For example, changes in cardiolipin composition or distribution have been linked to mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease and other neurological conditions. Additionally, certain bacteria, such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis, can manipulate host cell cardiolipins to facilitate their own survival and replication.

In summary, cardiolipins are essential phospholipids found in the inner mitochondrial membrane that play a critical role in several cellular processes, and have been implicated in various diseases.

Prednisolone is a synthetic glucocorticoid drug, which is a class of steroid hormones. It is commonly used in the treatment of various inflammatory and autoimmune conditions due to its potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. Prednisolone works by binding to specific receptors in cells, leading to changes in gene expression that reduce the production of substances involved in inflammation, such as cytokines and prostaglandins.

Prednisolone is available in various forms, including tablets, syrups, and injectable solutions. It can be used to treat a wide range of medical conditions, including asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, allergies, skin conditions, and certain types of cancer.

Like other steroid medications, prednisolone can have significant side effects if used in high doses or for long periods of time. These may include weight gain, mood changes, increased risk of infections, osteoporosis, diabetes, and adrenal suppression. As a result, the use of prednisolone should be closely monitored by a healthcare professional to ensure that its benefits outweigh its risks.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Wolves" are not a medical term, but rather they refer to a large canine species. If you're asking about a medical condition that might be referred to as "wolf," the closest possible term I could find is "wolfian development." This term refers to the development of structures in the human body that originate from the wolfian ducts during embryonic development, such as the epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicles in males. However, I want to emphasize that this is not a common medical term and might not be what you're looking for.

"Small cytoplasmic RNAs" (scRNAs) are a heterogeneous group of non-coding RNA molecules that are typically 100-300 nucleotides in length and are located within the cytoplasm of cells. They play various roles in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, including serving as components of ribonucleoprotein complexes involved in mRNA splicing, stability, and translation.

Some specific types of scRNAs include small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), which are involved in spliceosomal complexes that remove introns from pre-mRNA; small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), which guide chemical modifications of other RNA molecules, such as ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs); and microRNAs (miRNAs), which bind to target mRNAs and inhibit their translation or promote their degradation.

It's worth noting that the term "small cytoplasmic RNA" is a broad category, and individual scRNAs can have distinct functions and characteristics.

Complement C3 is a protein that plays a central role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Complement C3 can be activated through three different pathways: the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, and the alternative pathway. Once activated, it breaks down into two fragments, C3a and C3b.

C3a is an anaphylatoxin that helps to recruit immune cells to the site of infection or injury, while C3b plays a role in opsonization, which is the process of coating pathogens or damaged cells with proteins to make them more recognizable to the immune system. Additionally, C3b can also activate the membrane attack complex (MAC), which forms a pore in the membrane of target cells leading to their lysis or destruction.

In summary, Complement C3 is an important protein in the complement system that helps to identify and eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body through various mechanisms.

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

Rheumatic diseases are a group of disorders that cause pain, stiffness, and swelling in the joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, or bones. They include conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), gout, ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, and many others. These diseases can also affect other body systems including the skin, eyes, lungs, heart, kidneys, and nervous system. Rheumatic diseases are often chronic and may be progressive, meaning they can worsen over time. They can cause significant pain, disability, and reduced quality of life if not properly diagnosed and managed. The exact causes of rheumatic diseases are not fully understood, but genetics, environmental factors, and immune system dysfunction are believed to play a role in their development.

A kidney glomerulus is a functional unit in the nephron of the kidney. It is a tuft of capillaries enclosed within a structure called Bowman's capsule, which filters waste and excess fluids from the blood. The glomerulus receives blood from an afferent arteriole and drains into an efferent arteriole.

The process of filtration in the glomerulus is called ultrafiltration, where the pressure within the glomerular capillaries drives plasma fluid and small molecules (such as ions, glucose, amino acids, and waste products) through the filtration membrane into the Bowman's space. Larger molecules, like proteins and blood cells, are retained in the blood due to their larger size. The filtrate then continues down the nephron for further processing, eventually forming urine.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid. It is the first antibody to be produced in response to an initial exposure to an antigen, making it an important part of the body's primary immune response. IgM antibodies are large molecules that are composed of five basic units, giving them a pentameric structure. They are primarily found on the surface of B cells as membrane-bound immunoglobulins (mlgM), where they function as receptors for antigens. Once an mlgM receptor binds to an antigen, it triggers the activation and differentiation of the B cell into a plasma cell that produces and secretes large amounts of soluble IgM antibodies.

IgM antibodies are particularly effective at agglutination (clumping) and complement activation, which makes them important in the early stages of an immune response to help clear pathogens from the bloodstream. However, they are not as stable or long-lived as other types of antibodies, such as IgG, and their levels tend to decline after the initial immune response has occurred.

In summary, Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the primary immune response to antigens by agglutination and complement activation. It is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid, and it is produced by B cells after they are activated by an antigen.

Beta 2-glycoprotein I, also known as apolipoprotein H, is a plasma protein that belongs to the family of proteins called immunoglobulin-binding proteins. It has a molecular weight of approximately 44 kDa and is composed of five domains with similar structures.

Beta 2-glycoprotein I is primarily produced in the liver and circulates in the bloodstream, where it plays a role in several physiological processes, including coagulation, complement activation, and lipid metabolism. It has been identified as an autoantigen in certain autoimmune disorders, such as antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), where autoantibodies against beta 2-glycoprotein I can cause blood clots, miscarriages, and other complications.

In medical terminology, the definition of "beta 2-glycoprotein I" is as follows:

A plasma protein that belongs to the family of immunoglobulin-binding proteins and has a molecular weight of approximately 44 kDa. It is primarily produced in the liver and circulates in the bloodstream, where it plays a role in several physiological processes, including coagulation, complement activation, and lipid metabolism. Autoantibodies against beta 2-glycoprotein I are associated with certain autoimmune disorders, such as antiphospholipid syndrome (APS), where they can cause blood clots, miscarriages, and other complications.

Genetic predisposition to disease refers to an increased susceptibility or vulnerability to develop a particular illness or condition due to inheriting specific genetic variations or mutations from one's parents. These genetic factors can make it more likely for an individual to develop a certain disease, but it does not guarantee that the person will definitely get the disease. Environmental factors, lifestyle choices, and interactions between genes also play crucial roles in determining if a genetically predisposed person will actually develop the disease. It is essential to understand that having a genetic predisposition only implies a higher risk, not an inevitable outcome.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

Sjögren's syndrome is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks its own moisture-producing glands, particularly the tear and salivary glands. This can lead to symptoms such as dry eyes, dry mouth, and dryness in other areas of the body. In some cases, it may also affect other organs, leading to a variety of complications.

There are two types of Sjögren's syndrome: primary and secondary. Primary Sjögren's syndrome occurs when the condition develops on its own, while secondary Sjögren's syndrome occurs when it develops in conjunction with another autoimmune disease, such as rheumatoid arthritis or lupus.

The exact cause of Sjögren's syndrome is not fully understood, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Treatment typically focuses on relieving symptoms and may include artificial tears, saliva substitutes, medications to stimulate saliva production, and immunosuppressive drugs in more severe cases.

Congenic mice are strains that have been developed through a specific breeding process to be genetically identical, except for a small region of interest (ROI) that has been introgressed from a donor strain. This is achieved by repeatedly backcrossing the donor ROI onto the genetic background of a recipient strain for many generations, followed by intercrossing within the resulting congenic line to ensure homozygosity of the ROI.

The goal of creating congenic mice is to study the effects of a specific gene or genomic region while minimizing the influence of other genetic differences between strains. This allows researchers to investigate the relationship between genotype and phenotype more accurately, which can be particularly useful in biomedical research for understanding complex traits, diseases, and potential therapeutic targets.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints. It is characterized by persistent inflammation, synovial hyperplasia, and subsequent damage to the articular cartilage and bone. The immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, specifically targeting the synovial membrane lining the joint capsule. This results in swelling, pain, warmth, and stiffness in affected joints, often most severely in the hands and feet.

RA can also have extra-articular manifestations, affecting other organs such as the lungs, heart, skin, eyes, and blood vessels. The exact cause of RA remains unknown, but it is believed to involve a complex interplay between genetic susceptibility and environmental triggers. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial in managing rheumatoid arthritis to prevent joint damage, disability, and systemic complications.

Photosensitivity disorders refer to conditions that cause an abnormal reaction to sunlight or artificial light. This reaction can take the form of various skin changes, such as rashes, inflammation, or pigmentation, and in some cases, it can also lead to systemic symptoms like fatigue, fever, or joint pain.

The two main types of photosensitivity disorders are:

1. Phototoxic reactions: These occur when a substance (such as certain medications, chemicals, or plants) absorbs light energy and transfers it to skin cells, causing damage and inflammation. The reaction typically appears within 24 hours of exposure to the light source and can resemble a sunburn.

2. Photoallergic reactions: These occur when the immune system responds to the combination of light and a particular substance, leading to an allergic response. The reaction may not appear until several days after initial exposure and can cause redness, itching, and blistering.

It is important for individuals with photosensitivity disorders to avoid excessive sun exposure, wear protective clothing, and use broad-spectrum sunscreens with a high SPF rating to minimize the risk of phototoxic or photoallergic reactions.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Azathioprine is an immunosuppressive medication that is used to prevent the rejection of transplanted organs and to treat autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and inflammatory bowel disease. It works by suppressing the activity of the immune system, which helps to reduce inflammation and prevent the body from attacking its own tissues.

Azathioprine is a prodrug that is converted into its active form, 6-mercaptopurine, in the body. This medication can have significant side effects, including decreased white blood cell count, increased risk of infection, and liver damage. It may also increase the risk of certain types of cancer, particularly skin cancer and lymphoma.

Healthcare professionals must carefully monitor patients taking azathioprine for these potential side effects. They may need to adjust the dosage or stop the medication altogether if serious side effects occur. Patients should also take steps to reduce their risk of infection and skin cancer, such as practicing good hygiene, avoiding sun exposure, and using sunscreen.

B-cell activating factor (BAFF) is a type of protein belonging to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family. Its primary function is to stimulate and activate B cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system by producing antibodies. BAFF helps to promote the survival, differentiation, and activation of B cells, thereby contributing to the adaptive immune response.

BAFF binds to its receptor, known as BAFF receptor (BAFF-R), which is expressed on the surface of B cells. This interaction leads to the activation of various signaling pathways that promote B cell survival and proliferation. Overexpression or excessive production of BAFF has been implicated in several autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and Sjogren's syndrome, due to the abnormal activation and expansion of B cells.

In summary, B-cell activating factor is a protein that plays an essential role in the activation and survival of B cells, which are crucial for the immune response. However, its overexpression or dysregulation can contribute to the development of autoimmune diseases.

Ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) are complexes composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. They play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including gene expression, RNA processing, transport, stability, and degradation. Different types of RNPs exist, such as ribosomes, spliceosomes, and signal recognition particles, each having specific functions in the cell.

Ribosomes are large RNP complexes responsible for protein synthesis, where messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into proteins. They consist of two subunits: a smaller subunit containing ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins that recognize the start codon on mRNA, and a larger subunit with rRNA and proteins that facilitate peptide bond formation during translation.

Spliceosomes are dynamic RNP complexes involved in pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) splicing, where introns (non-coding sequences) are removed, and exons (coding sequences) are joined together to form mature mRNA. Spliceosomes consist of five small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), each containing a specific small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and several proteins, as well as numerous additional proteins.

Other RNP complexes include signal recognition particles (SRPs), which are responsible for targeting secretory and membrane proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum during translation, and telomerase, an enzyme that maintains the length of telomeres (the protective ends of chromosomes) by adding repetitive DNA sequences using its built-in RNA component.

In summary, ribonucleoproteins are essential complexes in the cell that participate in various aspects of RNA metabolism and protein synthesis.

Connective tissue diseases (CTDs) are a group of disorders that involve the abnormal production and accumulation of abnormal connective tissues in various parts of the body. Connective tissues are the structural materials that support and bind other tissues and organs together. They include tendons, ligaments, cartilage, fat, and the material that fills the spaces between cells, called the extracellular matrix.

Connective tissue diseases can affect many different systems in the body, including the skin, joints, muscles, lungs, kidneys, gastrointestinal tract, and blood vessels. Some CTDs are autoimmune disorders, meaning that the immune system mistakenly attacks healthy connective tissues. Others may be caused by genetic mutations or environmental factors.

Some examples of connective tissue diseases include:

* Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
* Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
* Scleroderma
* Dermatomyositis/Polymyositis
* Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD)
* Sjogren's syndrome
* Ehlers-Danlos syndrome
* Marfan syndrome
* Osteogenesis imperfecta

The specific symptoms and treatment of connective tissue diseases vary depending on the type and severity of the condition. Treatment may include medications to reduce inflammation, suppress the immune system, or manage pain. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to repair or replace damaged tissues or organs.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

Mycophenolic Acid (MPA) is an immunosuppressive drug that is primarily used to prevent rejection in organ transplantation. It works by inhibiting the enzyme inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase, which is a key enzyme for the de novo synthesis of guanosine nucleotides, an essential component for the proliferation of T and B lymphocytes. By doing this, MPA reduces the activity of the immune system, thereby preventing it from attacking the transplanted organ.

Mycophenolic Acid is available in two forms: as the sodium salt (Mycophenolate Sodium) and as the morpholinoethyl ester (Mycophenolate Mofetil), which is rapidly hydrolyzed to Mycophenolic Acid after oral administration. Common side effects of MPA include gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting, as well as an increased risk of infections due to its immunosuppressive effects.

Small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs) are a type of ribonucleoprotein (RNP) found within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. They are composed of small nuclear RNA (snRNA) molecules and associated proteins, which are involved in various aspects of RNA processing, particularly in the modification and splicing of messenger RNA (mRNA).

The snRNPs play a crucial role in the formation of spliceosomes, large ribonucleoprotein complexes that remove introns (non-coding sequences) from pre-mRNA and join exons (coding sequences) together to form mature mRNA. Each snRNP contains a specific snRNA molecule, such as U1, U2, U4, U5, or U6, which recognizes and binds to specific sequences within the pre-mRNA during splicing. The associated proteins help stabilize the snRNP structure and facilitate its interactions with other components of the spliceosome.

In addition to their role in splicing, some snRNPs are also involved in other cellular processes, such as transcription regulation, RNA export, and DNA damage response. Dysregulation or mutations in snRNP components have been implicated in various human diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and autoimmune diseases.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Blood coagulation factors, also known as clotting factors, are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in the blood coagulation process. They are essential for maintaining hemostasis, which is the body's ability to stop bleeding after injury.

There are 13 known blood coagulation factors, and they are designated by Roman numerals I through XIII. These factors are produced in the liver and are normally present in an inactive form in the blood. When there is an injury to a blood vessel, the coagulation process is initiated, leading to the activation of these factors in a specific order.

The coagulation cascade involves two pathways: the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. The intrinsic pathway is activated when there is damage to the blood vessel itself, while the extrinsic pathway is activated by tissue factor released from damaged tissues. Both pathways converge at the common pathway, leading to the formation of a fibrin clot.

Blood coagulation factors work together in a complex series of reactions that involve activation, binding, and proteolysis. When one factor is activated, it activates the next factor in the cascade, and so on. This process continues until a stable fibrin clot is formed.

Deficiencies or abnormalities in blood coagulation factors can lead to bleeding disorders such as hemophilia or thrombosis. Hemophilia is a genetic disorder that affects one or more of the coagulation factors, leading to excessive bleeding and difficulty forming clots. Thrombosis, on the other hand, occurs when there is an abnormal formation of blood clots in the blood vessels, which can lead to serious complications such as stroke or pulmonary embolism.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the adaptive immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are several different types of T-cells, including CD4+ helper T-cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, and regulatory T-cells (Tregs).

CD4+ helper T-cells assist in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages. They also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response. CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic substances. Regulatory T-cells help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes are important in the immune response to viral infections, cancer, and other diseases. Dysfunction or depletion of T-cells can lead to immunodeficiency and increased susceptibility to infections. On the other hand, an overactive T-cell response can contribute to autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

Methylprednisolone is a synthetic glucocorticoid drug, which is a class of hormones that naturally occur in the body and are produced by the adrenal gland. It is often used to treat various medical conditions such as inflammation, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. Methylprednisolone works by reducing the activity of the immune system, which helps to reduce symptoms such as swelling, pain, and redness.

