Reduction of bone mass without alteration in the composition of bone, leading to fractures. Primary osteoporosis can be of two major types: postmenopausal osteoporosis (OSTEOPOROSIS, POSTMENOPAUSAL) and age-related or senile osteoporosis.
Metabolic disorder associated with fractures of the femoral neck, vertebrae, and distal forearm. It occurs commonly in women within 15-20 years after menopause, and is caused by factors associated with menopause including estrogen deficiency.
The physiological period following the MENOPAUSE, the permanent cessation of the menstrual life.
The amount of mineral per square centimeter of BONE. This is the definition used in clinical practice. Actual bone density would be expressed in grams per milliliter. It is most frequently measured by X-RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY or TOMOGRAPHY, X RAY COMPUTED. Bone density is an important predictor for OSTEOPOROSIS.
Agents that inhibit BONE RESORPTION and/or favor BONE MINERALIZATION and BONE REGENERATION. They are used to heal BONE FRACTURES and to treat METABOLIC BONE DISEASES such as OSTEOPOROSIS.
The use of hormonal agents with estrogen-like activity in postmenopausal or other estrogen-deficient women to alleviate effects of hormone deficiency, such as vasomotor symptoms, DYSPAREUNIA, and progressive development of OSTEOPOROSIS. This may also include the use of progestational agents in combination therapy.
Breaks in bones.
Breaks in bones resulting from low bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration characteristic of OSTEOPOROSIS.
The last menstrual period. Permanent cessation of menses (MENSTRUATION) is usually defined after 6 to 12 months of AMENORRHEA in a woman over 45 years of age. In the United States, menopause generally occurs in women between 48 and 55 years of age.
A nonhormonal medication for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis in women. This drug builds healthy bone, restoring some of the bone loss as a result of osteoporosis.
A noninvasive method for assessing BODY COMPOSITION. It is based on the differential absorption of X-RAYS (or GAMMA RAYS) by different tissues such as bone, fat and other soft tissues. The source of (X-ray or gamma-ray) photon beam is generated either from radioisotopes such as GADOLINIUM 153, IODINE 125, or Americanium 241 which emit GAMMA RAYS in the appropriate range; or from an X-ray tube which produces X-RAYS in the desired range. It is primarily used for quantitating BONE MINERAL CONTENT, especially for the diagnosis of OSTEOPOROSIS, and also in measuring BONE MINERALIZATION.
Organic compounds which contain P-C-P bonds, where P stands for phosphonates or phosphonic acids. These compounds affect calcium metabolism. They inhibit ectopic calcification and slow down bone resorption and bone turnover. Technetium complexes of diphosphonates have been used successfully as bone scanning agents.
A specialized CONNECTIVE TISSUE that is the main constituent of the SKELETON. The principle cellular component of bone is comprised of OSTEOBLASTS; OSTEOCYTES; and OSTEOCLASTS, while FIBRILLAR COLLAGENS and hydroxyapatite crystals form the BONE MATRIX.
Compounds that interact with ESTROGEN RECEPTORS in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of ESTRADIOL. Estrogens stimulate the female reproductive organs, and the development of secondary female SEX CHARACTERISTICS. Estrogenic chemicals include natural, synthetic, steroidal, or non-steroidal compounds.
Metabolic bone diseases are a group of disorders that affect the bones' structure and strength, caused by disturbances in the normal metabolic processes involved in bone formation, resorption, or mineralization, including conditions like osteoporosis, osteomalacia, Paget's disease, and renal osteodystrophy.
Fractures occurring as a result of disease of a bone or from some undiscoverable cause, and not due to trauma. (Dorland, 27th ed)
A pharmaceutical preparation containing a mixture of water-soluble, conjugated estrogens derived wholly or in part from URINE of pregnant mares or synthetically from ESTRONE and EQUILIN. It contains a sodium-salt mixture of estrone sulfate (52-62%) and equilin sulfate (22-30%) with a total of the two between 80-88%. Other concomitant conjugates include 17-alpha-dihydroequilin, 17-alpha-estradiol, and 17-beta-dihydroequilin. The potency of the preparation is expressed in terms of an equivalent quantity of sodium estrone sulfate.
A diphosphonate which affects calcium metabolism. It inhibits ectopic calcification and slows down bone resorption and bone turnover.
Tumors or cancer of the human BREAST.
The period before MENOPAUSE. In premenopausal women, the climacteric transition from full sexual maturity to cessation of ovarian cycle takes place between the age of late thirty and early fifty.
A polypeptide that consists of the 1-34 amino-acid fragment of human PARATHYROID HORMONE, the biologically active N-terminal region. The acetate form is given by intravenous infusion in the differential diagnosis of HYPOPARATHYROIDISM and PSEUDOHYPOPARATHYROIDISM. (Reynolds JEF(Ed): Martindale: The Extra Pharmacopoeia (electronic version). Micromedex, Inc, Englewood, CO, 1995)
The constricted portion of the thigh bone between the femur head and the trochanters.
A second generation selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) used to prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. It has estrogen agonist effects on bone and cholesterol metabolism but behaves as a complete estrogen antagonist on mammary gland and uterine tissue.
Broken bones in the vertebral column.
Bone loss due to osteoclastic activity.
The continuous turnover of BONE MATRIX and mineral that involves first an increase in BONE RESORPTION (osteoclastic activity) and later, reactive BONE FORMATION (osteoblastic activity). The process of bone remodeling takes place in the adult skeleton at discrete foci. The process ensures the mechanical integrity of the skeleton throughout life and plays an important role in calcium HOMEOSTASIS. An imbalance in the regulation of bone remodeling's two contrasting events, bone resorption and bone formation, results in many of the metabolic bone diseases, such as OSTEOPOROSIS.
Compounds that inhibit AROMATASE in order to reduce production of estrogenic steroid hormones.
Therapeutic use of hormones to alleviate the effects of hormone deficiency.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
A structurally diverse group of compounds distinguished from ESTROGENS by their ability to bind and activate ESTROGEN RECEPTORS but act as either an agonist or antagonist depending on the tissue type and hormonal milieu. They are classified as either first generation because they demonstrate estrogen agonist properties in the ENDOMETRIUM or second generation based on their patterns of tissue specificity. (Horm Res 1997;48:155-63)
VERTEBRAE in the region of the lower BACK below the THORACIC VERTEBRAE and above the SACRAL VERTEBRAE.
The 17-beta-isomer of estradiol, an aromatized C18 steroid with hydroxyl group at 3-beta- and 17-beta-position. Estradiol-17-beta is the most potent form of mammalian estrogenic steroids.
One of the SELECTIVE ESTROGEN RECEPTOR MODULATORS with tissue-specific activities. Tamoxifen acts as an anti-estrogen (inhibiting agent) in the mammary tissue, but as an estrogen (stimulating agent) in cholesterol metabolism, bone density, and cell proliferation in the ENDOMETRIUM.
The surgical removal of one or both ovaries.
Fractures of the FEMUR HEAD; the FEMUR NECK; (FEMORAL NECK FRACTURES); the trochanters; or the inter- or subtrochanteric region. Excludes fractures of the acetabulum and fractures of the femoral shaft below the subtrochanteric region (FEMORAL FRACTURES).
Calcium compounds used as food supplements or in food to supply the body with calcium. Dietary calcium is needed during growth for bone development and for maintenance of skeletal integrity later in life to prevent osteoporosis.
An aromatized C18 steroid with a 3-hydroxyl group and a 17-ketone, a major mammalian estrogen. It is converted from ANDROSTENEDIONE directly, or from TESTOSTERONE via ESTRADIOL. In humans, it is produced primarily by the cyclic ovaries, PLACENTA, and the ADIPOSE TISSUE of men and postmenopausal women.
Organic compounds containing the -CN radical. The concept is distinguished from CYANIDES, which denotes inorganic salts of HYDROGEN CYANIDE.
A synthetic progestin that is derived from 17-hydroxyprogesterone. It is a long-acting contraceptive that is effective both orally or by intramuscular injection and has also been used to treat breast and endometrial neoplasms.
A glycoprotein migrating as a beta-globulin. Its molecular weight, 52,000 or 95,000-115,000, indicates that it exists as a dimer. The protein binds testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and estradiol in the plasma. Sex hormone-binding protein has the same amino acid sequence as ANDROGEN-BINDING PROTEIN. They differ by their sites of synthesis and post-translational oligosaccharide modifications.
Triazoles are a class of antifungal drugs that contain a triazole ring in their chemical structure and work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes, thereby disrupting the integrity and function of the membrane.
3-Phenylchromones. Isomeric form of FLAVONOIDS in which the benzene group is attached to the 3 position of the benzopyran ring instead of the 2 position.
A vitamin that includes both CHOLECALCIFEROLS and ERGOCALCIFEROLS, which have the common effect of preventing or curing RICKETS in animals. It can also be viewed as a hormone since it can be formed in SKIN by action of ULTRAVIOLET RAYS upon the precursors, 7-dehydrocholesterol and ERGOSTEROL, and acts on VITAMIN D RECEPTORS to regulate CALCIUM in opposition to PARATHYROID HORMONE.
Compounds that interact with PROGESTERONE RECEPTORS in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of PROGESTERONE. Primary actions of progestins, including natural and synthetic steroids, are on the UTERUS and the MAMMARY GLAND in preparation for and in maintenance of PREGNANCY.
Antineoplastic agents that are used to treat hormone-sensitive tumors. Hormone-sensitive tumors may be hormone-dependent, hormone-responsive, or both. A hormone-dependent tumor regresses on removal of the hormonal stimulus, by surgery or pharmacological block. Hormone-responsive tumors may regress when pharmacologic amounts of hormones are administered regardless of whether previous signs of hormone sensitivity were observed. The major hormone-responsive cancers include carcinomas of the breast, prostate, and endometrium; lymphomas; and certain leukemias. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual 1994, p2079)
Physiologic period, characterized by endocrine, somatic, and psychic changes with the termination of ovarian function in the female. It may also accompany the normal diminution of sexual activity in the male.
Steroid hormones produced by the GONADS. They stimulate reproductive organs, germ cell maturation, and the secondary sex characteristics in the males and the females. The major sex steroid hormones include ESTRADIOL; PROGESTERONE; and TESTOSTERONE.
A method of studying a drug or procedure in which both the subjects and investigators are kept unaware of who is actually getting which specific treatment.
Vitamin K-dependent calcium-binding protein synthesized by OSTEOBLASTS and found primarily in BONES. Serum osteocalcin measurements provide a noninvasive specific marker of bone metabolism. The protein contains three residues of the amino acid gamma-carboxyglutamic acid (Gla), which, in the presence of CALCIUM, promotes binding to HYDROXYAPATITE and subsequent accumulation in BONE MATRIX.
The largest of the TARSAL BONES which is situated at the lower and back part of the FOOT, forming the HEEL.
Pregnenes with one double bond or more than three double bonds which have undergone ring contractions or are lacking carbon-18 or carbon-19..
The spinal or vertebral column.
The longest and largest bone of the skeleton, it is situated between the hip and the knee.
The outer shorter of the two bones of the FOREARM, lying parallel to the ULNA and partially revolving around it.
(6 alpha)-17-Hydroxy-6-methylpregn-4-ene-3,20-dione. A synthetic progestational hormone used in veterinary practice as an estrus regulator.
The transitional period before and after MENOPAUSE. Perimenopausal symptoms are associated with irregular MENSTRUAL CYCLE and widely fluctuated hormone levels. They may appear 6 years before menopause and subside 2 to 5 years after menopause.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
Bleeding from blood vessels in the UTERUS, sometimes manifested as vaginal bleeding.
A sudden, temporary sensation of heat predominantly experienced by some women during MENOPAUSE. (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
The concept covering the physical and mental conditions of women.
The projecting part on each side of the body, formed by the side of the pelvis and the top portion of the femur.
A polypeptide hormone (84 amino acid residues) secreted by the PARATHYROID GLANDS which performs the essential role of maintaining intracellular CALCIUM levels in the body. Parathyroid hormone increases intracellular calcium by promoting the release of CALCIUM from BONE, increases the intestinal absorption of calcium, increases the renal tubular reabsorption of calcium, and increases the renal excretion of phosphates.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
