The lower portion of the BRAIN STEM. It is inferior to the PONS and anterior to the CEREBELLUM. Medulla oblongata serves as a relay station between the brain and the spinal cord, and contains centers for regulating respiratory, vasomotor, cardiac, and reflex activities.
Involuntary erection or bristling of hairs.
The part of the brain that connects the CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES with the SPINAL CORD. It consists of the MESENCEPHALON; PONS; and MEDULLA OBLONGATA.
INFARCTION of the dorsolateral aspect of MEDULLA OBLONGATA in the BRAIN STEM. It is caused by occlusion of the VERTEBRAL ARTERY and/or the posterior inferior cerebellar artery. Clinical manifestations vary with the size of infarction, but may include loss of pain and temperature sensation in the ipsilateral face and contralateral body below the chin; ipsilateral HORNER SYNDROME; ipsilateral ATAXIA; DYSARTHRIA; VERTIGO; nausea, hiccup; dysphagia; and VOCAL CORD PARALYSIS. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p801)
Cellular receptors which mediate the sense of temperature. Thermoreceptors in vertebrates are mostly located under the skin. In mammals there are separate types of thermoreceptors for cold and for warmth and NOCICEPTORS which detect cold or heat extreme enough to cause pain.
The large hole at the base of the skull through which the SPINAL CORD passes.
The internal portion of the kidney, consisting of striated conical masses, the renal pyramids, whose bases are adjacent to the cortex and whose apices form prominent papillae projecting into the lumen of the minor calyces.
A hypothalamic hormone that is synthesized as a precursor protein which is cleaved into two peptides. In addition to stimulating PROLACTIN release the peptides bind to specific G-PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS found at locations within the BRAIN.
The second stomach of ruminants. It lies almost in the midline in the front of the abdomen, in contact with the liver and diaphragm and communicates freely with the RUMEN via the ruminoreticular orifice. The lining of the reticulum is raised into folds forming a honeycomb pattern over the surface. (From Concise Veterinary Dictionary, 1988)
A cylindrical column of tissue that lies within the vertebral canal. It is composed of WHITE MATTER and GRAY MATTER.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Nerves and plexuses of the autonomic nervous system. The central nervous system structures which regulate the autonomic nervous system are not included.
GRAY MATTER located in the dorsomedial part of the MEDULLA OBLONGATA associated with the solitary tract. The solitary nucleus receives inputs from most organ systems including the terminations of the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves. It is a major coordinator of AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM regulation of cardiovascular, respiratory, gustatory, gastrointestinal, and chemoreceptive aspects of HOMEOSTASIS. The solitary nucleus is also notable for the large number of NEUROTRANSMITTERS which are found therein.
Ventral part of the DIENCEPHALON extending from the region of the OPTIC CHIASM to the caudal border of the MAMMILLARY BODIES and forming the inferior and lateral walls of the THIRD VENTRICLE.
The act of breathing with the LUNGS, consisting of INHALATION, or the taking into the lungs of the ambient air, and of EXHALATION, or the expelling of the modified air which contains more CARBON DIOXIDE than the air taken in (Blakiston's Gould Medical Dictionary, 4th ed.). This does not include tissue respiration (= OXYGEN CONSUMPTION) or cell respiration (= CELL RESPIRATION).
A region extending from the PONS & MEDULLA OBLONGATA through the MESENCEPHALON, characterized by a diversity of neurons of various sizes and shapes, arranged in different aggregations and enmeshed in a complicated fiber network.
The part of brain that lies behind the BRAIN STEM in the posterior base of skull (CRANIAL FOSSA, POSTERIOR). It is also known as the "little brain" with convolutions similar to those of CEREBRAL CORTEX, inner white matter, and deep cerebellar nuclei. Its function is to coordinate voluntary movements, maintain balance, and learn motor skills.
Cells specialized to detect chemical substances and relay that information centrally in the nervous system. Chemoreceptor cells may monitor external stimuli, as in TASTE and OLFACTION, or internal stimuli, such as the concentrations of OXYGEN and CARBON DIOXIDE in the blood.
Non-invasive method of demonstrating internal anatomy based on the principle that atomic nuclei in a strong magnetic field absorb pulses of radiofrequency energy and emit them as radiowaves which can be reconstructed into computerized images. The concept includes proton spin tomographic techniques.
The 10th cranial nerve. The vagus is a mixed nerve which contains somatic afferents (from skin in back of the ear and the external auditory meatus), visceral afferents (from the pharynx, larynx, thorax, and abdomen), parasympathetic efferents (to the thorax and abdomen), and efferents to striated muscle (of the larynx and pharynx).
The domestic cat, Felis catus, of the carnivore family FELIDAE, comprising over 30 different breeds. The domestic cat is descended primarily from the wild cat of Africa and extreme southwestern Asia. Though probably present in towns in Palestine as long ago as 7000 years, actual domestication occurred in Egypt about 4000 years ago. (From Walker's Mammals of the World, 6th ed, p801)
The abrupt and unexplained death of an apparently healthy infant under one year of age, remaining unexplained after a thorough case investigation, including performance of a complete autopsy, examination of the death scene, and review of the clinical history. (Pediatr Pathol 1991 Sep-Oct;11(5):677-84)
A malignant neoplasm of the germinal tissue of the GONADS; MEDIASTINUM; or pineal region. Germinomas are uniform in appearance, consisting of large, round cells with vesicular nuclei and clear or finely granular eosinophilic-staining cytoplasm. (Stedman, 265th ed; from DeVita Jr et al., Cancer: Principles & Practice of Oncology, 3d ed, pp1642-3)
The basic cellular units of nervous tissue. Each neuron consists of a body, an axon, and dendrites. Their purpose is to receive, conduct, and transmit impulses in the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
Receptors in the vascular system, particularly the aorta and carotid sinus, which are sensitive to stretch of the vessel walls.
A fatal disease of the nervous system in sheep and goats, characterized by pruritus, debility, and locomotor incoordination. It is caused by proteinaceous infectious particles called PRIONS.
A general class of ortho-dihydroxyphenylalkylamines derived from tyrosine.
Changes in the amounts of various chemicals (neurotransmitters, receptors, enzymes, and other metabolites) specific to the area of the central nervous system contained within the head. These are monitored over time, during sensory stimulation, or under different disease states.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
Cellular DNA-binding proteins encoded by the c-fos genes (GENES, FOS). They are involved in growth-related transcriptional control. c-fos combines with c-jun (PROTO-ONCOGENE PROTEINS C-JUN) to form a c-fos/c-jun heterodimer (TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP-1) that binds to the TRE (TPA-responsive element) in promoters of certain genes.
PRESSURE of the BLOOD on the ARTERIES and other BLOOD VESSELS.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
The tearing or bursting of the weakened wall of the aneurysmal sac, usually heralded by sudden worsening pain. The great danger of a ruptured aneurysm is the large amount of blood spilling into the surrounding tissues and cavities, causing HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK.
Precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and is a widespread central and autonomic neurotransmitter. Norepinephrine is the principal transmitter of most postganglionic sympathetic fibers and of the diffuse projection system in the brain arising from the locus ceruleus. It is also found in plants and is used pharmacologically as a sympathomimetic.
The thoracolumbar division of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic preganglionic fibers originate in neurons of the intermediolateral column of the spinal cord and project to the paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia, which in turn project to target organs. The sympathetic nervous system mediates the body's response to stressful situations, i.e., the fight or flight reactions. It often acts reciprocally to the parasympathetic system.
The front part of the hindbrain (RHOMBENCEPHALON) that lies between the MEDULLA and the midbrain (MESENCEPHALON) ventral to the cerebellum. It is composed of two parts, the dorsal and the ventral. The pons serves as a relay station for neural pathways between the CEREBELLUM to the CEREBRUM.
A strain of Rattus norvegicus used as a normotensive control for the spontaneous hypertensive rats (SHR).
The main information-processing organs of the nervous system, consisting of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges.
Neural tracts connecting one part of the nervous system with another.
A biochemical messenger and regulator, synthesized from the essential amino acid L-TRYPTOPHAN. In humans it is found primarily in the central nervous system, gastrointestinal tract, and blood platelets. Serotonin mediates several important physiological functions including neurotransmission, gastrointestinal motility, hemostasis, and cardiovascular integrity. Multiple receptor families (RECEPTORS, SEROTONIN) explain the broad physiological actions and distribution of this biochemical mediator.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
A colorless, odorless gas that can be formed by the body and is necessary for the respiration cycle of plants and animals.
A strain of Rattus norvegicus with elevated blood pressure used as a model for studying hypertension and stroke.
The number of times the HEART VENTRICLES contract per unit of time, usually per minute.
Any of the ruminant mammals with curved horns in the genus Ovis, family Bovidae. They possess lachrymal grooves and interdigital glands, which are absent in GOATS.
Neoplasms of the intracranial components of the central nervous system, including the cerebral hemispheres, basal ganglia, hypothalamus, thalamus, brain stem, and cerebellum. Brain neoplasms are subdivided into primary (originating from brain tissue) and secondary (i.e., metastatic) forms. Primary neoplasms are subdivided into benign and malignant forms. In general, brain tumors may also be classified by age of onset, histologic type, or presenting location in the brain.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.