Methylprednisolone is available in several forms, including tablets, oral suspension, and injectable solutions. It may be used for short-term or long-term treatment, depending on the condition being treated. Common side effects of methylprednisolone include increased appetite, weight gain, insomnia, mood changes, and increased susceptibility to infections. Long-term use of methylprednisolone can lead to more serious side effects such as osteoporosis, cataracts, and adrenal suppression.

It is important to note that methylprednisolone should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider, as it can cause serious side effects if not used properly. The dosage and duration of treatment will depend on various factors such as the patient's age, weight, medical history, and the condition being treated.

Vasculitis is a group of disorders characterized by inflammation of the blood vessels, which can cause changes in the vessel walls including thickening, narrowing, or weakening. These changes can restrict blood flow, leading to organ and tissue damage. The specific symptoms and severity of vasculitis depend on the size and location of the affected blood vessels and the extent of inflammation. Vasculitis can affect any organ system in the body, and its causes can vary, including infections, autoimmune disorders, or exposure to certain medications or chemicals.

Serositis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the serous membranes, which are thin layers of tissue that line the inner surfaces of body cavities and surround organs such as the heart, lungs, and abdomen. The serous membranes produce a lubricating fluid called serous fluid that helps reduce friction between internal organs and enables them to move smoothly against each other.

Inflammation of these membranes can result in excessive production of serous fluid, leading to the accumulation of fluid in the surrounding body cavities. This accumulation can cause symptoms such as chest pain, coughing, difficulty breathing, or abdominal swelling and discomfort.

Serositis is often associated with various medical conditions, including autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and Sjogren's syndrome. Infections, cancers, and certain medications may also cause serositis. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying condition causing the inflammation and managing symptoms with medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, or immunosuppressive agents.

Plasmapheresis is a medical procedure where the liquid portion of the blood (plasma) is separated from the blood cells. The plasma, which may contain harmful substances such as antibodies or toxins, is then removed and replaced with fresh plasma or a plasma substitute. The remaining blood cells are mixed with the new plasma and returned to the body. This process is also known as therapeutic plasma exchange (TPE). It's used to treat various medical conditions including certain autoimmune diseases, poisonings, and neurological disorders.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the humoral immune response. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy pathogens such as viruses and bacteria.

B-lymphocyte subsets refer to distinct populations of B-cells that can be identified based on their surface receptors and functional characteristics. Some common B-lymphocyte subsets include:

1. Naive B-cells: These are mature B-cells that have not yet been exposed to an antigen. They express surface receptors called immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin D (IgD).
2. Memory B-cells: These are B-cells that have previously encountered an antigen and mounted an immune response. They express high levels of surface immunoglobulins and can quickly differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells upon re-exposure to the same antigen.
3. Plasma cells: These are fully differentiated B-cells that secrete large amounts of antibodies in response to an antigen. They lack surface immunoglobulins and do not undergo further division.
4. Regulatory B-cells: These are a subset of B-cells that modulate the immune response by producing anti-inflammatory cytokines and suppressing the activation of other immune cells.
5. B-1 cells: These are a population of B-cells that are primarily found in the peripheral blood and mucosal tissues. They produce natural antibodies that provide early protection against pathogens and help to maintain tissue homeostasis.

Understanding the different B-lymphocyte subsets and their functions is important for diagnosing and treating immune-related disorders, including autoimmune diseases, infections, and cancer.

Antibody specificity refers to the ability of an antibody to bind to a specific epitope or antigenic determinant on an antigen. Each antibody has a unique structure that allows it to recognize and bind to a specific region of an antigen, typically a small portion of the antigen's surface made up of amino acids or sugar residues. This highly specific binding is mediated by the variable regions of the antibody's heavy and light chains, which form a pocket that recognizes and binds to the epitope.

The specificity of an antibody is determined by its unique complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), which are loops of amino acids located in the variable domains of both the heavy and light chains. The CDRs form a binding site that recognizes and interacts with the epitope on the antigen. The precise fit between the antibody's binding site and the epitope is critical for specificity, as even small changes in the structure of either can prevent binding.

Antibody specificity is important in immune responses because it allows the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self antigens. This helps to prevent autoimmune reactions where the immune system attacks the body's own cells and tissues. Antibody specificity also plays a crucial role in diagnostic tests, such as ELISA assays, where antibodies are used to detect the presence of specific antigens in biological samples.

The complement system is a group of proteins found in the blood and on the surface of cells that when activated, work together to help eliminate pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi from the body. The proteins are normally inactive in the bloodstream. When they encounter an invading microorganism or foreign substance, a series of reactions take place leading to the activation of the complement system. Activation results in the production of effector molecules that can punch holes in the cell membranes of pathogens, recruit and activate immune cells, and help remove debris and dead cells from the body.

There are three main pathways that can lead to complement activation: the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, and the alternative pathway. Each pathway involves a series of proteins that work together in a cascade-like manner to amplify the response and generate effector molecules. The three main effector molecules produced by the complement system are C3b, C4b, and C5b. These molecules can bind to the surface of pathogens, marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

Complement proteins also play a role in the regulation of the immune response. They help to prevent excessive activation of the complement system, which could damage host tissues. Dysregulation of the complement system has been implicated in a number of diseases, including autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

In summary, Complement System Proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in the immune response by helping to eliminate pathogens and regulate the immune response. They can be activated through three different pathways, leading to the production of effector molecules that mark pathogens for destruction. Dysregulation of the complement system has been linked to various diseases.

Collagen diseases, also known as collagen disorders or connective tissue diseases, refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the body's connective tissues. These tissues provide support and structure for various organs and systems in the body, including the skin, joints, muscles, and blood vessels.

Collagen is a major component of connective tissues, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining their strength and elasticity. In collagen diseases, the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy collagen, leading to inflammation, pain, and damage to the affected tissues.

There are several types of collagen diseases, including:

1. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): This is a chronic autoimmune disease that can affect various organs and systems in the body, including the skin, joints, kidneys, heart, and lungs.
2. Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): This is a chronic inflammatory disease that primarily affects the joints, causing pain, swelling, and stiffness.
3. Scleroderma: This is a rare autoimmune disorder that causes thickening and hardening of the skin and connective tissues, leading to restricted movement and organ damage.
4. Dermatomyositis: This is an inflammatory muscle disease that can also affect the skin, causing rashes and weakness.
5. Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD): This is a rare autoimmune disorder that combines symptoms of several collagen diseases, including SLE, RA, scleroderma, and dermatomyositis.

The exact cause of collagen diseases is not fully understood, but they are believed to be related to genetic, environmental, and hormonal factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medications, lifestyle changes, and physical therapy to manage symptoms and prevent complications.

Mixed Connective Tissue Disease (MCTD) is a rare overlapping condition of the connective tissues, characterized by the presence of specific autoantibodies against a protein called "U1-snRNP" or "U1-small nuclear ribonucleoprotein." This disorder has features of various connective tissue diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), scleroderma, polymyositis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Symptoms may include swollen hands, joint pain and swelling, muscle weakness, skin thickening, lung involvement, and Raynaud's phenomenon. The exact cause of MCTD is unknown, but it is believed to involve both genetic and environmental factors leading to an autoimmune response. Early diagnosis and treatment are essential for better disease management and preventing severe complications.

The adrenal cortex hormones are a group of steroid hormones produced and released by the outer portion (cortex) of the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each kidney. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes, including:

1. Glucose metabolism: Cortisol helps control blood sugar levels by increasing glucose production in the liver and reducing its uptake in peripheral tissues.
2. Protein and fat metabolism: Cortisol promotes protein breakdown and fatty acid mobilization, providing essential building blocks for energy production during stressful situations.
3. Immune response regulation: Cortisol suppresses immune function to prevent overactivation and potential damage to the body during stress.
4. Cardiovascular function: Aldosterone regulates electrolyte balance and blood pressure by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.
5. Sex hormone production: The adrenal cortex produces small amounts of sex hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, which contribute to sexual development and function.
6. Growth and development: Cortisol plays a role in normal growth and development by influencing the activity of growth-promoting hormones like insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1).

The main adrenal cortex hormones include:

1. Glucocorticoids: Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid, responsible for regulating metabolism and stress response.
2. Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone is the primary mineralocorticoid, involved in electrolyte balance and blood pressure regulation.
3. Androgens: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate derivative (DHEAS) are the most abundant adrenal androgens, contributing to sexual development and function.
4. Estrogens: Small amounts of estrogens are produced by the adrenal cortex, mainly in women.

Disorders related to impaired adrenal cortex hormone production or regulation can lead to various clinical manifestations, such as Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency), Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism), and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).

Lymphocyte activation is the process by which B-cells and T-cells (types of lymphocytes) become activated to perform effector functions in an immune response. This process involves the recognition of specific antigens presented on the surface of antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages.

The activation of B-cells leads to their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies, while the activation of T-cells results in the production of cytotoxic T-cells (CD8+ T-cells) that can directly kill infected cells or helper T-cells (CD4+ T-cells) that assist other immune cells.

Lymphocyte activation involves a series of intracellular signaling events, including the binding of co-stimulatory molecules and the release of cytokines, which ultimately result in the expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and effector functions. The activation process is tightly regulated to prevent excessive or inappropriate immune responses that can lead to autoimmunity or chronic inflammation.

Complement C4a is a protein fragment or cleavage product generated during the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells by marking them for destruction and direct lysis. Complement component 4 (C4) is one of the key proteins in this cascade, and it gets cleaved into C4a and C4b during the activation process.

C4a is a small anaphylatoxin with a molecular weight of approximately 9 kDa. It has chemotactic properties, meaning it can attract immune cells like neutrophils to the site of complement activation. Additionally, C4a can induce histamine release from mast cells and basophils, contributing to local inflammation. However, its precise physiological role in the immune response is not entirely clear, and dysregulation of C4a production has been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases and allergies.

Systemic Scleroderma, also known as Systemic Sclerosis (SSc), is a rare, chronic autoimmune disease that involves the abnormal growth and accumulation of collagen in various connective tissues, blood vessels, and organs throughout the body. This excessive collagen production leads to fibrosis or scarring, which can cause thickening, hardening, and tightening of the skin and damage to internal organs such as the heart, lungs, kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract.

Systemic Scleroderma is characterized by two main features: small blood vessel abnormalities (Raynaud's phenomenon) and fibrosis. The disease can be further classified into two subsets based on the extent of skin involvement: limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis (lcSSc) and diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis (dcSSc).

Limited cutaneous systemic sclerosis affects the skin distally, typically involving fingers, hands, forearms, feet, lower legs, and face. It is often associated with Raynaud's phenomenon, calcinosis, telangiectasias, and pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Diffuse cutaneous systemic sclerosis involves more extensive skin thickening and fibrosis that spreads proximally to affect the trunk, upper arms, thighs, and face. It is commonly associated with internal organ involvement, such as interstitial lung disease, heart disease, and kidney problems.

The exact cause of Systemic Scleroderma remains unknown; however, it is believed that genetic, environmental, and immunological factors contribute to its development. There is currently no cure for Systemic Scleroderma, but various treatments can help manage symptoms, slow disease progression, and improve quality of life.

IgG receptors, also known as Fcγ receptors (Fc gamma receptors), are specialized protein molecules found on the surface of various immune cells, such as neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and some lymphocytes. These receptors recognize and bind to the Fc region of IgG antibodies, one of the five classes of immunoglobulins in the human body.

IgG receptors play a crucial role in immune responses by mediating different effector functions, including:

1. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG receptors on natural killer (NK) cells and other immune cells bind to IgG antibodies coated on the surface of virus-infected or cancer cells, leading to their destruction.
2. Phagocytosis: When IgG antibodies tag pathogens or foreign particles, phagocytes like neutrophils and macrophages recognize and bind to these immune complexes via IgG receptors, facilitating the engulfment and removal of the targeted particles.
3. Antigen presentation: IgG receptors on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) can internalize immune complexes, process the antigens, and present them to T cells, thereby initiating adaptive immune responses.
4. Inflammatory response regulation: IgG receptors can modulate inflammation by activating or inhibiting downstream signaling pathways in immune cells, depending on the specific type of Fcγ receptor and its activation state.

There are several types of IgG receptors (FcγRI, FcγRII, FcγRIII, and FcγRIV) with varying affinities for different subclasses of IgG antibodies (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4). The distinct functions and expression patterns of these receptors contribute to the complexity and fine-tuning of immune responses in the human body.

Cyclophosphamide is an alkylating agent, which is a type of chemotherapy medication. It works by interfering with the DNA of cancer cells, preventing them from dividing and growing. This helps to stop the spread of cancer in the body. Cyclophosphamide is used to treat various types of cancer, including lymphoma, leukemia, multiple myeloma, and breast cancer. It can be given orally as a tablet or intravenously as an injection.

Cyclophosphamide can also have immunosuppressive effects, which means it can suppress the activity of the immune system. This makes it useful in treating certain autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. However, this immunosuppression can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects.

Like all chemotherapy medications, cyclophosphamide can cause a range of side effects, including nausea, vomiting, hair loss, fatigue, and increased susceptibility to infections. It is important for patients receiving cyclophosphamide to be closely monitored by their healthcare team to manage these side effects and ensure the medication is working effectively.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

Procainamide is an antiarrhythmic medication used to treat various types of irregular heart rhythms (arrhythmias), such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, and ventricular tachycardia. It works by prolonging the duration of the cardiac action potential and decreasing the slope of the phase 0 depolarization, which helps to stabilize the heart's electrical activity and restore a normal rhythm.

Procainamide is classified as a Class Ia antiarrhythmic drug, according to the Vaughan Williams classification system. It primarily affects the fast sodium channels in the heart muscle cells, reducing their availability during depolarization. This results in a decreased rate of impulse generation and conduction velocity, which can help to suppress abnormal rhythms.

The medication is available as an oral formulation (procainamide hydrochloride) and as an injectable solution for intravenous use. Common side effects of procainamide include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, headache, and dizziness. Procainamide can also cause a lupus-like syndrome, characterized by joint pain, skin rashes, and other autoimmune symptoms, in some patients who take the medication for an extended period.

It is essential to monitor procainamide levels in the blood during treatment to ensure that the drug is within the therapeutic range and to minimize the risk of adverse effects. Healthcare providers should also regularly assess patients' renal function, as procainamide and its active metabolite, N-acetylprocainamide (NAPA), are primarily excreted by the kidneys.

Interferon Regulatory Factors (IRFs) are a family of transcription factors that play crucial roles in the regulation of immune responses, particularly in the expression of interferons (IFNs) and other genes involved in innate immunity and inflammation. In humans, there are nine known IRF proteins (IRF1-9), each with distinct functions and patterns of expression.

The primary function of IRFs is to regulate the transcription of type I IFNs (IFN-α and IFN-β) and other immune response genes in response to various stimuli, such as viral infections, bacterial components, and proinflammatory cytokines. IRFs can either activate or repress gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences called interferon-stimulated response elements (ISREs) and/or IFN consensus sequences (ICSs) in the promoter regions of target genes.

IRF1, IRF3, and IRF7 are primarily involved in type I IFN regulation, with IRF1 acting as a transcriptional activator for IFN-β and various ISRE-containing genes, while IRF3 and IRF7 function as master regulators of the type I IFN response to viral infections. Upon viral recognition by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), IRF3 and IRF7 are activated through phosphorylation and translocate to the nucleus, where they induce the expression of type I IFNs and other antiviral genes.

IRF2, IRF4, IRF5, and IRF8 have more diverse roles in immune regulation, including the control of T-cell differentiation, B-cell development, and myeloid cell function. For example, IRF4 is essential for the development and function of Th2 cells, while IRF5 and IRF8 are involved in the differentiation of dendritic cells and macrophages.

IRF6 and IRF9 have unique functions compared to other IRFs. IRF6 is primarily involved in epithelial cell development and differentiation, while IRF9 forms a complex with STAT1 and STAT2 to regulate the transcription of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) during the type I IFN response.

In summary, IRFs are a family of transcription factors that play crucial roles in various aspects of immune regulation, including antiviral responses, T-cell and B-cell development, and myeloid cell function. Dysregulation of IRF activity can lead to the development of autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, and cancer.

Cryoglobulins are immunoglobulins (a type of antibody) that precipitate or become insoluble at reduced temperatures, typically below 37°C (98.6°F), and re-dissolve when rewarmed. They can be found in various clinical conditions such as infections, inflammatory diseases, and lymphoproliferative disorders.

The presence of cryoglobulins in the blood can lead to a variety of symptoms, including purpura (a type of skin rash), arthralgias (joint pain), neuropathy (nerve damage), and glomerulonephritis (kidney inflammation). The diagnosis of cryoglobulinemia is made by detecting the presence of cryoglobulins in the serum, which requires special handling and processing of the blood sample. Treatment of cryoglobulinemia depends on the underlying cause and may include medications such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressive agents, or targeted therapies.