PLANT EXTRACTS and compounds, primarily ISOFLAVONES, that mimic or modulate endogenous estrogens, usually by binding to ESTROGEN RECEPTORS.
Cytoplasmic proteins that bind estrogens and migrate to the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. Evaluation of the state of estrogen receptors in breast cancer patients has become clinically important.
A large multinuclear cell associated with the BONE RESORPTION. An odontoclast, also called cementoclast, is cytomorphologically the same as an osteoclast and is involved in CEMENTUM resorption.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
An indicator of body density as determined by the relationship of BODY WEIGHT to BODY HEIGHT. BMI=weight (kg)/height squared (m2). BMI correlates with body fat (ADIPOSE TISSUE). Their relationship varies with age and gender. For adults, BMI falls into these categories: below 18.5 (underweight); 18.5-24.9 (normal); 25.0-29.9 (overweight); 30.0 and above (obese). (National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
The most common form of fibrillar collagen. It is a major constituent of bone (BONE AND BONES) and SKIN and consists of a heterotrimer of two alpha1(I) and one alpha2(I) chains.
Bone-forming cells which secrete an EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX. HYDROXYAPATITE crystals are then deposited into the matrix to form bone.
A peptide hormone that lowers calcium concentration in the blood. In humans, it is released by thyroid cells and acts to decrease the formation and absorptive activity of osteoclasts. Its role in regulating plasma calcium is much greater in children and in certain diseases than in normal adults.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
A transmembrane protein belonging to the tumor necrosis factor superfamily that specifically binds RECEPTOR ACTIVATOR OF NUCLEAR FACTOR-KAPPA B and OSTEOPROTEGERIN. It plays an important role in regulating OSTEOCLAST differentiation and activation.
Proteins which are present in or isolated from SOYBEANS.
The process of bone formation. Histogenesis of bone including ossification.
Tumors or cancer of ENDOMETRIUM, the mucous lining of the UTERUS. These neoplasms can be benign or malignant. Their classification and grading are based on the various cell types and the percent of undifferentiated cells.
A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of PROGESTERONE but functioning as a more potent inhibitor of ovulation. It has weak estrogenic and androgenic properties. The hormone has been used in treating amenorrhea, functional uterine bleeding, endometriosis, and for contraception.
A group of CORTICOSTEROIDS that affect carbohydrate metabolism (GLUCONEOGENESIS, liver glycogen deposition, elevation of BLOOD SUGAR), inhibit ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE secretion, and possess pronounced anti-inflammatory activity. They also play a role in fat and protein metabolism, maintenance of arterial blood pressure, alteration of the connective tissue response to injury, reduction in the number of circulating lymphocytes, and functioning of the central nervous system.
Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with LONGITUDINAL STUDIES which are followed over a period of time.
The qualitative or quantitative estimation of the likelihood of adverse effects that may result from exposure to specified health hazards or from the absence of beneficial influences. (Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 1988)
Products in capsule, tablet or liquid form that provide dietary ingredients, and that are intended to be taken by mouth to increase the intake of nutrients. Dietary supplements can include macronutrients, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats; and/or MICRONUTRIENTS, such as VITAMINS; MINERALS; and PHYTOCHEMICALS.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of an orthophosphoric monoester and water to an alcohol and orthophosphate. EC 3.1.3.1.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
Any dummy medication or treatment. Although placebos originally were medicinal preparations having no specific pharmacological activity against a targeted condition, the concept has been extended to include treatments or procedures, especially those administered to control groups in clinical trials in order to provide baseline measurements for the experimental protocol.
A potent androgenic steroid and major product secreted by the LEYDIG CELLS of the TESTIS. Its production is stimulated by LUTEINIZING HORMONE from the PITUITARY GLAND. In turn, testosterone exerts feedback control of the pituitary LH and FSH secretion. Depending on the tissues, testosterone can be further converted to DIHYDROTESTOSTERONE or ESTRADIOL.
Substances that possess antiestrogenic actions but can also produce estrogenic effects as well. They act as complete or partial agonist or as antagonist. They can be either steroidal or nonsteroidal in structure.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
A secreted member of the TNF receptor superfamily that negatively regulates osteoclastogenesis. It is a soluble decoy receptor of RANK LIGAND that inhibits both CELL DIFFERENTIATION and function of OSTEOCLASTS by inhibiting the interaction between RANK LIGAND and RECEPTOR ACTIVATOR OF NUCLEAR FACTOR-KAPPA B.
The measurement of the density of a material by measuring the amount of light or radiation passing through (or absorbed by) the material.
Steroidal compounds related to PROGESTERONE, the major mammalian progestational hormone. Progesterone congeners include important progesterone precursors in the biosynthetic pathways, metabolites, derivatives, and synthetic steroids with progestational activities.
The probability that an event will occur. It encompasses a variety of measures of the probability of a generally unfavorable outcome.
Regular course of eating and drinking adopted by a person or animal.
Compounds which inhibit or antagonize the action or biosynthesis of estrogenic compounds.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
The application of suitable drug dosage forms to the skin for either local or systemic effects.
The region of the HAND between the WRIST and the FINGERS.
Native, inorganic or fossilized organic substances having a definite chemical composition and formed by inorganic reactions. They may occur as individual crystals or may be disseminated in some other mineral or rock. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed; McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
Predetermined sets of questions used to collect data - clinical data, social status, occupational group, etc. The term is often applied to a self-completed survey instrument.
Benign proliferation of the ENDOMETRIUM in the UTERUS. Endometrial hyperplasia is classified by its cytology and glandular tissue. There are simple, complex (adenomatous without atypia), and atypical hyperplasia representing also the ascending risk of becoming malignant.
Excision of the uterus.
Injuries involving the vertebral column.
A basic element found in nearly all organized tissues. It is a member of the alkaline earth family of metals with the atomic symbol Ca, atomic number 20, and atomic weight 40. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body and combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate in the bones and teeth. It is essential for the normal functioning of nerves and muscles and plays a role in blood coagulation (as factor IV) and in many enzymatic processes.
Diseases of BONES.
The gradual irreversible changes in structure and function of an organism that occur as a result of the passage of time.
The circulating form of a major C19 steroid produced primarily by the ADRENAL CORTEX. DHEA sulfate serves as a precursor for TESTOSTERONE; ANDROSTENEDIONE; ESTRADIOL; and ESTRONE.
The largest of three bones that make up each half of the pelvic girdle.
Physical activity which is usually regular and done with the intention of improving or maintaining PHYSICAL FITNESS or HEALTH. Contrast with PHYSICAL EXERTION which is concerned largely with the physiologic and metabolic response to energy expenditure.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Falls due to slipping or tripping which may result in injury.
Time schedule for administration of a drug in order to achieve optimum effectiveness and convenience.
A delta-4 C19 steroid that is produced not only in the TESTIS, but also in the OVARY and the ADRENAL CORTEX. Depending on the tissue type, androstenedione can serve as a precursor to TESTOSTERONE as well as ESTRONE and ESTRADIOL.
The mucous membrane lining of the uterine cavity that is hormonally responsive during the MENSTRUAL CYCLE and PREGNANCY. The endometrium undergoes cyclic changes that characterize MENSTRUATION. After successful FERTILIZATION, it serves to sustain the developing embryo.
Studies comparing two or more treatments or interventions in which the subjects or patients, upon completion of the course of one treatment, are switched to another. In the case of two treatments, A and B, half the subjects are randomly allocated to receive these in the order A, B and half to receive them in the order B, A. A criticism of this design is that effects of the first treatment may carry over into the period when the second is given. (Last, A Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Specific proteins found in or on cells of progesterone target tissues that specifically combine with progesterone. The cytosol progesterone-receptor complex then associates with the nucleic acids to initiate protein synthesis. There are two kinds of progesterone receptors, A and B. Both are induced by estrogen and have short half-lives.
An aromatase inhibitor that is used in the treatment of advanced BREAST CANCER.
Works about clinical trials that involve at least one test treatment and one control treatment, concurrent enrollment and follow-up of the test- and control-treated groups, and in which the treatments to be administered are selected by a random process, such as the use of a random-numbers table.
Certain tumors that 1, arise in organs that are normally dependent on specific hormones and 2, are stimulated or caused to regress by manipulation of the endocrine environment.
A major C19 steroid produced by the ADRENAL CORTEX. It is also produced in small quantities in the TESTIS and the OVARY. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) can be converted to TESTOSTERONE; ANDROSTENEDIONE; ESTRADIOL; and ESTRONE. Most of DHEA is sulfated (DEHYDROEPIANDROSTERONE SULFATE) before secretion.
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
The second longest bone of the skeleton. It is located on the medial side of the lower leg, articulating with the FIBULA laterally, the TALUS distally, and the FEMUR proximally.
Organized periodic procedures performed on large groups of people for the purpose of detecting disease.
Foods made from SOYBEANS. Health benefits are ascribed to the high levels of DIETARY PROTEINS and ISOFLAVONES.
An enzyme that catalyzes the desaturation (aromatization) of the ring A of C19 androgens and converts them to C18 estrogens. In this process, the 19-methyl is removed. This enzyme is membrane-bound, located in the endoplasmic reticulum of estrogen-producing cells of ovaries, placenta, testes, adipose, and brain tissues. Aromatase is encoded by the CYP19 gene, and functions in complex with NADPH-FERRIHEMOPROTEIN REDUCTASE in the cytochrome P-450 system.
Thiophenes are aromatic heterocyclic organic compounds containing a five-membered ring with four carbon atoms and one sulfur atom, which are found in various natural substances and synthesized for use in pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals.
A status with BODY WEIGHT that is grossly above the acceptable or desirable weight, usually due to accumulation of excess FATS in the body. The standards may vary with age, sex, genetic or cultural background. In the BODY MASS INDEX, a BMI greater than 30.0 kg/m2 is considered obese, and a BMI greater than 40.0 kg/m2 is considered morbidly obese (MORBID OBESITY).
A non-steroidal ESTROGEN generated when soybean products are metabolized by certain bacteria in the intestines.
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
A nutritional condition produced by a deficiency of VITAMIN D in the diet, insufficient production of vitamin D in the skin, inadequate absorption of vitamin D from the diet, or abnormal conversion of vitamin D to its bioactive metabolites. It is manifested clinically as RICKETS in children and OSTEOMALACIA in adults. (From Cecil Textbook of Medicine, 19th ed, p1406)
Material prepared from plants.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Iowa" is a state located in the Midwestern United States and does not have a medical definition.
Statistical models which describe the relationship between a qualitative dependent variable (that is, one which can take only certain discrete values, such as the presence or absence of a disease) and an independent variable. A common application is in epidemiology for estimating an individual's risk (probability of a disease) as a function of a given risk factor.