Trans-synaptically induced bursts in regular spiking non-pyramidal cells in deep layers of the cat motor cortex. (1/1851)

In deep layers of the cat motor cortex, we have investigated the properties of neurons displaying trans-synaptically induced bursts. In in vivo experiments, extracellularly recorded burst neurons were separated into two subtypes based on their dependence on stimulation sites, the medullary pyramid or the ventrolateral (VL) thalamic nucleus, from which bursts of 10-20 spikes were triggered. The spike amplitude attenuation and frequency adaptation during a burst were more prominent in pyramid-dependent burst neurons than in VL-dependent burst neurons. Intracellular recordings in in vivo experiments revealed that pyramid-dependent bursts emerged from a long-lasting depolarization, while each spike during a VL-dependent burst was narrow in half-width and was followed by a fast AHP, similar to fast spiking neurons. In in vitro slice experiments, intracellular recordings were obtained from neurons that displayed a burst of attenuated spikes emerging from a long-lasting depolarization, and were also obtained from fast spiking neurons. They were morphologically recovered to be multipolar cells with sparsely spiny dendrites and local axonal networks, suggesting that they are inhibitory interneurons. The multipolar neurons displaying bursts of attenuated spikes may mediate the recurrent inhibition of pyramidal tract cells.  (+info)

Eye movement deficits following ibotenic acid lesions of the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi in monkeys II. Pursuit, vestibular, and optokinetic responses. (2/1851)

The eyes are moved by a combination of neural commands that code eye velocity and eye position. The eye position signal is supposed to be derived from velocity-coded command signals by mathematical integration via a single oculomotor neural integrator. For horizontal eye movements, the neural integrator is thought to reside in the rostral nucleus prepositus hypoglossi (nph) and project directly to the abducens nuclei. In a previous study, permanent, serial ibotenic acid lesions of the nph in three rhesus macaques compromised the neural integrator for fixation but saccades were not affected. In the present study, to determine further whether the nph is the neural substrate for a single oculomotor neural integrator, the effects of those lesions on smooth pursuit, the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), vestibular nystagmus (VN), and optokinetic nystagmus (OKN) are documented. The lesions were correlated with long-lasting deficits in eye movements, indicated most clearly by the animals' inability to maintain steady gaze in the dark. However, smooth pursuit and sinusoidal VOR in the dark, like the saccades in the previous study, were affected minimally. The gain of horizontal smooth pursuit (eye movement/target movement) decreased slightly (<25%) and phase lead increased slightly for all frequencies (0.3-1.0 Hz, +/-10 degrees target tracking), most noticeably for higher frequencies (0.8-0.7 and approximately 20 degrees for 1.0-Hz tracking). Vertical smooth pursuit was not affected significantly. Surprisingly, horizontal sinusoidal VOR gain and phase also were not affected significantly. Lesions had complex effects on both VN and OKN. The plateau of per- and postrotatory VN was shortened substantially ( approximately 50%), whereas the initial response and the time constant of decay decreased slightly. The initial OKN response also decreased slightly, and the charging phase was prolonged transiently then recovered to below normal levels like the VN time constant. Maximum steady-state, slow eye velocity of OKN decreased progressively by approximately 30% over the course of the lesions. These results support the previous conclusion that the oculomotor neural integrator is not a single neural entity and that the mathematical integrative function for different oculomotor subsystems is most likely distributed among a number of nuclei. They also show that the nph apparently is not involved in integrating smooth pursuit signals and that lesions of the nph can fractionate the VOR and nystagmic responses to adequate stimuli.  (+info)

The fine structural organization of the cuneate nucleus in the monkey (Macaca fascicularis). (3/1851)

The fine structure of the cuneate nucleus of the monkey (Macaca fascicularis) has been studied. The neurons were classified into three groups according to their nuclear morphology, the arrangement of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and the appearance of the Golgi complexes. Group I neurons had a regular nucleus and contained abundant cytoplasm in which were found well-developed RER and Golgi complexes. Group II neurons had a slightly irregular nucleus and a variable arrangement of the RER and Golgi complexes. Group III neurons were characterized by a deeply indented nucleus, and scanty cytoplasm in which the cytoplasmic organelles were poorly developed. Group II neurons were the most commonly encountered while Group I neurons were the rarest. Axon terminals contained either round of flattened vesicles. Axon terminals and dendrites commonly formed synaptic complexes. In one type the axon terminal, containing round vesicles, formed the central element, which is presynaptic to the dendrites surrounding it; in addition it is postsynaptic to axon terminals containing flattened vesicles. In another type a large dendrite formed the central element which is postsynaptic to axon terminals containing round or flattened vesicles.  (+info)

Patterns of phrenic motor output evoked by chemical stimulation of neurons located in the pre-Botzinger complex in vivo. (4/1851)

The pre-Botzinger complex (pre-BotC) has been proposed to be essential for respiratory rhythm generation from work in vitro. Much less, however, is known about its role in the generation and modulation of respiratory rhythm in vivo. Therefore we examined whether chemical stimulation of the in vivo pre-BotC manifests respiratory modulation consistent with a respiratory rhythm generator. In chloralose- or chloralose/urethan-anesthetized, vagotomized cats, we recorded phrenic nerve discharge and arterial blood pressure in response to chemical stimulation of neurons located in the pre-BotC with DL-homocysteic acid (DLH; 10 mM; 21 nl). In 115 of the 122 sites examined in the pre-BotC, unilateral microinjection of DLH produced an increase in phrenic nerve discharge that was characterized by one of the following changes in cycle timing and pattern: 1) a rapid series of high-amplitude, rapid rate of rise, short-duration bursts, 2) tonic excitation (with or without respiratory oscillations), 3) an integration of the first two types of responses (i.e., tonic excitation with high-amplitude, short-duration bursts superimposed), or 4) augmented bursts in the phrenic neurogram (i.e., eupneic breath ending with a high-amplitude, short-duration burst). In 107 of these sites, the phrenic neurogram response was accompanied by an increase or decrease (>/=10 mmHg) in arterial blood pressure. Thus increases in respiratory burst frequency and production of tonic discharge of inspiratory output, both of which have been seen in vitro, as well as modulation of burst pattern can be produced by local perturbations of excitatory amino acid neurotransmission in the pre-BotC in vivo. These findings are consistent with the proposed role of this region as the locus for respiratory rhythm generation.  (+info)

Central neuronal circuit innervating the lordosis-producing muscles defined by transneuronal transport of pseudorabies virus. (5/1851)

The lordosis reflex is a hormone-dependent behavior displayed by female rats during mating. This study used the transneuronal tracer pseudorabies virus (PRV) to investigate the CNS network that controls the lumbar epaxial muscles that produce this posture. After PRV was injected into lumbar epaxial muscles, the time course analysis of CNS viral infection showed progressively more PRV-labeled neurons in higher brain structures after longer survival times. In particular, the medullary reticular formation, periaqueductal gray (PAG), and ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMN) were sequentially labeled with PRV, which supports the proposed hierarchical network of lordosis control. Closer inspection of the PRV-immunoreactive neurons in the PAG revealed a marked preponderance of spheroid neurons, rather than fusiform or triangular morphologies. Furthermore, PRV-immunoreactive neurons were concentrated in the ventrolateral column, rather than the dorsal, dorsolateral, or lateral columns of the PAG. Localization of the PRV-labeled neurons in the VMN indicated that the majority were located in the ventrolateral subdivision, although some were also in other subdivisions of the VMN. As expected, labeled cells also were found in areas traditionally associated with sympathetic outflow to blood vessels and motor pathways, including the intermediolateral nucleus of the spinal cord, the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, the red nucleus, and the motor cortex. These results suggest that the various brain regions along the neuraxis previously implicated in the lordosis reflex are indeed serially connected.  (+info)

The rostral ventrolateral medulla mediates the sympathoactivation produced by chemical stimulation of the rat nasal mucosa. (6/1851)

1. We sought to outline the brainstem circuit responsible for the increase in sympathetic tone caused by chemical stimulation of the nasal passages with ammonia vapour. Experiments were performed in alpha-chloralose-anaesthetized, paralysed and artificially ventilated rats. 2. Stimulation of the nasal mucosa increased splanchnic sympathetic nerve discharge (SND), elevated arterial blood pressure (ABP), raised heart rate slightly and inhibited phrenic nerve discharge. 3. Bilateral injections of the broad-spectrum excitatory amino acid receptor antagonist kynurenate (Kyn) into the rostral part of the ventrolateral medulla (RVLM; rostral C1 area) greatly reduced the effects of nasal mucosa stimulation on SND (-80 %). These injections had no effect on resting ABP, resting SND or the sympathetic baroreflex. 4. Bilateral injections of Kyn into the ventrolateral medulla at the level of the obex (caudal C1 area) or into the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) greatly attenuated the baroreflex and significantly increased the baseline levels of both SND and ABP. However they did not reduce the effect of nasal mucosa stimulation on SND. 5. Single-unit recordings were made from 39 putative sympathoexcitatory neurons within the rostral C1 area. Most neurons (24 of 39) were activated by nasal mucosa stimulation (+65.8 % rise in discharge rate). Responding neurons had a wide range of conduction velocities and included slow-conducting neurons identified previously as C1 cells. The remaining putative sympathoexcitatory neurons were either unaffected (n = 8 neurons) or inhibited (n = 7) during nasal stimulation. We also recorded from ten respiratory-related neurons, all of which were silenced by nasal stimulation. 6. In conclusion, the sympathoexcitatory response to nasal stimulation is largely due to activation of bulbospinal presympathetic neurons within the RVLM. We suggest that these neurons receive convergent and directionally opposite polysynaptic inputs from arterial baroreceptors and trigeminal afferents. These inputs are integrated within the rostral C1 area as opposed to the NTS or the caudal C1 area.  (+info)

RVLM and raphe differentially regulate sympathetic outflows to splanchnic and brown adipose tissue. (7/1851)