Prednisone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, which is a type of corticosteroid hormone. It is primarily used to reduce inflammation in various conditions such as asthma, allergies, arthritis, and autoimmune disorders. Prednisone works by mimicking the effects of natural hormones produced by the adrenal glands, suppressing the immune system's response and reducing the release of substances that cause inflammation.

It is available in oral tablet form and is typically prescribed to be taken at specific times during the day, depending on the condition being treated. Common side effects of prednisone include increased appetite, weight gain, mood changes, insomnia, and easy bruising. Long-term use or high doses can lead to more serious side effects such as osteoporosis, diabetes, cataracts, and increased susceptibility to infections.

Healthcare providers closely monitor patients taking prednisone for extended periods to minimize the risk of adverse effects. It is essential to follow the prescribed dosage regimen and not discontinue the medication abruptly without medical supervision, as this can lead to withdrawal symptoms or a rebound of the underlying condition.

Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system in response to the presence of a foreign substance, such as a bacterium or virus. They are capable of identifying and binding to specific antigens (foreign substances) on the surface of these invaders, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Antibodies are also known as immunoglobulins and come in several different types, including IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, each with a unique function in the immune response. They are composed of four polypeptide chains, two heavy chains and two light chains, that are held together by disulfide bonds. The variable regions of the heavy and light chains form the antigen-binding site, which is specific to a particular antigen.

Thrombosis is the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a clot forms in an artery, it can cut off the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the tissues served by that artery, leading to damage or tissue death. If a thrombus forms in the heart, it can cause a heart attack. If a thrombus breaks off and travels through the bloodstream, it can lodge in a smaller vessel, causing blockage and potentially leading to damage in the organ that the vessel supplies. This is known as an embolism.

Thrombosis can occur due to various factors such as injury to the blood vessel wall, abnormalities in blood flow, or changes in the composition of the blood. Certain medical conditions, medications, and lifestyle factors can increase the risk of thrombosis. Treatment typically involves anticoagulant or thrombolytic therapy to dissolve or prevent further growth of the clot, as well as addressing any underlying causes.

Inbred strains of mice are defined as lines of mice that have been brother-sister mated for at least 20 consecutive generations. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the mice of an inbred strain are genetically identical to one another, with the exception of spontaneous mutations.

Inbred strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research due to their genetic uniformity and stability, which makes them useful for studying the genetic basis of various traits, diseases, and biological processes. They also provide a consistent and reproducible experimental system, as compared to outbred or genetically heterogeneous populations.

Some commonly used inbred strains of mice include C57BL/6J, BALB/cByJ, DBA/2J, and 129SvEv. Each strain has its own unique genetic background and phenotypic characteristics, which can influence the results of experiments. Therefore, it is important to choose the appropriate inbred strain for a given research question.

Membranous glomerulonephritis (MGN) is a kidney disorder that leads to the inflammation and damage of the glomeruli, which are the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys responsible for filtering waste and excess fluids from the blood. In MGN, the membrane that surrounds the glomerular capillaries becomes thickened and damaged due to the deposit of immune complexes, primarily composed of antibodies and antigens.

The onset of membranous glomerulonephritis can be either primary (idiopathic) or secondary to various underlying conditions such as autoimmune diseases (like systemic lupus erythematosus), infections (hepatitis B or C, syphilis, endocarditis), medications, or malignancies.

The symptoms of membranous glomerulonephritis may include:

1. Proteinuria - the presence of excess protein, specifically albumin, in the urine. This can lead to nephrotic syndrome, characterized by heavy protein loss in urine, edema (swelling), hypoalbuminemia (low blood albumin levels), and hyperlipidemia (high blood lipid levels).
2. Hematuria - the presence of red blood cells in the urine, which can be visible or microscopic.
3. Hypertension - high blood pressure.
4. Edema - swelling in various body parts due to fluid retention.
5. Nephrotic range proteinuria (protein loss greater than 3.5 grams per day) and/or nephritic syndrome (a combination of hematuria, proteinuria, hypertension, and kidney dysfunction) can be observed in some cases.

The diagnosis of membranous glomerulonephritis typically involves a thorough medical history, physical examination, urinalysis, blood tests, and imaging studies. A definitive diagnosis often requires a kidney biopsy to assess the glomerular structure and the nature of the immune complex deposits. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and severity of the disease and may include corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, blood pressure management, and supportive care for symptoms like edema and proteinuria.

Pregnancy complications refer to any health problems that arise during pregnancy which can put both the mother and the baby at risk. These complications may occur at any point during the pregnancy, from conception until childbirth. Some common pregnancy complications include:

1. Gestational diabetes: a type of diabetes that develops during pregnancy in women who did not have diabetes before becoming pregnant.
2. Preeclampsia: a pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and damage to organs such as the liver or kidneys.
3. Placenta previa: a condition where the placenta covers the cervix, which can cause bleeding and may require delivery via cesarean section.
4. Preterm labor: when labor begins before 37 weeks of gestation, which can lead to premature birth and other complications.
5. Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR): a condition where the fetus does not grow at a normal rate inside the womb.
6. Multiple pregnancies: carrying more than one baby, such as twins or triplets, which can increase the risk of premature labor and other complications.
7. Rh incompatibility: a condition where the mother's blood type is different from the baby's, which can cause anemia and jaundice in the newborn.
8. Pregnancy loss: including miscarriage, stillbirth, or ectopic pregnancy, which can be emotionally devastating for the parents.

It is important to monitor pregnancy closely and seek medical attention promptly if any concerning symptoms arise. With proper care and management, many pregnancy complications can be treated effectively, reducing the risk of harm to both the mother and the baby.

Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones that are naturally produced in the adrenal gland, or can be synthetically manufactured. They play an essential role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and have significant anti-inflammatory effects. Glucocorticoids suppress immune responses and inflammation by inhibiting the release of inflammatory mediators from various cells, such as mast cells, eosinophils, and lymphocytes. They are frequently used in medical treatment for a wide range of conditions, including allergies, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, dermatological disorders, and certain cancers. Prolonged use or high doses of glucocorticoids can lead to several side effects, such as weight gain, mood changes, osteoporosis, and increased susceptibility to infections.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Anti-idiotypic antibodies are a type of immune protein that recognizes and binds to the unique identifying region (idiotype) of another antibody. These antibodies are produced by the immune system as part of a regulatory feedback mechanism, where they can modulate or inhibit the activity of the original antibody. They have been studied for their potential use in immunotherapy and vaccine development.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Interferon-alpha (IFN-α) is a type I interferon, which is a group of signaling proteins made and released by host cells in response to the presence of viruses, parasites, and tumor cells. It plays a crucial role in the immune response against viral infections. IFN-α has antiviral, immunomodulatory, and anti-proliferative effects.

IFN-α is produced naturally by various cell types, including leukocytes (white blood cells), fibroblasts, and epithelial cells, in response to viral or bacterial stimulation. It binds to specific receptors on the surface of nearby cells, triggering a signaling cascade that leads to the activation of genes involved in the antiviral response. This results in the production of proteins that inhibit viral replication and promote the presentation of viral antigens to the immune system, enhancing its ability to recognize and eliminate infected cells.

In addition to its role in the immune response, IFN-α has been used as a therapeutic agent for various medical conditions, including certain types of cancer, chronic hepatitis B and C, and multiple sclerosis. However, its use is often limited by side effects such as flu-like symptoms, depression, and neuropsychiatric disorders.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Immunoglobulin idiotypes refer to the unique antigenic determinants found on the variable regions of an immunoglobulin (antibody) molecule. These determinants are specific to each individual antibody and can be used to distinguish between different antibodies produced by a single individual or between antibodies produced by different individuals.

The variable region of an antibody is responsible for recognizing and binding to a specific antigen. The amino acid sequence in this region varies between different antibodies, and it is these variations that give rise to the unique idiotypes. Idiotypes can be used as markers to study the immune response, including the clonal selection and affinity maturation of B cells during an immune response.

Immunoglobulin idiotypes are also important in the development of monoclonal antibodies for therapeutic use. By identifying and isolating a specific antibody with the desired idiotype, it is possible to produce large quantities of identical antibodies that can be used to treat various diseases, including cancer and autoimmune disorders.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Disease progression is the worsening or advancement of a medical condition over time. It refers to the natural course of a disease, including its development, the severity of symptoms and complications, and the impact on the patient's overall health and quality of life. Understanding disease progression is important for developing appropriate treatment plans, monitoring response to therapy, and predicting outcomes.

The rate of disease progression can vary widely depending on the type of medical condition, individual patient factors, and the effectiveness of treatment. Some diseases may progress rapidly over a short period of time, while others may progress more slowly over many years. In some cases, disease progression may be slowed or even halted with appropriate medical interventions, while in other cases, the progression may be inevitable and irreversible.

In clinical practice, healthcare providers closely monitor disease progression through regular assessments, imaging studies, and laboratory tests. This information is used to guide treatment decisions and adjust care plans as needed to optimize patient outcomes and improve quality of life.

The spleen is an organ in the upper left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays multiple supporting roles in the body:

1. It fights infection by acting as a filter for the blood. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there.
2. The spleen also helps to control the amount of blood in the body by removing excess red blood cells and storing platelets.
3. It has an important role in immune function, producing antibodies and removing microorganisms and damaged red blood cells from the bloodstream.

The spleen can be removed without causing any significant problems, as other organs take over its functions. This is known as a splenectomy and may be necessary if the spleen is damaged or diseased.

Complement C4b is a protein fragment that is formed during the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body by tagging them for destruction and attracting immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

C4b is generated when the C4 protein is cleaved into two smaller fragments, C4a and C4b, during the activation of the classical or lectin pathways of the complement system. C4b then binds covalently to the surface of the target cell or pathogen, forming a complex with other complement proteins that can create a membrane attack complex (MAC) and cause cell lysis.

C4b can also act as an opsonin, coating the surface of the target cell or pathogen and making it easier for immune cells to recognize and phagocytose them. Additionally, C4b can activate the alternative pathway of the complement system, leading to further amplification of the complement response.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is a type of genetic variation that occurs when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the DNA sequence is altered. This alteration must occur in at least 1% of the population to be considered a SNP. These variations can help explain why some people are more susceptible to certain diseases than others and can also influence how an individual responds to certain medications. SNPs can serve as biological markers, helping scientists locate genes that are associated with disease. They can also provide information about an individual's ancestry and ethnic background.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) is a medical laboratory test that measures the time it takes for blood to clot. It's more specifically a measure of the intrinsic and common pathways of the coagulation cascade, which are the series of chemical reactions that lead to the formation of a clot.

The test involves adding a partial thromboplastin reagent (an activator of the intrinsic pathway) and calcium to plasma, and then measuring the time it takes for a fibrin clot to form. This is compared to a control sample, and the ratio of the two times is calculated.

The PTT test is often used to help diagnose bleeding disorders or abnormal blood clotting, such as hemophilia or disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). It can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of anticoagulant therapy, such as heparin. Prolonged PTT results may indicate a bleeding disorder or an increased risk of bleeding, while shortened PTT results may indicate a hypercoagulable state and an increased risk of thrombosis.

The Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) is a type of immunofluorescence assay used in laboratory medicine and pathology for the detection and localization of specific antigens or antibodies in tissues, cells, or microorganisms. In this technique, a fluorescein-labeled antibody is used to selectively bind to the target antigen or antibody, forming an immune complex. When excited by light of a specific wavelength, the fluorescein label emits light at a longer wavelength, typically visualized as green fluorescence under a fluorescence microscope.

The FAT is widely used in diagnostic microbiology for the identification and characterization of various bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. It has also been applied in the diagnosis of autoimmune diseases and certain cancers by detecting specific antibodies or antigens in patient samples. The main advantage of FAT is its high sensitivity and specificity, allowing for accurate detection and differentiation of various pathogens and disease markers. However, it requires specialized equipment and trained personnel to perform and interpret the results.

Immunoglobulins (Igs), also known as antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules produced by the immune system's B cells in response to the presence of foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, and toxins. These Y-shaped proteins play a crucial role in identifying and neutralizing pathogens and other antigens, thereby protecting the body against infection and disease.

Immunoglobulins are composed of four polypeptide chains: two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains, held together by disulfide bonds. The variable regions of these chains form the antigen-binding sites, which recognize and bind to specific epitopes on antigens. Based on their heavy chain type, immunoglobulins are classified into five main isotypes or classes: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each class has distinct functions in the immune response, such as providing protection in different body fluids and tissues, mediating hypersensitivity reactions, and aiding in the development of immunological memory.

In medical settings, immunoglobulins can be administered therapeutically to provide passive immunity against certain diseases or to treat immune deficiencies, autoimmune disorders, and other conditions that may benefit from immunomodulation.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Kidney disease, also known as nephropathy or renal disease, refers to any functional or structural damage to the kidneys that impairs their ability to filter blood, regulate electrolytes, produce hormones, and maintain fluid balance. This damage can result from a wide range of causes, including diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disease, lupus, infections, drugs, toxins, and congenital or inherited disorders.

Depending on the severity and progression of the kidney damage, kidney diseases can be classified into two main categories: acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). AKI is a sudden and often reversible loss of kidney function that occurs over hours to days, while CKD is a progressive and irreversible decline in kidney function that develops over months or years.

Symptoms of kidney diseases may include edema, proteinuria, hematuria, hypertension, electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, anemia, and decreased urine output. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause and severity of the disease and may include medications, dietary modifications, dialysis, or kidney transplantation.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Pulse therapy, in the context of drug treatment, refers to a therapeutic regimen where a medication is administered in large doses for a short period of time, followed by a break or "drug-free" interval before the next dose. This cycle is then repeated at regular intervals. The goal of pulse therapy is to achieve high concentrations of the drug in the body to maximize its therapeutic effect while minimizing overall exposure and potential side effects.

This approach is often used for drugs that have a long half-life or slow clearance, as it allows for periodic "washing out" of the drug from the body. Pulse therapy can also help reduce the risk of developing drug resistance in certain conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and tuberculosis. Common examples include pulse methotrexate for rheumatoid arthritis and intermittent preventive treatment with anti-malarial drugs.

It is important to note that the use of pulse therapy should be based on a thorough understanding of the drug's pharmacokinetics, therapeutic index, and potential adverse effects. Close monitoring of patients undergoing pulse therapy is essential to ensure safety and efficacy.

Transverse Myelitis is a neurological disorder that involves inflammation of the spinal cord, leading to damage in both sides of the cord. This results in varying degrees of motor, sensory, and autonomic dysfunction, typically defined by the level of the spine that's affected. Symptoms may include a sudden onset of lower back pain, muscle weakness, paraesthesia or loss of sensation, and bowel/bladder dysfunction. The exact cause is often unknown but can be associated with infections, autoimmune disorders, or other underlying conditions.

Immune complex diseases are medical conditions that occur when the immune system produces an abnormal response to certain antigens, leading to the formation and deposition of immune complexes in various tissues and organs. These immune complexes consist of antibodies bound to antigens, which can trigger an inflammatory reaction and damage the surrounding tissue.

Immune complex diseases can be classified into two categories: acute and chronic. Acute immune complex diseases include serum sickness and hypersensitivity vasculitis, while chronic immune complex diseases include systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis, and membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis.

The symptoms of immune complex diseases depend on the location and extent of tissue damage. They can range from mild to severe and may include fever, joint pain, skin rashes, kidney dysfunction, and neurological problems. Treatment typically involves medications that suppress the immune system and reduce inflammation, such as corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and anti-inflammatory drugs.

An allele is a variant form of a gene that is located at a specific position on a specific chromosome. Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same locus or position on homologous chromosomes.

Each person typically inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. If the two alleles are identical, a person is said to be homozygous for that trait. If the alleles are different, the person is heterozygous.

For example, the ABO blood group system has three alleles, A, B, and O, which determine a person's blood type. If a person inherits two A alleles, they will have type A blood; if they inherit one A and one B allele, they will have type AB blood; if they inherit two B alleles, they will have type B blood; and if they inherit two O alleles, they will have type O blood.

Alleles can also influence traits such as eye color, hair color, height, and other physical characteristics. Some alleles are dominant, meaning that only one copy of the allele is needed to express the trait, while others are recessive, meaning that two copies of the allele are needed to express the trait.

Thrombocytopenia is a medical condition characterized by an abnormally low platelet count (thrombocytes) in the blood. Platelets are small cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood clotting, helping to stop bleeding when a blood vessel is damaged. A healthy adult typically has a platelet count between 150,000 and 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Thrombocytopenia is usually diagnosed when the platelet count falls below 150,000 platelets/µL.

