Loss of or impaired ability to smell. This may be caused by OLFACTORY NERVE DISEASES; PARANASAL SINUS DISEASES; viral RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; SMOKING; and other conditions.
The ability to detect scents or odors, such as the function of OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS.
The volatile portions of substances perceptible by the sense of smell. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Proteins, usually projecting from the cilia of olfactory receptor neurons, that specifically bind odorant molecules and trigger responses in the neurons. The large number of different odorant receptors appears to arise from several gene families or subfamilies rather than from DNA rearrangement.
Set of nerve fibers conducting impulses from olfactory receptors to the cerebral cortex. It includes the OLFACTORY NERVE; OLFACTORY BULB; OLFACTORY TRACT; OLFACTORY TUBERCLE; ANTERIOR PERFORATED SUBSTANCE; and OLFACTORY CORTEX.
The process by which the nature and meaning of olfactory stimuli, such as odors, are recognized and interpreted by the brain.
Neurons in the OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM with proteins (RECEPTORS, ODORANT) that bind, and thus detect, odorants. These neurons send their DENDRITES to the surface of the epithelium with the odorant receptors residing in the apical non-motile cilia. Their unmyelinated AXONS synapse in the OLFACTORY BULB of the BRAIN.
That portion of the nasal mucosa containing the sensory nerve endings for SMELL, located at the dome of each NASAL CAVITY. The yellow-brownish olfactory epithelium consists of OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS; brush cells; STEM CELLS; and the associated olfactory glands.
Paired sense organs connected to the anterior segments of ARTHROPODS that help them navigate through the environment.
A major affective disorder marked by severe mood swings (manic or major depressive episodes) and a tendency to remission and recurrence.
Ovoid body resting on the CRIBRIFORM PLATE of the ethmoid bone where the OLFACTORY NERVE terminates. The olfactory bulb contains several types of nerve cells including the mitral cells, on whose DENDRITES the olfactory nerve synapses, forming the olfactory glomeruli. The accessory olfactory bulb, which receives the projection from the VOMERONASAL ORGAN via the vomeronasal nerve, is also included here.
Psychiatric illness or diseases manifested by breakdowns in the adaptational process expressed primarily as abnormalities of thought, feeling, and behavior producing either distress or impairment of function.
Collective name for a group of external MECHANORECEPTORS and chemoreceptors manifesting as sensory structures in ARTHROPODS. They include cuticular projections (setae, hairs, bristles), pores, and slits.
Persistent and disabling ANXIETY.
Those disorders that have a disturbance in mood as their predominant feature.
The proximal portion of the respiratory passages on either side of the NASAL SEPTUM. Nasal cavities, extending from the nares to the NASOPHARYNX, are lined with ciliated NASAL MUCOSA.
Categorical classification of MENTAL DISORDERS based on criteria sets with defining features. It is produced by the American Psychiatric Association. (DSM-IV, page xxii)
Isomeric forms and derivatives of pentanol (C5H11OH).
Marked depression appearing in the involution period and characterized by hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, and agitation.
Specialized organs adapted for the reception of stimuli by the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
The minimum amount of stimulus energy necessary to elicit a sensory response.
Chemical substances, excreted by an organism into the environment, that elicit behavioral or physiological responses from other organisms of the same species. Perception of these chemical signals may be olfactory or by contact.
A behavior disorder originating in childhood in which the essential features are signs of developmentally inappropriate inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Although most individuals have symptoms of both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, one or the other pattern may be predominant. The disorder is more frequent in males than females. Onset is in childhood. Symptoms often attenuate during late adolescence although a minority experience the full complement of symptoms into mid-adulthood. (From DSM-V)
The ability to detect chemicals through gustatory receptors in the mouth, including those on the TONGUE; the PALATE; the PHARYNX; and the EPIGLOTTIS.
An affective disorder manifested by either a dysphoric mood or loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. The mood disturbance is prominent and relatively persistent.
An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, persistent obsessions or compulsions. Obsessions are the intrusive ideas, thoughts, or images that are experienced as senseless or repugnant. Compulsions are repetitive and seemingly purposeful behavior which the individual generally recognizes as senseless and from which the individual does not derive pleasure although it may provide a release from tension.
A class of traumatic stress disorders with symptoms that last more than one month. There are various forms of post-traumatic stress disorder, depending on the time of onset and the duration of these stress symptoms. In the acute form, the duration of the symptoms is between 1 to 3 months. In the chronic form, symptoms last more than 3 months. With delayed onset, symptoms develop more than 6 months after the traumatic event.
A disorder beginning in childhood. It is marked by the presence of markedly abnormal or impaired development in social interaction and communication and a markedly restricted repertoire of activity and interest. Manifestations of the disorder vary greatly depending on the developmental level and chronological age of the individual. (DSM-V)
The 1st cranial nerve. The olfactory nerve conveys the sense of smell. It is formed by the axons of OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS which project from the olfactory epithelium (in the nasal epithelium) to the OLFACTORY BULB.
A ubiquitous, cytoplasmic protein found in mature OLFACTORY RECEPTOR NEURONS of all VERTEBRATES. It is a modulator of the olfactory SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAY.
A plant genus of the family ACORACEAE, order Arales, subclass Arecidae most notable for Acorus calamus L. root which contains asarone and has been used in TRADITIONAL MEDICINE.
Anxiety disorders in which the essential feature is persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation that the individual feels compelled to avoid. The individual recognizes the fear as excessive or unreasonable.
The observable response an animal makes to any situation.
Severe distortions in the development of many basic psychological functions that are not normal for any stage in development. These distortions are manifested in sustained social impairment, speech abnormalities, and peculiar motor movements.
Disorders in which there is a loss of ego boundaries or a gross impairment in reality testing with delusions or prominent hallucinations. (From DSM-IV, 1994)
Disorders related to substance abuse.
Pheromones that elicit sexual attraction or mating behavior usually in members of the opposite sex in the same species.
Specialized afferent neurons capable of transducing sensory stimuli into NERVE IMPULSES to be transmitted to the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Sometimes sensory receptors for external stimuli are called exteroceptors; for internal stimuli are called interoceptors and proprioceptors.
The 5th and largest cranial nerve. The trigeminal nerve is a mixed motor and sensory nerve. The larger sensory part forms the ophthalmic, mandibular, and maxillary nerves which carry afferents sensitive to external or internal stimuli from the skin, muscles, and joints of the face and mouth and from the teeth. Most of these fibers originate from cells of the TRIGEMINAL GANGLION and project to the TRIGEMINAL NUCLEUS of the brain stem. The smaller motor part arises from the brain stem trigeminal motor nucleus and innervates the muscles of mastication.
A part of the upper respiratory tract. It contains the organ of SMELL. The term includes the external nose, the nasal cavity, and the PARANASAL SINUSES.
Organic compounds that have a relatively high VAPOR PRESSURE at room temperature.
Proteins found in any species of insect.
A repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated. These behaviors include aggressive conduct that causes or threatens physical harm to other people or animals, nonaggressive conduct that causes property loss or damage, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violations of rules. The onset is before age 18. (From DSM-IV, 1994)
Cells specialized to detect chemical substances and relay that information centrally in the nervous system. Chemoreceptor cells may monitor external stimuli, as in TASTE and OLFACTION, or internal stimuli, such as the concentrations of OXYGEN and CARBON DIOXIDE in the blood.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Disorders characterized by recurrent TICS that may interfere with speech and other activities. Tics are sudden, rapid, nonrhythmic, stereotyped motor movements or vocalizations which may be exacerbated by stress and are generally attenuated during absorbing activities. Tic disorders are distinguished from conditions which feature other types of abnormal movements that may accompany another another condition. (From DSM-IV, 1994)
The motion of air currents.
Compounds with a core of 10 carbons generally formed via the mevalonate pathway from the combination of 3,3-dimethylallyl pyrophosphate and isopentenyl pyrophosphate. They are cyclized and oxidized in a variety of ways. Due to the low molecular weight many of them exist in the form of essential oils (OILS, VOLATILE).

A female case of Kallmann's syndrome. (1/311)

A case of 20-year-old woman with hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and anosmia is reported, since very few female cases of Kallmann's syndrome have been reported so far in Japan. Three uncles on the father's side had no children. Height was 168 cm, and arm span 165 cm. The olfactory test revealed complete anosmia. Bone age was 13 year. Chromosome was 46 XX and normal karyotype. Basal levels of serum FSH, LH and estrogens (E1, E2 and E3) were low. Serum FSH and LH levels rose slightly only after LH-RH administration, and did not increase in clomiphene test. Plasma estrogens did not increase after daily injection of 150 IU of HMG for 3 successive days. The response of serum GH to arginine infusion was normal, while that to insulin-induced hypoglycemia was poor.  (+info)

Investigation of a unique male and female sibship with Kallmann's syndrome and 46,XX gonadal dysgenesis with short stature. (2/311)

A sibship is described where the brother and a sister both have Kallmann's syndrome (anosmia and deficiency of gonadotrophin releasing hormone) and the woman also has streak ovaries. Although there are several conditions that may occur with Kallmann's syndrome, there are no known reports of ovarian dysgenesis being associated with this disorder. Cytogenetic analysis showed no rearrangement or major deletions of the chromosomes. Linkage analysis using informative microsatellite markers predicts that a gene other than KAL1 (at Xp22.3) is implicated in the Kallmann's syndrome manifesting concurrently with ovarian dysgenesis found in this family.  (+info)

What a tangled web we weave: discriminating between malingering and anosmia. (3/311)