Drug therapy given to augment or stimulate some other form of treatment such as surgery or radiation therapy. Adjuvant chemotherapy is commonly used in the therapy of cancer and can be administered before or after the primary treatment.
The growth and development of bones from fetus to adult. It includes two principal mechanisms of bone growth: growth in length of long bones at the epiphyseal cartilages and growth in thickness by depositing new bone (OSTEOGENESIS) with the actions of OSTEOBLASTS and OSTEOCLASTS.
The ratio of two odds. The exposure-odds ratio for case control data is the ratio of the odds in favor of exposure among cases to the odds in favor of exposure among noncases. The disease-odds ratio for a cohort or cross section is the ratio of the odds in favor of disease among the exposed to the odds in favor of disease among the unexposed. The prevalence-odds ratio refers to an odds ratio derived cross-sectionally from studies of prevalent cases.
Fractures of the short, constricted portion of the thigh bone between the femur head and the trochanters. It excludes intertrochanteric fractures which are HIP FRACTURES.
In humans, one of the paired regions in the anterior portion of the THORAX. The breasts consist of the MAMMARY GLANDS, the SKIN, the MUSCLES, the ADIPOSE TISSUE, and the CONNECTIVE TISSUES.
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
Derivative of 7-dehydroxycholesterol formed by ULTRAVIOLET RAYS breaking of the C9-C10 bond. It differs from ERGOCALCIFEROL in having a single bond between C22 and C23 and lacking a methyl group at C24.
One of the ESTROGEN RECEPTORS that has marked affinity for ESTRADIOL. Its expression and function differs from, and in some ways opposes, ESTROGEN RECEPTOR BETA.
A generic term for fats and lipoids, the alcohol-ether-soluble constituents of protoplasm, which are insoluble in water. They comprise the fats, fatty oils, essential oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids, sulfolipids, aminolipids, chromolipids (lipochromes), and fatty acids. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
Statistical models in which the value of a parameter for a given value of a factor is assumed to be equal to a + bx, where a and b are constants. The models predict a linear regression.
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
Production of a radiographic image of a small or very thin object on fine-grained photographic film under conditions which permit subsequent microscopic examination or enlargement of the radiograph at linear magnifications of up to several hundred and with a resolution approaching the resolving power of the photographic emulsion (about 1000 lines per millimeter).
The relative amounts of various components in the body, such as percentage of body fat.
Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the interior of the uterus.
Estrone derivatives substituted with one or more hydroxyl groups in any position. They are important metabolites of estrone and other estrogens.
The technique that deals with the measurement of the size, weight, and proportions of the human or other primate body.
Procedures for finding the mathematical function which best describes the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. In linear regression (see LINEAR MODELS) the relationship is constrained to be a straight line and LEAST-SQUARES ANALYSIS is used to determine the best fit. In logistic regression (see LOGISTIC MODELS) the dependent variable is qualitative rather than continuously variable and LIKELIHOOD FUNCTIONS are used to find the best relationship. In multiple regression, the dependent variable is considered to depend on more than a single independent variable.
Compounds that interact with ANDROGEN RECEPTORS in target tissues to bring about the effects similar to those of TESTOSTERONE. Depending on the target tissues, androgenic effects can be on SEX DIFFERENTIATION; male reproductive organs, SPERMATOGENESIS; secondary male SEX CHARACTERISTICS; LIBIDO; development of muscle mass, strength, and power.
Radiographic examination of the breast.
Disorder caused by an interruption of the mineralization of organic bone matrix leading to bone softening, bone pain, and weakness. It is the adult form of rickets resulting from disruption of VITAMIN D; PHOSPHORUS; or CALCIUM homeostasis.
The joint that is formed by the articulation of the head of FEMUR and the ACETABULUM of the PELVIS.
Acute or chronic pain located in the posterior regions of the THORAX; LUMBOSACRAL REGION; or the adjacent regions.
Statistical models used in survival analysis that assert that the effect of the study factors on the hazard rate in the study population is multiplicative and does not change over time.
Studies in which variables relating to an individual or group of individuals are assessed over a period of time.
A range of values for a variable of interest, e.g., a rate, constructed so that this range has a specified probability of including the true value of the variable.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
The regular and simultaneous occurrence in a single interbreeding population of two or more discontinuous genotypes. The concept includes differences in genotypes ranging in size from a single nucleotide site (POLYMORPHISM, SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE) to large nucleotide sequences visible at a chromosomal level.
Process by which organic tissue becomes hardened by the physiologic deposit of calcium salts.
These compounds stimulate anabolism and inhibit catabolism. They stimulate the development of muscle mass, strength, and power.
An important aggregate factor in epidemiological studies of women's health. The concept usually includes the number and timing of pregnancies and their outcomes, the incidence of breast feeding, and may include age of menarche and menopause, regularity of menstruation, fertility, gynecological or obstetric problems, or contraceptive usage.
A group of twelve VERTEBRAE connected to the ribs that support the upper trunk region.
'Jaw diseases' is a broad term referring to various medical conditions affecting the temporomandibular joint, jawbones, or the surrounding muscles, including but not limited to dental disorders, jaw fractures, tumors, infections, and developmental abnormalities.
The genetic constitution of the individual, comprising the ALLELES present at each GENETIC LOCUS.
Therapy with two or more separate preparations given for a combined effect.
Typical way of life or manner of living characteristic of an individual or group. (From APA, Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms, 8th ed)
Injuries to the part of the upper limb of the body between the wrist and elbow.
Maleness or femaleness as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from SEX CHARACTERISTICS, anatomical or physiological manifestations of sex, and from SEX DISTRIBUTION, the number of males and females in given circumstances.
A set of techniques used when variation in several variables has to be studied simultaneously. In statistics, multivariate analysis is interpreted as any analytic method that allows simultaneous study of two or more dependent variables.
Pathological conditions involving the CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM including the HEART; the BLOOD VESSELS; or the PERICARDIUM.
The genital canal in the female, extending from the UTERUS to the VULVA. (Stedman, 25th ed)
The premature cessation of menses (MENSTRUATION) when the last menstrual period occurs in a woman under the age of 40. It is due to the depletion of OVARIAN FOLLICLES. Premature MENOPAUSE can be caused by diseases; OVARIECTOMY; RADIATION; chemicals; and chromosomal abnormalities.
Derivatives of the steroid androstane having two double bonds at any site in any of the rings.
Carbonic acid calcium salt (CaCO3). An odorless, tasteless powder or crystal that occurs in nature. It is used therapeutically as a phosphate buffer in hemodialysis patients and as a calcium supplement.
A major gonadotropin secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates GAMETOGENESIS and the supporting cells such as the ovarian GRANULOSA CELLS, the testicular SERTOLI CELLS, and LEYDIG CELLS. FSH consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A class of dibenzylbutane derivatives which occurs in higher plants and in fluids (bile, serum, urine, etc.) in man and other animals. These compounds, which have a potential anti-cancer role, can be synthesized in vitro by human fecal flora. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
Chemical substances having a specific regulatory effect on the activity of a certain organ or organs. The term was originally applied to substances secreted by various ENDOCRINE GLANDS and transported in the bloodstream to the target organs. It is sometimes extended to include those substances that are not produced by the endocrine glands but that have similar effects.
The major progestational steroid that is secreted primarily by the CORPUS LUTEUM and the PLACENTA. Progesterone acts on the UTERUS, the MAMMARY GLANDS and the BRAIN. It is required in EMBRYO IMPLANTATION; PREGNANCY maintenance, and the development of mammary tissue for MILK production. Progesterone, converted from PREGNENOLONE, also serves as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of GONADAL STEROID HORMONES and adrenal CORTICOSTEROIDS.
Crumbling or smashing of cancellous BONE by forces acting parallel to the long axis of bone. It is applied particularly to vertebral body fractures (SPINAL FRACTURES). (Blauvelt and Nelson, A Manual of Orthopedic Terminology, 1994, p4)
Hydroxy analogs of vitamin D 3; (CHOLECALCIFEROL); including CALCIFEDIOL; CALCITRIOL; and 24,25-DIHYDROXYVITAMIN D 3.
Works about pre-planned studies of the safety, efficacy, or optimum dosage schedule (if appropriate) of one or more diagnostic, therapeutic, or prophylactic drugs, devices, or techniques selected according to predetermined criteria of eligibility and observed for predefined evidence of favorable and unfavorable effects. This concept includes clinical trials conducted both in the U.S. and in other countries.
A group of substances similar to VITAMIN K 1 which contains a ring of 2-methyl-1,4-naphthoquinione and an isoprenoid side chain of varying number of isoprene units. In vitamin K 2, each isoprene unit contains a double bond. They are produced by bacteria including the normal intestinal flora.
An annual legume. The SEEDS of this plant are edible and used to produce a variety of SOY FOODS.
## I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Japan" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located in Asia, known as Nihon-koku or Nippon-koku in Japanese, and is renowned for its unique culture, advanced technology, and rich history. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!
Voluntary cooperation of the patient in following a prescribed regimen.
A cysteine protease that is highly expressed in OSTEOCLASTS and plays an essential role in BONE RESORPTION as a potent EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX-degrading enzyme.
Human males as cultural, psychological, sociological, political, and economic entities.
A non-metal element that has the atomic symbol P, atomic number 15, and atomic weight 31. It is an essential element that takes part in a broad variety of biochemical reactions.
The frequency of different ages or age groups in a given population. The distribution may refer to either how many or what proportion of the group. The population is usually patients with a specific disease but the concept is not restricted to humans and is not restricted to medicine.
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.
A single nucleotide variation in a genetic sequence that occurs at appreciable frequency in the population.
X-RAY COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY with resolution in the micrometer range.
A class of compounds of the type R-M, where a C atom is joined directly to any other element except H, C, N, O, F, Cl, Br, I, or At. (Grant & Hackh's Chemical Dictionary, 5th ed)
6,17-Dimethylpregna-4,6-diene-3,20-dione. A synthetic progestational hormone with actions similar to those of progesterone. It is used in the treatment of menstrual irregularities and has also been employed in the treatment of prostatic hypertrophy and endometrial carcinoma.
A selective aromatase inhibitor effective in the treatment of estrogen-dependent disease including breast cancer.
Cholesterol which is contained in or bound to high-density lipoproteins (HDL), including CHOLESTEROL ESTERS and free cholesterol.
Discrete abnormal tissue masses that protrude into the lumen of the DIGESTIVE TRACT or the RESPIRATORY TRACT. Polyps can be spheroidal, hemispheroidal, or irregular mound-shaped structures attached to the MUCOUS MEMBRANE of the lumen wall either by a stalk, pedunculus, or by a broad base.
A tumor necrosis factor receptor family member that is specific for RANK LIGAND and plays a role in bone homeostasis by regulating osteoclastogenesis. It is also expressed on DENDRITIC CELLS where it plays a role in regulating dendritic cell survival. Signaling by the activated receptor occurs through its association with TNF RECEPTOR-ASSOCIATED FACTORS.