Thrombocytopenia can be classified into three main categories based on its underlying cause:

1. Immune thrombocytopenia (ITP): An autoimmune disorder where the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys its own platelets, leading to a decreased platelet count. ITP can be further divided into primary or secondary forms, depending on whether it occurs alone or as a result of another medical condition or medication.
2. Decreased production: Thrombocytopenia can occur when there is insufficient production of platelets in the bone marrow due to various causes, such as viral infections, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, leukemia, aplastic anemia, or vitamin B12 or folate deficiency.
3. Increased destruction or consumption: Thrombocytopenia can also result from increased platelet destruction or consumption due to conditions like disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP), hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS), or severe bacterial infections.

Symptoms of thrombocytopenia may include easy bruising, prolonged bleeding from cuts, spontaneous nosebleeds, bleeding gums, blood in urine or stools, and skin rashes like petechiae (small red or purple spots) or purpura (larger patches). The severity of symptoms can vary depending on the degree of thrombocytopenia and the presence of any underlying conditions. Treatment for thrombocytopenia depends on the cause and may include medications, transfusions, or addressing the underlying condition.

Antirheumatic agents are a class of drugs used to treat rheumatoid arthritis, other inflammatory types of arthritis, and related conditions. These medications work by reducing inflammation in the body, relieving symptoms such as pain, swelling, and stiffness in the joints. They can also help slow down or prevent joint damage and disability caused by the disease.

There are several types of antirheumatic agents, including:

1. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): These medications, such as ibuprofen and naproxen, reduce inflammation and relieve pain. They are often used to treat mild to moderate symptoms of arthritis.
2. Corticosteroids: These powerful anti-inflammatory drugs, such as prednisone and cortisone, can quickly reduce inflammation and suppress the immune system. They are usually used for short-term relief of severe symptoms or in combination with other antirheumatic agents.
3. Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs): These medications, such as methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine, work by slowing down the progression of rheumatoid arthritis and preventing joint damage. They can take several weeks or months to become fully effective.
4. Biologic response modifiers (biologics): These are a newer class of DMARDs that target specific molecules involved in the immune response. They include drugs such as adalimumab, etanercept, and infliximab. Biologics are usually used in combination with other antirheumatic agents for patients who have not responded to traditional DMARD therapy.
5. Janus kinase (JAK) inhibitors: These medications, such as tofacitinib and baricitinib, work by blocking the action of enzymes called JAKs that are involved in the immune response. They are used to treat moderate to severe rheumatoid arthritis and can be used in combination with other antirheumatic agents.

It is important to note that antirheumatic agents can have significant side effects and should only be prescribed by a healthcare provider who is experienced in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Regular monitoring and follow-up are essential to ensure safe and effective treatment.

Membranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) is a type of glomerulonephritis, which is a group of kidney disorders characterized by inflammation and damage to the glomeruli, the tiny blood vessels in the kidneys responsible for filtering waste and excess fluids from the blood.

MPGN is specifically characterized by thickening of the glomerular basement membrane and proliferation (increased number) of cells in the mesangium, a region within the glomerulus. This condition can be primary or secondary to other diseases such as infections, autoimmune disorders, or monoclonal gammopathies.

MPGN is typically classified into three types based on the pattern of injury seen on electron microscopy: Type I, Type II (Dense Deposit Disease), and Type III. Each type has distinct clinical features, laboratory findings, and treatment approaches. Symptoms of MPGN may include hematuria (blood in urine), proteinuria (protein in urine), hypertension (high blood pressure), edema (swelling), and eventually progress to chronic kidney disease or end-stage renal disease if left untreated.

Skin diseases, also known as dermatological conditions, refer to any medical condition that affects the skin, which is the largest organ of the human body. These diseases can affect the skin's function, appearance, or overall health. They can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, allergies, environmental factors, and aging.

Skin diseases can present in many different forms, such as rashes, blisters, sores, discolorations, growths, or changes in texture. Some common examples of skin diseases include acne, eczema, psoriasis, dermatitis, fungal infections, viral infections, bacterial infections, and skin cancer.

The symptoms and severity of skin diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and individual factors. Some skin diseases are mild and can be treated with over-the-counter medications or topical creams, while others may require more intensive treatments such as prescription medications, light therapy, or even surgery.

It is important to seek medical attention if you experience any unusual or persistent changes in your skin, as some skin diseases can be serious or indicative of other underlying health conditions. A dermatologist is a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of skin diseases.

Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) is a type of protein belonging to the family of Toll-like receptors, which are involved in the innate immune system's response to pathogens. TLR7 is primarily expressed on endosomal membranes of various immune cells, including dendritic cells, B cells, and macrophages. It recognizes single-stranded RNA molecules from viruses, thereby activating signaling pathways that lead to the production of proinflammatory cytokines and type I interferons. This response is crucial for initiating an effective immune response against viral infections.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Complement C2 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Specifically, C2 is a component of the classical complement pathway, which is activated by the binding of antibodies to antigens on the surface of foreign particles or cells.

When the classical pathway is activated, C2 is cleaved into two fragments: C2a and C2b. C2a then binds to C4b to form the C3 convertase (C4b2a), which cleaves C3 into C3a and C3b. C3b can then go on to form the membrane attack complex, which creates a pore in the membrane of the target cell, leading to its lysis.

In summary, Complement C2 is a protein that helps to activate the complement system and destroy foreign particles or cells through the formation of the C3 convertase and the membrane attack complex.

Monoclonal murine-derived antibodies are a type of laboratory-produced antibody that is identical in structure, having been derived from a single clone of cells. These antibodies are created using mouse cells and are therefore composed entirely of mouse immune proteins. They are designed to bind specifically to a particular target protein or antigen, making them useful tools for research, diagnostic testing, and therapeutic applications.

Monoclonal antibodies offer several advantages over polyclonal antibodies (which are derived from multiple clones of cells and can recognize multiple epitopes on an antigen). Monoclonal antibodies have a consistent and uniform structure, making them more reliable for research and diagnostic purposes. They also have higher specificity and affinity for their target antigens, allowing for more sensitive detection and measurement.

However, there are some limitations to using monoclonal murine-derived antibodies in therapeutic applications. Because they are composed entirely of mouse proteins, they can elicit an immune response in humans, leading to the production of human anti-mouse antibodies (HAMA) that can neutralize their effectiveness. To overcome this limitation, researchers have developed chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies that incorporate human protein sequences, reducing the risk of an immune response.

"Genetic crosses" refer to the breeding of individuals with different genetic characteristics to produce offspring with specific combinations of traits. This process is commonly used in genetics research to study the inheritance patterns and function of specific genes.

There are several types of genetic crosses, including:

1. Monohybrid cross: A cross between two individuals that differ in the expression of a single gene or trait.
2. Dihybrid cross: A cross between two individuals that differ in the expression of two genes or traits.
3. Backcross: A cross between an individual from a hybrid population and one of its parental lines.
4. Testcross: A cross between an individual with unknown genotype and a homozygous recessive individual.
5. Reciprocal cross: A cross in which the male and female parents are reversed to determine if there is any effect of sex on the expression of the trait.

These genetic crosses help researchers to understand the mode of inheritance, linkage, recombination, and other genetic phenomena.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

Prothrombin is a protein present in blood plasma, and it's also known as coagulation factor II. It plays a crucial role in the coagulation cascade, which is a complex series of reactions that leads to the formation of a blood clot.

When an injury occurs, the coagulation cascade is initiated to prevent excessive blood loss. Prothrombin is converted into its active form, thrombin, by another factor called factor Xa in the presence of calcium ions, phospholipids, and factor Va. Thrombin then catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin, forming a stable clot.

Prothrombin levels can be measured through a blood test, which is often used to diagnose or monitor conditions related to bleeding or coagulation disorders, such as liver disease or vitamin K deficiency.

CD4-positive T-lymphocytes, also known as CD4+ T cells or helper T cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune response. They express the CD4 receptor on their surface and help coordinate the immune system's response to infectious agents such as viruses and bacteria.

CD4+ T cells recognize and bind to specific antigens presented by antigen-presenting cells, such as dendritic cells or macrophages. Once activated, they can differentiate into various subsets of effector cells, including Th1, Th2, Th17, and Treg cells, each with distinct functions in the immune response.

CD4+ T cells are particularly important in the immune response to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which targets and destroys these cells, leading to a weakened immune system and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections. The number of CD4+ T cells is often used as a marker of disease progression in HIV infection, with lower counts indicating more advanced disease.

Mononuclear leukocytes are a type of white blood cells (leukocytes) that have a single, large nucleus. They include lymphocytes (B-cells, T-cells, and natural killer cells), monocytes, and dendritic cells. These cells play important roles in the body's immune system, including defending against infection and disease, and participating in immune responses and surveillance. Mononuclear leukocytes can be found in the bloodstream as well as in tissues throughout the body. They are involved in both innate and adaptive immunity, providing specific and nonspecific defense mechanisms to protect the body from harmful pathogens and other threats.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) is a type of protein belonging to the family of Toll-like receptors, which play a crucial role in the innate immune system. TLR9 is primarily expressed on the endosomal membranes of various immune cells, including dendritic cells, B cells, and macrophages. It recognizes specific molecular patterns, particularly unmethylated CpG DNA motifs, which are commonly found in bacterial and viral genomes but are underrepresented in vertebrate DNA.

Upon recognition and binding to its ligands, TLR9 initiates a signaling cascade that activates various transcription factors, such as NF-κB and IRF7, leading to the production of proinflammatory cytokines, type I interferons, and the activation of adaptive immune responses. This process is essential for the clearance of pathogens and the development of immunity against them. Dysregulation of TLR9 signaling has been implicated in several autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Immunologic factors refer to the elements of the immune system that contribute to the body's defense against foreign substances, infectious agents, and cancerous cells. These factors include various types of white blood cells (such as lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils), antibodies, complement proteins, cytokines, and other molecules involved in the immune response.

Immunologic factors can be categorized into two main types: innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Innate immunity is the non-specific defense mechanism that provides immediate protection against pathogens through physical barriers (e.g., skin, mucous membranes), chemical barriers (e.g., stomach acid, enzymes), and inflammatory responses. Adaptive immunity, on the other hand, is a specific defense mechanism that develops over time as the immune system learns to recognize and respond to particular pathogens or antigens.

Abnormalities in immunologic factors can lead to various medical conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, immunodeficiency diseases, and allergies. Therefore, understanding immunologic factors is crucial for diagnosing and treating these conditions.

Hemolytic anemia, autoimmune is a type of anemia characterized by the premature destruction of red blood cells (RBCs) in which the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys its own RBCs. This occurs when the body produces autoantibodies that bind to the surface of RBCs, leading to their rupture (hemolysis). The symptoms may include fatigue, weakness, shortness of breath, and dark colored urine. The diagnosis is made through blood tests that measure the number and size of RBCs, reticulocyte count, and the presence of autoantibodies. Treatment typically involves suppressing the immune system with medications such as corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs, and sometimes removal of the spleen (splenectomy) may be necessary.

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that is an essential part of the immune system. They are responsible for recognizing and responding to potentially harmful substances such as viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).

B-lymphocytes produce antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy foreign substances. When a B-cell encounters a foreign substance, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies. These antibodies bind to the foreign substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes, on the other hand, are involved in cell-mediated immunity. They directly attack and destroy infected cells or cancerous cells. T-cells can also help to regulate the immune response by producing chemical signals that activate or inhibit other immune cells.

Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in either the bone marrow (B-cells) or the thymus gland (T-cells). They circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymphatic system, where they can be found in high concentrations in lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphoid organs.

Abnormalities in the number or function of lymphocytes can lead to a variety of immune-related disorders, including immunodeficiency diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

African Americans are defined as individuals who have ancestry from any of the black racial groups of Africa. This term is often used to describe people living in the United States who have total or partial descent from enslaved African peoples. The term does not refer to a single ethnicity but is a broad term that includes various ethnic groups with diverse cultures, languages, and traditions. It's important to note that some individuals may prefer to identify as Black or of African descent rather than African American, depending on their personal identity and background.

Tumor Necrosis Factor Ligand Superfamily Member 13 (TNFSF13), also known as APRIL (A Proliferation-Inducing Ligand), is a type II transmembrane protein and a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) ligand superfamily. It plays a crucial role in the immune system, particularly in the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of B cells, which are key players in the humoral immune response.

TNFSF13 is expressed by various cell types, including macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils. It binds to two receptors: TACI (Transmembrane Activator and Calcium Modulator and Cyclophilin Ligand Interactor) and BCMA (B-cell Maturation Antigen), which are primarily found on the surface of B cells. The interaction between TNFSF13 and its receptors promotes the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of B cells into plasma cells, ultimately leading to increased antibody production.

Dysregulation of TNFSF13 has been implicated in several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and multiple sclerosis (MS). Therefore, targeting this molecule or its signaling pathways has been a focus of research for the development of novel therapeutic strategies in these conditions.

Heart block is a cardiac condition characterized by the interruption of electrical impulse transmission from the atria (the upper chambers of the heart) to the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). This disruption can lead to abnormal heart rhythms, including bradycardia (a slower-than-normal heart rate), and in severe cases, can cause the heart to stop beating altogether. Heart block is typically caused by damage to the heart's electrical conduction system due to various factors such as aging, heart disease, or certain medications.

There are three types of heart block: first-degree, second-degree, and third-degree (also known as complete heart block). Each type has distinct electrocardiogram (ECG) findings and symptoms. Treatment for heart block depends on the severity of the condition and may include monitoring, medication, or implantation of a pacemaker to regulate the heart's electrical activity.

Immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, are proteins produced by the immune system to recognize and neutralize foreign substances like pathogens or antigens. The term "immunoglobulin isotypes" refers to the different classes of immunoglobulins that share a similar structure but have distinct functions and properties.

There are five main isotypes of immunoglobulins in humans, namely IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM. Each isotype has a unique heavy chain constant region (CH) that determines its effector functions, such as binding to Fc receptors, complement activation, or protection against pathogens.

IgA is primarily found in external secretions like tears, saliva, and breast milk, providing localized immunity at mucosal surfaces. IgD is expressed on the surface of B cells and plays a role in their activation and differentiation. IgE is associated with allergic responses and binds to mast cells and basophils, triggering the release of histamine and other mediators of inflammation.

IgG is the most abundant isotype in serum and has several subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their effector functions. IgG can cross the placenta, providing passive immunity to the fetus. IgM is the first antibody produced during an immune response and is primarily found in the bloodstream, where it forms large pentameric complexes that are effective at agglutination and complement activation.

Overall, immunoglobulin isotypes play a crucial role in the adaptive immune response, providing specific and diverse mechanisms for recognizing and neutralizing foreign substances.

Anti-inflammatory agents are a class of drugs or substances that reduce inflammation in the body. They work by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes, which are released during an immune response and contribute to symptoms like pain, swelling, redness, and warmth.

There are two main types of anti-inflammatory agents: steroidal and nonsteroidal. Steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (SAIDs) include corticosteroids, which mimic the effects of hormones produced by the adrenal gland. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a larger group that includes both prescription and over-the-counter medications, such as aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and celecoxib.

While both types of anti-inflammatory agents can be effective in reducing inflammation and relieving symptoms, they differ in their mechanisms of action, side effects, and potential risks. Long-term use of NSAIDs, for example, can increase the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding, kidney damage, and cardiovascular events. Corticosteroids can have significant side effects as well, particularly with long-term use, including weight gain, mood changes, and increased susceptibility to infections.

It's important to use anti-inflammatory agents only as directed by a healthcare provider, and to be aware of potential risks and interactions with other medications or health conditions.

Blood coagulation tests, also known as coagulation studies or clotting tests, are a series of medical tests used to evaluate the blood's ability to clot. These tests measure the functioning of various clotting factors and regulatory proteins involved in the coagulation cascade, which is a complex process that leads to the formation of a blood clot to prevent excessive bleeding.