Two groups of normosmic subjects were instructed to feign a total olfactory loss when tested with the Olfactory Confusion Matrix (OCM). One of the groups was given specific instructions as to the number of odorants and trials in the test, as well as the number of items that might be expected to be correctly identified by chance. The responses of both groups of malingerers were compared with responses gathered from a group of anosmic patients. The groups did not differ in terms of performance level (percent correct). In spite of the similarity in terms of accuracy level, an analysis of the pattern of OCM responses to an irritant allowed the anosmic patients to be distinguished from subjects attempting to feign a loss. Subjects were given explicit details about the test performed at the same level as those simply told to feign a loss. These results suggest that the OCM is an effective tool in separating malingering from anosmia.  (+info)

Assessing the impact of anosmia: review of a questionnaire's findings. (4/311)

The inability to detect odours, anosmia, can cause profound psychological effects resulting in feelings of physical and social vulnerability and victimization. In addition, there may be unhappiness related to the loss of the ability to detect pleasurable food smells and, as a consequence, anosmics may develop problems relating to eating. These profound effects arise from a condition which can have a rapid onset and a very poor prognosis for recovery, and are largely treated with a lack of sympathy and indifference by people with normal olfactory ability. In an attempt to educate, inform and help sufferers, a questionnaire was developed in the early 1980s and sent to those who contacted the Warwick Olfaction Research Group. The responses from this questionnaire form the basis of this review. Feelings of personal isolation, lack of interest in eating and emotional blunting were common responses from these sufferers and it seems that we still have some way to go before an adequate recognition of problems associated with anosmia is gained by the general population and, more importantly, within the medical profession.  (+info)

Is Parkinson's disease a primary olfactory disorder? (5/311)

It has been known for over 30 years that olfactory function is disordered in idiopathic Parkinson's disease (IPD). The severity and partial specificity of anosmia was not realized until recently, with the advent of more detailed analysis and sophisticated measurement. The olfactory vector hypothesis suggests that the causative agent for IPD enters the brain via the nasal route, but the reason for olfactory dysfunction may be more subtle. Evidence for olfactory disturbance is reviewed from pathological, psychological, neurophysiological and genetic stand-points. It is proposed that the initial causative event in IPD may start in the rhinencephalon (olfactory brain) prior to damage in the basal ganglia.  (+info)

Smell and taste disorders: a primary care approach. (6/311)

Smell and taste disorders are common in the general population, with loss of smell occurring more frequently. Although these disorders can have a substantial impact on quality of life and may represent significant underlying disease, they are often overlooked by the medical community. Patients may have difficulty recognizing smell versus taste dysfunction and frequently confuse the concepts of "flavor" and "taste." While the most common causes of smell disturbance are nasal and sinus disease, upper respiratory infection and head trauma, frequent causes of taste disturbance include oral infections, oral appliances (e.g., dentures), dental procedures and Bell's palsy. Medications can interfere with smell and taste, and should be reviewed in all patients with reported dysfunction. In addition, advancing age has been associated with a natural impairment of smell and taste ability. A focused history and a physical examination of the nose and mouth are usually sufficient to screen for underlying pathology. Computed tomographic scanning or magnetic resonance imaging of affected areas, as well as commercially available standardized tests, may be useful in selected patients. The causes of olfactory dysfunction that are most amenable to treatment include obstructing polyps or other masses (treated by excision) and inflammation (treated with steroids). Enhancement of food flavor and appearance can improve quality of life in patients with irreversible dysfunction.  (+info)

A novel mutation of the KAL1 gene in Kallmann syndrome. (7/311)

Kallmann syndrome is defined by the association of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism and anosmia, for which three modes of transmission have been described: X-linked, autosomal recessive and autosomal dominant. The KAL1 gene, responsible for the X-linked form of the disease, has been isolated and its intron-exon organization determined. We report sequence analysis using PCR-direct sequencing method of the entire coding region and splice site junctions of the KAL1 gene in three males with Kallmann syndrome. We found a novel mutation in one case and no mutation in the other two cases. The mutation consisted of a C to T substitution in exon 1 converting codon 66 (CAG) encoding glutamine into a termination codon (TAG)/(Q66X). As a consequence of this mutation, the function of the KAL1 protein consisting of 680 amino acids was severely truncated so as to be consistent with Kallmann syndrome. As only this patient had unilateral renal hypoplasia among the three cases, this would suggest the existence of KAL1 gene mutation in this abnormality.  (+info)

Psychological test performance during experimental challenge to toluene and n-butyl acetate in cases of solvent-induced toxic encephalopathy. (8/311)

OBJECTIVES: This study determined whether performance in neurobehavioral tests deteriorates during subjectively annoying chemical challenge below known neurotoxic thresholds among persons with toxic encephalopathy with subjective hypersensitivity to chemicals. METHODS: Subjects with symptoms and previous neuropsychological test results compatible with toxic encephalopathy (TE) of either type 2A (N=12) or 2B (N=12) and unexposed referents (N=12) were challenged in an exposure chamber. In a counterbalanced design, the subjects were exposed on 2 occasions to increasing air concentrations of n-butyl acetate and toluene at levels well below the thresholds for neurotoxic effects. Attention and motor speed tests were given (i) in room air outside the chamber before the challenge, (ii) in room air inside the chamber before the exposure, (iii) at 12 ppm (44 or 56 mg/m3), and (iv) at 48 ppm (at 180 or 228 mg/m3). RESULTS: For both substances the TE groups showed a slight increase (deterioration) in the simple reaction-time task during chemical exposure, but not in the complex reaction-time task or in the digit symbol test of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Contrary to reference subjects, the TE subjects did not show any improvement or learning effect in the digit symbol test over the chamber phases. n-Butyl acetate tended to affect cognitive functioning more obviously than toluene did. Suggestion or expectancy effects were not observed in any group in the clean-air baseline conditions. CONCLUSIONS: The results do not support the notion that men with subjective hypersensitivity to chemicals would be more affected than healthy men regarding cognitive functioning during annoying solvent exposure below thresholds for acute neurotoxic effects.  (+info)

Olfaction disorders, also known as smell disorders, refer to conditions that affect the ability to detect or interpret odors. These disorders can be categorized into two main types:

1. Anosmia: This is a complete loss of the sense of smell. It can be caused by various factors such as nasal polyps, sinus infections, head injuries, and degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.
2. Hyposmia: This is a reduced ability to detect odors. Like anosmia, it can also be caused by similar factors including aging and exposure to certain chemicals.

Other olfaction disorders include parosmia, which is a distortion of smell where individuals may perceive a smell as being different from its original scent, and phantosmia, which is the perception of a smell that isn't actually present.

In medical terms, the sense of smell is referred to as olfaction. It is the ability to detect and identify different types of chemicals in the air through the use of the olfactory system. The olfactory system includes the nose, nasal passages, and the olfactory bulbs located in the brain.

When a person inhales air containing volatile substances, these substances bind to specialized receptor cells in the nasal passage called olfactory receptors. These receptors then transmit signals to the olfactory bulbs, which process the information and send it to the brain's limbic system, including the hippocampus and amygdala, as well as to the cortex. The brain interprets these signals and identifies the various scents or smells.

Impairment of the sense of smell can occur due to various reasons such as upper respiratory infections, sinusitis, nasal polyps, head trauma, or neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Loss of smell can significantly impact a person's quality of life, including their ability to taste food, detect dangers such as smoke or gas leaks, and experience emotions associated with certain smells.

In the context of medicine, "odors" refer to smells or scents that are produced by certain medical conditions, substances, or bodily functions. These odors can sometimes provide clues about underlying health issues. For example, sweet-smelling urine could indicate diabetes, while foul-smelling breath might suggest a dental problem or gastrointestinal issue. However, it's important to note that while odors can sometimes be indicative of certain medical conditions, they are not always reliable diagnostic tools and should be considered in conjunction with other symptoms and medical tests.

Odorant receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that are primarily found in the cilia of olfactory sensory neurons in the nose. These receptors are responsible for detecting and transmitting information about odorants, or volatile molecules that we perceive as smells.

Each odorant receptor can bind to a specific set of odorant molecules, and when an odorant binds to its corresponding receptor, it triggers a signaling cascade that ultimately leads to the generation of an electrical signal in the olfactory sensory neuron. This signal is then transmitted to the brain, where it is processed and interpreted as a particular smell.

There are thought to be around 400 different types of odorant receptors in humans, each with its own unique binding profile. The combinatorial coding of these receptors allows for the detection and discrimination of a vast array of different smells, from sweet to sour, floral to fruity, and everything in between.

Overall, the ability to detect and respond to odorants is critical for many important functions, including the identification of food, mates, and potential dangers in the environment.

The olfactory pathways refer to the neural connections and structures involved in the sense of smell. The process begins with odor molecules that are inhaled through the nostrils, where they bind to specialized receptor cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity, known as the olfactory epithelium.

These receptor cells then transmit signals via the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I) to the olfactory bulb, a structure at the base of the brain. Within the olfactory bulb, the signals are processed and relayed through several additional structures, including the olfactory tract, lateral olfactory striae, and the primary olfactory cortex (located within the piriform cortex).

From there, information about odors is further integrated with other sensory systems and cognitive functions in higher-order brain regions, such as the limbic system, thalamus, and hippocampus. This complex network of olfactory pathways allows us to perceive and recognize various scents and plays a role in emotional responses, memory formation, and feeding behaviors.

Olfactory perception refers to the ability to perceive and recognize odors or smells, which is mediated by olfactory receptor neurons located in the nasal cavity. These neurons detect and transmit information about chemical compounds present in the inhaled air to the brain, specifically to the primary olfactory cortex, where the perception of smell is processed and integrated with other sensory inputs. Olfactory perception plays a crucial role in various aspects of human behavior, including food selection, safety, and emotional responses.

Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) are specialized sensory nerve cells located in the olfactory epithelium, a patch of tissue inside the nasal cavity. These neurons are responsible for detecting and transmitting information about odors to the brain. Each ORN expresses only one type of olfactory receptor protein, which is specific to certain types of odor molecules. When an odor molecule binds to its corresponding receptor, it triggers a signal transduction pathway that generates an electrical impulse in the neuron. This impulse is then transmitted to the brain via the olfactory nerve, where it is processed and interpreted as a specific smell. ORNs are continuously replaced throughout an individual's lifetime due to their exposure to environmental toxins and other damaging agents.

The olfactory mucosa is a specialized mucous membrane that is located in the upper part of the nasal cavity, near the septum and the superior turbinate. It contains the olfactory receptor neurons, which are responsible for the sense of smell. These neurons have hair-like projections called cilia that are covered in a mucus layer, which helps to trap and identify odor molecules present in the air we breathe. The olfactory mucosa also contains supporting cells, blood vessels, and nerve fibers that help to maintain the health and function of the olfactory receptor neurons. Damage to the olfactory mucosa can result in a loss of smell or anosmia.

Arthropod antennae are the primary sensory organs found in arthropods, which include insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and myriapods. These paired appendages are usually located on the head or nearest segment to the head and are responsible for detecting various stimuli from the environment such as touch, taste, smell, temperature, humidity, vibration, and air motion.

The structure of arthropod antennae varies among different groups but generally consists of one or more segments called flagellum or funicle that may be further divided into subsegments called annuli. The number and arrangement of these segments are often used to classify and identify specific taxa.

Insect antennae, for example, typically have a distinct shape and can be thread-like, feathery, or clubbed depending on the species. They contain various sensory receptors such as olfactory neurons that detect odor molecules, mechanoreceptors that respond to touch or movement, and thermoreceptors that sense temperature changes.

Overall, arthropod antennae play a crucial role in enabling these organisms to navigate their environment, find food, avoid predators, and communicate with conspecifics.

Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a mental health condition that causes extreme mood swings that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression). When you become depressed, you may feel sad or hopeless and lose interest or pleasure in most activities. When your mood shifts to mania or hypomania (a less severe form of mania), you may feel euphoric, full of energy, or unusually irritable. These mood swings can significantly affect your job, school, relationships, and overall quality of life.

Bipolar disorder is typically characterized by the presence of one or more manic or hypomanic episodes, often accompanied by depressive episodes. The episodes may be separated by periods of normal mood, but in some cases, a person may experience rapid cycling between mania and depression.

There are several types of bipolar disorder, including:

* Bipolar I Disorder: This type is characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, which may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes.
* Bipolar II Disorder: This type involves the presence of at least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode, but no manic episodes.
* Cyclothymic Disorder: This type is characterized by numerous periods of hypomania and depression that are not severe enough to meet the criteria for a full manic or depressive episode.
* Other Specified and Unspecified Bipolar and Related Disorders: These categories include bipolar disorders that do not fit the criteria for any of the other types.

The exact cause of bipolar disorder is unknown, but it appears to be related to a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurochemical factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, psychotherapy, and lifestyle changes to help manage symptoms and prevent relapses.

The olfactory bulb is the primary center for the sense of smell in the brain. It's a structure located in the frontal part of the brain, specifically in the anterior cranial fossa, and is connected to the nasal cavity through tiny holes called the cribriform plates. The olfactory bulb receives signals from olfactory receptors in the nose that detect different smells, processes this information, and then sends it to other areas of the brain for further interpretation and perception of smell.

A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. It's associated with distress and/or impaired functioning in social, occupational, or other important areas of life, often leading to a decrease in quality of life. These disorders are typically persistent and can be severe and disabling. They may be related to factors such as genetics, early childhood experiences, or trauma. Examples include depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and personality disorders. It's important to note that a diagnosis should be made by a qualified mental health professional.

"Sensilla" is a term used in anatomy and physiology, particularly in insects and other arthropods. It refers to the sensory structures or receptors found on the external surface of these organisms, which are responsible for detecting various environmental stimuli such as touch, taste, smell, temperature, and humidity.

These sensilla are often small, hair-like or peg-like projections that contain one or more sensory cells or neurons. They can be found on different parts of the insect body, including the antennae, legs, mouthparts, and cerci. The structure and function of sensilla vary depending on their location and the type of stimuli they detect.

Overall, sensilla play a crucial role in helping insects and other arthropods navigate and interact with their environment, allowing them to respond to various stimuli and make appropriate behavioral decisions.

Anxiety disorders are a category of mental health disorders characterized by feelings of excessive and persistent worry, fear, or anxiety that interfere with daily activities. They include several different types of disorders, such as:

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): This is characterized by chronic and exaggerated worry and tension, even when there is little or nothing to provoke it.
2. Panic Disorder: This is characterized by recurring unexpected panic attacks and fear of experiencing more panic attacks.
3. Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD): Also known as social phobia, this is characterized by excessive fear, anxiety, or avoidance of social situations due to feelings of embarrassment, self-consciousness, and concern about being judged or viewed negatively by others.
4. Phobias: These are intense, irrational fears of certain objects, places, or situations. When a person with a phobia encounters the object or situation they fear, they may experience panic attacks or other severe anxiety responses.
5. Agoraphobia: This is a fear of being in places where it may be difficult to escape or get help if one has a panic attack or other embarrassing or incapacitating symptoms.
6. Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD): This is characterized by excessive anxiety about separation from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment (such as a parent, sibling, or partner).
7. Selective Mutism: This is a disorder where a child becomes mute in certain situations, such as at school, but can speak normally at home or with close family members.

These disorders are treatable with a combination of medication and psychotherapy (cognitive-behavioral therapy, exposure therapy). It's important to seek professional help if you suspect that you or someone you know may have an anxiety disorder.

Mood disorders are a category of mental health disorders characterized by significant and persistent changes in mood, affect, and emotional state. These disorders can cause disturbances in normal functioning and significantly impair an individual's ability to carry out their daily activities. The two primary types of mood disorders are depressive disorders (such as major depressive disorder or persistent depressive disorder) and bipolar disorders (which include bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, and cyclothymic disorder).

Depressive disorders involve prolonged periods of low mood, sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest in activities. Individuals with these disorders may also experience changes in sleep patterns, appetite, energy levels, concentration, and self-esteem. In severe cases, they might have thoughts of death or suicide.

Bipolar disorders involve alternating episodes of mania (or hypomania) and depression. During a manic episode, individuals may feel extremely elated, energetic, or irritable, with racing thoughts, rapid speech, and impulsive behavior. They might engage in risky activities, have decreased sleep needs, and display poor judgment. In contrast, depressive episodes involve the same symptoms as depressive disorders.

Mood disorders can be caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Proper diagnosis and treatment, which may include psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both, are essential for managing these conditions and improving quality of life.

The nasal cavity is the air-filled space located behind the nose, which is divided into two halves by the nasal septum. It is lined with mucous membrane and is responsible for several functions including respiration, filtration, humidification, and olfaction (smell). The nasal cavity serves as an important part of the upper respiratory tract, extending from the nares (nostrils) to the choanae (posterior openings of the nasal cavity that lead into the pharynx). It contains specialized structures such as turbinate bones, which help to warm, humidify and filter incoming air.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a publication of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) that provides diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. It is widely used by mental health professionals in the United States and around the world to diagnose and classify mental health conditions.

The DSM includes detailed descriptions of symptoms, clinical examples, and specific criteria for each disorder, which are intended to facilitate accurate diagnosis and improve communication among mental health professionals. The manual is regularly updated to reflect current research and clinical practice, with the most recent edition being the DSM-5, published in 2013.

It's important to note that while the DSM is a valuable tool for mental health professionals, it is not without controversy. Some critics argue that the manual medicalizes normal human experiences and that its categories may be too broad or overlapping. Nonetheless, it remains an essential resource for clinicians, researchers, and policymakers in the field of mental health.

"Pentanols" is not a recognized medical term. However, in chemistry, pentanols refer to a group of alcohols containing five carbon atoms. The general formula for pentanols is C5H12O, and they have various subcategories such as primary, secondary, and tertiary pentanols, depending on the type of hydroxyl (-OH) group attachment to the carbon chain.

In a medical context, alcohols like methanol and ethanol can be toxic and cause various health issues. However, there is no specific medical relevance associated with "pentanols" as a group. If you have any further questions or need information about a specific chemical compound, please let me know!

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), also simply referred to as depression, is a serious mental health condition characterized by the presence of one or more major depressive episodes. A major depressive episode is a period of at least two weeks during which an individual experiences a severely depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities, accompanied by at least four additional symptoms such as significant changes in appetite or weight, sleep disturbances, psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue or loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt, difficulty thinking, concentrating, or making decisions, and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide.

MDD can significantly impair an individual's ability to function in daily life, and it is associated with increased risks of suicide, substance abuse, and other mental health disorders. The exact cause of MDD is not fully understood, but it is believed to result from a complex interplay of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of psychotherapy (such as cognitive-behavioral therapy) and medication (such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or tricyclic antidepressants).

Sense organs are specialized structures in living organisms that are responsible for receiving and processing various external or internal stimuli, such as light, sound, taste, smell, temperature, and touch. They convert these stimuli into electrical signals that can be interpreted by the nervous system, allowing the organism to interact with and respond to its environment. Examples of sense organs include the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin.

Sensory thresholds are the minimum levels of stimulation that are required to produce a sensation in an individual, as determined through psychophysical testing. These tests measure the point at which a person can just barely detect the presence of a stimulus, such as a sound, light, touch, or smell.

There are two types of sensory thresholds: absolute and difference. Absolute threshold is the minimum level of intensity required to detect a stimulus 50% of the time. Difference threshold, also known as just noticeable difference (JND), is the smallest change in intensity that can be detected between two stimuli.