To determine whether neurons in the rostral raphe pallidus (RPa) specifically control the sympathetic nerve activity to brown adipose tissue (BAT SNA), thereby regulating adipocyte metabolism and BAT thermogenesis, the responses in BAT SNA to disinhibition of RPa neurons and to disinhibition of neurons in the vasomotor region of the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) were compared with those in splanchnic (Spl) SNA, which primarily regulates visceral vasoconstriction. In urethan-chloralose-anesthetized ventilated rats, both acute hypothermia and microinjection of bicuculline into RPa produced significantly larger increases in BAT SNA (542 and 1,949% of control) than in Spl SNA (19 and 24% of control). The enhanced burst discharge in BAT SNA was not coherent with that in Spl SNA or with the arterial pressure (AP) at any frequency except the central respiratory frequency. Microinjections of bicuculline into RVLM evoked increases in Spl SNA (86% of control) and AP (32 mmHg), but reduced BAT SNA to low, normothermic levels. Microinjections of muscimol into RVLM reduced Spl SNA (-82% of control) and AP (-59 mmHg), but did not prevent the increase in BAT SNA after disinhibition of RPa neurons. These results indicate that the neural networks generating BAT SNA in response to disinhibition of RPa neurons are independent of those generating basal Spl SNA and support a model in which sympathetic outflow to tissues involved in thermoregulation and metabolism is regulated by central pathways, including neurons in RPa, that are distinct from those involved in the sympathetic control of the cardiovascular system.  (+info)

Midline medullary depressor responses are mediated by inhibition of RVLM sympathoexcitatory neurons in rats. (8/1851)

Mechanisms underlying the depressor and sympathoinhibitory responses evoked from the caudal medullary raphe (MR) region were investigated in pentobarbital sodium-anesthetized, paralyzed rats. Intermittent electrical stimulation (0.5 Hz, 0.5-ms pulses, 200 microA) of the MR elicited a mixed sympathetic response that consisted of a long-latency sympathoexcitatory (SE) peak (onset = 146 +/- 7 ms) superimposed on an inhibitory phase (onset = 59 +/- 10 ms). Chemical stimulation of the MR (glutamate; Glu) most frequently elicited depressor responses accompanied by inhibition of sympathetic nerve discharge. Occasionally, these responses were preceded by transient pressor and SE responses. We examined the influence of intermittent electrical stimulation (0.5 Hz, 0.5-ms pulses, 25-200 microA) and Glu stimulation of the MR on the discharge of rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) premotor SE neurons. Peristimulus-time histograms of RVLM unit discharge featured a prominent inhibitory phase in response to MR stimulation (onset = 20 +/- 2 ms; duration = 42 +/- 4 ms; n = 12 units). Glu stimulation of the MR reduced blood pressure (-37 +/- 2 mmHg, n = 19) and inhibited the discharge of RVLM SE neurons (15 of 19 neurons). Depressor and sympathoinhibitory responses elicited by chemical and electrical stimulation of the MR region are mediated by inhibition of RVLM premotor SE neurons and withdrawal of sympathetic vasomotor discharge.  (+info)

The medulla oblongata is a part of the brainstem that is located in the posterior portion of the brainstem and continues with the spinal cord. It plays a vital role in controlling several critical bodily functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. The medulla oblongata also contains nerve pathways that transmit sensory information from the body to the brain and motor commands from the brain to the muscles. Additionally, it is responsible for reflexes such as vomiting, swallowing, coughing, and sneezing.

Piloerection, also known as "goosebumps" or "horripilation," is a medical term that refers to the erectile response of hair follicles. It's a reflex caused by the contraction of tiny muscles called arrector pili attached to each hair follicle, causing the hairs to stand on end.

This reflex is often associated with cold temperature or emotional responses such as fear or excitement. While it's most noticeable in humans on the arms and back of the neck, it can occur all over the body. In animals, especially those with thick fur, piloerection can make them appear larger and more threatening, which is often a part of their defense mechanism.

The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that connects to the spinal cord. It consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The brainstem controls many vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory and motor information between the cerebral cortex and the rest of the body. Additionally, several cranial nerves originate from the brainstem, including those that control eye movements, facial movements, and hearing.

Lateral Medullary Syndrome, also known as Wallenberg's syndrome, is a type of stroke that affects the lateral part (side) of the medulla oblongata, which is a structure at the lower end of the brainstem. This condition is typically caused by a blockage or narrowing of the posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA), leading to infarction (tissue death due to lack of blood supply) in this area.

The lateral medulla contains several important nerve tracts and nuclei that are responsible for various functions, including:

1. Pain and temperature sensation from the face and body
2. Facial movements and sensations
3. Eye movement control
4. Hearing
5. Vestibular function (balance)
6. Swallowing and cough reflexes
7. Cardiovascular regulation

As a result, individuals with Lateral Medullary Syndrome may experience various symptoms such as:
- Ipsilateral (same side) facial pain and temperature sensation loss
- Contralateral (opposite side) body pain and temperature sensation loss
- Vertigo, dizziness, or unsteady gait due to vestibular dysfunction
- Difficulty swallowing and hoarseness
- Horner's syndrome (drooping eyelid, small pupil, and decreased sweating on the affected side of the face)
- Nystagmus (involuntary eye movement)
- Hiccups
- Ipsilateral (same side) limb ataxia (lack of coordination)

The severity and combination of symptoms may vary depending on the extent and location of the infarction. Treatment typically involves managing underlying risk factors, such as hypertension or diabetes, and providing supportive care to address specific symptoms.

Thermoreceptors are specialized sensory nerve endings or neurons that are sensitive to changes in temperature. They detect and respond to heat or cold stimuli by converting them into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain for interpretation. These receptors are found throughout the body, particularly in the skin, mucous membranes, and internal organs. There are two main types of thermoreceptors: warm receptors, which respond to increasing temperatures, and cold receptors, which react to decreasing temperatures. The information provided by thermoreceptors helps maintain homeostasis and protect the body from harmful temperature changes.

The foramen magnum is the largest opening in the human skull, located at the base of the skull, through which the spinal cord connects to the brain. It is a crucial structure for the transmission of nerve impulses between the brain and the rest of the body. The foramen magnum also provides passage for blood vessels that supply the brainstem and upper spinal cord.

The kidney medulla is the inner portion of the renal pyramids in the kidney, consisting of multiple conical structures found within the kidney. It is composed of loops of Henle and collecting ducts responsible for concentrating urine by reabsorbing water and producing a hyperosmotic environment. The kidney medulla has a unique blood supply and is divided into an inner and outer zone, with the inner zone having a higher osmolarity than the outer zone. This region of the kidney helps regulate electrolyte and fluid balance in the body.

Prolactin-Releasing Hormone (PRH), also known as Prolactin-Releasing Factor (PRF) or Prolactin-Stimulating Hormone (PSH), is a hypothalamic hormone that stimulates the release of prolactin from the anterior pituitary gland. It is a decapeptide, and its release is regulated by various factors such as stress, estrogen, dopamine, and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). However, it's important to note that the primary regulatory hormone of prolactin secretion is dopamine, which inhibits prolactin release. PRH acts in opposition to dopamine to promote prolactin release.

Despite its identification and characterization, the physiological role of PRH remains unclear, as many studies have suggested that PRH may not be a necessary factor for prolactin secretion under normal conditions. More research is needed to fully understand the function and regulation of this hormone in the body.

In anatomical terms, the reticulum is the second chamber in the ruminant stomach, located between the rumen and the omasum. It is responsible for the continued breakdown of cellulose through microbial fermentation.

However, I believe you may be referring to a term used in pathology or histology. In these contexts, "reticulum" refers to a network of fine fibers, often composed of collagen, that surround cells or organize tissue. It is an important component of the extracellular matrix and provides structural support.

For example, within the liver, the reticulin fibers are part of the hepatic sinusoids' walls and help maintain the liver's architecture. In some disease processes like cirrhosis, these reticulin fibers can become abnormally thickened and contribute to the distortion of the liver's normal structure.

Please let me know if you were looking for information in a different context, and I would be happy to help further!

The spinal cord is a major part of the nervous system, extending from the brainstem and continuing down to the lower back. It is a slender, tubular bundle of nerve fibers (axons) and support cells (glial cells) that carries signals between the brain and the rest of the body. The spinal cord primarily serves as a conduit for motor information, which travels from the brain to the muscles, and sensory information, which travels from the body to the brain. It also contains neurons that can independently process and respond to information within the spinal cord without direct input from the brain.

The spinal cord is protected by the bony vertebral column (spine) and is divided into 31 segments: 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal. Each segment corresponds to a specific region of the body and gives rise to pairs of spinal nerves that exit through the intervertebral foramina at each level.

The spinal cord is responsible for several vital functions, including:

1. Reflexes: Simple reflex actions, such as the withdrawal reflex when touching a hot surface, are mediated by the spinal cord without involving the brain.
2. Muscle control: The spinal cord carries motor signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling voluntary movement and muscle tone regulation.
3. Sensory perception: The spinal cord transmits sensory information, such as touch, temperature, pain, and vibration, from the body to the brain for processing and awareness.
4. Autonomic functions: The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system originate in the thoracolumbar and sacral regions of the spinal cord, respectively, controlling involuntary physiological responses like heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, and respiration.

Damage to the spinal cord can result in various degrees of paralysis or loss of sensation below the level of injury, depending on the severity and location of the damage.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiological functions, such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response, urination, and sexual arousal. The autonomic pathways refer to the neural connections and signaling processes that allow the ANS to carry out these functions.

The autonomic pathways consist of two main subdivisions: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). These systems have opposing effects on many organs, with the SNS generally stimulating activity and the PNS inhibiting it. The enteric nervous system, which controls gut function, is sometimes considered a third subdivision of the ANS.