Association of polymorphism at the type I collagen (COL1A1) locus with reduced bone mineral density, increased fracture risk, and increased collagen turnover. (1/1081)

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between a common polymorphism within intron 1 of the COL1A1 gene and osteoporosis in a nested case-control study. METHODS: We studied 185 healthy women (mean +/- SD age 54.3+/-4.6 years). Bone mineral density (BMD) was measured using dual x-ray absorptiometry, and fractures were determined radiographically. The COL1A1 genotype was assessed using the polymerase chain reaction and Bal I endonuclease digestion. RESULTS: Genotype frequencies were similar to those previously observed and in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: SS 61.1%, Ss 36.2%, and ss 2.7%. Carriage of at least one copy of the "s" allele was associated with a significant reduction in lumbar spine BMD (P = 0.02) and an increased risk of total fracture (P = 0.04). Urinary pyridinoline levels were significantly elevated in those with the risk allele (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: These data support the findings that the COL1A1 gene polymorphism is associated with low BMD and fracture risk, and suggest a possible physiologic effect on total body turnover of type I collagen.  (+info)

Immunoradiometric assay for intact human osteocalcin(1-49) without cross-reactivity to breakdown products. (2/1081)

BACKGROUND: Osteocalcin (Oc), a serum marker of bone turnover, circulates in several forms. We developed an assay for intact human Oc and investigated its clinical features. METHODS: We generated goat antibodies and N- and C-terminal Oc. The former was used on solid phase (polystyrene beads), and the latter was used as the tracer in an IRMA. RESULTS: The assay was linear with no cross-reactivity to Oc(1-43), total imprecision (CV) of <10%, and recovery of 100% +/- 10%. Assay values for intact Oc in EDTA plasma samples were unchanged at 18-25 degrees C for 6 h. Values for intact Oc in serum, EDTA plasma, and heparin plasma samples did not change after storage on ice for 8 h. Serum samples from patients with various conditions were stored at -70 or -135 degrees C for up to 5 years and yielded z-scores comparable to an Oc(1-43) IRMA for all conditions except for renal failure. In renal failure, the Oc(1-43) assay values were increased, whereas the intact assay values were in the reference interval. CONCLUSION: Decreases in Oc assay values are inhibited by calcium chelation, and slowed by reduced temperatures. The described assay for intact Oc allows improved specificity for bone compared with an assay for Oc(1-43).  (+info)

Health screening in older women. (3/1081)

Health screening is an important aspect of health promotion and disease prevention in women over 65 years of age. Screening efforts should address conditions that cause significant morbidity and mortality in this age group. In addition to screening for cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease and cancer, primary care physicians should identify risk factors unique to an aging population. These factors include hearing and vision loss, dysmobility or functional impairment, osteoporosis, cognitive and affective disorders, urinary incontinence and domestic violence. Although screening for many conditions cannot be proved to merit an "A" recommendation (indicating conclusive proof of benefit), special attention to these factors can decrease morbidity and improve quality of life in aging women.  (+info)

Effects of single and concurrent intermittent administration of human PTH (1-34) and incadronate on cancellous and cortical bone of femoral neck in ovariectomized rats. (4/1081)

The purpose of this study is to determine the efficacy of concurrent treatment with human parathyroid hormone, hPTH (1-34), and bisphosphonate (incadronate) in augmenting cortical and cancellous bone mass of femoral neck in ovariectomized (OVX) rats. Forty-eight 11-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into eight groups (six animals in each group). The baseline control group was killed at the beginning of the experiment, at 11 weeks of age. An ovariectomy was performed in thirty rats and twelve rats were subjected to a sham surgery. OVX rats were untreated for the first four weeks of postsurgery to allow for the development of moderate osteopenia. These animals were then subjected to various treatments with either PTH, incadronate, or PTH+ incadronate for a period of 4 weeks. Right proximal femora (femoral necks) were used for bone histomorphometry. After OVX 8 weeks, there was a significant decrease in cancellous bone mass and cortical bone area of femoral neck in the OVX rats when compared to the sham control rats. In OVX rats treated with PTH alone or PTH+ incadronate were completely restored lost cancellous and cortical bone mass of femoral neck by increase bone formation. The bone formation parameters (OS/ BS, MS/BS) and bone turnover (BFR/BV) seen with PTH plus incadronate were similar to those seen with PTH treatment alone. This indicates that incadronate did not blunt the anabolic action of PTH when used concurrently. Our results suggest the followings: 1) the femoral neck of OVX rats is a suitable sample site for preclinical studies of the prevention of bone loss induced by estrogen depletion; 2) concurrent use of incadronate did not blunt the anabolic effect of PTH; 3) concurrent treatment showed the best results in restoring cancellous and cortical bone mass; and 4) it had additional benefits for bone strength independent of that achieved by the increase in bone mass.  (+info)

Estrogen's bone-protective effects may involve differential IL-1 receptor regulation in human osteoclast-like cells. (5/1081)

Declining estrogen levels during the first postmenopausal decade lead to rapid bone loss and increased fracture risk that can be reversed by estrogen replacement therapy. The bone-protective effects of estrogen may involve suppression of inflammatory cytokines that promote osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption, such as IL-1, TNF-alpha, and IL-6. We investigated whether estrogen modulates IL-1 actions on human osteoclasts (OCs) and other bone cell types. Isolated human OCs and primary bone marrow-derived OC-like cells expressed both the signaling (IL-1RI) and decoy (IL-1RII) IL-1 receptors, whereas only IL-1RI was detected in osteoblasts. IL-1RII/IL-1RI mRNA ratios and release of soluble IL-1RII (sIL-1RII) were lower in OC-like cells derived from women in the late postmenopausal period compared with younger women, but were unrelated to male donor age, suggesting that estrogen might play a role in regulating IL-1 receptor levels in vivo. Estrogen directly reduced in vitro OC-like cell IL-1RI mRNA levels while increasing IL-1RII mRNA levels and sIL-1RII release. These estrogenic events were associated with inhibited IL-1-mediated cytokine (IL-8) mRNA induction and cell survival, i.e., increased apoptosis. In contrast, estrogen did not alter IL-1R levels or IL-1 responsiveness in primary human osteoblasts or bone marrow stromal cells. We conclude that one novel mechanism by which estrogen exerts bone-protective effects may include a selective modulation of IL-1R isoform levels in OC or OC-like cells, thereby reducing their IL-1 responsiveness and cell survival. Conversely, this restraint on IL-1 actions may be lost as estrogen levels decline in aging women, contributing to an enhanced OC-mediated postmenopausal bone loss.  (+info)

Habitual physical activity and bone mineral density in postmenopausal women in England. (6/1081)

BACKGROUND: Reduced levels of physical activity have been found to be associated with an increased risk of osteoporotic fracture in a number of epidemiological studies, and intervention studies have shown beneficial effects of exercise regimes on bone mineral density. It is not yet established, however, which specific forms of customary physical activity are most strongly associated with bone mineral density in postmenopausal women. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted in 580 postmenopausal women, aged 45-61 years, resident in Nottingham, England. The participants completed a detailed interviewer-administered activity questionnaire. Physical activity was assessed as total hours of participation per week in activities including housework, walking, gardening and sports. Stair-climbing and self-reported walking pace were also reported. Bone mineral density measurements were made using dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, measurements at five sites were used in analysis. RESULTS: The strongest associations between the activity measures and bone mineral density were for stair-climbing and walking pace, which both gave statistically significant positive associations at the trochanter hip site and the whole body. In women reporting a fairly brisk or fast walking pace, bone mineral density at the proximal femur was also significantly and positively associated with the frequency of walking at least a mile. There were no significant associations with aggregate measures of total customary physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: This study has identified two forms of physical activity, namely stair-climbing and brisk walking which are associated with increased bone mineral density at the hip and whole body in postmenopausal women. Both are feasible forms of activity for promoting to middle-aged women.  (+info)

Association of race and other potential risk factors with nonvertebral fractures in community-dwelling elderly women. (7/1081)

This study determined potential associations of sociodemographic, lifestyle, health, and drug use factors known to affect bone metabolism with incident nonvertebral fractures. The baseline sample consisted of 2,590 female, nonproxy subjects from the Duke Established Populations for Epidemiologic Studies of the Elderly, which focuses on five adjacent counties in the Piedmont area of North Carolina. Information about potential risk factors was collected during a baseline in-home interview during 1986-1987. Subsequent nonvertebral fractures were reported at follow-up interviews during the annual follow-up periods (1988-1993). The authors used multivariate analyses in which weighted data were adjusted for sampling design. After controlling for other potential confounding sociodemographic, lifestyle, health, and drug use factors, they found that African American race (adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 0.43, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.31-0.58), age (adjusted OR = 1.04, 95% CI 1.01-1.06), alcohol consumption (adjusted OR = 1.61, 95% CI 1.01-2.57), being underweight (adjusted OR = 1.63, 95% CI 1.13-2.34), cognitive impairment (adjusted OR = 1.67, 95% CI 1.12-2.48), impaired mobility (adjusted OR = 1.15, 95% CI 1.03-1.29), and phenytoin use (adjusted OR = 2.93, 95% CI 1.04-8.30) were associated with first fracture occurrence. Similar findings were observed for nonhip, nonvertebral fractures. African Americans were less likely than Whites to have nonvertebral fractures, and these differences were not related to lifestyle or health factors examined in this study.  (+info)