The most commonly performed coagulation tests include:

1. Prothrombin Time (PT): Measures the time it takes for a sample of plasma to clot after the addition of calcium and tissue factor, which activates the extrinsic pathway of coagulation. The PT is reported in seconds and can be converted to an International Normalized Ratio (INR) to monitor anticoagulant therapy.
2. Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (aPTT): Measures the time it takes for a sample of plasma to clot after the addition of calcium, phospholipid, and a contact activator, which activates the intrinsic pathway of coagulation. The aPTT is reported in seconds and is used to monitor heparin therapy.
3. Thrombin Time (TT): Measures the time it takes for a sample of plasma to clot after the addition of thrombin, which directly converts fibrinogen to fibrin. The TT is reported in seconds and can be used to detect the presence of fibrin degradation products or abnormalities in fibrinogen function.
4. Fibrinogen Level: Measures the amount of fibrinogen, a protein involved in clot formation, present in the blood. The level is reported in grams per liter (g/L) and can be used to assess bleeding risk or the effectiveness of fibrinogen replacement therapy.
5. D-dimer Level: Measures the amount of D-dimer, a protein fragment produced during the breakdown of a blood clot, present in the blood. The level is reported in micrograms per milliliter (µg/mL) and can be used to diagnose or exclude venous thromboembolism (VTE), such as deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE).

These tests are important for the diagnosis, management, and monitoring of various bleeding and clotting disorders. They can help identify the underlying cause of abnormal bleeding or clotting, guide appropriate treatment decisions, and monitor the effectiveness of therapy. It is essential to interpret these test results in conjunction with a patient's clinical presentation and medical history.

Lymphatic diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the lymphatic system, which is an important part of the immune and circulatory systems. The lymphatic system consists of a network of vessels, organs, and tissues that help to transport lymph fluid throughout the body, fight infection, and remove waste products.

Lymphatic diseases can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, cancer, and autoimmune disorders. Some common types of lymphatic diseases include:

1. Lymphedema: A condition that causes swelling in the arms or legs due to a blockage or damage in the lymphatic vessels.
2. Lymphoma: A type of cancer that affects the lymphatic system, including Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
3. Infections: Certain bacterial and viral infections can affect the lymphatic system, such as tuberculosis, cat-scratch disease, and HIV/AIDS.
4. Autoimmune disorders: Conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and scleroderma can cause inflammation and damage to the lymphatic system.
5. Congenital abnormalities: Some people are born with abnormalities in their lymphatic system, such as malformations or missing lymph nodes.

Symptoms of lymphatic diseases may vary depending on the specific condition and its severity. Treatment options may include medication, physical therapy, surgery, or radiation therapy. It is important to seek medical attention if you experience symptoms of a lymphatic disease, as early diagnosis and treatment can improve outcomes.

Rheumatoid factor (RF) is an autoantibody, specifically an immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibody, that can be detected in the blood serum of some people with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), other inflammatory conditions, and infectious diseases. RF targets the Fc portion of IgG, leading to immune complex formation and subsequent inflammation, which contributes to the pathogenesis of RA. However, not all patients with RA test positive for RF, and its presence does not necessarily confirm a diagnosis of RA. Other conditions can also lead to elevated RF levels, such as infections, liver diseases, and certain malignancies. Therefore, the interpretation of RF results should be considered alongside other clinical, laboratory, and imaging findings for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate management.

Interferon type I is a class of signaling proteins, also known as cytokines, that are produced and released by cells in response to the presence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites. These interferons play a crucial role in the body's innate immune system and help to establish an antiviral state in surrounding cells to prevent the spread of infection.

Interferon type I includes several subtypes, such as interferon-alpha (IFN-α), interferon-beta (IFN-β), and interferon-omega (IFN-ω). When produced, these interferons bind to specific receptors on the surface of nearby cells, triggering a cascade of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation of genes involved in the antiviral response.

The activation of these genes results in the production of enzymes that inhibit viral replication and promote the destruction of infected cells. Interferon type I also enhances the adaptive immune response by promoting the activation and proliferation of immune cells such as T-cells and natural killer (NK) cells, which can directly target and eliminate infected cells.

Overall, interferon type I plays a critical role in the body's defense against viral infections and is an important component of the immune response to many different types of pathogens.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