The sympathetic pathway originates in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord, with preganglionic neurons synapsing on postganglionic neurons in paravertebral ganglia or prevertebral ganglia. The parasympathetic pathway originates in the brainstem (cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X) and the sacral region of the spinal cord (S2-S4), with preganglionic neurons synapsing on postganglionic neurons near or within the target organ.

Acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter used in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways, although norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is also released by some postganglionic sympathetic neurons. The specific pattern of neural activation and inhibition within the autonomic pathways helps maintain homeostasis and allows for adaptive responses to changes in the internal and external environment.

The solitary nucleus, also known as the nucleus solitarius, is a collection of neurons located in the medulla oblongata region of the brainstem. It plays a crucial role in the processing and integration of sensory information, particularly taste and visceral afferent fibers from internal organs. The solitary nucleus receives inputs from various cranial nerves, including the glossopharyngeal (cranial nerve IX) and vagus nerves (cranial nerve X), and is involved in reflex responses related to swallowing, vomiting, and cardiovascular regulation.

The hypothalamus is a small, vital region of the brain that lies just below the thalamus and forms part of the limbic system. It plays a crucial role in many important functions including:

1. Regulation of body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
2. Production and regulation of hormones through its connection with the pituitary gland (the hypophysis). It controls the release of various hormones by producing releasing and inhibiting factors that regulate the anterior pituitary's function.
3. Emotional responses, behavior, and memory formation through its connections with the limbic system structures like the amygdala and hippocampus.
4. Autonomic nervous system regulation, which controls involuntary physiological functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.
5. Regulation of the immune system by interacting with the autonomic nervous system.

Damage to the hypothalamus can lead to various disorders like diabetes insipidus, growth hormone deficiency, altered temperature regulation, sleep disturbances, and emotional or behavioral changes.

Medical Definition of Respiration:

Respiration, in physiology, is the process by which an organism takes in oxygen and gives out carbon dioxide. It's also known as breathing. This process is essential for most forms of life because it provides the necessary oxygen for cellular respiration, where the cells convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and releases waste products, primarily carbon dioxide.

In humans and other mammals, respiration is a two-stage process:

1. Breathing (or external respiration): This involves the exchange of gases with the environment. Air enters the lungs through the mouth or nose, then passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi, finally reaching the alveoli where the actual gas exchange occurs. Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses into the blood, while carbon dioxide, a waste product of metabolism, diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.

2. Cellular respiration (or internal respiration): This is the process by which cells convert glucose and other nutrients into ATP, water, and carbon dioxide in the presence of oxygen. The carbon dioxide produced during this process then diffuses out of the cells and into the bloodstream to be exhaled during breathing.

In summary, respiration is a vital physiological function that enables organisms to obtain the necessary oxygen for cellular metabolism while eliminating waste products like carbon dioxide.

The reticular formation is not a single structure but rather a complex network of interconnected neurons located in the brainstem, extending from the medulla oblongata through the pons and mesencephalon (midbrain) up to the diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus). It forms part of the reticular activating system, which is involved in regulating arousal, awareness, and sleep-wake cycles.

The reticular formation plays a crucial role in various functions such as:

1. Modulation of sensory input: The neurons in the reticular formation receive inputs from all senses (visual, auditory, tactile, etc.) and help filter and prioritize this information before it reaches higher cognitive areas.

2. Control of motor function: The reticular formation contributes to the regulation of muscle tone, posture, and locomotion by modulating the activity of motor neurons in the spinal cord.

3. Regulation of autonomic functions: The reticular formation is involved in controlling heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and other visceral functions through its connections with the autonomic nervous system.

4. Consciousness and arousal: The ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) originates from the reticular formation and projects to the thalamus and cerebral cortex, where it helps maintain wakefulness and arousal. Damage to the ARAS can lead to coma or other states of altered consciousness.

5. Sleep-wake cycle regulation: The reticular formation contains cells that release neurotransmitters like histamine, serotonin, and orexin/hypocretin, which are essential for sleep-wake regulation. Dysfunction in these circuits has been implicated in various sleep disorders, such as narcolepsy and insomnia.

The cerebellum is a part of the brain that lies behind the brainstem and is involved in the regulation of motor movements, balance, and coordination. It contains two hemispheres and a central portion called the vermis. The cerebellum receives input from sensory systems and other areas of the brain and spinal cord and sends output to motor areas of the brain. Damage to the cerebellum can result in problems with movement, balance, and coordination.

Chemoreceptor cells are specialized sensory neurons that detect and respond to chemical changes in the internal or external environment. They play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis within the body by converting chemical signals into electrical impulses, which are then transmitted to the central nervous system for further processing and response.

There are two main types of chemoreceptor cells:

1. Oxygen Chemoreceptors: These cells are located in the carotid bodies near the bifurcation of the common carotid artery and in the aortic bodies close to the aortic arch. They monitor the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH in the blood and respond to decreases in oxygen concentration or increases in carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions (indicating acidity) by increasing their firing rate. This signals the brain to increase respiratory rate and depth, thereby restoring normal oxygen levels.

2. Taste Cells: These chemoreceptor cells are found within the taste buds of the tongue and other areas of the oral cavity. They detect specific tastes (salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami) by interacting with molecules from food. When a tastant binds to receptors on the surface of a taste cell, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to the generation of an action potential. This information is then relayed to the brain, where it is interpreted as taste sensation.

In summary, chemoreceptor cells are essential for maintaining physiological balance by detecting and responding to chemical stimuli in the body. They play a critical role in regulating vital functions such as respiration and digestion.

Medical Definition:

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique that uses a strong magnetic field and radio waves to create detailed cross-sectional or three-dimensional images of the internal structures of the body. The patient lies within a large, cylindrical magnet, and the scanner detects changes in the direction of the magnetic field caused by protons in the body. These changes are then converted into detailed images that help medical professionals to diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as tumors, injuries, or diseases affecting the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, joints, and other internal organs. MRI does not use radiation like computed tomography (CT) scans.

The vagus nerve, also known as the 10th cranial nerve (CN X), is the longest of the cranial nerves and extends from the brainstem to the abdomen. It has both sensory and motor functions and plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, speech, and sweating, among others.

The vagus nerve is responsible for carrying sensory information from the internal organs to the brain, and it also sends motor signals from the brain to the muscles of the throat and voice box, as well as to the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. The vagus nerve helps regulate the body's involuntary responses, such as controlling heart rate and blood pressure, promoting relaxation, and reducing inflammation.

Dysfunction in the vagus nerve can lead to various medical conditions, including gastroparesis, chronic pain, and autonomic nervous system disorders. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a therapeutic intervention that involves delivering electrical impulses to the vagus nerve to treat conditions such as epilepsy, depression, and migraine headaches.

"Cat" is a common name that refers to various species of small carnivorous mammals that belong to the family Felidae. The domestic cat, also known as Felis catus or Felis silvestris catus, is a popular pet and companion animal. It is a subspecies of the wildcat, which is found in Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Domestic cats are often kept as pets because of their companionship, playful behavior, and ability to hunt vermin. They are also valued for their ability to provide emotional support and therapy to people. Cats are obligate carnivores, which means that they require a diet that consists mainly of meat to meet their nutritional needs.

Cats are known for their agility, sharp senses, and predatory instincts. They have retractable claws, which they use for hunting and self-defense. Cats also have a keen sense of smell, hearing, and vision, which allow them to detect prey and navigate their environment.

In medical terms, cats can be hosts to various parasites and diseases that can affect humans and other animals. Some common feline diseases include rabies, feline leukemia virus (FeLV), feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), and toxoplasmosis. It is important for cat owners to keep their pets healthy and up-to-date on vaccinations and preventative treatments to protect both the cats and their human companions.

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) is defined by the American Academy of Pediatrics as "the sudden unexpected death of an infant

A germinoma is a type of tumor that develops in the brain or the spine, primarily in the pituitary gland or pineal gland. It is a rare form of primary central nervous system (CNS) cancer and is classified as a type of germ cell tumor. These tumors arise from cells that normally develop into sperm or eggs, which can migrate to unusual locations during embryonic development.

Germinomas are highly sensitive to radiation therapy and chemotherapy, making them generally treatable and curable with appropriate medical intervention. Symptoms of a germinoma may include headaches, nausea, vomiting, visual disturbances, hormonal imbalances, and neurological deficits, depending on the location and size of the tumor. Diagnosis typically involves imaging studies like MRI or CT scans, followed by a biopsy to confirm the presence of malignant cells.

Neurons, also known as nerve cells or neurocytes, are specialized cells that constitute the basic unit of the nervous system. They are responsible for receiving, processing, and transmitting information and signals within the body. Neurons have three main parts: the dendrites, the cell body (soma), and the axon. The dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors, while the axon transmits these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit the signal across the gap (synaptic cleft) to the next neuron. Neurons vary in size, shape, and structure depending on their function and location within the nervous system.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

Pressoreceptors are specialized sensory nerve endings found in the walls of blood vessels, particularly in the carotid sinus and aortic arch. They respond to changes in blood pressure by converting the mechanical stimulus into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain. This information helps regulate cardiovascular function and maintain blood pressure homeostasis.

Scrapie is a progressive, fatal, degenerative disease affecting the central nervous system of sheep and goats. It is one of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), also known as prion diseases. The agent responsible for scrapie is thought to be an abnormal form of the prion protein, which can cause normal prion proteins in the brain to adopt the abnormal shape and accumulate, leading to brain damage and neurodegeneration.