Larger increases in bone mineral density during alendronate therapy are associated with a lower risk of new vertebral fractures in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. Fracture Intervention Trial Research Group. (8/1081)

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the incidence of vertebral fractures is related to the magnitude of change in bone mineral density (BMD) during alendronate treatment. METHODS: Women in this study were age 55-81 years (n = 2,984). While participating in the Fracture Intervention Trial, they received 5 mg/day of alendronate for 2 years followed by 10 mg/day for the remaining 12-30 months of the study. Their BMD was measured at baseline and at 12 and 24 months, and spine radiographs were obtained at baseline and again at 36 or 48 months to identify new vertebral fractures. RESULTS: After 12 months of alendronate treatment, 35% of participants had increases of > or =3% in total hip BMD, and 21% had either decreased total hip BMD or no change. Women who had larger increases in total hip BMD during the first 12 months had a lower incidence of new vertebral fractures during the entire followup period. Only 3.2% of women with increases of > or =3% in total hip BMD experienced new vertebral fractures, whereas twice as many women (6.3%) whose BMD declined or stayed the same experienced new fractures (adjusted odds ratio 0.45, 95% confidence interval 0.27-0.72). Similar patterns were observed for spine BMD at 12 months, and for both sites using change in BMD at 24 months. CONCLUSION: Women with increases of > or =3% in BMD during the first 1 or 2 years of alendronate treatment had the lowest incidence of new vertebral fractures. These findings suggest that, among women taking antiresorptive agents, greater increases in BMD are associated with lower risk of new vertebral fractures.  (+info)

Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterized by low bone mass, deterioration of bone tissue, and disruption of bone architecture, leading to increased risk of fractures, particularly in the spine, wrist, and hip. It mainly affects older people, especially postmenopausal women, due to hormonal changes that reduce bone density. Osteoporosis can also be caused by certain medications, medical conditions, or lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol abuse, and a lack of calcium and vitamin D in the diet. The diagnosis is often made using bone mineral density testing, and treatment may include medication to slow bone loss, promote bone formation, and prevent fractures.

Postmenopausal osteoporosis is a specific type of osteoporosis that occurs in women after they have gone through menopause. It is defined as a skeletal disorder characterized by compromised bone strength, leading to an increased risk of fractures. In this condition, the decline in estrogen levels that occurs during menopause accelerates bone loss, resulting in a decrease in bone density and quality, which can lead to fragility fractures, particularly in the hips, wrists, and spine.

It's important to note that while postmenopausal osteoporosis is more common in women, men can also develop osteoporosis due to other factors such as aging, lifestyle choices, and medical conditions.

Postmenopause is a stage in a woman's life that follows 12 months after her last menstrual period (menopause) has occurred. During this stage, the ovaries no longer release eggs and produce lower levels of estrogen and progesterone hormones. The reduced levels of these hormones can lead to various physical changes and symptoms, such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and mood changes. Postmenopause is also associated with an increased risk of certain health conditions, including osteoporosis and heart disease. It's important for women in postmenopause to maintain a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, a balanced diet, and routine medical check-ups to monitor their overall health and manage any potential risks.

Bone density refers to the amount of bone mineral content (usually measured in grams) in a given volume of bone (usually measured in cubic centimeters). It is often used as an indicator of bone strength and fracture risk. Bone density is typically measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans, which provide a T-score that compares the patient's bone density to that of a young adult reference population. A T-score of -1 or above is considered normal, while a T-score between -1 and -2.5 indicates osteopenia (low bone mass), and a T-score below -2.5 indicates osteoporosis (porous bones). Regular exercise, adequate calcium and vitamin D intake, and medication (if necessary) can help maintain or improve bone density and prevent fractures.

Bone density conservation agents, also known as anti-resorptive agents or bone-sparing drugs, are a class of medications that help to prevent the loss of bone mass and reduce the risk of fractures. They work by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts, the cells responsible for breaking down and reabsorbing bone tissue during the natural remodeling process.

Examples of bone density conservation agents include:

1. Bisphosphonates (e.g., alendronate, risedronate, ibandronate, zoledronic acid) - These are the most commonly prescribed class of bone density conservation agents. They bind to hydroxyapatite crystals in bone tissue and inhibit osteoclast activity, thereby reducing bone resorption.
2. Denosumab (Prolia) - This is a monoclonal antibody that targets RANKL (Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-κB Ligand), a key signaling molecule involved in osteoclast differentiation and activation. By inhibiting RANKL, denosumab reduces osteoclast activity and bone resorption.
3. Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) (e.g., raloxifene) - These medications act as estrogen agonists or antagonists in different tissues. In bone tissue, SERMs mimic the bone-preserving effects of estrogen by inhibiting osteoclast activity and reducing bone resorption.
4. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) - Estrogen hormone replacement therapy has been shown to preserve bone density in postmenopausal women; however, its use is limited due to increased risks of breast cancer, cardiovascular disease, and thromboembolic events.
5. Calcitonin - This hormone, secreted by the thyroid gland, inhibits osteoclast activity and reduces bone resorption. However, it has largely been replaced by other more effective bone density conservation agents.

These medications are often prescribed for individuals at high risk of fractures due to conditions such as osteoporosis or metabolic disorders that affect bone health. It is essential to follow the recommended dosage and administration guidelines to maximize their benefits while minimizing potential side effects. Regular monitoring of bone density, blood calcium levels, and other relevant parameters is also necessary during treatment with these medications.

Estrogen Replacement Therapy (ERT) is a medical treatment in which estrogen hormones are administered to replace the estrogen that is naturally produced by the ovaries but declines, especially during menopause. This therapy is often used to help manage symptoms of menopause such as hot flashes, night sweats, and vaginal dryness. It can also help prevent bone loss in postmenopausal women. ERT typically involves the use of estrogen alone, but in some cases, a combination of estrogen and progestin may be prescribed for women with a uterus to reduce the risk of endometrial cancer. However, ERT is associated with certain risks, including an increased risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and stroke, so it's important for women to discuss the potential benefits and risks with their healthcare provider before starting this therapy.

A bone fracture is a medical condition in which there is a partial or complete break in the continuity of a bone due to external or internal forces. Fractures can occur in any bone in the body and can vary in severity from a small crack to a shattered bone. The symptoms of a bone fracture typically include pain, swelling, bruising, deformity, and difficulty moving the affected limb. Treatment for a bone fracture may involve immobilization with a cast or splint, surgery to realign and stabilize the bone, or medication to manage pain and prevent infection. The specific treatment approach will depend on the location, type, and severity of the fracture.

Osteoporotic fractures are breaks or cracks in bones that occur as a result of osteoporosis, a condition characterized by weak and brittle bones. Osteoporosis causes bones to lose density and strength, making them more susceptible to fractures, even from minor injuries or falls.

The most common types of osteoporotic fractures are:

1. Hip fractures: These occur when the upper part of the thigh bone (femur) breaks, often due to a fall. Hip fractures can be serious and may require surgery and hospitalization.
2. Vertebral compression fractures: These occur when the bones in the spine (vertebrae) collapse, causing height loss, back pain, and deformity. They are often caused by everyday activities, such as bending or lifting.
3. Wrist fractures: These occur when the bones in the wrist break, often due to a fall. Wrist fractures are common in older adults with osteoporosis.
4. Other fractures: Osteoporotic fractures can also occur in other bones, such as the pelvis, ribs, and humerus (upper arm bone).

Prevention is key in managing osteoporosis and reducing the risk of osteoporotic fractures. This includes getting enough calcium and vitamin D, engaging in regular weight-bearing exercise, avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol consumption, and taking medications as prescribed by a healthcare provider.

Menopause is a natural biological process that typically occurs in women in their mid-40s to mid-50s. It marks the end of menstrual cycles and fertility, defined as the absence of menstruation for 12 consecutive months. This transition period can last several years and is often accompanied by various physical and emotional symptoms such as hot flashes, night sweats, mood changes, sleep disturbances, and vaginal dryness. The hormonal fluctuations during this time, particularly the decrease in estrogen levels, contribute to these symptoms. It's essential to monitor and manage these symptoms to maintain overall health and well-being during this phase of life.

Alendronate is a medication that falls under the class of bisphosphonates. It is commonly used in the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and men, as well as in the management of glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis and Paget's disease of bone.

Alendronate works by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts, which are cells responsible for breaking down and reabsorbing bone tissue. By reducing the activity of osteoclasts, alendronate helps to slow down bone loss and increase bone density, thereby reducing the risk of fractures.

The medication is available in several forms, including tablets and oral solutions, and is typically taken once a week for osteoporosis prevention and treatment. It is important to follow the dosing instructions carefully, as improper administration can reduce the drug's effectiveness or increase the risk of side effects. Common side effects of alendronate include gastrointestinal symptoms such as heartburn, stomach pain, and nausea.

Photon Absorptiometry is a medical technique used to measure the absorption of photons (light particles) by tissues or materials. In clinical practice, it is often used as a non-invasive method for measuring bone mineral density (BMD). This technique uses a low-energy X-ray beam or gamma ray to penetrate the tissue and then measures the amount of radiation absorbed by the bone. The amount of absorption is related to the density and thickness of the bone, allowing for an assessment of BMD. It can be used to diagnose osteoporosis and monitor treatment response in patients with bone diseases. There are two types of photon absorptiometry: single-photon absorptiometry (SPA) and dual-photon absorptiometry (DPA). SPA uses one energy level, while DPA uses two different energy levels to measure BMD, providing more precise measurements.

Diphosphonates are a class of medications that are used to treat bone diseases, such as osteoporosis and Paget's disease. They work by binding to the surface of bones and inhibiting the activity of bone-resorbing cells called osteoclasts. This helps to slow down the breakdown and loss of bone tissue, which can help to reduce the risk of fractures.

Diphosphonates are typically taken orally in the form of tablets, but some forms may be given by injection. Commonly prescribed diphosphonates include alendronate (Fosamax), risedronate (Actonel), and ibandronate (Boniva). Side effects of diphosphonates can include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, heartburn, and abdominal pain. In rare cases, they may also cause esophageal ulcers or osteonecrosis of the jaw.

It is important to follow the instructions for taking diphosphonates carefully, as they must be taken on an empty stomach with a full glass of water and the patient must remain upright for at least 30 minutes after taking the medication to reduce the risk of esophageal irritation. Regular monitoring of bone density and kidney function is also recommended while taking these medications.