Look up lupus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus at ... Copyright 2007 "Lupus and women's reproductive health , Lupus Foundation of America". Lupus Foundation of America. Retrieved 1 ... There are a number of other kinds of lupus erythematosus including discoid lupus erythematosus, neonatal lupus, and subacute ... The three main categories of lesions are chronic cutaneous (discoid) lupus, subacute cutaneous lupus, and acute cutaneous lupus ...
The name "Circus Lupus" comes from an SCTV sketch about "Circus Lupus, the Circus of Wolves", a mock TV commercial for an ... Circus Lupus was a post-hardcore band based in the area of Washington, D.C. The band originally formed in Madison, Wisconsin, ... Pletz, George (2001-11-15). "Circus Lupus Bassist Forms New Band". Pitchfork. Retrieved 2009-08-05.[permanent dead link] Math ... Circus Lupus 7-inch (1992, Dischord) Dischord Records bio, accessed 03 May 2009 "Part 3: 1992: "Disconnected"". 2013-09-10. ...
Lupus Ontario Lupus Foundation of Ontario Lupus Québec Lupus New Brunswick Lupus Society of Nova Scotia Lupus Newfoundland and ... B.C. Lupus Society Lupus Erythematosus Society of Saskatchewan (L.E.S.S.) Lupus Society of Manitoba Inc. ... Sasha Bernatsky's research around the risk of cancer in lupus. Continuing its outreach of lupus resources and maintaining lupus ... Lupus Canada is a national voluntary organization dedicated to improving the lives of people living with systemic lupus ...
... , the wolf blenny, is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western central Pacific Ocean, around ... Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2013). "Omox lupus" in FishBase. February 2013 version. v t e (Articles with short ... Williams, J.T. (2017) [amended version of 2014 assessment]. "Omox lupus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e. ...
... , the wolf fangbelly, is a species of combtooth blenny found in coral reefs in the western Pacific ocean. ... Williams, J.T. (2014). "Petroscirtes lupus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2014: e.T48342394A48348867. doi:10.2305/IUCN. ... Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2019). "Petroscirtes lupus" in FishBase. February 2019 version. Dianne J. Bray, 2011, ... Brown Sabretooth Blenny, Petroscirtes lupus, in Fishes of Australia, accessed 16 Oct 2014, http://www.fishesofaustralia.net.au/ ...
It may refer to: Cornelius Lupus, Roman statesman Lupus of Troyes (ca. 383 - ca. 478), French bishop and saint Lupus of Sens (d ... 623), French bishop and saint Lupus I of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony and Aquitaine from about 670 Lupus II of Gascony (died 778 ... third-attested historical duke of Gascony Lupus III Centule of Gascony (died c. 820), Duke of Gascony 818-819 Lupus Servatus (c ... Flemish theologist and historian Anthony Lupus character in DC Comics Cain Lupus character from manhwa Yours to Claim Giovanni ...
... may refer to: Lupus of Troyes (c. 383-c. 478), early bishop of Troyes Lupus of Sens (died 623), bishop of Sens ... slave of Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Saint Lupus. If an ...
... "lupus headache" from other headache types in people with lupus. Cuadrado MJ, Sanna G (2003). "Headache and systemic lupus ... Lupus headache is an important item in the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI), a scoring system often ... Lupus headache is a proposed, specific headache disorder in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Research shows ... Davey R, Bamford J, Emery P (August 2007). "The validity of the inclusion of "lupus headache" in the Systemic Lupus ...
Lupus is a constellation of the mid-Southern Sky. Its name is Latin for wolf. Lupus was one of the 48 constellations listed by ... ISBN 978-0-691-13556-4. Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lupus (category) The clickable Lupus Ian Ridpath's Star Tales ... Lupus Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Lupus) Portals: Astronomy Stars Spaceflight ... Lupus is bordered by six different constellations, although one of them (Hydra) merely touches at the corner. The other five ...
... (the bagre lobo or headwater catfish) is a species of catfish in the family Ictaluridae. It resembles the ... NatureServe (2019). "Ictalurus lupus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T10768A129995503. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019- ... "headwater catfish Ictalurus lupus". txstate.fishesoftexas.org. Retrieved 2021-06-08. "Headwater Catfish". Florida Museum. 2017- ... Kelsch, Steven W.; Hendricks, Fred S. (September 1990). "Distribution of the Headwater Catfish Ictalurus lupus (Osteichthyes: ...
... lupus erythematosus-lichen planus overlap syndrome lupus erythematosus panniculitis (lupus erythematosus profundus) tumid lupus ... 70% of lupus cases diagnosed are systemic lupus erythematosus. 20% of people with lupus will have a parent or sibling who ... drug-induced lupus erythematosus neonatal lupus erythematosus systemic lupus erythematosus There is still no cure for lupus but ... discoid lupus erythematosus generalized discoid lupus erythematosus localized discoid lupus erythematosus chilblain lupus ...
... was a Roman senator active during the Principate. The offices Lupus held included Proconsul of Creta et ... Despite being a friend of the emperor Claudius, Lupus was one of the victims of the notorious delator or informer Publius ... Suillius Rufus, whose prosecution destroyed Lupus. Paul Gallivan, "The Fasti for the Reign of Claudius", Classical Quarterly, ...
He concluded that Lupus had written or been a part of copying texts more than originally thought. Lupus had a rigid adherence ... Lupus Servatus, also Servatus Lupus (c. 805 - c. 862), in French Loup, was a Benedictine monk and Abbot of Ferrières Abbey ... Regenos, Graydon W. (1966). The Letters of Lupus Servatus. The Hague: Martinus Nijoff. Rodgers, R. H. (1987). "Servatus Lupus, ... Lupus was requested in 839 by Waldo, the Abbot of St. Maximin of Treves, to write the Life of St. Maximin Bishop of Trier (d. ...
... (23 July 1612 - 10 July 1681) was a Flemish theologian and historian. Lupus was born at Ypres (Flanders). He ... 1913). "Christian Lupus". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. (Articles incorporating a citation from the ... In 1640 Lupus was appointed professor of theology at the University of Leuven (French: Louvain), but, owing to his zeal for the ...
A post office called Lupus was established in 1884, and remained in operation until 1955. Lupus is a name derived from Latin ... Lupus is a city in Moniteau County, Missouri, United States. The population was 33 at the 2010 census. It is part of the ... U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Lupus, Missouri "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau ... University of Missouri published a book of photo essays on the history and the diminishing population of the city titled Lupus ...
Both words in the term "lupus anticoagulant" can be misleading: Most patients with a lupus anticoagulant do not actually have ... People with lupus erythematosus are more likely to develop a lupus anticoagulant than the general population. The term " ... confirming the diagnosis of a lupus anticoagulant. Lupus-sensitive aPTT, of which many variants exist, but have the common ... so a normalization of aPTT after adding it specifically indicates the presence lupus anticoagulants. Treatment for a lupus ...
Lupus may also refer to: Lupus, a character in The Roman Mysteries Lupus, a dog in the video game Jet Force Gemini "Lupus", in ... Lupus commonly refers to many lupus erythematosus autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus. See lupus ... for his ferocity Lupus (constellation) Lupus (journal), a journal in the field of rheumatology Lupus, Missouri, a US city Lupus ... Canis lupus, the wolf This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Lupus. If an internal link led you here ...
... is associated with poor outcomes and lower rates of resolution. Lupus pernio and erythema nodosum are cutaneous ... Lupus pernio is a chronic raised indurated (hardened) lesion of the skin, often purplish in color. It is seen on the nose, ears ... It is pathognomonic of sarcoidosis.: 701 The name "lupus pernio" is a misnomer, as microscopically this disease shows ... granulomatous infiltration and does not have features of either lupus nor pernio. ...
ISBN 0-393-09530-4 Free scores by Lupus Hellinck in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki) Free scores by Lupus Hellinck ... Lupus Hellinck (also Wulfaert) (1493 or 1494 - c. 14 January 1541) was a Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He was a ... By June 1518 Hellinck was probably in Ferrara, in the employ of Sigismondo d'Este (that this was the same "Lupus" has been ... Bonnie J. Blackburn: "Lupus Hellinck", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 15 September 2006), (subscription access) ...
... Review • metal.de". metal.de. Retrieved 7 October 2019. "Powerwolf: Lupus Dei (Review/Kritik) - Album-Rezension ( ... Matthew Greywolf talked about the story in Lupus Dei: Well, generally 'Lupus Dei' is focussed on parables taken out of the ... Lupus Dei (Latin for Wolf of God) is the second studio album by German power metal band Powerwolf. In addition to recording at ... The band also used a 30-piece choir on the songs "In Blood We Trust" and "Lupus Dei". In a May 2007 interview with Lords of ...
By 1860, Edward Lupus had married and lived at 16 West Baltimore Street with his wife, Sophia Lupus, their children, Rudolph ... 1870 is the first year Lupus is identified as an architect, both in the city directory and census. Lupus and Henry Albert Roby ... Edward Lupus died at his home in Sextonville, Baltimore County on February 13, 1877, at the age of 43 following a three-month ... Born in 1834 in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Edward Lupus arrived in Baltimore at age 19 on November 8, 1853, from Bremen. At the ...
... , changes in skin in hyperkeratotic forms Lupus vulgaris in a woman, late 19th century Lupus vulgaris in a man, c ... "Lupus", Oxford English Dictionary, online second edition. Accessed 2006 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Lupus vulgaris. ... "Introduced to England the Finsen light cure for Lupus, and presented the first lamp to this hospital". The term "lupus" ( ... though it was not until the mid-nineteenth that two specific skin diseases were classified as lupus erythematosus and lupus ...
Lupus is devoted exclusively to Lupus and related disease research. The journal includes new, clinical and laboratory-based ... Lupus is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the field of rheumatology. The journal's editor is Graham R ... Lupus is abstracted and indexed in, among other databases: Scopus, and the Social Sciences Citation Index. According to the ... studies from specialists in lupus-related disciplines such as rheumatology, dermatology and immunology. ...
... (c. 160 - after 205) (possibly Lucius Virius Lupus) was a Roman soldier and politician of the late 2nd and early ... Virius Lupus was the first member of the gens Virii to attain high office in the Roman Empire. His early career is unknown, but ... Lupus slowly restored the forts in the Pennines to Roman control although Hadrian's Wall was not rebuilt until c. 205. His ... It is assumed that Virius was the father of Lucius Virius Agricola, consul ordinarius in 230, and of Lucius Virius Lupus ...
Lupus also used the lost annals of Matera. Perhaps most unusual to Lupus is his dating method. He began his years in September ... Lupus, along with two other Bariot chronicles, the Annales barenses and the Anonymi Barensis Chronicon, used some lost ancient ... Lupus Protospatharius Barensis was the reputed author of the Chronicon rerum in regno Neapolitano gestarum (also called Annales ... ISBN 978-2-503-51255-6. (in Latin) Lupus Protospatarius Barensis, Rerum in Regno Neapolitano Gestarum Breve Chronicon ab Anno ...
... is a complication of systemic lupus erythematosus in which the autoimmune response causes the deposition of ... It may manifest in as high as 56% of lupus patients throughout their life, in contrast to antiphospholipid syndrome which has a ... Pyrpasopoulou, Athina; Chatzimichailidou, Sofia; Aslanidis, Spyros (2012). "Vascular Disease in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus". ...
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peter Lupus. Peter Lupus at IMDb Peter Lupus at the TCM Movie Database Peter Lupus at ... 1930 Marriage certificate of Peter Nash Lupus and Mary Irene Lambert. Lupus attended the Jordan College of Fine Arts at Butler ... Photographs of Lupus appeared in a number of issues. Before this, he was hired by the United States Air Force to appear in a ... Lupus' other television work included a guest spot as Tarzan on Jack Benny's television show, a boxer with a glass jaw on The ...
... is an inflammation of the kidneys caused by systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), an autoimmune disease. It is a ... "Lupus Nephritis". www.niddk.nih.gov. Retrieved 2015-10-31. "Lupus nephritis: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". www.nlm.nih.gov ... Lupus nephritis affects approximately 3 out of 10,000 people. The pathophysiology of lupus nephritis has autoimmunity ... 10-30% of people with lupus nephritis progress to kidney failure requiring dialysis, with the 5 year mortality rate of lupus ...
Lupus died in office not much later; P. J. Sijpesteijn argues that Julius Lupus died in Autumn 73. His successor Gaius Valerius ... Lupus reported this disturbance to the emperor Vespasian, who ordered Lupus to close the Jewish temple of Onias in Leontopolis ... It was this connection that likely enabled Lupus to be appointed to the governorship. While governor of Egypt, Lupus is ... Tiberius Julius Lupus (died AD 73) was a member of the equestrian class who was praefectus or governor of Roman Egypt from 71 ...
Lupus ruled the Duchy of Spoleto from 745 to 751. He was relatively independent of royal authority. He made many donations to ...
Lupus occurs when an unknown trigger causes a persons own immune system to attack their tissues, damaging the tissues and ...
Look up lupus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus at ... Copyright 2007 "Lupus and womens reproductive health , Lupus Foundation of America". Lupus Foundation of America. Retrieved 1 ... There are a number of other kinds of lupus erythematosus including discoid lupus erythematosus, neonatal lupus, and subacute ... The three main categories of lesions are chronic cutaneous (discoid) lupus, subacute cutaneous lupus, and acute cutaneous lupus ...
... and guidelines on lupus, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Recognize lupus symptoms and signs of lupus. Review articles on ... Systemic Lupus Erythematosus : Review in-depth clinical information, latest medical news, ...
Lupus nephritis, which is a kidney disorder, is a complication of systemic lupus erythematosus. ... Lupus nephritis, which is a kidney disorder, is a complication of systemic lupus erythematosus. ... Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE, or lupus) is an autoimmune disease. This means there is a problem with the bodys immune ... Lupus nephritis, which is a kidney disorder, is a complication of systemic lupus erythematosus. ...
CDC currently funds five longitudinal studies designed to follow people with lupus. Of the five current studies, three are from ... Georgians Organized Against Lupus (GOAL) Cohort: Addressing Health Disparities in Lupus through Social Determinants of Health. ... Improving Pediatric Lupus Care and Outcomes through the Childhood Arthritis and Rheumatology Research Alliance (CARRA) Lupus ... or discoid lupus (skin lupus). Of the five current studies, three are from the original registries (California, Georgia, and ...
Lupus may cause joint pain, fatigue and skin problems as well as affect internal organs. Arthritis Types ... Neonatal lupus. This type affects babies of women who have lupus. Skin symptoms usually go away within weeks to a few months ... Because lupus often strikes women during their childbearing years, hormones may play a role. Symptoms. Symptoms of lupus can ... Other types of lupus include: *Discoid lupus. This type causes a severe red rash that worsens in sunlight. ...
Information for patients with lupus: what it is, getting diagnosed, treatment options, and tips for living with the condition. ... There may be times when children and teens with lupus must take time off from school to allow their bodies to heal. Otherwise, ... Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic disease that causes systemic inflammation which affects multiple organs. SLE ... Hearing that your child has lupus can be frightening. However, by understanding the disease and working closely with the health ...
Neurologic manifestations are among the features of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a multisystem autoimmune connective ... See also Pediatric Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Neonatal and Pediatric Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and ... Bullous Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (BSLE), Acute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (ACLE), Subacute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus ... Improving the prognosis of SLE without prescribing lupus drugs and the primary care paradox. Lupus. 2008. 17(2):91-2. [QxMD ...
These questions and answers address key issues about lupus, an autoimmune disorder that can affect various parts of the body. ... What causes lupus?. We dont know what causes lupus. There is no cure, but in most cases lupus can be managed. Lupus sometimes ... Are there different types of lupus?. The different types of lupus include:. *Systemic lupus erythematosus (eh-RITH-eh-muh-TOE- ... Lupus can involve the joints, the skin, the kidneys, the lungs, the heart, and/or the brain. If you have lupus, it may affect ...
Lupus is known as an autoimmune disease in which a persons immune system mistakenly works against the bodys own tissues. ... Lupus. What Is Lupus?. Lupus is a chronic (long-lasting) disease that damages different organs, including the skin, joints, ... What Are the Types of Lupus?. There are three kinds of lupus:. *Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is the most common kind of ... What Causes Lupus?. People can develop lupus for one or more of these reasons:. *Some people may have a genetic tendency to get ...
In this article, see pictures of lupus symptoms and learn more about the different types of this condition. ... Lupus is an autoimmune disease that causes a wide variety of symptoms. ... Neonatal lupus can occur when a person has lupus during pregnancy, causing their baby to develop lupus-like symptoms. ... Lupus community. (n.d.).. https://www.lupusresearch.org/lupus-community/. *. Systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus). (2016).. ...
Lupus is known as an autoimmune disease in which a persons immune system mistakenly works against the bodys own tissues. ... Lupus. What Is Lupus?. Lupus is a chronic (long-lasting) disease that damages different organs, including the skin, joints, ... What Are the Types of Lupus?. There are three kinds of lupus:. *Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is the most common kind of ... What Causes Lupus?. People can develop lupus for one or more of these reasons:. *Some people may have a genetic tendency to get ...
Learn how to stay productive when you have lupus and what rights you have under the law. ... Lupus symptoms can get in the way of your workload. ... Lupus.org: "Understanding Lupus Environmental Triggers," "Can I ... Managing Your Workload With Lupus. Lupus symptoms like brain fog, fatigue, and pain can get in the way of your workload. To ... "Managing Stress When You Have Lupus," "Succeeding at Work Despite Pain and Fatigue," "Lupus and Brain Fog," "Strategies for ...
Read on to learn why a person with lupus may experience headaches. ... Lupus. (2020).. https://www.cdc.gov/lupus/index.htm. *. Lupus and the nervous system. (2021).. https://www.lupus.org/resources/ ... Lupus can affect. almost any organ in the body, and symptoms can vary greatly between people. Evidence notes that lupus can ... Lupus is a lifelong autoimmune condition that can affect almost any organ in the body. As a result, lupus can cause a broad ...
About the Lupus Research Alliance. The Lupus Research Alliance is the largest non-governmental, non-profit funder of lupus ... Lupus Research Alliance announces recipients of 2023 Diversity in Lupus Research Awards Grant and Award Announcement Lupus ... Lupus Research Alliance announces recipients of 2023 Diversity in Lupus Research Awards. Lupus Research Alliance ... Lupus Research Alliance Keywords. * /Life sciences/Immunology/Immune disorders/Autoimmune disorders/Lupus ...
What to know about oral sex and lupus. Learn tips for easier oral sex. ... Lupus Foundation of America: "Can I have a normal sex life with lupus?" "Is lupus contagious?" "What is lupus?". University of ... Is Lupus and Lupus Anticoagulant the Same?. Lupus is an autoimmune condition and lupus anticoagulant refers to antiphospholipid ... Lupus is not contagious, and you cannot give or get lupus from oral sex. Some people find that lupus makes sexual intercourse ...
Still, life with lupus has challenges. Liz never thought she could have a child, as lupus patients have high-risk pregnancies. ... I was outside all weekend - and the sun isnt good for lupus, she says. I only have so much energy, and I have to be careful ... Liz Attfields lupus nearly prevented her from having a child. Her daughter, Molly, she says, is a miracle. (Photo: The Globe ... As one of the 35,000 Canadians who have lupus - it usually strikes between the ages of 15 and 44 - Liz is well versed in pain ...
Lupus. What is lupus?. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE or lupus) is a disease that causes your bodys immune system to attack ... Living with lupus. Lupus can be a life-changing diagnosis. Lupus symptoms often come and go over time. It is important to know ... How is lupus treated?. There is no known cure for lupus, but treatment can help manage it. You may work with a rheumatologist. ... How is lupus diagnosed?. Lupus may be hard to diagnose because many of the symptoms could be from other causes. The symptoms ...
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Its really, really not lupus.. October 26, 2010 8:27 AM Subscribe. Nobuhiko Obayashis House (also called Hausu) has been a ...
Patients presenting with cutaneous lupus do not nec … ... Skin lesions caused by systemic lupus erythematosus are among ... Cutaneous lupus erythematosus, a multidimensional entity] Rev Med Inst Mex Seguro Soc. 2015 Nov-Dec;53(6):764-72. ... Las lesiones en la piel producidas por el lupus eritematoso sistémico constituyen una de las manifestaciones más frecuentes de ... Skin lesions caused by systemic lupus erythematosus are among the most frequent manifestations of this disease. These lesions ...
Human Genome Sciences trial data wow lupus community. *Mark Ratner1 Nature Biotechnology volume 27, pages 779-780 (2009)Cite ... Lupus is notoriously difficult to treat and there has not been a new drug approved for the disease in over 40 years. The upshot ... The news from Rockville, Maryland-based HGS is a shot in the arm for the lupus physician and patient communities, which have ... The lessons learned with Benlysta also bode well for others developing lupus therapies, as the biotech seems to have finally ...
Treatments and Tools for lupus. Find lupus information, treatments for lupus and lupus symptoms. ... lupus - MedHelps lupus Center for Information, Symptoms, Resources, ... Is it possible that my levothyroxine is causing drug induced lupus. I went to the er in sep... ... Did Interferon Cause me to have Lupus? - Hepatitis C: Post Treatment Issues Community ...
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease associated with hormonal, environmental, and genetic factors ... Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a complex autoimmune disease associated with hormonal, environmental, and genetic factors ... Advances in mechanisms of systemic lupus erythematosus Discov Med. 2014 May;17(95):247-55. ...
Learn more about how stress affects people with lupus and how stress management techniques can help. ... If you have lupus, stress can trigger a symptom flare. ... Lupus erythematosus panniculitis (LEP) is a type of lupus that ... Lupus is an autoimmune condition that can affect nearly any part of the body. Find out more about what a lupus flare feels like ... Lupus and the Weather: Whats the Best Climate?. The weather may affect lupus symptoms. So, does research suggest that some ...
Because lupus affects many organ systems, our lupus care is provided by a range of specialists with expertise in lupus ... The Lupus Center of Excellence at BIDMC in Boston provides comprehensive, state of the art, prompt care to patients with lupus ... The Lupus Center of Excellence. The Lupus Center of Excellence at the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center is committed to ... Because lupus affects so many organ systems and our patients need attention from physicians who specialize in other fields of ...