Sensory thresholds can vary between individuals and are influenced by factors such as age, attention, motivation, and expectations. They are often used in clinical settings to assess sensory function and diagnose conditions such as hearing or vision loss.

Pheromones are chemical signals that one organism releases into the environment that can affect the behavior or physiology of other organisms of the same species. They are primarily used for communication in animals, including insects and mammals. In humans, the existence and role of pheromones are still a subject of ongoing research and debate.

In a medical context, pheromones may be discussed in relation to certain medical conditions or treatments that involve olfactory (smell) stimuli, such as some forms of aromatherapy. However, it's important to note that the use of pheromones as a medical treatment is not widely accepted and more research is needed to establish their effectiveness and safety.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with hyperactivity is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects both children and adults. The condition is characterized by symptoms including:

1. Difficulty paying attention or staying focused on a single task
2. Impulsivity, or acting without thinking
3. Hyperactivity, or excessive fidgeting, restlessness, or talking

In order to be diagnosed with ADHD with hyperactivity, an individual must exhibit these symptoms to a degree that is developmentally inappropriate and interferes with their daily functioning. Additionally, the symptoms must have been present for at least six months and be present in multiple settings (e.g., at home, school, work).

It's important to note that ADHD can manifest differently in different people, and some individuals may experience predominantly inattentive or impulsive symptoms rather than hyperactive ones. However, when the hyperactive component is prominent, it is referred to as ADHD with hyperactivity.

Effective treatments for ADHD with hyperactivity include a combination of medication (such as stimulants) and behavioral therapy. With appropriate treatment, individuals with ADHD can learn to manage their symptoms and lead successful, fulfilling lives.

In a medical context, taste is the sensation produced when a substance in the mouth reacts with taste buds, which are specialized sensory cells found primarily on the tongue. The tongue's surface contains papillae, which house the taste buds. These taste buds can identify five basic tastes: salty, sour, bitter, sweet, and umami (savory). Different areas of the tongue are more sensitive to certain tastes, but all taste buds can detect each of the five tastes, although not necessarily equally.

Taste is a crucial part of our sensory experience, helping us identify and differentiate between various types of food and drinks, and playing an essential role in appetite regulation and enjoyment of meals. Abnormalities in taste sensation can be associated with several medical conditions or side effects of certain medications.

A depressive disorder is a mental health condition characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest or pleasure in activities. It can also include changes in sleep, appetite, energy levels, concentration, and self-esteem, as well as thoughts of death or suicide. Depressive disorders can vary in severity and duration, with some people experiencing mild and occasional symptoms, while others may have severe and chronic symptoms that interfere with their ability to function in daily life.

There are several types of depressive disorders, including major depressive disorder (MDD), persistent depressive disorder (PDD), and postpartum depression. MDD is characterized by symptoms that interfere significantly with a person's ability to function and last for at least two weeks, while PDD involves chronic low-grade depression that lasts for two years or more. Postpartum depression occurs in women after childbirth and can range from mild to severe.

Depressive disorders are thought to be caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, psychotherapy (talk therapy), and lifestyle changes.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental health disorder characterized by the presence of obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are intrusive, unwanted, and often distressing. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rigid rules, and which are aimed at preventing or reducing anxiety or distress, or preventing some dreaded event or situation. These obsessions and/or compulsions cause significant distress, take up a lot of time (an hour or more a day), and interfere with the individual's daily life, including social activities, relationships, and work or school performance. OCD is considered a type of anxiety disorder and can also co-occur with other mental health conditions.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that can occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event such as a natural disaster, serious accident, war combat, rape, or violent personal assault. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5), PTSD is characterized by the following symptoms, which must last for more than one month:

1. Intrusion symptoms: These include distressing memories, nightmares, flashbacks, or intense psychological distress or reactivity to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event.
2. Avoidance symptoms: Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event, including thoughts, feelings, conversations, activities, places, or people.
3. Negative alterations in cognitions and mood: This includes negative beliefs about oneself, others, or the world; distorted blame of self or others for causing the trauma; persistent negative emotional state; decreased interest in significant activities; and feelings of detachment or estrangement from others.
4. Alterations in arousal and reactivity: This includes irritable behavior and angry outbursts, reckless or self-destructive behavior, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, problems with concentration, and sleep disturbance.
5. Duration of symptoms: The symptoms must last for more than one month.
6. Functional significance: The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

It is essential to note that PTSD can occur at any age and can be accompanied by various physical and mental health problems, such as depression, substance abuse, memory problems, and other difficulties in cognition. Appropriate treatment, which may include psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both, can significantly improve the symptoms and overall quality of life for individuals with PTSD.

Autistic Disorder, also known as Autism or Classic Autism, is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. It is characterized by:

1. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, including:
* Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity;
* Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction;
* Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships.
2. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following:
* Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech;
* Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal behavior;
* Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus;
* Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in sensory aspects of the environment.
3. Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period (but may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities) and limit or impair everyday functioning.
4. Symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a schizophrenia spectrum disorder or other psychotic disorders.

Autistic Disorder is part of the autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), which also include Asperger's Syndrome and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS). The current diagnostic term for this category of conditions, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), is Autism Spectrum Disorder.

The olfactory nerve, also known as the first cranial nerve (I), is a specialized sensory nerve that is responsible for the sense of smell. It consists of thin, delicate fibers called olfactory neurons that are located in the upper part of the nasal cavity. These neurons have hair-like structures called cilia that detect and transmit information about odors to the brain.

The olfactory nerve has two main parts: the peripheral process and the central process. The peripheral process extends from the olfactory neuron to the nasal cavity, where it picks up odor molecules. These molecules bind to receptors on the cilia, which triggers an electrical signal that travels along the nerve fiber to the brain.

The central process of the olfactory nerve extends from the olfactory bulb, a structure at the base of the brain, to several areas in the brain involved in smell and memory, including the amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus. Damage to the olfactory nerve can result in a loss of smell (anosmia) or distorted smells (parosmia).

The olfactory marker protein (OMP) is a specific type of protein that is primarily found in the olfactory sensory neurons of the nose. These neurons are responsible for detecting and transmitting information about odors to the brain. The OMP plays a crucial role in the function of these neurons, as it helps to maintain their structure and stability. It also contributes to the process of odor detection by helping to speed up the transmission of signals from the olfactory receptors to the brain.

The presence of OMP is often used as a marker for mature olfactory sensory neurons, as it is not typically found in other types of cells. Additionally, changes in the expression levels of OMP have been associated with various neurological conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, making it a potential target for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

"Acorus" is a genus of perennial plants in the family Acoraceae. The most common species is Acorus calamus, also known as sweet flag or calamus. This plant has been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, including as a stimulant, carminative, and antiemetic. However, it's important to note that the use of this plant in modern medicine is limited due to concerns about its potential toxicity and lack of rigorous scientific evidence supporting its efficacy. Therefore, it's recommended to consult with a healthcare professional before using any products containing Acorus for medicinal purposes.

A phobic disorder is a type of anxiety disorder characterized by an excessive and irrational fear or avoidance of specific objects, situations, or activities. This fear can cause significant distress and interfere with a person's daily life. Phobic disorders are typically classified into three main categories: specific phobias (such as fear of heights, spiders, or needles), social phobia (or social anxiety disorder), and agoraphobia (fear of open spaces or situations where escape might be difficult).

People with phobic disorders often recognize that their fear is excessive or unreasonable, but they are unable to control it. When exposed to the feared object or situation, they may experience symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, and difficulty breathing. These symptoms can be so distressing that individuals with phobic disorders go to great lengths to avoid the feared situation, which can have a significant impact on their quality of life.

Treatment for phobic disorders typically involves cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which helps individuals identify and challenge their irrational thoughts and fears, as well as exposure therapy, which gradually exposes them to the feared object or situation in a safe and controlled environment. In some cases, medication may also be recommended to help manage symptoms of anxiety.

'Animal behavior' refers to the actions or responses of animals to various stimuli, including their interactions with the environment and other individuals. It is the study of the actions of animals, whether they are instinctual, learned, or a combination of both. Animal behavior includes communication, mating, foraging, predator avoidance, and social organization, among other things. The scientific study of animal behavior is called ethology. This field seeks to understand the evolutionary basis for behaviors as well as their physiological and psychological mechanisms.

Pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) are a group of conditions that affect the development and functioning of the brain, leading to delays in many areas of development. The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) has replaced the term "pervasive developmental disorders" with "autism spectrum disorder" and "other neurodevelopmental disorders."

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. The symptoms of ASD can range from mild to severe, and the condition affects approximately 1 in 54 children in the United States.

Other neurodevelopmental disorders that were previously classified as PDDs include:

1. Intellectual disability (ID): a condition characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This disorder used to be referred to as "mental retardation."
2. Communication disorders: these are disorders that affect an individual's ability to communicate, including language disorders, speech sound disorders, and stuttering.
3. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
4. Specific learning disorder: a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects an individual's ability to learn and use specific academic skills, such as reading, writing, or mathematics.
5. Motor disorders: these are disorders that affect an individual's movement and coordination, including developmental coordination disorder, stereotypic movement disorder, and tic disorders.

The medical definition of 'Child Development Disorders, Pervasive' has been replaced with more specific diagnoses in the DSM-5 to better reflect the diverse nature of these conditions and improve diagnostic accuracy and treatment planning.

Psychotic disorders are a group of severe mental health conditions characterized by distorted perceptions, thoughts, and emotions that lead to an inability to recognize reality. The two most common symptoms of psychotic disorders are hallucinations and delusions. Hallucinations are when a person sees, hears, or feels things that aren't there, while delusions are fixed, false beliefs that are not based on reality.