"Bone" is the hard, dense connective tissue that makes up the skeleton of vertebrate animals. It provides support and protection for the body's internal organs, and serves as a attachment site for muscles, tendons, and ligaments. Bone is composed of cells called osteoblasts and osteoclasts, which are responsible for bone formation and resorption, respectively, and an extracellular matrix made up of collagen fibers and mineral crystals.

Bones can be classified into two main types: compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone is dense and hard, and makes up the outer layer of all bones and the shafts of long bones. Spongy bone is less dense and contains large spaces, and makes up the ends of long bones and the interior of flat and irregular bones.

The human body has 206 bones in total. They can be further classified into five categories based on their shape: long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones.

Estrogens are a group of steroid hormones that are primarily responsible for the development and regulation of female sexual characteristics and reproductive functions. They are also present in lower levels in males. The main estrogen hormone is estradiol, which plays a key role in promoting the growth and development of the female reproductive system, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and breasts. Estrogens also help regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain bone density, and have important effects on the cardiovascular system, skin, hair, and cognitive function.

Estrogens are produced primarily by the ovaries in women, but they can also be produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estrogens are produced from the conversion of testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, through a process called aromatization.

Estrogen levels vary throughout a woman's life, with higher levels during reproductive years and lower levels after menopause. Estrogen therapy is sometimes used to treat symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness, or to prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. However, estrogen therapy also carries risks, including an increased risk of certain cancers, blood clots, and stroke, so it is typically recommended only for women who have a high risk of these conditions.

Metabolic bone diseases are a group of conditions that affect the bones and are caused by disorders in the body's metabolism. These disorders can result in changes to the bone structure, density, and strength, leading to an increased risk of fractures and other complications. Some common examples of metabolic bone diseases include:

1. Osteoporosis: a condition characterized by weak and brittle bones that are more likely to break, often as a result of age-related bone loss or hormonal changes.
2. Paget's disease of bone: a chronic disorder that causes abnormal bone growth and deformities, leading to fragile and enlarged bones.
3. Osteomalacia: a condition caused by a lack of vitamin D or problems with the body's ability to absorb it, resulting in weak and soft bones.
4. Hyperparathyroidism: a hormonal disorder that causes too much parathyroid hormone to be produced, leading to bone loss and other complications.
5. Hypoparathyroidism: a hormonal disorder that results in low levels of parathyroid hormone, causing weak and brittle bones.
6. Renal osteodystrophy: a group of bone disorders that occur as a result of chronic kidney disease, including osteomalacia, osteoporosis, and high turnover bone disease.

Treatment for metabolic bone diseases may include medications to improve bone density and strength, dietary changes, exercise, and lifestyle modifications. In some cases, surgery may be necessary to correct bone deformities or fractures.

Spontaneous fractures are bone breaks that occur without any identifiable trauma or injury. They are typically caused by underlying medical conditions that weaken the bones, making them more susceptible to breaking under normal stress or weight. The most common cause of spontaneous fractures is osteoporosis, a condition characterized by weak and brittle bones. Other potential causes include various bone diseases, certain cancers, long-term use of corticosteroids, and genetic disorders affecting bone strength.

It's important to note that while the term "spontaneous" implies that the fracture occurred without any apparent cause, it is usually the result of an underlying medical condition. Therefore, if you experience a spontaneous fracture, seeking medical attention is crucial to diagnose and manage the underlying cause to prevent future fractures and related complications.

Etidronic acid is a type of medication known as a bisphosphonate. It is used to treat conditions such as Paget's disease, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer that have spread to the bones.

Etidronic acid works by inhibiting the activity of cells called osteoclasts, which are responsible for breaking down bone tissue. This helps to slow down the process of bone loss and can increase bone density, making bones stronger and less likely to break.

The medication is available in the form of a solution that is given intravenously (through a vein) in a hospital or clinic setting. It may be given as a single dose or as multiple doses over a period of time, depending on the condition being treated and the individual patient's needs.

As with any medication, etidronic acid can have side effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and bone pain. It is important for patients to discuss the potential risks and benefits of this medication with their healthcare provider before starting treatment.

Breast neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the breast tissue that can be benign or malignant. Benign breast neoplasms are non-cancerous tumors or growths, while malignant breast neoplasms are cancerous tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body.

Breast neoplasms can arise from different types of cells in the breast, including milk ducts, milk sacs (lobules), or connective tissue. The most common type of breast cancer is ductal carcinoma, which starts in the milk ducts and can spread to other parts of the breast and nearby structures.

Breast neoplasms are usually detected through screening methods such as mammography, ultrasound, or MRI, or through self-examination or clinical examination. Treatment options for breast neoplasms depend on several factors, including the type and stage of the tumor, the patient's age and overall health, and personal preferences. Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or targeted therapy.

Premenopause is not a formal medical term, but it's often informally used to refer to the time period in a woman's life leading up to menopause. During this stage, which can last for several years, hormonal changes begin to occur in preparation for menopause. The ovaries start to produce less estrogen and progesterone, which can lead to various symptoms such as irregular periods, hot flashes, mood swings, and sleep disturbances. However, it's important to note that not all women will experience these symptoms.

The official medical term for the stage when a woman's period becomes irregular and less frequent, but hasn't stopped completely, is perimenopause. This stage typically lasts from two to eight years and ends with menopause, which is defined as the point when a woman has not had a period for 12 consecutive months. After menopause, women enter postmenopause.

Teriparatide is a synthetic form of parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is a natural hormone produced by the parathyroid glands in the body. The medication contains the active fragment of PTH, known as 1-34 PTH, and it is used in medical treatment to stimulate new bone formation and increase bone density.

Teriparatide is primarily prescribed for the management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and men with a high risk of fractures who have not responded well to other osteoporosis therapies, such as bisphosphonates. It is administered via subcutaneous injection, typically once daily.

By increasing bone formation and reducing bone resorption, teriparatide helps improve bone strength and structure, ultimately decreasing the risk of fractures in treated individuals. The medication's effects on bone metabolism can lead to improvements in bone mineral density (BMD) and microarchitecture, making it an essential tool for managing severe osteoporosis and reducing fracture risk.

The "femur neck" is the narrow, upper part of the femur (thigh bone) where it connects to the pelvis. It is the region through which the femoral head articulates with the acetabulum to form the hip joint. The femur neck is a common site for fractures, especially in older adults with osteoporosis.

Raloxifene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) that is used in the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. It works by mimicking the effects of estrogen on some tissues, such as bones, while blocking its effects on others, such as breast tissue. This can help to reduce the risk of fractures and breast cancer in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis.

Raloxifene is available in tablet form and is typically taken once a day. Common side effects include hot flashes, leg cramps, and sweating. It may also increase the risk of blood clots, so it is important to discuss any history of blood clots or other medical conditions with your healthcare provider before starting treatment with raloxifene.

It's important to note that Raloxifene should not be used in premenopausal women or in men, and it should not be taken during pregnancy or while breastfeeding. It is also important to follow the dosage instructions carefully and to discuss any concerns with your healthcare provider before taking this medication.

A spinal fracture, also known as a vertebral compression fracture, is a break in one or more bones (vertebrae) of the spine. This type of fracture often occurs due to weakened bones caused by osteoporosis, but it can also result from trauma such as a car accident or a fall.

In a spinal fracture, the front part of the vertebra collapses, causing the height of the vertebra to decrease, while the back part of the vertebra remains intact. This results in a wedge-shaped deformity of the vertebra. Multiple fractures can lead to a hunched forward posture known as kyphosis or dowager's hump.

Spinal fractures can cause pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness in the back, legs, or arms, depending on the location and severity of the fracture. In some cases, spinal cord compression may occur, leading to more severe symptoms such as paralysis or loss of bladder and bowel control.

Bone resorption is the process by which bone tissue is broken down and absorbed into the body. It is a normal part of bone remodeling, in which old or damaged bone tissue is removed and new tissue is formed. However, excessive bone resorption can lead to conditions such as osteoporosis, in which bones become weak and fragile due to a loss of density. This process is carried out by cells called osteoclasts, which break down the bone tissue and release minerals such as calcium into the bloodstream.

Bone remodeling is the normal and continuous process by which bone tissue is removed from the skeleton (a process called resorption) and new bone tissue is formed (a process called formation). This ongoing cycle allows bones to repair microdamage, adjust their size and shape in response to mechanical stress, and maintain mineral homeostasis. The cells responsible for bone resorption are osteoclasts, while the cells responsible for bone formation are osteoblasts. These two cell types work together to maintain the structural integrity and health of bones throughout an individual's life.

During bone remodeling, the process can be divided into several stages:

1. Activation: The initiation of bone remodeling is triggered by various factors such as microdamage, hormonal changes, or mechanical stress. This leads to the recruitment and activation of osteoclast precursor cells.
2. Resorption: Osteoclasts attach to the bone surface and create a sealed compartment called a resorption lacuna. They then secrete acid and enzymes that dissolve and digest the mineralized matrix, creating pits or cavities on the bone surface. This process helps remove old or damaged bone tissue and releases calcium and phosphate ions into the bloodstream.
3. Reversal: After resorption is complete, the osteoclasts undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death), and mononuclear cells called reversal cells appear on the resorbed surface. These cells prepare the bone surface for the next stage by cleaning up debris and releasing signals that attract osteoblast precursors.
4. Formation: Osteoblasts, derived from mesenchymal stem cells, migrate to the resorbed surface and begin producing a new organic matrix called osteoid. As the osteoid mineralizes, it forms a hard, calcified structure that gradually replaces the resorbed bone tissue. The osteoblasts may become embedded within this newly formed bone as they differentiate into osteocytes, which are mature bone cells responsible for maintaining bone homeostasis and responding to mechanical stress.
5. Mineralization: Over time, the newly formed bone continues to mineralize, becoming stronger and more dense. This process helps maintain the structural integrity of the skeleton and ensures adequate calcium storage.

Throughout this continuous cycle of bone remodeling, hormones, growth factors, and mechanical stress play crucial roles in regulating the balance between resorption and formation. Disruptions to this delicate equilibrium can lead to various bone diseases, such as osteoporosis, where excessive resorption results in weakened bones and increased fracture risk.

Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) are a class of drugs that are primarily used in the treatment of hormone-sensitive breast cancer in postmenopausal women. They work by inhibiting the enzyme aromatase, which is responsible for converting androgens into estrogens. By blocking this conversion, AIs decrease the amount of estrogen in the body, thereby depriving hormone-sensitive breast cancer cells of the estrogen they need to grow and multiply.