Scrapie is characterized by several clinical signs, including changes in behavior, tremors, loss of coordination, itching, and excessive scraping of the fleece against hard surfaces, which gives the disease its name. The incubation period for scrapie can range from 2 to 5 years, and there is no known treatment or cure for the disease.

Scrapie is not considered a significant threat to human health, but it has served as a model for understanding other prion diseases, such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle, which can cause variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) in humans.

Catecholamines are a group of hormones and neurotransmitters that are derived from the amino acid tyrosine. The most well-known catecholamines are dopamine, norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline), and epinephrine (also known as adrenaline). These hormones are produced by the adrenal glands and are released into the bloodstream in response to stress. They play important roles in the "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness. In addition to their role as hormones, catecholamines also function as neurotransmitters, transmitting signals in the nervous system. Disorders of catecholamine regulation can lead to a variety of medical conditions, including hypertension, mood disorders, and neurological disorders.

Brain chemistry refers to the chemical processes that occur within the brain, particularly those involving neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and neuropeptides. These chemicals are responsible for transmitting signals between neurons (nerve cells) in the brain, allowing for various cognitive, emotional, and physical functions.

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse (the tiny gap between two neurons). Examples of neurotransmitters include dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), and glutamate. Each neurotransmitter has a specific role in brain function, such as regulating mood, motivation, attention, memory, and movement.

Neuromodulators are chemicals that modify the effects of neurotransmitters on neurons. They can enhance or inhibit the transmission of signals between neurons, thereby modulating brain activity. Examples of neuromodulators include acetylcholine, histamine, and substance P.

Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators. They play a role in various physiological functions, such as pain perception, stress response, and reward processing. Examples of neuropeptides include endorphins, enkephalins, and oxytocin.

Abnormalities in brain chemistry can lead to various neurological and psychiatric conditions, such as depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. Understanding brain chemistry is crucial for developing effective treatments for these conditions.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Proto-oncogene proteins, such as c-Fos, are normal cellular proteins that play crucial roles in various biological processes including cell growth, differentiation, and survival. They can be activated or overexpressed due to genetic alterations, leading to the formation of cancerous cells. The c-Fos protein is a nuclear phosphoprotein involved in signal transduction pathways and forms a heterodimer with c-Jun to create the activator protein-1 (AP-1) transcription factor complex. This complex binds to specific DNA sequences, thereby regulating the expression of target genes that contribute to various cellular responses, including proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Dysregulation of c-Fos can result in uncontrolled cell growth and malignant transformation, contributing to tumor development and progression.

Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of the blood vessels. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is given as two figures:

1. Systolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart pushes blood out into the arteries.
2. Diastolic pressure: This is the pressure when the heart rests between beats, allowing it to fill with blood.

Normal blood pressure for adults is typically around 120/80 mmHg, although this can vary slightly depending on age, sex, and other factors. High blood pressure (hypertension) is generally considered to be a reading of 130/80 mmHg or higher, while low blood pressure (hypotension) is usually defined as a reading below 90/60 mmHg. It's important to note that blood pressure can fluctuate throughout the day and may be affected by factors such as stress, physical activity, and medication use.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

A ruptured aneurysm is a serious medical condition that occurs when the wall of an artery or a blood vessel weakens and bulges out, forming an aneurysm, which then bursts, causing bleeding into the surrounding tissue. This can lead to internal hemorrhage, organ damage, and even death, depending on the location and severity of the rupture.

Ruptured aneurysms are often caused by factors such as high blood pressure, smoking, aging, and genetic predisposition. They can occur in any part of the body but are most common in the aorta (the largest artery in the body) and the cerebral arteries (in the brain).

Symptoms of a ruptured aneurysm may include sudden and severe pain, weakness or paralysis, difficulty breathing, confusion, loss of consciousness, and shock. Immediate medical attention is required to prevent further complications and increase the chances of survival. Treatment options for a ruptured aneurysm may include surgery, endovascular repair, or medication to manage symptoms and prevent further bleeding.

Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a neurotransmitter and a hormone that is primarily produced in the adrenal glands and is released into the bloodstream in response to stress or physical activity. It plays a crucial role in the "fight-or-flight" response by preparing the body for action through increasing heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and glucose availability.

As a neurotransmitter, norepinephrine is involved in regulating various functions of the nervous system, including attention, perception, motivation, and arousal. It also plays a role in modulating pain perception and responding to stressful or emotional situations.

In medical settings, norepinephrine is used as a vasopressor medication to treat hypotension (low blood pressure) that can occur during septic shock, anesthesia, or other critical illnesses. It works by constricting blood vessels and increasing heart rate, which helps to improve blood pressure and perfusion of vital organs.

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is a part of the autonomic nervous system that operates largely below the level of consciousness, and it functions to produce appropriate physiological responses to perceived danger. It's often associated with the "fight or flight" response. The SNS uses nerve impulses to stimulate target organs, causing them to speed up (e.g., increased heart rate), prepare for action, or otherwise respond to stressful situations.

The sympathetic nervous system is activated due to stressful emotional or physical situations and it prepares the body for immediate actions. It dilates the pupils, increases heart rate and blood pressure, accelerates breathing, and slows down digestion. The primary neurotransmitter involved in this system is norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline).

The pons is a part of the brainstem that lies between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain. Its name comes from the Latin word "ponte" which means "bridge," as it serves to connect these two regions of the brainstem. The pons contains several important structures, including nerve fibers that carry signals between the cerebellum (the part of the brain responsible for coordinating muscle movements) and the rest of the nervous system. It also contains nuclei (clusters of neurons) that help regulate various functions such as respiration, sleep, and facial movements.

WKY (Wistar Kyoto) is not a term that refers to "rats, inbred" in a medical definition. Instead, it is a strain of laboratory rat that is widely used in biomedical research. WKY rats are an inbred strain, which means they are the result of many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a genetically uniform population.

WKY rats originated from the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia and were established as a normotensive control strain to contrast with other rat strains that exhibit hypertension. They have since been used in various research areas, including cardiovascular, neurological, and behavioral studies. Compared to other commonly used rat strains like the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR), WKY rats are known for their lower blood pressure, reduced stress response, and greater emotionality.

In summary, "WKY" is a designation for an inbred strain of laboratory rat that is often used as a control group in biomedical research due to its normotensive characteristics.

The Central Nervous System (CNS) is the part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is called the "central" system because it receives information from, and sends information to, the rest of the body through peripheral nerves, which make up the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

The CNS is responsible for processing sensory information, controlling motor functions, and regulating various autonomic processes like heart rate, respiration, and digestion. The brain, as the command center of the CNS, interprets sensory stimuli, formulates thoughts, and initiates actions. The spinal cord serves as a conduit for nerve impulses traveling to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

The CNS is protected by several structures, including the skull (which houses the brain) and the vertebral column (which surrounds and protects the spinal cord). Despite these protective measures, the CNS remains vulnerable to injury and disease, which can have severe consequences due to its crucial role in controlling essential bodily functions.

Neural pathways, also known as nerve tracts or fasciculi, refer to the highly organized and specialized routes through which nerve impulses travel within the nervous system. These pathways are formed by groups of neurons (nerve cells) that are connected in a series, creating a continuous communication network for electrical signals to transmit information between different regions of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves.

Neural pathways can be classified into two main types: sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent). Sensory neural pathways carry sensory information from various receptors in the body (such as those for touch, temperature, pain, and vision) to the brain for processing. Motor neural pathways, on the other hand, transmit signals from the brain to the muscles and glands, controlling movements and other effector functions.

The formation of these neural pathways is crucial for normal nervous system function, as it enables efficient communication between different parts of the body and allows for complex behaviors, cognitive processes, and adaptive responses to internal and external stimuli.

Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), is a monoamine neurotransmitter that is found primarily in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, blood platelets, and the central nervous system (CNS) of humans and other animals. It is produced by the conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), and then to serotonin.

In the CNS, serotonin plays a role in regulating mood, appetite, sleep, memory, learning, and behavior, among other functions. It also acts as a vasoconstrictor, helping to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. In the GI tract, it is involved in peristalsis, the contraction and relaxation of muscles that moves food through the digestive system.

Serotonin is synthesized and stored in serotonergic neurons, which are nerve cells that use serotonin as their primary neurotransmitter. These neurons are found throughout the brain and spinal cord, and they communicate with other neurons by releasing serotonin into the synapse, the small gap between two neurons.

Abnormal levels of serotonin have been linked to a variety of disorders, including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, and migraines. Medications that affect serotonin levels, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), are commonly used to treat these conditions.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that is naturally present in the Earth's atmosphere. It is a normal byproduct of cellular respiration in humans, animals, and plants, and is also produced through the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.

In medical terms, carbon dioxide is often used as a respiratory stimulant and to maintain the pH balance of blood. It is also used during certain medical procedures, such as laparoscopic surgery, to insufflate (inflate) the abdominal cavity and create a working space for the surgeon.

Elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the body can lead to respiratory acidosis, a condition characterized by an increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and a decrease in pH. This can occur in conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, or other lung diseases that impair breathing and gas exchange. Symptoms of respiratory acidosis may include shortness of breath, confusion, headache, and in severe cases, coma or death.

SHR (Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats) are an inbred strain of rats that were originally developed through selective breeding for high blood pressure. They are widely used as a model to study hypertension and related cardiovascular diseases, as well as neurological disorders such as stroke and dementia.

Inbred strains of animals are created by mating genetically identical individuals (siblings or offspring) for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at all genetic loci. This means that the animals within an inbred strain are essentially genetically identical to one another, which makes them useful for studying the effects of specific genes or environmental factors on disease processes.