Other symptoms may include disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, catatonic behavior, and negative symptoms such as apathy and lack of emotional expression. Schizophrenia is the most well-known psychotic disorder, but other types include schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, brief psychotic disorder, shared psychotic disorder, and substance-induced psychotic disorder.

Psychotic disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, brain chemistry imbalances, trauma, and substance abuse. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, therapy, and support services to help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

Substance-related disorders, as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), refer to a group of conditions caused by the use of substances such as alcohol, drugs, or medicines. These disorders are characterized by a problematic pattern of using a substance that leads to clinically significant impairment or distress. They can be divided into two main categories: substance use disorders and substance-induced disorders. Substance use disorders involve a pattern of compulsive use despite negative consequences, while substance-induced disorders include conditions such as intoxication, withdrawal, and substance/medication-induced mental disorders. The specific diagnosis depends on the type of substance involved, the patterns of use, and the presence or absence of physiological dependence.

I could not find a widely accepted medical definition for "sex attractants" as it is not a standard term used in medical literature. However, the concept of sex attractants is often discussed in the context of animal behavior and can refer to chemical substances that animals produce and release to attract mates. These substances are also known as pheromones.

In humans, there is ongoing scientific debate about whether or not pheromones play a significant role in sexual attraction and mate selection. Some studies suggest that humans may have a functional vomeronasal organ (VNO), which is involved in the detection of pheromones in other animals. However, many scientists remain skeptical about the role of human sex attractants or pheromones due to limited evidence and conflicting results from various studies.

Therefore, it's essential to note that while there may be some scientific interest in the concept of human sex attractants, it is not a well-established area of study within medical research.

Sensory receptor cells are specialized structures that convert physical stimuli from our environment into electrical signals, which are then transmitted to the brain for interpretation. These receptors can be found in various tissues throughout the body and are responsible for detecting sensations such as touch, pressure, temperature, taste, and smell. They can be classified into two main types: exteroceptors, which respond to stimuli from the external environment, and interoceptors, which react to internal conditions within the body. Examples of sensory receptor cells include hair cells in the inner ear, photoreceptors in the eye, and taste buds on the tongue.

The trigeminal nerve, also known as the fifth cranial nerve or CNV, is a paired nerve that carries both sensory and motor information. It has three major branches: ophthalmic (V1), maxillary (V2), and mandibular (V3). The ophthalmic branch provides sensation to the forehead, eyes, and upper portion of the nose; the maxillary branch supplies sensation to the lower eyelid, cheek, nasal cavity, and upper lip; and the mandibular branch is responsible for sensation in the lower lip, chin, and parts of the oral cavity, as well as motor function to the muscles involved in chewing. The trigeminal nerve plays a crucial role in sensations of touch, pain, temperature, and pressure in the face and mouth, and it also contributes to biting, chewing, and swallowing functions.

A nose, in a medical context, refers to the external part of the human body that is located on the face and serves as the primary organ for the sense of smell. It is composed of bone and cartilage, with a thin layer of skin covering it. The nose also contains nasal passages that are lined with mucous membranes and tiny hairs known as cilia. These structures help to filter, warm, and moisturize the air we breathe in before it reaches our lungs. Additionally, the nose plays an essential role in the process of verbal communication by shaping the sounds we make when we speak.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that have a low boiling point and easily evaporate at room temperature. They can be liquids or solids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and formaldehyde, which are found in many household products, including paints, paint strippers, and other solvents; cleaning supplies; pesticides; building materials and furnishings; office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper; and glues and adhesives.

VOCs can cause both short- and long-term health effects. Short-term exposure to high levels of VOCs can cause headaches, dizziness, visual disturbances, and memory problems. Long-term exposure can cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system. Some VOCs are also suspected or known carcinogens.

It is important to properly use, store, and dispose of products that contain VOCs to minimize exposure. Increasing ventilation by opening windows and doors or using fans can also help reduce exposure to VOCs.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Insect Proteins" is not a recognized medical term. However, I can provide some information about insect protein from a nutritional and food science perspective.

Insect proteins refer to the proteins that are obtained from insects. Insects are a rich source of protein, and their protein content varies by species. For example, mealworms and crickets have been found to contain approximately 47-63% and 60-72% protein by dry weight, respectively.

In recent years, insect proteins have gained attention as a potential sustainable source of nutrition due to their high protein content, low environmental impact, and the ability to convert feed into protein more efficiently compared to traditional livestock. Insect proteins can be used in various applications such as food and feed additives, nutritional supplements, and even cosmetics.

However, it's important to note that the use of insect proteins in human food is not widely accepted in many Western countries due to cultural and regulatory barriers. Nonetheless, research and development efforts continue to explore the potential benefits and applications of insect proteins in the global food system.

Conduct Disorder is a mental health disorder that typically begins in childhood or adolescence and is characterized by a repetitive pattern of behavior that violates the rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms and rules. The behaviors fall into four main categories: aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violation of rules.

The specific symptoms of Conduct Disorder can vary widely among individuals, but they generally include:

1. Aggression to people and animals: This may include physical fights, bullying, threatening others, cruelty to animals, and use of weapons.
2. Destruction of property: This may include deliberate destruction of others' property, arson, and vandalism.
3. Deceitfulness or theft: This may include lying, shoplifting, stealing, and breaking into homes, buildings, or cars.
4. Serious violation of rules: This may include running away from home, truancy, staying out late without permission, and frequent violations of school rules.

Conduct Disorder can have serious consequences for individuals who suffer from it, including academic failure, substance abuse, depression, anxiety, and difficulties in interpersonal relationships. It is important to note that Conduct Disorder should be diagnosed by a qualified mental health professional based on a comprehensive evaluation.

Chemoreceptor cells are specialized sensory neurons that detect and respond to chemical changes in the internal or external environment. They play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis within the body by converting chemical signals into electrical impulses, which are then transmitted to the central nervous system for further processing and response.

There are two main types of chemoreceptor cells:

1. Oxygen Chemoreceptors: These cells are located in the carotid bodies near the bifurcation of the common carotid artery and in the aortic bodies close to the aortic arch. They monitor the levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH in the blood and respond to decreases in oxygen concentration or increases in carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions (indicating acidity) by increasing their firing rate. This signals the brain to increase respiratory rate and depth, thereby restoring normal oxygen levels.

2. Taste Cells: These chemoreceptor cells are found within the taste buds of the tongue and other areas of the oral cavity. They detect specific tastes (salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami) by interacting with molecules from food. When a tastant binds to receptors on the surface of a taste cell, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to the generation of an action potential. This information is then relayed to the brain, where it is interpreted as taste sensation.

In summary, chemoreceptor cells are essential for maintaining physiological balance by detecting and responding to chemical stimuli in the body. They play a critical role in regulating vital functions such as respiration and digestion.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Tic disorders are a group of conditions characterized by the presence of repetitive, involuntary movements or sounds, known as tics. These movements or sounds can vary in complexity and severity, and they may be worsened by stress or strong emotions.

There are several different types of tic disorders, including:

1. Tourette's disorder: This is a neurological condition characterized by the presence of both motor (movement-related) and vocal tics that have been present for at least one year. The tics may wax and wane in severity over time, but they do not disappear for more than three consecutive months.
2. Persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic disorder: This type of tic disorder is characterized by the presence of either motor or vocal tics (but not both), which have been present for at least one year. The tics may wax and wane in severity over time, but they do not disappear for more than three consecutive months.
3. Provisional tic disorder: This type of tic disorder is characterized by the presence of motor or vocal tics (or both) that have been present for less than one year. The tics may wax and wane in severity over time, but they do not disappear for more than three consecutive months.
4. Tic disorder not otherwise specified: This category is used to describe tic disorders that do not meet the criteria for any of the other types of tic disorders.

Tic disorders are thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, and they often co-occur with other conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Treatment for tic disorders may include behavioral therapy, medication, or a combination of both.

"Air movements" is not a medical term or concept. It generally refers to the movement or circulation of air, which can occur naturally (such as through wind) or mechanically (such as through fans or ventilation systems). In some contexts, it may refer specifically to the movement of air in operating rooms or other controlled environments for medical purposes. However, without more specific context, it is difficult to provide a precise definition or medical interpretation of "air movements."

Monoterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of two isoprene units and have the molecular formula C10H16. They are major components of many essential oils found in plants, giving them their characteristic fragrances and flavors. Monoterpenes can be further classified into various subgroups based on their structural features, such as acyclic (e.g., myrcene), monocyclic (e.g., limonene), and bicyclic (e.g., pinene) compounds. In the medical field, monoterpenes have been studied for their potential therapeutic properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. However, more research is needed to fully understand their mechanisms of action and clinical applications.