There are three main types of aromatase inhibitors:

1. Letrozole (Femara) - a non-steroidal AI that is taken orally once a day.
2. Anastrozole (Arimidex) - another non-steroidal AI that is also taken orally once a day.
3. Exemestane (Aromasin) - a steroidal AI that is taken orally once a day.

In addition to their use in breast cancer treatment, AIs are also sometimes used off-label for the treatment of estrogen-dependent conditions such as endometriosis and uterine fibroids. However, it's important to note that the use of aromatase inhibitors can have significant side effects, including hot flashes, joint pain, and bone loss, so they should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) is a medical treatment that involves the use of hormones to replace or supplement those that the body is no longer producing or no longer producing in sufficient quantities. It is most commonly used to help manage symptoms associated with menopause and conditions related to hormonal imbalances.

In women, HRT typically involves the use of estrogen and/or progesterone to alleviate hot flashes, night sweats, vaginal dryness, and mood changes that can occur during menopause. In some cases, testosterone may also be prescribed to help improve energy levels, sex drive, and overall sense of well-being.

In men, HRT is often used to treat low testosterone levels (hypogonadism) and related symptoms such as fatigue, decreased muscle mass, and reduced sex drive.

It's important to note that while HRT can be effective in managing certain symptoms, it also carries potential risks, including an increased risk of blood clots, stroke, breast cancer (in women), and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, the decision to undergo HRT should be made carefully and discussed thoroughly with a healthcare provider.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) are a class of medications that act as either agonists or antagonists on the estrogen receptors in different tissues of the body. They selectively bind to estrogen receptors and can have opposite effects depending on the target tissue. In some tissues, such as bone and liver, SERMs behave like estrogens and stimulate estrogen receptors, promoting bone formation and reducing cholesterol levels. In contrast, in other tissues, such as breast and uterus, SERMs block the effects of estrogen, acting as estrogen antagonists and preventing the growth of hormone-sensitive tumors.

Examples of SERMs include:

* Tamoxifen: used for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer in both pre- and postmenopausal women.
* Raloxifene: used for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, as well as for reducing the risk of invasive breast cancer in high-risk postmenopausal women.
* Toremifene: used for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer in postmenopausal women with estrogen receptor-positive tumors.
* Lasofoxifene: used for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, as well as reducing the risk of invasive breast cancer in high-risk postmenopausal women.

It is important to note that SERMs can have side effects, including hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and an increased risk of blood clots. The choice of a specific SERM depends on the individual patient's needs, medical history, and potential risks.

The lumbar vertebrae are the five largest and strongest vertebrae in the human spine, located in the lower back region. They are responsible for bearing most of the body's weight and providing stability during movement. The lumbar vertebrae have a characteristic shape, with a large body in the front, which serves as the main weight-bearing structure, and a bony ring in the back, formed by the pedicles, laminae, and processes. This ring encloses and protects the spinal cord and nerves. The lumbar vertebrae are numbered L1 to L5, starting from the uppermost one. They allow for flexion, extension, lateral bending, and rotation movements of the trunk.

Estradiol is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It is the most potent and dominant form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and regulation of the menstrual cycle. It also helps maintain bone density, protect the lining of the uterus, and is involved in cognition and mood regulation.

Estradiol is produced primarily by the ovaries, but it can also be synthesized in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estradiol is produced from testosterone through a process called aromatization. Abnormal levels of estradiol can contribute to various health issues, such as hormonal imbalances, infertility, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer.

Tamoxifen is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) medication that is primarily used in the treatment and prevention of breast cancer. It works by blocking the action of estrogen in the body, particularly in breast tissue. This can help to stop or slow the growth of hormone-sensitive tumors.

Tamoxifen has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in both men and women. It is often used as a part of adjuvant therapy, which is treatment given after surgery to reduce the risk of cancer recurrence. Tamoxifen may also be used to treat metastatic breast cancer that has spread to other parts of the body.

Common side effects of tamoxifen include hot flashes, vaginal discharge, and changes in mood or vision. Less commonly, tamoxifen can increase the risk of blood clots, stroke, and endometrial cancer (cancer of the lining of the uterus). However, for many women with breast cancer, the benefits of taking tamoxifen outweigh the risks.

It's important to note that while tamoxifen can be an effective treatment option for some types of breast cancer, it is not appropriate for all patients. A healthcare professional will consider a variety of factors when determining whether tamoxifen is the right choice for an individual patient.

Ovariectomy is a surgical procedure in which one or both ovaries are removed. It is also known as "ovary removal" or "oophorectomy." This procedure is often performed as a treatment for various medical conditions, including ovarian cancer, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and pelvic pain. Ovariectomy can also be part of a larger surgical procedure called an hysterectomy, in which the uterus is also removed.

In some cases, an ovariectomy may be performed as a preventative measure for individuals at high risk of developing ovarian cancer. This is known as a prophylactic ovariectomy. After an ovariectomy, a person will no longer have menstrual periods and will be unable to become pregnant naturally. Hormone replacement therapy may be recommended in some cases to help manage symptoms associated with the loss of hormones produced by the ovaries.

A hip fracture is a medical condition referring to a break in the upper part of the femur (thigh) bone, which forms the hip joint. The majority of hip fractures occur due to falls or direct trauma to the area. They are more common in older adults, particularly those with osteoporosis, a condition that weakens bones and makes them more prone to breaking. Hip fractures can significantly impact mobility and quality of life, often requiring surgical intervention and rehabilitation.

Dietary calcium is a type of calcium that is obtained through food sources. Calcium is an essential mineral that is necessary for many bodily functions, including bone formation and maintenance, muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and blood clotting.

The recommended daily intake of dietary calcium varies depending on age, sex, and other factors. For example, the recommended daily intake for adults aged 19-50 is 1000 mg, while women over 50 and men over 70 require 1200 mg per day.

Good dietary sources of calcium include dairy products such as milk, cheese, and yogurt; leafy green vegetables like broccoli and kale; fortified cereals and juices; and certain types of fish, such as salmon and sardines. It is important to note that some foods can inhibit the absorption of calcium, including oxalates found in spinach and rhubarb, and phytates found in whole grains and legumes.

If a person is unable to get enough calcium through their diet, they may need to take calcium supplements. However, it is important to talk to a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen, as excessive intake of calcium can lead to negative health effects.

Estrone is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It's one of the three major naturally occurring estrogens in women, along with estradiol and estriol. Estrone is weaker than estradiol but has a longer half-life, meaning it remains active in the body for a longer period of time.

Estrone is produced primarily in the ovaries, adrenal glands, and fat tissue. In postmenopausal women, when the ovaries stop producing estradiol, estrone becomes the dominant form of estrogen. It plays a role in maintaining bone density, regulating the menstrual cycle, and supporting the development and maintenance of female sexual characteristics.

Like other forms of estrogen, estrone can also have effects on various tissues throughout the body, including the brain, heart, and breast tissue. Abnormal levels of estrone, either too high or too low, can contribute to a variety of health issues, such as osteoporosis, menstrual irregularities, and increased risk of certain types of cancer.

Nitriles, in a medical context, refer to a class of organic compounds that contain a cyano group (-CN) bonded to a carbon atom. They are widely used in the chemical industry and can be found in various materials, including certain plastics and rubber products.

In some cases, nitriles can pose health risks if ingested, inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. Short-term exposure to high levels of nitriles can cause irritation to the eyes, nose, throat, and respiratory tract. Prolonged or repeated exposure may lead to more severe health effects, such as damage to the nervous system, liver, and kidneys.

However, it's worth noting that the medical use of nitriles is not very common. Some nitrile gloves are used in healthcare settings due to their resistance to many chemicals and because they can provide a better barrier against infectious materials compared to latex or vinyl gloves. But beyond this application, nitriles themselves are not typically used as medications or therapeutic agents.

Medroxyprogesterone Acetate (MPA) is a synthetic form of the natural hormone progesterone, which is often used in various medical applications. It is a white to off-white crystalline powder, slightly soluble in water, and freely soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and methanol.

Medically, MPA is used as a prescription medication for several indications, including:

1. Contraception: As an oral contraceptive or injectable solution, it can prevent ovulation, thicken cervical mucus to make it harder for sperm to reach the egg, and alter the lining of the uterus to make it less likely for a fertilized egg to implant.
2. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): In postmenopausal women, MPA can help manage symptoms associated with decreased estrogen levels, such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness. It may also help prevent bone loss (osteoporosis).
3. Endometrial hyperplasia: MPA can be used to treat endometrial hyperplasia, a condition where the lining of the uterus becomes too thick, which could potentially lead to cancer if left untreated. By opposing the effects of estrogen, MPA helps regulate the growth of the endometrium.
4. Gynecological disorders: MPA can be used to treat various gynecological disorders, such as irregular menstrual cycles, amenorrhea (absence of menstruation), and dysfunctional uterine bleeding.
5. Cancer treatment: In some cases, MPA may be used in conjunction with other medications to treat certain types of breast or endometrial cancer.

As with any medication, Medroxyprogesterone Acetate can have side effects and potential risks. It is essential to consult a healthcare professional for proper evaluation, dosage, and monitoring when considering this medication.

Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG) is a protein produced mainly in the liver that plays a crucial role in regulating the active forms of the sex hormones, testosterone and estradiol, in the body. SHBG binds to these hormones in the bloodstream, creating a reservoir of bound hormones. Only the unbound (or "free") fraction of testosterone and estradiol is considered biologically active and can easily enter cells to exert its effects.

By binding to sex hormones, SHBG helps control their availability and transport in the body. Factors such as age, sex, infection with certain viruses (like hepatitis or HIV), liver disease, obesity, and various medications can influence SHBG levels and, consequently, impact the amount of free testosterone and estradiol in circulation.

SHBG is an essential factor in maintaining hormonal balance and has implications for several physiological processes, including sexual development, reproduction, bone health, muscle mass, and overall well-being. Abnormal SHBG levels can contribute to various medical conditions, such as hypogonadism (low testosterone levels), polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and certain types of cancer.

Triazoles are a class of antifungal medications that have broad-spectrum activity against various fungi, including yeasts, molds, and dermatophytes. They work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes, leading to increased permeability and disruption of fungal growth. Triazoles are commonly used in both systemic and topical formulations for the treatment of various fungal infections, such as candidiasis, aspergillosis, cryptococcosis, and dermatophytoses. Some examples of triazole antifungals include fluconazole, itraconazole, voriconazole, and posaconazole.

Isoflavones are a type of plant-derived compounds called phytoestrogens, which have a chemical structure similar to human estrogen. They are found in various plants, particularly in soybeans and soy products. Isoflavones can act as weak estrogens or anti-estrogens in the body, depending on the levels of natural hormones present. These compounds have been studied for their potential health benefits, including reducing menopausal symptoms, improving cardiovascular health, and preventing certain types of cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand their effects and safety.