SHR rats develop high blood pressure spontaneously, without any experimental manipulation, and show many features of human hypertension, such as increased vascular resistance, left ventricular hypertrophy, and renal dysfunction. They also exhibit a number of behavioral abnormalities, including hyperactivity, impulsivity, and cognitive deficits, which make them useful for studying the neurological consequences of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases.

Overall, inbred SHR rats are an important tool in biomedical research, providing a valuable model for understanding the genetic and environmental factors that contribute to hypertension and related disorders.

Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per unit of time, often expressed as beats per minute (bpm). It can vary significantly depending on factors such as age, physical fitness, emotions, and overall health status. A resting heart rate between 60-100 bpm is generally considered normal for adults, but athletes and individuals with high levels of physical fitness may have a resting heart rate below 60 bpm due to their enhanced cardiovascular efficiency. Monitoring heart rate can provide valuable insights into an individual's health status, exercise intensity, and response to various treatments or interventions.

I apologize, but "sheep" is not a term that has a medical definition. It is a common animal with the scientific name Ovis aries. If you have any medical or health-related questions, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Brain neoplasms, also known as brain tumors, are abnormal growths of cells within the brain. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign brain tumors typically grow slowly and do not spread to other parts of the body. However, they can still cause serious problems if they press on sensitive areas of the brain. Malignant brain tumors, on the other hand, are cancerous and can grow quickly, invading surrounding brain tissue and spreading to other parts of the brain or spinal cord.

Brain neoplasms can arise from various types of cells within the brain, including glial cells (which provide support and insulation for nerve cells), neurons (nerve cells that transmit signals in the brain), and meninges (the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord). They can also result from the spread of cancer cells from other parts of the body, known as metastatic brain tumors.

Symptoms of brain neoplasms may vary depending on their size, location, and growth rate. Common symptoms include headaches, seizures, weakness or paralysis in the limbs, difficulty with balance and coordination, changes in speech or vision, confusion, memory loss, and changes in behavior or personality.

Treatment for brain neoplasms depends on several factors, including the type, size, location, and grade of the tumor, as well as the patient's age and overall health. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination of these approaches. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor for recurrence and manage any long-term effects of treatment.

Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

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The posterior median sulcus of medulla oblongata (or posterior median fissure or dorsal median sulcus) is a narrow groove; and ... and finally ends about the middle of the medulla oblongata, where the central canal expands into the cavity of the fourth ... exists only in the closed part of the medulla oblongata; it becomes gradually shallower from below upward, ... Medulla oblongata, All stub articles, Neuroanatomy stubs). ...
Medulla oblongata and pons. Anterior surface. Diagram showing the course of the arcuate fibers. The reticular formation of the ... and extends along the entire length of the medulla oblongata: It ends at the lower border of the pons in a small triangular ... emerge from the fissure above this decussation and curve lateralward and upward over the surface of the medulla oblongata to ... medulla oblongata, shown by a transverse section passing through the middle of the olive. This article incorporates text in the ...
The parafacial is located within the medulla oblongata, lateral and dorsal to the facial nerve. It overlaps with the alpha part ... The parafacial zone (PZ) is a brain structure located in the brainstem within the medulla oblongata believed to be heavily ... The parafacial zone receives inputs mainly from three areas: the hypothalamus, the midbrain, and the pons and medulla. From the ... And from the pons and medulla, the PZ receives input from the intermediate reticular nucleus and medial vestibular nucleus ( ...
Plate 17.330 Medulla Oblongata". Retrieved 2007-06-07. Yokota J, Amakusa Y, Tomita Y, Takahashi S (February 2003). "[The medial ... This results in the infarction of medial part of the medulla oblongata. The condition usually consists of: Sensation to the ... and the spinal part of it found in the medulla is lateral to the infarct.[citation needed] Ipsilateral signs and symptoms - ... and the hypoglossal nerve fibers that pass through the medulla. The spinothalamic tract is spared because it is located more ...
Section of the medulla oblongata at the level of the decussation of the pyramids. Corticospinal tract This article incorporates ... Medulla oblongata and pons. Anterior surface. (Pyramid visible at center.) Sketch of the brainstem, with the pyramidal tract ... The two pyramids contain the motor fibers that pass from the brain to the medulla oblongata and spinal cord. These are the ... Whiplash as a result of a car accident can lead to brainstem injuries that affect the pyramids at the medulla oblongata. These ...
Articles with TA98 identifiers, Medulla oblongata). ...
It is located in the medulla oblongata. Lateral vestibulo-spinal tract (lateral vestibular nucleus "Deiters")- via ... ventrolateral medulla and spinal cord to ventral funiculus (lumbo-sacral segments). ..Ipsilaterally for posture Medial ...
... (nucleus intercalatus) called also Staderini nucleus is a group of nerve cells in the medulla oblongata, ...
These fibers terminate at the medulla oblongata. The motor fibers' origin is the medulla oblongata, and they terminate at the ... The motor division of the glossopharyngeal nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic medulla oblongata, whereas ... From the anterior portion of the medulla oblongata, the glossopharyngeal nerve passes laterally across or below the flocculus, ... Verberne, Anthony J. M. (2003-01-01), "Medulla Oblongata", in Aminoff, Michael J.; Daroff, Robert B. (eds.), Encyclopedia of ...
The brainstem consists of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum is connected to the brainstem by ... The myelencephalon gives rise to the medulla oblongata. Also during the fifth week, the brain divides into repeating segments ... The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. Behind the brainstem is the cerebellum (Latin: little ... Blood from the medulla and pons of the brainstem have a variable pattern of drainage, either into the spinal veins or into ...
It winds backward around the upper part of the medulla oblongata, passing between the origins of the vagus nerve and the ... The PICA supplies blood to the medulla oblongata; the choroid plexus and tela choroidea of the fourth ventricle; the tonsils; ...
It lies between the cerebellum and the medulla oblongata. It receives CSF from the fourth ventricle via the median aperture ( ...
The area postrema is located in the caudal medulla oblongata near the junction of the brainstem and the spinal cord. In humans ... Borison H. L. (1989). "Area Postrema: Chemoreceptor Circumventricular Organ of the Medulla Oblongata". Progress in Neurobiology ...
It is caused by a lower motor neuron lesion in the medulla oblongata, or from lesions to these nerves outside the brainstem, ... These all emerge from pathways in the medulla oblongata. A lower motor neuron lesion can impair their function. In contrast, ... that is the nerve cells coming down from the cerebral cortex innervating the motor nuclei in the medulla. This is usually ...
It is the most inferior of the fossae.[citation needed] It houses the cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and pons. Anteriorly, the ...
Hence it is also called the alternating medulla oblongata syndrome.[clarification needed] The medulla oblongata is the lower ... It occurs when there is damage to the dorsolateral or posterior lateral medulla oblongata, likely syphilitic in origin. ... ISBN 9780195369755.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) "11.4B: Medulla Oblongata". Medicine ... to be acute infarct extending to inferior cerebellar peduncle with involvement of right sided posterolateral medulla oblongata ...
Other neurons continue ipsilaterally, same side, to the medulla oblongata. If the neurons are coming from the lower limbs, they ... In the medulla, at the dorsal column, nuclei of the first-order neuron synapse with the second-order neuron, which then ... are carried by the fasciculus gracilis into the medulla. If the neurons are coming from the upper limbs; they are carried by ...
The tumors in these cases were noted in various regions of the brain including the medulla oblongata, hypothalamus, pituitary ... "Kavernom der Medulla oblongata unter dem Bild einer "Anorexia nervosa"". Klinische Pädiatrie. 214 (1): 41-44. doi:10.1055/s- ...
v t e (Medulla oblongata, All stub articles, Neuroanatomy stubs). ...
The myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata in the adult brain; it contains: a portion of the fourth ventricle, the ... It includes the medulla, pons, and cerebellum. Together they support vital bodily processes. Rhombomeres Rh3-Rh1 form the ...
The chemoreceptor trigger zone is within the area postrema of the medulla oblongata in which many types of chemical stimulation ... H. L. Borison; K. R. Brizzee (1951). "Morphology of emetic chemoreceptor trigger zone in cat medulla oblongata". Proceedings of ... Neurophysiology, Electrophysiology, Voltage-gated ion channels, Medulla oblongata, Cellular neuroscience, Cellular processes, ...
Milligan CJ, Edwards IJ, Deuchars J (April 2006). "HCN1 ion channel immunoreactivity in spinal cord and medulla oblongata". ...
It is divided into the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The spinal cord is considered a part of the central nervous ...
The process of peristalsis is controlled by the medulla oblongata. Esophageal peristalsis is typically assessed by performing ...
These are present at the bottom of the medulla oblongata. The gracile nucleus is medial to the cuneate nucleus. Its neurons ... which are situated at the lower end of the medulla oblongata. Both nuclei contain second-order neurons of the dorsal column- ... It lies lateral to the gracile nucleus and medial to the spinal trigeminal nucleus in the medulla. The large number of neurons ... The cuneate nucleus is wedge-shaped and located in the closed part of the medulla. ...
1940). "Tearing Of The Medulla Oblongata Due To A Jerk" (PDF). The British Medical Journal. 1 (4143): 891-892. PMC 2177563. ...
The vasomotor center is a collection of integrating neurons in the medulla oblongata of the middle brain stem. The term " ... The vasomotor center (VMC) is a portion of the medulla oblongata. Together with the cardiovascular center and respiratory ... Rostral ventrolateral medulla cardiovascular center Sear, John W. (January 1, 2019), Hemmings, Hugh C.; Egan, Talmage D. (eds ...
Medulla oblongata Micrograph of the posterior portion of the open part of the medulla oblongata, showing the fourth ventricle ( ... The medulla oblongata or simply medulla is a long stem-like structure which makes up the lower part of the brainstem. It is ... The medulla oblongata forms in fetal development from the myelencephalon. The final differentiation of the medulla is seen at ... Lobes Cross section of the medulla (in red) and surrounding tissues. Anteroinferior view of the medulla oblongata and pons. ...
Shop low prices on the top-notch Asylum 13 Medulla Oblongata from Cigars International. ... Medulla Oblongata is composed of Honduran wrapper, binder, and filler - making this little puro a medium to full-bodied taste ... Each box comes with a 50/50 split where half of the cigars are Medulla (round parejos) and half are Oblongata (box-pressed ... By far, I believe that the asylum 13 Medulla Oblongata is the best Asylum offering. Am must have for your humidor! ...
medulla oblongata serotonin amount The proportion, quantity or volume in the medulla oblongata (the region of the brainstem ... medulla oblongata serotonin amount (VT:0010861). Annotations: Rat: (0) Mouse: (0) Human: (0) Chinchilla: (0) Bonobo: (0) Dog: ( ...
... also known as the medulla, is the lowest part of the brainstem. One of the most important parts of our brain, it controls our ... Medulla Oblongata Definition. The medulla oblongata, also known as the medulla, is the lowest part of the brainstem, the ... Medulla Oblongata Function. The medulla oblongatas distinct anatomical importance was discovered French physician Julien Jean- ... Waldman, S. D. (2009). The Medulla Oblongata. Pain Review. Elsevier.. *(2022) Neuroanatomy, Medulla Oblongata - StatPearls - ...
Medulla Oblongata. Wed, 07/05/2017 - 05:20 -- Damiam vincent henry Every evening I died of a sickness of depression,. As if all ...
Medulla Oblongata. This portion of the brain stem is located just above the spinal cord. It regulates vital functions, such as ... At the base of the brain, the brain stem connects to the spinal cord and is made up of the midbrain, pons, and medulla ... The pons and the medulla, along with the midbrain, are often called the brainstem. The brainstem takes in, sends out, and ... It consists of the cerebellum, pons, and medulla. The cerebellum - also called the "little brain" because it looks like a small ...
MEDULLA OBLONGATA Truncus encephali (Hirnstamm) Gliederung Mesencephalon Pons Medulla oblongata Grundbauplan Basis lange ... medulla oblongata, myeloencephalon "den förlängda märgen"; förbinder medulla spinalis med pons. pyramis ventral och medial ... medulla oblongata , and midbrain ; considered by some to include the diencephalon . Also written brain stem . E Medulla ... verlängertes Mark ( Medulla oblongata) bzw. 2020-11-25 · The brainstem or Truncus encephali in Latin is a brain structure ...
Medulla Oblongata: The hindbrain, also referred to as rhombencephalon is one of the parts or divisions of the brain; the othe ... The medulla oblongata (simply called the medulla) is seen at the lowermost portion of the brain (or brainstem) where it ... The medulla oblongata is divided into 2 main portions. These are:. The frontal portion (called the ventral medulla). It ... Hindbrain: Medulla Oblongata and its features Alfred Ajibola - Sat, 17th October, 2020 @ 10:56 AM ...
Medulla oblongata: Vagus nerve level (Portuguese). Medulla oblongata: Vagus nerve level (Portuguese) ...
Give reason Injury to medulla oblongata may prove fatal.Solution in Marathi. Watch Video Solution. ... Step by step video & image solution for Give reason Injury to medulla oblongata may prove fatal. by Biology experts to help you ... Injury to the medulla oblongata in humans is not likely to affect: ... Due to the damage of medulla oblongata, sudden death may occur. Given reason. ...
A Neurophysiological Study on the Sympathetic Premotor Nuclei in the Pons and Medulla Oblongata Authors. * Yasuhiko Kira ... by capturing the diachronic changes in the action potentials which are generated in the pons and medulla oblongata. To do so, ... A Neurophysiological Study on the Sympathetic Premotor Nuclei in the Pons and Medulla Oblongata. Scandinavian Journal of ... were observed in the rostral ventrolateral medulla oblongata (RVLM), and the differences among the action potentials of ...
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... - obl fonts Search like Obloquy Solid [BRK], Obloquy Outline [BRK], SF Proverbial Gothic Bold Obl
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Section of the medulla oblongata at about the middle of the olive. ... forming a vertical column of grey matter in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. It receives general visceral and/or special ... solitarius is a series of purely sensory nuclei forming a vertical column of grey matter embedded within the medulla oblongata ... "Differential projections from gustatory responsive regions of the parabrachial nucleus to the medulla and forebrain". Brain ...
Medulla oblongata from a hemiplegic individual. The medulla oblongata is a structure in the brainstem that controls involuntary ... Within the medulla, structures called medullary pyramids contain bundles of motor neuron fibers passing from the one side of ... In the figure above, a section of the medulla taken from an individual with hemiplegia, Cajal observes that the medullary ...
Medulla oblongata. 11(6). +. +. Meningoencephalitis. *IHC, immunohistochemical; RT-PCR, reverse transcription-PCR; PHE-CoV, ...
verlängertes Mark Lat.: Medulla oblongata. bulb. [CHEM.]. die Küvette pl.: die Küvetten. ...
Effect of brain stem transections on respiratory responses to electrical stimulation of the medulla oblongata. / Korczyn, A.; ... Effect of brain stem transections on respiratory responses to electrical stimulation of the medulla oblongata.. ... title = "Effect of brain stem transections on respiratory responses to electrical stimulation of the medulla oblongata.", ... T1 - Effect of brain stem transections on respiratory responses to electrical stimulation of the medulla oblongata. ...
Participation of reticular neurons of the cat medulla oblongata in the integration of the respiration center activity].. N. A. ...