Doty, RL (June 2012). "Olfaction in Parkinson's disease and related disorders". Neurobiology of Disease. 3. 46 (3): 527-552. ... The disorders with the olfactory dysfunction are those with the most pathology, such as PD and AD. Doty, RL; Frye RE; Agrawal U ... Hawkes, C.; Shephard B; Kobal G. (August 1997). "Assessment of Olfaction in multiple sclerosis: evidence of dysfunction by ... There are many central nervous system disorders that are associated with olfactory dysfunction. Most of these dysfunctions ...
Doty, Richard (2012). "Olfaction in Parkinson's disease and related disorders". Neurobiological Disorders. 46 (3): 527-552. doi ... Atanasova, B (2008). "Olfaction: A potential cognitive marker of psychiatric disorder" (PDF). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral ... Olfaction Olfactory system Memory University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test Insect olfaction Olfactory heritage ... as each disorder has its own distinct features leading to specific predictions about what type of mental disorder a person may ...
"Olfaction in autism spectrum disorders: A systematic review". Child Neuropsychology. 23 (1): 1-25. doi:10.1080/09297049.2015. ... The prevalence of smell disorder (scores 0-5 out of 8 correct) was 13.5% in persons aged 40 years and over. If the same ... Some of the causes of olfaction problems are allergies, nasal polyps, viral infections and head trauma. In 2012 an estimated ... Lifelong hyposmia could be caused by Kallmann syndrome or Autism Spectrum Disorder. Along with other chemosensory disturbances ...
41% to 62% of patients (depending on the particular study) have disorders of the sense of smell (olfaction), which can present ... as anosmia (loss of olfaction), hyposmia (reduced olfaction) or parosmia (distortion of olfaction). However, loss of olfaction ... Clinical help exists for patients experiencing disorders of olfaction. Patients who experience of loss of smell for longer than ... Health care workers also frequently exhibit symptoms of more severe disorders developing like post-traumatic stress disorder ( ...
Quantitative smell disorders are disorders in which there is complete or partial loss of olfaction. Anosmia, the complete loss ... Qualitative disorders include parosmia (also called troposmia) and phantosmia. Dysosmia is a qualitative olfaction disorder and ... of olfaction, and hyposmia, the partial loss of olfaction are the two disorders classified as quantitative because they can be ... Qualitative smell disorders cannot be measured and are disorders in which there is alternation or distortion in the perception ...
"Olfaction as a Traumatic Reminder in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Case Reports and Review". The Journal of Clinical ... Acute stress disorder Content rating Emotional dysregulation Hypervigilance Motion Picture Association of America film rating ... ISBN 978-1-317-26822-2. Lahad, Mooli; Doron, Miki (2010). Protocol for Treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: SEE FAR CBT ... ISBN 978-1-4625-3384-8. Lahad, Mooli; Doron, Miki (2010). Protocol for Treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: SEE FAR CBT ...
... makes it likely to be involved in several psychiatric disorders in which olfaction and dopamine receptors are affected. Many ... As far as olfaction is concerned, in vitro data from some studies suggest that the olfactory tubercle units have the functional ... Functional contributions of the olfactory tubercle to olfaction are currently unclear; however, there is evidence of a ... Heimer, L. (2003). "A new anatomical framework for neuropsychiatric disorders and drug abuse". American Journal of Psychiatry. ...
Olfaction The act of smelling. Olfactometer Device for estimating the intensity of the sense of smell. Open-set speech ... Motor speech disorders Group of disorders caused by the inability to accurately produce speech sounds (phonemes) because of ... Throat disorders Disorders or diseases of the larynx (voice box), pharynx, or esophagus. Thyroplasty Surgical technique(s) to ... Pervasive developmental disorders Disorders characterized by delays in several areas of development that may include ...
... olfaction, feeding, the control of appetite, memory, and emotion; neurological disorders of emotion; psychiatric disorders ... and of treating its disorders. Edmund Rolls read preclinical Medicine at the University of Cambridge, and then performed ...
... olfaction disorders MeSH C23.888.592.763.770 - somatosensory disorders MeSH C23.888.592.763.770.400 - hyperalgesia MeSH C23.888 ... sensation disorders MeSH C23.888.592.763.237 - dizziness MeSH C23.888.592.763.393 - hearing disorders MeSH C23.888.592.763. ... communication disorders MeSH C23.888.592.604.150.500 - language disorders MeSH C23.888.592.604.150.500.050 - agraphia MeSH ... language development disorders MeSH C23.888.592.604.150.500.800 - speech disorders MeSH C23.888.592.604.150.500.800.100 - ...
Olfaction, Perception, Symptoms and signs of mental disorders). ...
... olfaction disorders MeSH C10.597.751.791 - somatosensory disorders MeSH C10.597.751.791.400 - hyperalgesia MeSH C10.597.751.791 ... headache disorders MeSH C10.228.140.546.399 - headache disorders, primary MeSH C10.228.140.546.399.750 - migraine disorders ... sleep disorders, circadian rhythm MeSH C10.886.425.200.500 - jet lag syndrome MeSH C10.886.425.800 - sleep disorders, intrinsic ... language development disorders MeSH C10.597.606.150.500.800 - speech disorders MeSH C10.597.606.150.500.800.100 - aphasia MeSH ...
... olfaction), real or imagined Marked increase in sex drive Agitation Anxiety Panic disorder Nervousness Paranoia Delusions ... "Opioid Use Disorder". The Lecturio Medical Concept Library. Retrieved 25 June 2021. Mattick RP, Breen C, Kimber J, Davoli M ( ... Methadone is used for the treatment of opioid use disorder. It may be used as maintenance therapy or in shorter periods to ... Given opioid dependence is characteristically a chronic relapsing/remitting disorder, MMT may be lifelong. The length of time a ...
Finger, Thomas (2009). "International Symposium on Olfaction and Taste". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1170: 1- ... The organization has enjoyed strong support from the National Institute on Deafness and Communicative Disorders. and its ... "National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)". National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2015-07-09. ... National Institute on Deafness and other Communication Disorders European Chemosensory Research Organization Japanese ...
In a clinical setting, patients may undergo olfactory tests to aid in the diagnosis of mental disorders. A common test involves ... Majid, A; Kruspe, N (2018). "Hunter-gatherer olfaction is special". Current Biology. 28 (3): 409-413.e2. doi:10.1016/j.cub. ... Sniffin' Sticks are used both for diagnosis and for research into olfaction, including olfactory language. Due to linguistic ... which involves communication between organisms using chemical substances detected through olfaction. Different speech ...
SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV and even the flu (influenza virus) can also disrupt olfaction. In the West, Aristotle postulated in c. 350 ... About 50% of patients with SARS-CoV-2 (causing COVID-19) experience some type of disorder associated with their sense of smell ...
Their profiles may be altered by diseases such as cancer, metabolic disorders, genetic disorders, infections, and among others ... and trained non-human olfaction. Physicians historically used odors as a diagnostic indicator to judge a patient's health. ... Orphaned articles from June 2022, All orphaned articles, Diseases and disorders, Medicine in society). ... symptomatic and asymptomatic individuals with metabolic and infectious diseases because of their highly sensitive olfaction due ...
... and musculoskeletal disorders, among others. Other areas of orthopedic research for uses of MSCs include tissue engineering and ... progenitor cells migrate within the brain and function primarily to maintain neuron populations for olfaction (the sense of ... "The role of autologous haemopoietic stem cell transplantation in the treatment of autoimmune disorders". Intern Med J. 46 (1): ... stem cells has been reported to induce neuroprotection and behavioral recovery in adult rat models of neurological disorder. ...
... of cases of bipolar disorder. However, the significance of GRK3 in bipolar disorder has been controversial due to conflicting ... GRK3 has particularly high expression in olfactory neurons, and mice lacking the ADRBK2 gene exhibit defects in olfaction. Gene ... Luykx JJ, Boks MP, Terwindt AP, Bakker S, Kahn RS, Ophoff RA (June 2010). "The involvement of GSK3beta in bipolar disorder: ... Ihara S, Touhara K (2018). "G Protein-Coupled Receptor Kinase 3 (GRK3) in Olfaction". Olfactory Receptors. Methods in Molecular ...
Herz, R.S., Schankler, C. & Beland, S. (2004). "Olfaction, emotion and associative learning: Effects on motivated behavior." ... A new frontier in the treatment and prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder. Brain Sciences, 11, 1070. https://doi.org/ ... the cases of olfaction and the timing of sleep. Journal of Biological Rhythms, 36(5), 423-431. doi: 10.1177/07487304211031206 ... A comparative analysis of the sensory and psychological value of olfaction. Brain Sciences, 12, 299. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ...
SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV and even the flu (influenza virus) can also disrupt olfaction. Electronic nose Evolution of olfaction ... About 50% of patients with SARS-CoV-2 (causing COVID-19) experience some type of disorder associated with their sense of smell ... Insect olfaction refers to the function of chemical receptors that enable insects to detect and identify volatile compounds for ... The sense of smell, or olfaction, is the special sense through which smells (or odors) are perceived. The sense of smell has ...
Zellweger spectrum disorders - are a group of rare disorders that create the same disease process. The subdivisions of this ... Ocular surgery - Olfaction - or the sense of smell, is the process of creating the perception of smell. It occurs when an odor ... Bipolar disorder - is a mental disorder that causes periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood Birth control ... Binge eating disorder - (BED), is an eating disorder characterized by frequent and recurrent binge eating episodes with ...
Some of the disorders associated with the limbic system and its interacting components are epilepsy and schizophrenia. The ... Its various components support a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, long-term memory, and olfaction. The limbic ... These interactions are closely linked to olfaction, emotions, drives, autonomic regulation, memory, and pathologically to ... such as anxiety disorders.[citation needed] Social processing, specifically the evaluation of faces in social processing, is an ...
February 2021). "Smell disorders in COVID-19 patients: role of olfactory training: A protocol for systematic review and meta- ... Holbrook, Eric H.; Coelho, Daniel H. (1 February 2020). "Cranial Nerve Stimulation for Olfaction (Cranial Nerve 1)". ... Doty, Richard L. (2019). "Treatments for smell and taste disorders: A critical review". Smell and Taste. Handbook of Clinical ...