Neonatal lupus. Neonatal lupus is not true lupus. It is a rare condition associated with anti-SSA/Ro and/or anti-SSB/La ... The Lupus Foundation of America works to improve the quality of life for all people affected by lupus through programs of ... Drug-Induced Lupus (DIL). Lupus triggered by certain types of blood pressure medications, anti-seizure medications and ... Benlysta was also approved by the FDA to treat lupus in children and teens (5 to 17) in 2019 and for treatment of lupus ...
Lupus Resources for Nurses and Patients Created especially for young women of color, the "Could I Have Lupus?" national lupus ... "We discussed what lupus is, how its treated and what lupus patients can do to have a better life. It was highly successful," ... The Lupus Foundation of America, www.lupus.org, through its network of local chapters throughout the country, provides a wealth ... To learn more, visit www.lupus.org/news.. The NLPR is the first comprehensive population-based epidemiology study in lupus, ...
These results suggest that the gut bacteria may contribute to lupus, a disease which is nine times as prevalent in women as in ... They also monitored the gut microbiota over time in both lupus and control mice, and found that in the former, Clostridia ... In the study, the investigators first showed that mouse models of lupus had higher levels of Lachnospiraceae (a type of ... In further experiments, the investigators treated the symptoms in the lupus mice with either retinoic acid alone or vitamin A ...
Now the social work grad uses that strength to battle lupus and raise awareness for Lupus, the ... But Maganes battle with lupus extends beyond herself. Last year, she became an ambassador for the Lupus Foundation of America ... Now the social work grad uses that strength to battle lupus and raise awareness for the "invisible illness." Just Say Om ... Now the social work grad uses that strength to battle lupus and raise awareness for the "invisible illness." College Classes ...
  • Lupus, technically known as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), is an autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy tissue in many parts of the body. (wikipedia.org)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE, or lupus) is an autoimmune disease . (medlineplus.gov)
  • Lupus is an autoimmune disease . (webmd.com)
  • Lupus is an autoimmune disease that affects about 5 million people around the world . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Lupus is a long-term autoimmune disease that happens when your immune system attacks your skin, joints, and internal organs like your heart or kidneys. (medicinenet.com)
  • New data from two registries, part of the National Lupus Patient Registry (NLPR), also reveal that black females disproportionately are burdened by lupus, a devastating and complicated autoimmune disease. (minoritynurse.com)
  • Like type 1 diabetes, lupus is an autoimmune disease that is even more prevalent [than type 1 diabetes] in women. (scienceblog.com)
  • A homogenous pattern can mean any autoimmune disease but more specifically, lupus or Sjögren's syndrome. (healingwell.com)
  • The Lupus Center at UC San Diego Health brings together world-class physicians and researchers, as well as pharmaceutical and biotechnology partners, to deliver exceptional care and develop new treatments for this chronic autoimmune disease. (ucsd.edu)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease, which means your body's immune system attacks your own cells and tissues. (ucsd.edu)
  • Lupus is a chronic autoimmune disease that causes damage to bodily tissues resulting in inflammation of the skin, organs, and/or joints--and is a disease that primarily affects women. (thirdage.com)
  • Lupus is classified in the medical community as an autoimmune disease. (disabled-world.com)
  • In the ever-perilous autoimmune disease world of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE or lupus), up to 60% of adult patients and 80% of children will develop lupus nephritis (LN), and up to half of those will move on to end-stage renal disease. (news-medical.net)
  • Lupus is an autoimmune disease that occurs when your body's immune system attacks your own tissues and organs, causing widespread inflammation. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • For those of you who do not know about lupus, it is an autoimmune disease that causes my white blood cells to attack basically any part of me. (gofundme.com)
  • Lupus is a chronic autoimmune disease where the body's immune system makes antibodies that attack healthy cells and tissues. (sharecare.com)
  • An autoimmune disease like lupus prevents antibodies from working properly. (davita.com)
  • However, according to the Lupus Foundation of America , a headache itself is a controversial symptom of lupus. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • According to the Lupus Foundation of America , emotional stress can trigger lupus flares. (healthline.com)
  • The Lupus Foundation of America recommends scheduling breaks, such as 20 minutes during the workday or one full day on the weekend. (healthline.com)
  • Last year, she became an ambassador for the Lupus Foundation of America. (ucf.edu)
  • ultimately all these factors play a role in determining if you develop lupus or not, according to the Lupus Foundation of America . (everydayhealth.com)
  • There are a number of other kinds of lupus erythematosus including discoid lupus erythematosus, neonatal lupus, and subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus. (wikipedia.org)
  • Lupus nephritis, which is a kidney disorder, is a complication of systemic lupus erythematosus . (medlineplus.gov)
  • CDC previously funded five population-based registries to study US populations diagnosed with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) or discoid lupus (skin lupus). (cdc.gov)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic disease that causes systemic inflammation which affects multiple organs. (rheumatology.org)
  • Neurologic manifestations are among the features of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), a multisystem autoimmune connective tissue disorder with various clinical presentations. (medscape.com)
  • This axial, T2-weighted brain magnetic resonance image (MRI) demonstrates an area of ischemia in the right periventricular white matter of a 41-year-old woman with longstanding systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). (medscape.com)
  • See also Pediatric Systemic Lupus Erythematosus , Neonatal and Pediatric Lupus Erythematosus , Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Pregnancy , Discoid Lupus Erythematosus , Bullous Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (BSLE) , Acute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (ACLE) , Subacute Cutaneous Lupus Erythematosus (SCLE) , and Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation for Systemic Lupus Erythematosus . (medscape.com)
  • Among the neurologic manifestations of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the most common are the organic encephalopathies. (medscape.com)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (eh-RITH-eh-muh-TOE-sus) is the most common form. (webmd.com)
  • Discoid lupus erythematosus mainly affects the skin . (webmd.com)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is the most common kind of lupus. (kidshealth.org)
  • Dr. Ogbu will identify potential biomarkers that could distinguish children with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and strokes from other pediatric cases of strokes to determine early indicators of increased risk. (eurekalert.org)
  • There are different forms of lupus, but the most common type is called systemic lupus erythematosus , or SLE . (medicinenet.com)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE or lupus) is a disease that causes your body's immune system to attack its own cells and tissues. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Skin lesions caused by systemic lupus erythematosus are among the most frequent manifestations of this disease. (nih.gov)
  • This paper addresses the different varieties of specific injuries attributed to lupus erythematosus, correlation with systemic activity, quality of life, and the treatments available. (nih.gov)
  • From Multiple Sclerosis Foundation) Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), is a chronic. (medhelp.org)
  • A treatment for systemic lupus erythematosus which works by inhibiting a key protein in the immune system called the IFNAR receptor. (lupus.org)
  • SAN DIEGO -- Children born to mothers with systemic lupus erythematosus have twice the risk for autism spectrum disorders (ASD) as those whose mothers are unaffected, a Canadian researcher reported here. (medpagetoday.com)
  • To examine the possibility of a link between maternal lupus and ASD, Vinet and colleagues analyzed data from the Offspring of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus mothers Registry (OSLER). (medpagetoday.com)
  • Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) is a nonscarring, non-atrophy-producing, photosensitive dermatosis. (medscape.com)
  • other subtypes include acute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (ACLE) and chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus. (medscape.com)
  • Chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus includes discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE), lupus erythematous panniculitis/profundus, lupus tumidus, and chilblain lupus. (medscape.com)
  • SCLE may occur in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjögren syndrome , deficiency of the second component of complement (C2d), or it may be drug-induced. (medscape.com)
  • Early lesions of subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus may simulate polymorphous light eruption. (medscape.com)
  • Subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE) occurs in genetically predisposed individuals, most often in patients with human leukocyte antigen B8 (HLA-B8), human leukocyte antigen DR3 (HLA-DR3), human leukocyte antigen DRw52 (HLA-DRw52), and human leukocyte antigen DQ1 (HLA-DQ1). (medscape.com)
  • One study demonstrated that patients with SCLE, as well as those with discoid lupus erythematosus, but not those with lupus tumidus, have elevated levels of type I interferon-regulated genes in their blood. (medscape.com)
  • Then comes the devastating diagnosis: systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), otherwise known as lupus. (healthwellfoundation.org)
  • Because systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) affects women of reproductive age, pregnancy is a major concern. (nih.gov)
  • 31% with prior nephritis) with SLE in the PROMISSE (Predictors of Pregnancy Outcome: Biomarkers in Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus) study. (nih.gov)
  • Disease activity was assessed with the Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Pregnancy Disease Activity Index and the Physician's Global Assessment (PGA). (nih.gov)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is characterized by the production of a wide array of autoantibodies. (hindawi.com)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by the production of plethora of autoantibodies which potentially drive immune-complex related inflammation in various tissues and organs [ 1 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Lupus erythematosus, or as it is more commonly referred to, lupus, is a devastating disease that affects nearly 1.5 million Americans and five million people worldwide. (disabled-world.com)
  • While there are four different types of lupus, the most commonly diagnosed form of lupus is systemic lupus erythematosus. (disabled-world.com)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a disease in which the body's immune system attacks the body. (cochrane.org)
  • Neuropsychiatric involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is complex and it is an important cause of morbidity and mortality. (cochrane.org)
  • We report a fatal case of encephalitis caused by Acanthamoeba in a 24-year-old woman from India with systemic lupus erythematosus. (cdc.gov)
  • We report a fatal case of Acanthamoeba encephalitis in a patient from India who was being treated for systemic lupus erythematosus with corticosteroids and methotrexate. (cdc.gov)
  • The patient was a 24-year-old woman with a 2-year history of systemic lupus erythematosus, a history of central nervous system (CNS) involvement in the recent past, and autoimmune hemolytic anemia. (cdc.gov)
  • Objectives Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is associated with elevated levels of S100A8/A9, pro-inflammatory proteins mainly secreted by activated polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs). (lu.se)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus is a chronic, multisystem, inflammatory disorder of autoimmune etiology, occurring predominantly in young women. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is more common and severe among Black and Asian patients than among White patients. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Early lesions in discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE) may be difficult to distinguish from those of subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus (SCLE). (medscape.com)
  • Several unusual variants of chronic cutaneous lupus erythematosus (CCLE), other than DLE, have been reported, and mucosal surfaces may be affected by lesions that appear identical to DLE of the skin or by lesions that may simulate lichen planus. (medscape.com)
  • Discoid lupus erythematosus as part of a larger disease spectrum. (medscape.com)
  • Correlation of clinical features with laboratory findings in lupus erythematosus. (medscape.com)
  • Grönhagen CM, Fored CM, Granath F, Nyberg F. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus and the association with systemic lupus erythematosus: a population-based cohort of 1088 patients in Sweden. (medscape.com)
  • The 1982 revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus. (medscape.com)
  • Lehmann P, Hölzle E, Kind P, Goerz G, Plewig G. Experimental reproduction of skin lesions in lupus erythematosus by UVA and UVB radiation. (medscape.com)
  • Incidence of cutaneous lupus erythematosus, 1965-2005: a population-based study. (medscape.com)
  • Squamous cell carcinoma complicating discoid lupus erythematosus in Chinese patients: review of the literature, 1964-2010. (medscape.com)
  • Parish LC, Kennedy RJ, Hurley J. Palmar lesions in lupus erythematosus. (medscape.com)
  • Clinical, serologic and immunogenetic studies in patients with chronic cutaneous (discoid) lupus erythematosus who have verrucous and/or hypertrophic skin lesions. (medscape.com)
  • The protective effect of antimalarial drugs on thrombovascular events in systemic lupus erythematosus. (medscape.com)
  • Petri M. Use of hydroxychloroquine to prevent thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus and in antiphospholipid antibody-positive patients. (medscape.com)
  • Cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a personal approach to management. (medscape.com)
  • Hydroxychloroquine sulfate treatment is associated with later onset of systemic lupus erythematosus. (medscape.com)
  • Clinical and pharmacogenetic influences on response to hydroxychloroquine in discoid lupus erythematosus: a retrospective cohort study. (medscape.com)
  • Treatment of the cutaneous lesions of systemic lupus erythematosus with thalidomide. (medscape.com)
  • Long-term thalidomide use in refractory cutaneous lesions of lupus erythematosus: a 65 series of Brazilian patients. (medscape.com)
  • Lenalidomide for the treatment of resistant discoid lupus erythematosus. (medscape.com)
  • The study aimed to listen to the SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus) patients attending ambulatory care facilities about their knowledge of the disease, its day-to-day impact on familial relationships after the diagnosis. (bvsalud.org)
  • Introduction: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE ) is a chronic inflammatory disease of unknown cause and autoimmune nature. (bvsalud.org)
  • Lupus erythematosus (LE) cell testing was once performed to diagnose systemic lupus erythematous but has been replaced for this purpose by antinuclear antibody testing. (medscape.com)
  • Negative findings on LE cell testing exclude a diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). (medscape.com)
  • A lupus erythematosus (LE) cell test is considered positive when approximately 2%-30% of the cells seen on the slide in the neutrophil count are LE cells. (medscape.com)
  • The lupus erythematosus (LE) cell was first described by Hargraves, Richmond, and Morton in I948. (medscape.com)
  • Ogryzlo, M.A., The L.E. (lupus erythematosus) cell reaction. (medscape.com)
  • Occupational exposures and risk of systemic lupus erythematosus: a review of the evidence and exposure assessment methods in population- and clinic-based studies. (cdc.gov)
  • Epidemiologic and experimental research suggests a potential role of occupational exposures in the development of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). (cdc.gov)
  • The most common form of lupus is systemic lupus erythamatosus (SLE), an autoimmune, inflammatory condition in which the immune system malfunctions and attacks the body's own healthy tissues. (arthritis.org)
  • Some people with systemic lupus can work for years with few issues. (webmd.com)
  • Typically, four or more of the following eleven criteria must be present to make a diagnosis of Systemic Lupus. (healingwell.com)
  • It's not likely that depression or stress could independently cause systemic lupus, says Sarah Patterson, MD , a rheumatologist at the University of California in San Francisco. (everydayhealth.com)
  • Overview of Systemic Lupus. (msdmanuals.com)
  • While this test alone does not diagnose lupus, it can help confirm a diagnosis. (arthritis.org)
  • A high ESR or CRP combined with other signs of lupus can help make a diagnosis. (arthritis.org)
  • Diagnosis by a lupus specialist is important. (ucsd.edu)
  • Physicians are considered experts in their field of practice, and their diagnosis, treatment and prognosis concerning a person's condition are key to determining if someone who suffers with lupus qualifies for Social Security Disability benefits. (disabled-world.com)
  • My lupus diagnosis was a shock. (everydayhealth.com)
  • Whereas Mohan is known internationally for his work on lupus nephritis, Nguyen already leads several projects to fully realize the benefits of AI in improving medical diagnosis. (news-medical.net)
  • There is no single test for lupus, and diagnosis typically starts with ruling out other conditions. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • A negative antinuclear antibody test can rule out lupus, and a positive result can provide clues to the diagnosis. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • The American College of Rheumatology has developed a guide of symptoms that can help determine a lupus diagnosis. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Borderline lupus probably refers to the diagnosis being made at an early stage of the disease. (sharecare.com)
  • His father received a diagnosis of prostate cancer in his 80s, and his sister recently received a diagnosis of lupus . (medscape.com)
  • The three main categories of lesions are chronic cutaneous (discoid) lupus, subacute cutaneous lupus, and acute cutaneous lupus. (wikipedia.org)
  • Similarly, subacute cutaneous lupus manifests as red, scaly patches of skin but with distinct edges. (wikipedia.org)
  • Acute cutaneous lupus manifests as a rash. (wikipedia.org)
  • Cutaneous (or skin) lupus usually affects only the skin with rashes on the scalp, legs, or arms. (kidshealth.org)
  • Furthermore, the levels were correlated with the patients' cutaneous disease activity severity levels as measured by the Cutaneous Lupus Area and Severity Index (CLASI). (medscape.com)
  • Discoid (cutaneous) lupus primarily affects the skin, but may also involve the hair and mucous membranes. (davita.com)
  • This type affects babies of women who have lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • Some people with lupus experience Raynaud's phenomenon , which affects the blood vessels in the fingers, toes, hands, or feet. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Fatigue is one of the most common symptoms that affects people with lupus. (webmd.com)
  • Since lupus affects so many parts of the body, in so many different ways, everyone's situation is different. (webmd.com)
  • Headaches can occur in individuals with lupus as the condition affects almost any organ in the body, including the brain. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Lupus also affects more African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanics, and American Indians than whites. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Because lupus affects so many organ systems and our patients need attention from physicians who specialize in other fields of medicine, we have recruited the expert help of neurologists, dermatologists, nephrologists, cardiologists, gastroenterologists, gynecologists/obstetricians and nephropathologists who will stand by to help as needed. (bidmc.org)
  • Lupus affects each person differently but the inflammation from SLE can damage the skin, joints, blood cells, kidneys, heart, lungs and brain. (ucsd.edu)
  • Women are nine times more likely to develop lupus than men. (ucsd.edu)
  • however, only about 4 percent of the people who take these drugs will develop lupus. (davita.com)
  • Drug-induced lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • Drug-induced lupus is triggered by a certain drugs. (webmd.com)
  • More men develop drug-induced lupus because the drugs that cause it, hydralazine and procainamide , are used to treat heart conditions that are more common in men. (webmd.com)
  • Drug-induced lupus happens as a reaction to some medicines. (kidshealth.org)
  • Thyroid meds causing drug induced lupus? (medhelp.org)
  • Is it possible that my levothyroxine is causing drug induced lupus. (medhelp.org)
  • Anti-Histone antibodies are often elevated due to another drug, ie, when the person has drug-induced lupus. (healingwell.com)
  • Drug-induced lupus is triggered by certain prescribed medications, but usually goes away when the medicine is stopped. (davita.com)
  • Two drugs most commonly connected with drug-induced lupus are hydralazine (used to treat high blood pressure or hypertension) and procainamide (used to treat irregular heart rhythms). (davita.com)
  • Lupus is a chronic disease, but treatments can help with symptoms and lower the risk of flares. (kidshealth.org)
  • The symptoms of lupus may appear or get worse during flares. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Many types of stress can trigger lupus flares in people living with lupus. (healthline.com)
  • Lupus flares often follow stressful life events, like a divorce or the death of a loved one. (healthline.com)
  • But sometimes lupus flares go unnoticed, which is why it's important for you to see your doctor regularly for blood tests. (healthline.com)
  • Preventing flares is one of the main goals of lupus treatment . (healthline.com)
  • If you have lupus, managing long-term stress can be an important part of preventing flares. (healthline.com)
  • Nonetheless, Luo suggests that people with lupus should eat Lactobacillus -containing probiotics, such as live culture yogurts, to reduce lupus flares. (scienceblog.com)
  • Lupus symptoms typically come and go in periods of flares and remissions. (thirdage.com)
  • Dr. Patterson and others at UCSF are currently looking closely at whether chronic stress, as well as big stressful events, are really exacerbating lupus flares (times of intense pain and fatigue). (everydayhealth.com)
  • Studies found that taking antimalarial medicine can stop lupus flares and may help people with lupus live longer. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • American College of Rheumatology guidelines for screening, case definition, treatment and management of lupus nephritis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Call the division of Rheumatology (617) 632-8658, option 1, to make an appointment in the Lupus Center. (bidmc.org)
  • The board-certified physicians at Norton Rheumatology Specialists treat lupus patients in the Louisville area and Southern Indiana. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Diagnosing lupus requires sophisticated rheumatology trainings. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • People with discoid lupus may exhibit thick, red scaly patches on the skin. (wikipedia.org)
  • Discoid lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • Discoid lupus rashes often leave scars or light-colored patches of skin after it heals. (webmd.com)
  • Discoid lupus lesions , which are thick and disk-shaped. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Discoid lupus sores on the scalp or other areas can cause hair to fall out temporarily. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The sun can also trigger the development of skin lesions, such as a butterfly rash or discoid lupus. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Inflammation of the kidney, which occurs in up to 60% of adults with lupus (and two-thirds of children). (arthritis.org)
  • Severe lupus can cause temporary hair loss if there is inflammation of the skin. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Although lupus is not a type of arthritis , the inflammation that it causes can result in symptoms of arthritis. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Aside from maintaining her full-time job as a social worker, she lives with lupus, a chronic auto-immune disease that causes inflammation, pain and damage in different areas of the body. (ucf.edu)