... medulla oblongata and spinal cord. C, cerebellum; D, diencephalon; M, medulla oblongata; O, optic tectum; OB, olfactory bulb; ... medulla oblongata and spinal cord (Fig. 1). Total RNA was isolated from the retina, pineal organ and each brain area as ...
... the cerebellar white matter and the dorsal brainstem from the midbrain to the medulla oblongata. ...
... and medulla oblongata (Figs. 3, 7, 9). This tract was successfully virtually dissected in TrackVis in 73% of subjects in this ... medulla oblongata; MOFC, medial orbitofrontal cortex; OB, olfactory bulb; ObP, olfactory bulb peduncle; OC, olfactory cortex; ...
Independent variable = rate of signaling by the carotid body; Dependent variable = rate of signaling by the medulla oblongata. ... Independent variable = rate of signaling by the carotid body; Dependent variable = rate of signaling by the medulla oblongata. ... rate of signaling by the medulla oblongata.. ... rate of signaling by the medulla oblongata. ...
I am quite afraid of (open) heights, and stuff like this awakens a very primal DANGER! response in my medulla oblongata. Just ...
Medulla Oblongata / cytology * Medulla Oblongata / growth & development * Mutation / genetics * Neuropil / metabolism* * ...
TS22: medulla oblongata. Moderate. Regionally restricted. Embryo_N207_2_3C TS22: spinal cord. Weak. Ubiquitous. Embryo_N207_2_ ...
  • The hindbrain is consists of pons, cerebellum and medulla oblongata. (scienceabc.com)
  • The medulla oblongata, also known as the medulla, is the lowest part of the brainstem, the collective name for the medulla, pons and midbrain. (scienceabc.com)
  • Together with the pons and the cerebellum, the medulla forms the hindbrain or rhombencephalon. (scienceabc.com)
  • At the base of the brain, the brain stem connects to the spinal cord and is made up of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. (kidshealth.org)
  • Consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. (web.app)
  • Truncus encephali (Hirnstamm) Gliederung Mesencephalon Pons Medulla oblongata Grundbauplan Basis lange absteigende (motorische) Bahnen - Mesencephalon: Basis pedunculi cerebri - Pons: Pars basilaris - Medulla oblongata: Pyramis Tegmentum aufsteigende Bahnen z.B. Lemniscus medialis (Haube) Kerngebiete - Formatio reticularis In the human brain the brainstem is composed of the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. (web.app)
  • förbinder medulla spinalis med pons. (web.app)
  • Hjärnstammen (truncus encephali pÃ¥ latin) bestÃ¥r av medulla oblongata, pons och mesencephalon och är ett av kroppens absolut mest hjärnstammen (truncus encephali) som bestÃ¥r av mitthjärnan. (web.app)
  • mesencefalon), hjärnbryggan (pons) och förlängda märgen (medulla oblongata). (web.app)
  • MEDULLA OBLONGATA Truncus encephali (Hirnstamm) Gliederung Mesencephalon Pons Medulla oblongata Grundbauplan Basis lange absteigende (motorische) Bahnen - Mesencephalon: Basis pedunculi cerebri - Pons: Pars basilaris - Medulla oblongata: Pyramis Tegmentum aufsteigende Bahnen z.B. Lemniscus medialis (Haube) Kerngebiete - Formatio reticularis The brain stem known as truncus encephalon has three parts, namely mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata. (web.app)
  • Superiorly, the medulla oblongata is connected to the midbrain via the pons. (com.ng)
  • It contains numerous nerve fibers that connect the medulla to the pons and cerebellum respectively. (com.ng)
  • They connect the medulla to the cerebrum, pons and spinal cord respectively. (com.ng)
  • The aim of this study was to neurophysiologically demonstrate the activities of the premotor nuclei of sympathetic vasomotion, by capturing the diachronic changes in the action potentials which are generated in the pons and medulla oblongata. (utlib.ee)
  • Microelectrodes were inserted in the muscular branch of the sciatic nerve and the ventral side of the pons and medulla oblongata, and the muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSA) was induced. (utlib.ee)
  • and the brain stem contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. (cdc.gov)
  • The brainstem is divided into the medulla, pons, and midbrain. (medscape.com)
  • Subtle decreases in grey matter volume, mainly localised in frontal areas, were found, but extensive white matter atrophy was observed, particularly in frontal areas, but also involving multiple additional subcortical areas, the cerebellar white matter and the dorsal brainstem from the midbrain to the medulla oblongata. (nih.gov)
  • By far, I believe that the asylum 13 Medulla Oblongata is the best Asylum offering. (cigarsinternational.com)
  • Step away from the expected and into something new, experience the Asylum 13 Medulla Oblongata today. (mailcubancigars.com)
  • Throughout childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, the management of the Arnold-Chiari malformation (a malformation of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata) associated with spina bifida and of urologic problems often requires more surgical procedures. (cdc.gov)
  • The medulla oblongata or simply medulla is a long stem-like structure which makes up the lower part of the brainstem. (wikipedia.org)
  • The proportion, quantity or volume in the medulla oblongata (the region of the brainstem that lies directly above the spinal cord and controls vital autonomic functions) of a monoamine neurotransmitter derived primarily from tryptophan. (mcw.edu)
  • 2020-11-25 · The brainstem or Truncus encephali in Latin is a brain structure located between the medulla and the spinal cord (1). (web.app)
  • The medulla oblongata (simply called the medulla) is seen at the lowermost portion of the brain (or brainstem) where it continues as the spinal cord inferiorly. (com.ng)
  • The medulla comprises of both myelinated white matter and unmyelinated gray matter intermingled together, thus giving rise to a network of interconnected neuronal clusters within the brainstem. (com.ng)
  • The solitary nucleus (also called nucleus of the solitary tract , nucleus solitarius, or nucleus tractus solitarii (SN or NTS) ) [1] [2] is a series of sensory nuclei (clusters of nerve cell bodies) forming a vertical column of grey matter in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. (wikipedia.org)
  • The medulla can be thought of as being in two parts: an upper open part or superior part where the dorsal surface of the medulla is formed by the fourth ventricle. (wikipedia.org)
  • On the posterior surface of the medulla, there is a midline fissure, known as the posterior median sulcus (sulcus is a shallow groove). (scienceabc.com)
  • The olivary body is a pair of oval structures present on the surface of the medulla oblongata. (com.ng)
  • The posterior part of the medulla between the posterior median sulcus and the posterolateral sulcus contains tracts that enter it from the posterior funiculus of the spinal cord. (wikipedia.org)
  • The medulla acts as the bridge between the brain and the spinal cord through neurons that carry communication to and fro. (scienceabc.com)
  • The medulla merges with the spinal cord at the foramen magnum. (com.ng)
  • The immediate processes of survival (for instance, respiration, blood circulation and digestive functions) are coordinated by the hindbrain, specifically through the medulla oblongata, a part of the hindbrain. (com.ng)
  • Posterior spinal artery: This supplies the dorsal column of the closed medulla containing fasciculus gracilis, gracile nucleus, fasciculus cuneatus, and cuneate nucleus. (wikipedia.org)
  • This is the dorsal part of the medulla. (scienceabc.com)
  • The backward portion is termed the dorsal medulla. (com.ng)
  • It is this dorsal medulla that forms the dorsal region of the fourth ventricle. (com.ng)
  • encephalon encephali n hjärnan facies -ei f ansikte, utsida, yta medulla oblongata retina -ae f näthinna cerebrum -i n truncus -i m stam transversarius -a -um. (web.app)
  • Similar to the external anatomy, the internal anatomy can also be divided into 2 parts - the ventral medulla and the tegmental medulla. (scienceabc.com)
  • The pyramids are located in the middle of the ventral medulla, and are separated by the anterior median fissure. (scienceabc.com)
  • The frontal portion (called the ventral medulla). (com.ng)
  • The medulla oblongata's distinct anatomical importance was discovered French physician Julien Jean-Cesar Legallois in 1806. (scienceabc.com)
  • 13. Medulla oblongata's location (2 wds. (the-scientist.com)
  • During embryonic development, the medulla oblongata develops from the myelencephalon. (wikipedia.org)
  • The medulla oblongata forms in fetal development from the myelencephalon. (wikipedia.org)
  • medulla oblongata (myelencephalon) 25 mm 2. (web.app)
  • Effect of brain stem transections on respiratory responses to electrical stimulation of the medulla oblongata. (tau.ac.il)
  • Medulla Oblongata is composed of Honduran wrapper, binder, and filler - making this little puro a medium to full-bodied taste sensation with notes of leather, earth, espresso, and spice. (cigarsinternational.com)
  • Medulla Oblongata cigars are comprised of Honduran filler and binder, wrapped in a Honduran Corojo wrapper. (mailcubancigars.com)
  • The medulla contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting and vasomotor centers, and therefore deals with the autonomic functions of breathing, heart rate and blood pressure as well as the sleep-wake cycle. (wikipedia.org)
  • Meanwhile, other involuntary (or autonomic processes ongoing in our body are also controlled by the medulla oblongata. (com.ng)
  • Autonomic postganglionic nerves are controlled in turn by preganglionic nerves that originate from specific nuclei in the medulla. (utlib.ee)
  • The cranial nerves of the medulla also originate from the tegmental part and exit the medulla ventrally. (scienceabc.com)
  • a lower closed part or inferior part where the fourth ventricle has narrowed at the obex in the caudal medulla, and surrounds part of the central canal. (wikipedia.org)
  • Just above the tubercles, the posterior aspect of the medulla is occupied by a triangular fossa, which forms the lower part of the floor of the fourth ventricle. (wikipedia.org)
  • The region between the anterolateral and posterolateral sulcus in the upper part of the medulla is marked by a pair of swellings known as olivary bodies (also called olives). (wikipedia.org)
  • He therefore concluded that the medulla had a 'respiratory center' within it. (scienceabc.com)
  • The bulb is an archaic term for the medulla oblongata. (wikipedia.org)
  • The soma (cell bodies) in these nuclei are the second-order neurons of the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway, and their axons, called the internal arcuate fibers or fasciculi, decussate from one side of the medulla to the other to form the medial lemniscus. (wikipedia.org)
  • The nucleus solitarius is a series of purely sensory nuclei forming a vertical column of grey matter embedded within the medulla oblongata . (wikipedia.org)
  • The anterior median fissure contains a fold of pia mater, and extends along the length of the medulla oblongata. (wikipedia.org)
  • At the caudal part of the medulla these tracts cross over in the decussation of the pyramids obscuring the fissure at this point. (wikipedia.org)
  • Anterior spinal artery: This supplies the whole medial part of the medulla oblongata. (wikipedia.org)
  • Each box comes with a 50/50 split where half of the cigars are Medulla (round parejos) and half are Oblongata (box-pressed cigars) - a great way to experience the variations of these two formats. (cigarsinternational.com)
  • The Medulla Oblongata by Asylum comes in boxes of 50, but rather than including 50 cigars of a particular style, each box includes 25 round Parejo cigars and 25 box press cigars. (mailcubancigars.com)
  • While the tobacco blends are identical in both the Medula and the Oblongata, the different rolling methods have a strong effect on not only the smoke times, but according to many seasoned smokers, even the flavor can vary as a result of the different methods of rolling cigars. (mailcubancigars.com)
  • What Are The Structure And Functions Of The Medulla Oblongata? (scienceabc.com)
  • Section of the medulla oblongata at about the middle of the olive. (wikipedia.org)
  • The word bulbar can refer to the nerves and tracts connected to the medulla, and also by association to those muscles innervated, such as those of the tongue, pharynx and larynx. (wikipedia.org)
  • Typical localization: focal: upper cervical cord and medulla oblongata (12). (cdc.gov)
  • Posterior inferior cerebellar artery: This is a major branch of the vertebral artery, and supplies the posterolateral part of the medulla, where the main sensory tracts run and synapse. (wikipedia.org)
  • The medulla oblongata is a small, but important, part of the brain that controls involuntary actions of the body, such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure. (scienceabc.com)
  • The fossa is bounded on either side by the inferior cerebellar peduncle, which connects the medulla to the cerebellum. (wikipedia.org)
  • The median fissures are shallow grooves found on the anterior and posterior parts of the medulla. (com.ng)
  • The medulla oblongata is divided into 2 main portions. (com.ng)
  • To correct the function of our Medulla Oblongata and its interconnection to our 9th Energy center, and link to our throat energy center. (energeticsynthesis.com)
  • Anatomie Hirnstamm (Truncus encephali, Truncus cerebri) mit Medulla oblongata (Verlängertes Mark, Bulbus cerebri, Bulbus medical-pictures.de Kapitel 4 des Buches: Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung. (web.app)
  • verlängertes Mark ( Medulla oblongata) bzw. (web.app)
  • printed in bold stenography down the middle, while the bold and square box-pressed sticks rest on the right, with the word ?OBLONGATA? (mailcubancigars.com)
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  • The regular spontaneous action potentials, which synchronize with muscle sympathetic nerve activity, were observed in the rostral ventrolateral medulla oblongata (RVLM), and the differences among the action potentials of individual cells of the RVLM region noted. (utlib.ee)
  • Participation of reticular neurons of the cat medulla oblongata in the integration of the respiration center activity]. (consensus.app)
  • In modern clinical usage, the word bulbar (as in bulbar palsy) is retained for terms that relate to the medulla oblongata, particularly in reference to medical conditions. (wikipedia.org)
  • Step by step video & image solution for Give reason Injury to medulla oblongata may prove fatal. (doubtnut.com)