855 (1 OLFACTION AND): 373-389. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb10595.x. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 9929629. S2CID 38973467. Liebowitz ... M; Monti, L; Hanover, R; Draine, A (2015). "PH94B nasal spray as a PRN treatment for social anxiety disorder: a phase 3 pilot ... "Effect of an Acute Intranasal Aerosol Dose of PH94B on Social and Performance Anxiety in Women With Social Anxiety Disorder". ... "Effect of an acute intranasal aerosol dose of PH94B on social and performance anxiety in women with social anxiety disorder". ...
Another major function of the nose is olfaction, the sense of smell. The area of olfactory epithelium, in the upper nasal ... Defects may be congenital, or result from nasal disorders or from trauma. These procedures are a type of reconstructive surgery ... The nasal conchae also help in olfaction function, by directing air-flow to the olfactory region. Speech is produced with ... The surgical procedure to correct breathing problems due to disorders in the nasal structures is called a rhinoplasty, and this ...
Atypical sniffing has been reported in cases of neurological disorders, especially those disorders characterized by impaired ... Wachowiak M (2011). "All in a sniff: olfaction as a model for active sensing". Neuron. 71 (6): 962-73. doi:10.1016/j.neuron. ... Few studies have explored the impact of neurological disorders on sniffing behavior, although numerous neurological disorders ... 1928 David George Laing, Richard L. Doty, W. Breipohl The Human Sense of Smell Springer-Verlag, 1991 Handbook of Olfaction and ...
The four variants were also correlated with mood and mental health disorders; major depressive disorder and schizophrenia in ... and two of these variants suggested links to biological pathways that involve sex hormone regulation and olfaction. All the ... Basavanhally T, Fonseca R, Uversky VN (November 2018). "Born This Way: Using Intrinsic Disorder to Map the Connections between ... Likewise, increased rates of autism spectrum disorder in children born to mothers with thyroid dysfunction and ...
Hawkes CH, Doty RL (12 February 2009). The Neurology of Olfaction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 37-. ISBN 978-0-521-68216-9 ... Proof-of-concept studies are currently underway in posttraumatic stress disorder and fragile X syndrome. Ganaxolone was ... Bali A, Jaggi AS (January 2014). "Multifunctional aspects of allopregnanolone in stress and related disorders". Progress in ... Girdler SS, Klatzkin R (October 2007). "Neurosteroids in the context of stress: implications for depressive disorders". ...
... psychotic bipolar disorder, and schizoaffective disorder Jill Bolte Taylor (born 1959), neuroanatomist who wrote My Stroke of ... neurobiologist known for contributions to olfaction, particularly the discovery and characterization of the insect olfactory ... 1990s), investigating sleep disorders C. Sue Carter (fl. from 1990s), biologist and behavioral neurobiologist specializing in ... from 1990), Taiwanese neuroscientist based in the US known for her work on neurological disorders that affect learning and ...
Olfaction Disorders / diagnosis* * Psychiatric Status Rating Scales * Schizophrenia / diagnosis* * Schizophrenic Psychology* * ... Olfaction and social drive in schizophrenia Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003 Jun;60(6):578-84. doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.60.6.578. ... and olfaction is related to social affiliation in other mammals. The SIDs have been linked with negative symptoms and the ...
Doty, RL (June 2012). "Olfaction in Parkinsons disease and related disorders". Neurobiology of Disease. 3. 46 (3): 527-552. ... The disorders with the olfactory dysfunction are those with the most pathology, such as PD and AD. Doty, RL; Frye RE; Agrawal U ... Hawkes, C.; Shephard B; Kobal G. (August 1997). "Assessment of Olfaction in multiple sclerosis: evidence of dysfunction by ... There are many central nervous system disorders that are associated with olfactory dysfunction. Most of these dysfunctions ...
14 Olfaction is usually normal or only mildly impaired in other parkinsonian disorders.14 Olfactory loss may also be an ... REM sleep behaviour disorder. REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD) is characterised by a loss of the normal atonia of REM sleep- ... One study measuring olfaction in 400 first-degree relatives of PD patients found that those with impaired olfaction had ... Manifestations of Parkinson disease differ in association with REM sleep behavior disorder. Movement Disorders 2008;23:1665-72. ...
Olfaction as a traumatic reminder in posttraumatic stress disorder: case reports and review. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry ... This may be why olfaction, more than any other sense, is so successful at triggering emotions and memories. ... particularly in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A decade ago, Vermetten and Bremner conducted three ...
... disorders of taste and smell have been difficult to diagnose and treat, often because of a lack of knowledge and understanding ... Evaluation of taste disorders is not as well developed as that of olfaction. It involves measurement of detection or ... Which neurologic disorders are associated with taste and smell disorders?. What is the role of taste and smell disorders in ... Various neuropsychiatric disorders (eg depression, [23] seasonal affective disorder, bipolar disorder [24] ) have been linked ...
... disorders of taste and smell have been difficult to diagnose and treat, often because of a lack of knowledge and understanding ... Evaluation of taste disorders is not as well developed as that of olfaction. It involves measurement of detection or ... Which neurologic disorders are associated with taste and smell disorders?. What is the role of taste and smell disorders in ... Various neuropsychiatric disorders (eg depression, [23] seasonal affective disorder, bipolar disorder [24] ) have been linked ...
... disorder, also known as Heller syndrome, is characterized by a loss of previously acquired language and social skills and ... Ortega-Hernandez OD, Kivity S, Shoenfeld Y. Olfaction, psychiatric disorders and autoimmunity: is there a common genetic ... Childhood disintegrative disorder: distinction from autistic disorder and predictors of outcome. J Child Neurol. 2013 Dec. 28( ... Childhood Disintegrative Disorder 299.10. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. 1994. 73-5. ...
Olfaction. The act of smelling.. Olfactometer. Device for estimating the intensity of the sense of smell.. Open-set speech ... Throat disorders. Disorders or diseases of the larynx (voice box), pharynx, or esophagus.. Thyroplasty. Surgical technique(s) ... Motor speech disorders. Group of disorders caused by the inability to accurately produce speech sounds (phonemes) because of ... Pervasive developmental disorders. Disorders characterized by delays in several areas of development that may include ...
olfaction from Neuroscience News features breaking science news from research labs, scientists and colleges around the world. ... Personality Disorders Linked to Increased Risk of Fatty Liver Disease. * Perception Puzzles: Our Brains Unique Counting ... closing a critical gap in the scientific understanding of olfaction.. Read More ...
Olfaction Disorders - Mnemonic Here is a quick mnemonic "DISORDERS OF OLFACTION" to remember about Olfaction DisordersThis can ... Taste Disorders - Mnemonic Here is a quick mnemonic "TASTE DISORDERS" to remember about Taste DisordersThis can be valuable for ...
... home of the German study group of olfaction and taste disorders of the German ORL Society. Basic research into this "forgotten ... Diagnosis and treatment of common disorders of the childs spine (scoliosis) and extremities (e.g. foot disorders, congenital ... Treatment of rheumatic disorders (rheumatoid arthritis). Spine treatment. The nonoperative and operative treatment of spinal ... Disorders of ocular blood flow are quite common nowadays, as many diseases like diabetes, arterial hypertension or malnutrition ...
... with self-reported normal olfaction, no mental illness, no rhinitis or other olfactory disorders and not pregnant, were ... Dubois, D. (2000). Categories as acts of meaning: the case of categories in olfaction and audition. Cogn. Sci. Q. 1, 35-68. ... 2022). From musk to body odor: decoding olfaction through genetic variation. PLoS Genet. 18:e1009564. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen ... Nováková, L., Varella Valentova, J., and Havlíček, J. (2014). Engagement in olfaction-related activities is associated with the ...
Brain Disorders (30 credits) The module provides you with an insight into common brain disorders and their aetiology, ... olfaction and development, and the theories accounting for each. The extent to which case studies (in combination with data ... for example eating disorders, obsessive compulsive disorders, autism and stuttering, and investigating the psychological ... It will introduce the causes and symptoms of major neuropsychological disorders of language, vision, memory, emotion, ...
Olfaction Disorders. Loss of or impaired ability to smell. This may be caused by OLFACTORY NERVE DISEASES; PARANASAL SINUS ... Olfaction disorders refer to conditions that affect an individuals ability to detect, identify, or interpret odors. These ... Olfaction disorders are medical conditions that affect an individuals ability to smell or perceive odor. ... Olfactory Nerve InjuriesOlfactory Nerve DiseasesOlfaction DisordersCranial Nerve InjuriesPeripheral Nerve Injuries ...
Olfaction Disorders 1 0 Sclerosis 1 0 Cerebral Infarction 1 0 Extraversion (Psychology) 1 0 ... Content source: Public Health Genomics Branch in the Division of Blood Disorders and Public Health Genomics, National Center on ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
OLFACTION DISORDERS. APRAXIA. APRAXIAS. ARNOLD-CHIARI DEFORMITY. ARNOLD-CHIARI MALFORMATION. ASPARTIC PROTEINASES. ASPARTIC ...
Olfaction Disorders/virology, Coronavirus Infections/transmission, Pneumonia, Viral/transmission, Carrier State/transmission, ...
Olfaction Disorders. Loss of or impaired ability to smell. This may be caused by OLFACTORY NERVE DISEASES; PARANASAL SINUS ... AfferentSantalumOlfaction DisordersMothsOlfactory PerceptionAction PotentialsManducaElectrophysiologyStimulation, Chemical ... Chemoreceptor cells may monitor external stimuli, as in TASTE and OLFACTION, or internal stimuli, such as the concentrations of ...
  • Patients with movement disorders frequently presented with altered mental status, generalized weakness, or worsening mobility but not anosmia. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Most patients with anosmia have normal perception of salty, sweet, sour, and bitter substances but lack flavor discrimination, which largely depends on olfaction. (msdmanuals.com)
  • CONCLUSION: This novel approach can be expected to help clinicians to identify patients with anosmia or patients with early symptoms of neurodegenerative disorders. (tu-dresden.de)
  • Parkinson's-related disorders most often appear around the age of 50 to 70. (annvio.com)
  • ABSTRACT Parkinson's disease (PD) and restless legs syndrome/Willis-Ekbom disorder (RLS/WED) are relatively common diseases in the realm of movement disorders. (bvsalud.org)
  • The relationship between olfactory dysfunction and neurodegenerative disorders such as mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, frontotemporal dementia, vascular dementia, and multiple sclerosis is now well-established. (nature.com)
  • Automated analysis of connected speech reveals early biomarkers of Parkinson's disease in patients with rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder," Scientific Reports, 7(February): 12. (dysan.cz)