  • Recently, a number of phenotypic and functional alterations which increase the propensity to trigger lupus-related inflammation have been identified in lupus T cells. (hindawi.com)
  • Lupus is a chronic autoimmune condition that can cause inflammation and damage to any part of the body. (sharecare.com)
  • Drugs such as corticosteroids (prednisone or methylprednisolone) are usually used for lupus to decrease inflammation and control the immune system. (cochrane.org)
  • Lupus may cause joint pain, fatigue and skin problems as well as affect internal organs. (arthritis.org)
  • Treatment for lupus depends on the organs involved. (kidshealth.org)
  • Severe lupus can cause harm to organs and other serious problems. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Lupus is a chronic inflammatory disease, which occurs when your body's immune system attacks your own organs and tissues. (sharecare.com)
  • Severe lupus may affect multiple organs including the kidneys , which are the most commonly involved. (davita.com)
  • Rashes and Lupus Rashes are a common symptom of lupus, especially a butterfly-shaped rash on the cheeks of the face (malar rash) and rashes caused by sunlight. (ucsd.edu)
  • Lupus is Latin for "wolf": the disease was so-named in the 13th century as the rash was thought to appear like a wolf's bite. (wikipedia.org)
  • For lupus, the sample is taken from a rash or from the kidney when symptoms are active. (arthritis.org)
  • Many people with lupus experience a red or purplish rash that extends from the bridge of the nose over to the cheeks in a shape that resembles that of a butterfly. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Other conditions can cause a malar rash, however, so this symptom alone is not enough to indicate lupus. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • We suspected she might have Lupus since she has a butterfly rash on face, is very sensitive to the sun and is fatigued. (healingwell.com)
  • The most distinctive sign of lupus - a facial rash that resembles the wings of a butterfly unfolding across both cheeks - occurs in many but not all cases of lupus. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • To look for signs of lupus, biopsies may be done of the skin and kidneys. (ucsd.edu)
  • The kidneys are especially vulnerable for people with lupus. (davita.com)
  • Lupus may be hard to diagnose. (webmd.com)
  • Doctors diagnose lupus by asking about symptoms and doing an exam. (kidshealth.org)
  • New and better tools to diagnose and treat lupus have improved the lives of those living with the disease. (kidshealth.org)
  • Lupus can be challenging to diagnose because its signs and symptoms may resemble those of other health conditions. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Lupus may be hard to diagnose because many of the symptoms could be from other causes. (uhhospitals.org)
  • To diagnose lupus, your healthcare provider will ask about your health history and your symptoms. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Lupus is hard to diagnose. (ucsd.edu)
  • Lupus is called the 'great imitator' which is why it is difficult to diagnose. (writing.com)
  • Lupus can be difficult to diagnose because its signs and symptoms often look like those of other disorders. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Borderline lupus, which can also be known as unspecified connective tissue disease, or probable lupus, or latent lupus, would define a patient who may have a positive ANA without a DNA or Smith antibody (blood tests used to diagnose lupus), who has arthralgias rather than arthritis, a brain fog or memory loss, and no biopsy proof of an organ showing immunofluorescent staining consistent with lupus. (sharecare.com)
  • There is no cure for lupus, but there are a number of treatments to help control the disease. (arthritis.org)
  • To date, there is no cure for lupus, but a doctor can help a person control and manage their symptoms. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • There's no cure for lupus, but the right treatment can reduce flare-ups, address symptoms, and prevent complications. (webmd.com)
  • While there is no cure for lupus, our care team offers state-of-the-art approaches to suppress the disease, prevent flare-ups and reduce damage to the body. (ucsd.edu)
  • Remember that each person with lupus has different symptoms. (webmd.com)
  • In a person with lupus, the immune system mistakes healthy body tissues for harmful substances. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A person with lupus may notice some of the following symptoms. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A person with lupus may have photosensitivity, which is a sensitivity to ultraviolet (UV) light. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • It is very important to contact a doctor as soon as possible if a person with lupus develops a persistent headache. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Antiphospholipid antibodies, including cardiolipin, are common in lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • Positive antinuclear antibodies (ANA) are present in nearly all lupus patients. (rheumatology.org)
  • The main test for lupus is the antinuclear antibodies (ANA) test. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Further research is needed on the role of lupus-related antibodies such as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies, and more experience will be needed about medication exposures," Vinet concluded. (medpagetoday.com)
  • Certain antinuclear antibodies are often in the blood of lupus patients. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • These cells, which create antibodies, often are found in lupus patients. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • With lupus, the antibodies aren't able to tell the difference between harmful foreign substances and the body's own healthy cells and tissue. (davita.com)
  • A Mail Carrier With Gross Hematuria Whose Sister Has Lupus - Medscape - Oct 12, 2021. (medscape.com)
  • Physical stress, like an injury, creates an immune system response which can trigger a lupus flare. (healthline.com)
  • Those who suffer with lupus have an immune system that attacks healthy tissue as opposed to foreign substances that may be harmful to the body. (disabled-world.com)
  • We know that lupus is caused by a biological problem - the body's loss of tolerance to cells in the adaptive immune system. (everydayhealth.com)
  • A plausible association has been identified in studies of occupational silica exposure and SLE, complemented by experimental studies in lupus-prone mice exploring potential mechanisms related to apoptosis and immune dysregulation. (cdc.gov)
  • Experimental studies of the solvent trichloroethylene in lupus-prone mice provide evidence of effects on immune function, including increased production of autoantibodies and activation of CD4+ T cells. (cdc.gov)
  • Rates of depression and anxiety are twice as high in people with lupus compared with those who don't have the condition, according to a review of 59 studies involving 10,828 people with lupus, published in the journal BMC Psychiatry in 2017 . (everydayhealth.com)
  • Lupus;26(6): 580-587, 2017 May. (bvsalud.org)
  • Unlike rheumatoid arthritis, lupus arthritis is less disabling and usually does not cause severe destruction of the joints. (wikipedia.org)
  • Lupus usually occurs in women of reproductive age (between the ages of about 15 to 45) and often is more severe in Black, Asian, Hispanic and Native American people. (ucsd.edu)
  • Immunosuppressive agents and chemotherapy can help in severe cases of lupus, but can also lower the body's ability to fight infections. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • As many as 70% of people with lupus have some skin symptoms. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fewer than ten percent of people with lupus arthritis will develop deformities of the hands and feet. (wikipedia.org)
  • People with active lupus should not have a transplant because the condition can occur in the transplanted kidney. (medlineplus.gov)
  • CDC currently funds five longitudinal studies designed to follow people with lupus. (cdc.gov)
  • People of all ages, races and sexes can get lupus, but 9 out of 10 adults with the disease are women between the ages of 15 and 45. (arthritis.org)
  • This test looks for a group of proteins (called autoantibodies) found in the blood of people with lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • People with lupus often have low levels of these proteins, which can indicate active lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • Many people with lupus take NSAIDs to manage joint pain and swelling. (arthritis.org)
  • Hydroxychloriquine commonly is prescribed for people with lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • It suppresses autoantibodies in people with lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • Most people with lupus are women in their late teens to forties. (kidshealth.org)
  • Some people may have a genetic tendency to get lupus. (kidshealth.org)
  • As such, many people living with lupus may experience frequent headaches . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This article discusses why headaches may occur with lupus and how people can try to manage them. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Lupus can affect almost any organ in the body, and symptoms can vary greatly between people. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • People living with lupus may experience various types of headaches for different reasons. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Additionally, using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can cause aseptic meningitis, and people with lupus are at a higher risk of this side effect from NSAIDs. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Some people may experience headaches during a flare of their lupus. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Lupus is a chronic autoimmune condition that can cause a broad range of symptoms, affecting people in different ways. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Lupus is a debilitating autoimmune disorder, and the prevalence, severity of symptoms, and mortality are higher among people of color. (eurekalert.org)
  • Some people find that lupus makes sexual intercourse painful or difficult and prefer to have other kinds of intimate experiences like oral sex. (medicinenet.com)
  • Most people with lupus will have a positive ANA test result. (uhhospitals.org)
  • People with lupus - an autoimmune condition - are sensitive to both physical and emotional stress. (healthline.com)
  • It's not clear how many people are affected by lupus, but the LFA estimates between 300,000 and 1.5 million people in the United States have it. (ucf.edu)
  • Ensure lupus research, advocacy, and support for people with lupus continue each and every day. (lupus.org)
  • Rheumatologist Daniel J. Wallace, M.D., who has treated more than 2,000 people with lupus, holds what he calls a counseling session with each patient he diagnoses with the disease. (healthwellfoundation.org)
  • People with lupus are at higher risk of depression and anxiety because of all the stressors a chronic condition can bring on. (everydayhealth.com)
  • These feelings are unfortunately common in people with lupus . (everydayhealth.com)
  • She's on the boards of several lupus organizations and works with people facing mental health challenges due to lupus and other chronic health conditions. (everydayhealth.com)
  • I've met amazing people living remarkable lives with lupus," Blied says. (everydayhealth.com)
  • Here's what else experts say people with lupus should know about how the chronic condition, stress, and depression are linked. (everydayhealth.com)
  • There's even some evidence from a small study (only 45 people were included) that people with lupus who underwent 10 cognitive behavioral therapy sessions reported less stress, depression, anxiety, and pain afterward, as well as fewer skin and musculoskeletal lupus symptoms. (everydayhealth.com)
  • The results could help people with lupus better manage their health. (everydayhealth.com)
  • People with lupus face a higher depression risk for many reasons, Patterson says. (everydayhealth.com)
  • Some people have a genetic tendency toward developing lupus. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Lupus is more common in women and people between the ages of 15 and 45. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Around 90 percent of the people who get lupus are women, particularly African Americans, Latinos, Asians and Native Americans. (davita.com)
  • Additionally, people with lupus are advised to avoid smoking and drinking alcohol and asked to get regular medical checkups. (davita.com)
  • Researchers in The Cochrane Collaboration conducted a review of the effect of cyclophosphamide for people with central nervous system lupus compared to the usual treatment of methylprednisolone. (cochrane.org)
  • What happens to people with central nervous system lupus who take cyclophosphamide compared to methylprednisolone? (cochrane.org)
  • Although lupus nephritis may return in a transplanted kidney, it rarely leads to end-stage kidney disease. (medlineplus.gov)
  • An extensive review of records from hospitals, specialists' offices, and clinical laboratories in Georgia and Michigan showed blacks had an increased proportion of lupus-related renal (kidney) disease and progression to end-stage renal disease than whites, and that black females developed lupus at a younger age than white females. (minoritynurse.com)
  • Kidney Disease and Lupus Kidney disease is a common complication of lupus. (ucsd.edu)
  • We offer a specialized clinic for patients with kidney disease related to lupus. (ucsd.edu)
  • Lupus nephritis is a term for kidney disease that occurs in SLE patients. (davita.com)
  • It's important to be aware that not all kidney problems in lupus patients are caused by lupus nephritis. (davita.com)
  • Similarly, medications used for treating lupus may produce signs of kidney disease that could be confused with lupus nephritis. (davita.com)
  • For example, salicylate compounds, like aspirin, or non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, like ibuprofen, are commonly used by lupus patients and can cause loss of kidney function or fluid retention. (davita.com)
  • Despite appropriate treatment, some patients with lupus nephritis will develop kidney disease that could lead to renal failure. (davita.com)
  • Methods Lupus nephritis patients scheduled for a kidney biopsy were included in our study. (bvsalud.org)
  • Hair loss that can be caused by lupus itself or medications used to treat it. (arthritis.org)
  • Some medications that treat lupus can cause hair loss. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Over-the-counter (OTC) and prescription medications can help with both preventing and managing headaches, whether they occur due to lupus or other reasons. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Lupus medications can also lower your sex drive. (medicinenet.com)
  • Infection, injury, certain medications, and stopping lupus medications are other kinds of physical stress that may lead to a flare. (healthline.com)
  • Some of the medications used to treat lupus include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antimalarial drugs, and corticosteroids. (disabled-world.com)
  • However, keep in mind that the lupus symptoms which meet the criteria for receipt of benefits may develop as a result of the disease process and/or the medications prescribed and used to treat the disease. (disabled-world.com)
  • Through studying a large, multiethnic cohort of patients with lupus nephritis and leveraging data from multiple clinical trials, he aims to optimize the benefits of glucocorticoid therapy while reducing infections, mortality, and other conditions that can develop with glucocorticoid use. (eurekalert.org)
  • Lupus is a disease that can affect many parts of the body. (webmd.com)
  • Lupus sometimes seems to run in families, which suggests the disease may be hereditary. (webmd.com)
  • Dr. Gutierrez-Arcelus will test if the marked heterogeneity of lupus - the variation in how the disease differs from person to person - can be attributed to mutations affecting particular genes. (eurekalert.org)
  • Since lupus isn't a sexually transmitted disease and isn't contagious, it's your choice whether you tell a new or short-term partner about having lupus. (medicinenet.com)
  • Lupus is a long-term (chronic) disease. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Lupus is notoriously difficult to treat and there has not been a new drug approved for the disease in over 40 years. (nature.com)
  • A lupus flare is a period of time when disease activity gets worse. (healthline.com)
  • Diagnosed with lupus when she was just 11 years old, the disease has challenged her to keep going despite debilitating symptoms and grueling therapies. (minoritynurse.com)
  • There are substantial racial disparities in the burden of lupus, according to initial data from the largest and most far-reaching epidemiology study ever conducted on the disease lupus and published recently in the journal Arthritis and Rheumatism . (minoritynurse.com)
  • The sites are collaborating to use similar case definitions and data collection procedures to capture diagnosed lupus in these areas and allow more accurate data comparison, critical in assessing this complicated disease. (minoritynurse.com)
  • These results suggest that the gut bacteria may contribute to lupus, a disease which is nine times as prevalent in women as in men, says first author Husen Zhang. (scienceblog.com)
  • They also monitored the gut microbiota over time in both lupus and control mice, and found that in the former, Clostridia increased in both early and late stages of the disease. (scienceblog.com)
  • Lupus is] a very difficult disease that even medical practitioners don't understand. (ucf.edu)
  • The earlier you are diagnosed with lupus the more effectively your disease can be managed. (ucsd.edu)
  • A poem about my disease--Lupus. (writing.com)
  • One and a half million Americans are afflicted with lupus, but the disease occurs 10 times more in… more . (healthwellfoundation.org)
  • Although the broad term "lupus" usually refers to SLE, there are two milder forms of the disease. (davita.com)
  • Lupus can be mistaken for rheumatoid arthritis and other conditions. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Rheumatoid arthritis tends to attack the joints, while lupus will go after connective tissue anywhere in the body. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • The Lupus Research Alliance is pleased to announce the 2023 recipients of the Career Development and Postdoctoral Awards to Promote Diversity in Lupus Research. (eurekalert.org)
  • However, researchers are not sure if lupus causes these headaches or if they occur alongside lupus. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Researchers are unsure of the cause but suggest it may be due to how lupus can affect blood vessels. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Researchers are currently unsure if lupus causes headaches or if they occur alongside lupus. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The Diversity in Lupus Research Awards aim to foster the development of outstanding, underrepresented minority scientists and establish a diverse community of researchers and clinicians in the field of lupus. (eurekalert.org)
  • Addressing these disparities will require a diverse workforce to ensure equitable opportunities and optimal health outcomes," noted LRA Chief Scientific Officer Teodora Staeva, PhD. "To foster the development of talented underrepresented minority early-career scientists, postdoctoral fellows, and research trainees, the LRA launched a comprehensive Diversity in Lupus Research Program last year that has already supported 21 researchers in the lupus field. (eurekalert.org)
  • This award provides fellows with up to $170,000 over two years to support the generation of data and progress needed to become independent lupus researchers. (eurekalert.org)
  • But some researchers believe that PTSD or trauma increases the risk of developing lupus. (healthline.com)
  • The goal of using AI to classify lupus nephritis in an automated fashion with high accuracy will translate to better treatment for lupus nephritis, according to researchers. (news-medical.net)
  • Support state-of-the-art clinical, patient-reported, and sample lupus repositories. (cdc.gov)
  • The distribution of the abnormality is consistent with occlusion of deep penetrating branches, such as may result from local vasculopathy, with no clinical or laboratory evidence of lupus anticoagulant or anticardiolipin antibody. (medscape.com)
  • The news from Rockville, Maryland-based HGS is a shot in the arm for the lupus physician and patient communities, which have recently witnessed a string of late-stage clinical failures. (nature.com)
  • Lastly, while currently available outcomes of clinical trials evaluating therapeutic agents which manipulate the T cells such as calcineurin inhibitors indicate that they are at least as efficacious and safe as conventional immunosuppressants in treating lupus glomerulonephritis, larger clinical trials are undoubtedly required to validate these as-yet favourable findings. (hindawi.com)
  • Martens PB, Moder KG, Ahmed I. Lupus panniculitis: clinical perspectives from a case series. (medscape.com)
  • Lupus symptoms tend to intensify during flare-ups. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Treating lupus revolves around improving symptoms, preventing flare-ups and heading off additional conditions often caused by lupus. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Perform high-impact research investigations to advance understanding of racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic disparities in lupus. (cdc.gov)
  • How well you do depends on the specific form of lupus nephritis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • If you have lupus nephritis, contact your provider if you notice decreased urine output . (medlineplus.gov)
  • Treating lupus may help prevent or delay onset of lupus nephritis. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This funding allows us to use artificial intelligence approaches to train a 'neural network' to learn how to read and classify lupus nephritis biopsy slides. (news-medical.net)
  • Lupus nephritis doesn't produce pain in the abdomen or back, or burning during urination. (davita.com)
  • Urinary sediment suggests lupus nephritis histology. (bvsalud.org)
  • the secondary objective was to find which components of urinary sediment can discriminate proliferative from other classes of lupus nephritis . (bvsalud.org)
  • a classification tree was calculated to select a set of values that best-predicted lupus nephritis classes. (bvsalud.org)
  • Correlations of lupus nephritis activity index with the counts in the urinary sediment of erythrocytes (isomorphic and dysmorphic), acanthocytes , and leukocytes were 0.65 ( p (bvsalud.org)
  • Correlations of lupus nephritis chronicity index with the counts of erythrocytes , acanthocytes , and leukocytes were 0.60 ( p ≤ 0.0001), 0.52 ( p = 0.0001) and 0.17 ( p = 0.2300), respectively. (bvsalud.org)
  • Conclusions Evaluation of urine sediment reflects lupus nephritis histology . (bvsalud.org)
  • Lupus occurs most often in young women in their late teens and adult women younger than age 45. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Lupus in children occurs most often in those age 15 and older. (uhhospitals.org)
  • Two antimalarial drugs used to treat lupus are hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine phosphate. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • The NLPR is the first comprehensive population-based epidemiology study in lupus, with five registry sites located in Georgia, Michigan, California , New York, and the Indian Health Service. (minoritynurse.com)
  • While women with lupus have higher risk pregnancies, most are successful. (wikipedia.org)
  • Drugs used for the treatment of malaria which are also widely used in the management of lupus symptoms. (lupus.org)
  • Follow the treatment history, health care access, and natural history (i.e., severity, morbidity, and mortality related to lupus) of patients participating in the studies. (cdc.gov)
  • Belimumab ( Benlysta ) was approved in 2011 specifically for the treatment of lupus. (arthritis.org)
  • All members of our Lupus Center of Excellence meet once every other month to discuss the treatment of the most challenging patients. (bidmc.org)
  • Ultimately, says Luo, fecal transplant might prove valuable as a treatment for lupus. (scienceblog.com)
  • Lupus can be managed with treatment, but there is no cure. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Your lupus treatment may change as your symptoms change. (nortonhealthcare.com)
  • Urinary tract infections occur frequently in lupus patients and require antibiotic treatment. (davita.com)
  • One of the biggest problems with treating lupus is recognizing it in the first place because symptoms present differently in each person. (ucf.edu)