  • The neurobiology of social dysfunction in schizophrenia is unknown, but smell identification deficits (SIDs) exist in schizophrenia, and olfaction is related to social affiliation in other mammals. (nih.gov)
  • There are many central nervous system disorders that are associated with olfactory dysfunction. (wikipedia.org)
  • Because approximately 80% of taste disorders are truly smell disorders, much of this article focuses on the sense of smell and its dysfunction, with additional discussion of taste and related disorders. (medscape.com)
  • Focusing on interpreting olfactory dysfunction in neurological disorders, we aim to understand how olfaction is coded in the brain. (wpi.edu)
  • These data add to the growing body of evidence supporting early olfactory dysfunction as a prodromal biomarker for the risk of developing PD and ILBD as a prodromal Lewy body disorder. (innovationscns.com)
  • 1 Among patients with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD) who eventually developed PD, recent data demonstrated that olfactory dysfunction can present 20 years or more prior to motor dysfunction and PD diagnosis. (innovationscns.com)
  • Smell and taste disorders can be total (all odors or tastes), partial (affecting several odors or tastes), or specific (only one or a select few odors or tastes). (medscape.com)
  • Here is a quick mnemonic "TASTE DISORDERS" to remember about Taste DisordersThis can be valuable for patients as well as medical doctors, nurses & students doing their clinical rounds. (medicalsupernotes.com)
  • Olfactory decline may indicate a neurological disorder, aid in differential diagnosis, or help to estimate disease prognosis. (csnn.eu)
  • PARTICIPANTS: 21 children (67% female), evaluated by two child neurologists and one movement disorders specialist, with clinical and laboratory diagnosis of CZVS aged between 16 and 30 months, with a mean age of 16 months at the time of the last examination. (bvsalud.org)
  • Odorants can also be perceived by entering the nose posteriorly through the nasopharynx to reach the olfactory receptor via retronasal olfaction. (medscape.com)
  • Olfaction is the sense of smell that chemically detects odorants in the air. (nature.com)
  • It is not established whether SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) patients with movement disorders, are at greater risk for more serious outcomes than the larger COVID-19 population beyond the susceptibility associated with greater age. (elsevierpure.com)
  • We reviewed electronic health records and conducted telephone interviews to collect the demographics and clinical outcomes of patients seen at our Movement Disorders Center who tested positive for COVID-19 from 8 March 2020 through 6 June 2020. (elsevierpure.com)
  • These data demonstrate that in patients with movement disorders, the likelihood of hospitalization and death after contracting COVID-19 was greater than in the general population. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The same team of experts analyzed recorded videos of all patients to characterize motor abnormalities and movement disorders. (bvsalud.org)
  • The study, published in Physiology & Behavior , found that many smell disorder patients reported decreased sexual desire after olfactory loss. (psypost.org)
  • For their study, the researchers compared a 100 patients with olfactory disorders to 51 healthy control participants. (psypost.org)
  • The researchers found that 23% of the patients reported that their sexual desire had decreased after the onset of their olfactory disorder. (psypost.org)
  • The patients with olfactory disorders also had significantly lower partnership security and were more depressed on average than the control group. (psypost.org)
  • Our research comprises qualitative and quantitative reports on sexual desire given by smell disorder patients. (psypost.org)
  • The study, " Sexual desire after olfactory loss: Quantitative and qualitative reports of patients with smell disorders ", was authored by Laura Schäfer, Linda Mehler, Antje Hähner, Ute Walliczek, Thomas Hummel, and Ilona Croy. (psypost.org)
  • Young patients with congenital olfactory disorders show tend not to aware of olfactory disturbances of their own 5 . (nature.com)
  • This study aimed to characterise the experience of patients with these disorders in seeking help. (uea.ac.uk)
  • According to Liberles, "In humans, the parts of the brain that deal with likes and dislikes go awry in many diseases, like drug addiction, and predator odor responses have been used to model stress and anxiety disorders. (scienceblog.com)
  • Olfaction is less developed in humans than in other mammals, such as rodents. (medscape.com)
  • Electroencephalography (EEG) may be performed as part of the neurologic workup to exclude seizure disorders such as Landau-Kleffner syndrome (LKS). (medscape.com)
  • MAIN OUTCOME(S) AND MEASURE(S): Prospective neurologic examination by a team of three neurologists, including one movement disorders specialist. (bvsalud.org)
  • Parkinson disease (PD) is one of the most common neurologic disorders, affecting approximately 1% of individuals older than 60 years and causing progressive disability that can be slowed, but not halted, by treatment. (medscape.com)
  • Parkinson disease is recognized as one of the most common neurologic disorders, affecting approximately 1% of individuals older than 60 years. (medscape.com)
  • The Internal Medicine Dept. I provides complete diagnostics and therapy of non-malignant and malignant diseases: a wide spectrum of cancers, blood disorders including coagulating disturbances, diseases of the gastro-intestinal and respiratory tract and infectious diseases including HIV and AIDS. (uniklinikum-dresden.de)
  • Purpose of Review In this narrative review, the early interplay between olfaction and vision is analysed, highlighting clinical effects of its manipulation in typical subjects and in presence of visual disorders. (researchgate.net)
  • A case report of a patient with symptoms of childhood disintegrative disorder at age 4 years determined that the patient had a sialylation deficiency and an increase of asialo-core fucosylated bisected N-glycans, aberrant N-glycan structures of CSF even though there were no changes of total plasma N-glycan strucutres of CSF proteins. (medscape.com)
  • Unfortunately, smells can also be potent triggers of negative emotions, particularly in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ). (psychologytoday.com)
  • These disorders included postinfectious olfactory loss, posttraumatic smell disorder, inunasal smell disorder, postsurgery disorders, and congenital smell disorders. (psypost.org)
  • Childhood disintegrative (or disintegration) disorder, also known as Heller syndrome, and now subsumed under the Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) category in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM5), is characterized by a loss of previously acquired language and social skills and results in a persistent delay in these areas. (medscape.com)
  • Overall, the social, communicative, and behavioral features of childhood disintegrative disorder resemble those of autistic disorder. (medscape.com)
  • or the group of syndromes to which autistic disorder belongs - the autism spectrum disorders . (wikipedia.org)
  • There remain to be described the disorders of the facial (VII) nerve and of the lower cranial nerves (IX to XII), as well as certain diseases that affect the trigeminal (V) nerve. (mhmedical.com)
  • Past medical history should include history of sinus disorders, cranial trauma or surgery, allergies, use of drugs (prescription, over-the-counter, illicit), and exposure to chemicals or fumes. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The prevalence of disorders of taste and smell in the US general population has been estimated from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014 protocol. (medscape.com)
  • The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence and incidence rate of olfactory disorders in Koreans and to evaluate demographic risk factors. (nature.com)
  • Volkmar FR, State M, Klin A. Autism and autism spectrum disorders: diagnostic issues for the coming decade. (medscape.com)
  • Additional symptoms of childhood disintegrative disorder may include the onset of difficulty in the transition to waking from sleep. (medscape.com)
  • However, current research has yet to reveal a clear-cut pathophysiology for childhood disintegrative disorder, and there remains considerable debate within the developmental disabilities field regarding the long-term outcomes of children with this condition. (medscape.com)
  • CSF N-glycan profile reveals sialylation deficiency in a patient with GM2 gangliosidosis presenting as childhood disintegrative disorder. (medscape.com)
  • A case study of childhood disintegrative disorder using systematic analysis of family home movies. (medscape.com)
  • Automated analysis of speech disorders in neurodegenerative diseases. (dysan.cz)
  • 2016). "Quantitative assessment of motor speech abnormalities in idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder," Sleep Medicine, 19(3 March): 141-147. (dysan.cz)
  • This is a glossary of medical terms related to communication disorders which are psychological or medical conditions that could have the potential to affect the ways in which individuals can hear, listen, understand, speak and respond to others. (wikipedia.org)
  • For the average person, our study may lead to more awareness for olfaction in general: It might raise appreciation of an intact sense of smell and enhance the conscious perception of odors in the daily environment, which might increase enjoyment," Schäfer told PsyPost. (psypost.org)
  • There are disputes on these findings asscientists believe that there are flaws in understanding the olfaction process.Moreover more research is needed to know the exact number of the odors whichhumans can detect. (maryelizabethbodycare.com)
  • Prevention / natural remedies / cures / treatment for smell disorders. (growyouthful.com)
  • Third-wave interventions for eating disorders in adolescence - systematic review with meta-analysis. (ukw.de)
  • It is one of about 10 disorders characterized by a lifelong inability to sense physical pain. (medlineplus.gov)
  • OBJECTIVE: To examine a cohort of infants with CZVS and characterize the spectrum of motor abnormalities, especially movement disorders. (bvsalud.org)
  • Other simple screens based upon autonomic symptoms, depression and personality changes, quantitative motor testing and other sleep disorders may also be useful markers, but have not been extensively tested. (bmj.com)
  • Health care professional who is trained to evaluate hearing loss and related disorders, including balance (vestibular) disorders and tinnitus , and to rehabilitate individuals with hearing loss and related disorders. (wikipedia.org)
  • The disorder may be associated with lysosomal storage disorders such as late-onset Tay-Sachs disease(LOTS). (medscape.com)
  • This may be why olfaction , more than any other sense, is so successful at triggering emotions and memories. (psychologytoday.com)
  • Decreased olfaction has recently been demonstrated to predict PD in prospective pathological studies, although the lead time may be relatively short, and the positive predictive value is low. (bmj.com)
  • Olfaction contributes a lot to social interaction and sexual behavior. (psypost.org)