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble secosteroid that is crucial for the regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in the body, which are essential for maintaining healthy bones and teeth. It can be synthesized by the human body when skin is exposed to ultraviolet-B (UVB) rays from sunlight, or it can be obtained through dietary sources such as fatty fish, fortified dairy products, and supplements. There are two major forms of vitamin D: vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol), which is found in some plants and fungi, and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), which is produced in the skin or obtained from animal-derived foods. Both forms need to undergo two hydroxylations in the body to become biologically active as calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3), the hormonally active form of vitamin D. This activated form exerts its effects by binding to the vitamin D receptor (VDR) found in various tissues, including the small intestine, bone, kidney, and immune cells, thereby influencing numerous physiological processes such as calcium homeostasis, bone metabolism, cell growth, and immune function.

Progestins are a class of steroid hormones that are similar to progesterone, a natural hormone produced by the ovaries during the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. They are often used in hormonal contraceptives, such as birth control pills, shots, and implants, to prevent ovulation and thicken the cervical mucus, making it more difficult for sperm to reach the egg. Progestins are also used in menopausal hormone therapy to alleviate symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness. Additionally, progestins may be used to treat endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and breast cancer. Different types of progestins have varying properties and may be more suitable for certain indications or have different side effect profiles.

Antineoplastic agents, hormonal, are a class of drugs used to treat cancers that are sensitive to hormones. These agents work by interfering with the production or action of hormones in the body. They can be used to slow down or stop the growth of cancer cells and may also help to relieve symptoms caused by the spread of cancer.

Hormonal therapies can work in one of two ways: they can either block the production of hormones or prevent their action on cancer cells. For example, some hormonal therapies work by blocking the action of estrogen or testosterone, which are hormones that can stimulate the growth of certain types of cancer cells.

Examples of hormonal agents used to treat cancer include:

* Aromatase inhibitors (such as letrozole, anastrozole, and exemestane), which block the production of estrogen in postmenopausal women
* Selective estrogen receptor modulators (such as tamoxifen and raloxifene), which block the action of estrogen on cancer cells
* Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists (such as leuprolide, goserelin, and triptorelin), which block the production of testosterone in men
* Antiandrogens (such as bicalutamide, flutamide, and enzalutamide), which block the action of testosterone on cancer cells

Hormonal therapies are often used in combination with other treatments, such as surgery or radiation therapy. They may be used to shrink tumors before surgery, to kill any remaining cancer cells after surgery, or to help control the spread of cancer that cannot be removed by surgery. Hormonal therapies can also be used to relieve symptoms and improve quality of life in people with advanced cancer.

It's important to note that hormonal therapies are not effective for all types of cancer. They are most commonly used to treat breast, prostate, and endometrial cancers, which are known to be sensitive to hormones. Hormonal therapies may also be used to treat other types of cancer in certain situations.

Like all medications, hormonal therapies can have side effects. These can vary depending on the specific drug and the individual person. Common side effects of hormonal therapies include hot flashes, fatigue, mood changes, and sexual dysfunction. Some hormonal therapies can also cause more serious side effects, such as an increased risk of osteoporosis or blood clots. It's important to discuss the potential risks and benefits of hormonal therapy with a healthcare provider before starting treatment.

The climacteric, also known as perimenopause or menopausal transition, is a phase in a woman's reproductive life characterized by various physiological and hormonal changes that occur as she approaches menopause. The term "climacteric" comes from the Greek word "klimakter," which means "ladder" or "rung of a ladder."

During this phase, which typically begins in a woman's mid-to-late 40s and can last for several years, the production of estrogen and progesterone by the ovaries starts to decline. This decline in hormone levels can lead to a variety of symptoms, including:

* Irregular menstrual cycles
* Hot flashes and night sweats
* Sleep disturbances
* Mood changes
* Vaginal dryness and discomfort during sexual activity
* Decreased libido
* Urinary frequency or urgency
* Memory and cognitive changes

The climacteric is a natural phase of a woman's life, and while some women may experience significant symptoms, others may have few or no symptoms at all. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and other treatments are available to help manage the symptoms of the climacteric for those who find them disruptive or bothersome.

Gonadal steroid hormones, also known as gonadal sex steroids, are hormones that are produced and released by the gonads (i.e., ovaries in women and testes in men). These hormones play a critical role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics, reproductive function, and overall health.

The three main classes of gonadal steroid hormones are:

1. Androgens: These are male sex hormones that are primarily produced by the testes but also produced in smaller amounts by the ovaries and adrenal glands. The most well-known androgen is testosterone, which plays a key role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.
2. Estrogens: These are female sex hormones that are primarily produced by the ovaries but also produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands. The most well-known estrogen is estradiol, which plays a key role in the development of female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and the menstrual cycle.
3. Progestogens: These are hormones that are produced by the ovaries during the second half of the menstrual cycle and play a key role in preparing the uterus for pregnancy. The most well-known progestogen is progesterone, which also plays a role in maintaining pregnancy and regulating the menstrual cycle.

Gonadal steroid hormones can have significant effects on various physiological processes, including bone density, cognitive function, mood, and sexual behavior. Disorders of gonadal steroid hormone production or action can lead to a range of health problems, including infertility, osteoporosis, and sexual dysfunction.

The double-blind method is a study design commonly used in research, including clinical trials, to minimize bias and ensure the objectivity of results. In this approach, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group the participants are assigned to, whether it be the experimental group or the control group. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or placebo, thus reducing the potential for bias in the evaluation of outcomes. The assignment of participants to groups is typically done by a third party not involved in the study, and the codes are only revealed after all data have been collected and analyzed.

Osteocalcin is a protein that is produced by osteoblasts, which are the cells responsible for bone formation. It is one of the most abundant non-collagenous proteins found in bones and plays a crucial role in the regulation of bone metabolism. Osteocalcin contains a high affinity for calcium ions, making it essential for the mineralization of the bone matrix.

Once synthesized, osteocalcin is secreted into the extracellular matrix, where it binds to hydroxyapatite crystals, helping to regulate their growth and contributing to the overall strength and integrity of the bones. Osteocalcin also has been found to play a role in other physiological processes outside of bone metabolism, such as modulating insulin sensitivity, energy metabolism, and male fertility.

In summary, osteocalcin is a protein produced by osteoblasts that plays a critical role in bone formation, mineralization, and turnover, and has been implicated in various other physiological processes.

The calcaneus is the largest tarsal bone in the human foot, and it is commonly known as the heel bone. It articulates with the cuboid bone anteriorly, the talus bone superiorly, and several tendons and ligaments that help to form the posterior portion of the foot's skeletal structure. The calcaneus plays a crucial role in weight-bearing and movement, as it forms the lower part of the leg's ankle joint and helps to absorb shock during walking or running.

Norpregnenes are a class of steroids that are produced by the metabolism of progesterone and other pregnanes. They are characterized by the absence of a double bond between carbons 4 and 5, and the presence of a ketone group at carbon 3. Some examples of norpregnenes include dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, and pregnenolone. These steroids are important intermediates in the biosynthesis of various hormones, including cortisol, aldosterone, androgens, and estrogens. They play a role in various physiological processes such as sexual development, immune function, and stress response.

The spine, also known as the vertebral column, is a complex structure in the human body that is part of the axial skeleton. It is composed of 33 individual vertebrae (except in some people where there are fewer due to fusion of certain vertebrae), intervertebral discs, facet joints, ligaments, muscles, and nerves.

The spine has several important functions:

1. Protection: The spine protects the spinal cord, which is a major component of the nervous system, by enclosing it within a bony canal.
2. Support: The spine supports the head and upper body, allowing us to maintain an upright posture and facilitating movement of the trunk and head.
3. Movement: The spine enables various movements such as flexion (bending forward), extension (bending backward), lateral flexion (bending sideways), and rotation (twisting).
4. Weight-bearing: The spine helps distribute weight and pressure evenly across the body, reducing stress on individual vertebrae and other structures.
5. Blood vessel and nerve protection: The spine protects vital blood vessels and nerves that pass through it, including the aorta, vena cava, and spinal nerves.

The spine is divided into five regions: cervical (7 vertebrae), thoracic (12 vertebrae), lumbar (5 vertebrae), sacrum (5 fused vertebrae), and coccyx (4 fused vertebrae, also known as the tailbone). Each region has unique characteristics that allow for specific functions and adaptations to the body's needs.

The femur is the medical term for the thigh bone, which is the longest and strongest bone in the human body. It connects the hip bone to the knee joint and plays a crucial role in supporting the weight of the body and allowing movement during activities such as walking, running, and jumping. The femur is composed of a rounded head, a long shaft, and two condyles at the lower end that articulate with the tibia and patella to form the knee joint.

The radius is one of the two bones in the forearm in humans and other vertebrates. In humans, it runs from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist. It is responsible for rotation of the forearm and articulates with the humerus at the elbow and the carpals at the wrist. Any medical condition or injury that affects the radius can impact the movement and function of the forearm and hand.

Medroxyprogesterone is a synthetic form of the natural hormone progesterone, which is a female sex hormone produced by the corpus luteum during the menstrual cycle and by the placenta during pregnancy. As a medication, medroxyprogesterone is used to treat a variety of conditions, including:

* Abnormal menstrual bleeding
* Endometrial hyperplasia (overgrowth of the lining of the uterus)
* Contraception (birth control)
* Hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women
* Prevention of breast cancer in high-risk women
* Treatment of certain types of cancer, such as endometrial and renal cancers

Medroxyprogesterone works by binding to progesterone receptors in the body, which helps to regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, and prevent the growth of some types of cancer. It is available in various forms, including tablets, injectable solutions, and depot suspensions for intramuscular injection.

It's important to note that medroxyprogesterone can have significant side effects, and its use should be monitored by a healthcare provider. Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding should not take medroxyprogesterone, and it may interact with other medications, so it is important to inform your doctor of all medications you are taking before starting medroxyprogesterone.

Perimenopause is a term used to describe the phase before menopause where the ovaries gradually begin to produce less estrogen. It's also sometimes referred to as the "menopausal transition."

This stage can last for several years, typically starting in a woman's mid-40s, but it can begin in some women as early as their mid-30s or as late as their early 50s. During this time, menstrual cycles may become longer or shorter, and periods may be lighter or heavier.

The most significant sign of perimenopause is the irregularity of periods. However, other symptoms such as hot flashes, sleep disturbances, mood changes, and vaginal dryness can also occur, similar to those experienced during menopause.

Perimenopause ends after a woman has gone 12 months without having a period, which marks the start of menopause.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Uterine hemorrhage, also known as uterine bleeding or gynecological bleeding, is an abnormal loss of blood from the uterus. It can occur in various clinical settings such as menstruation (known as menorrhagia), postpartum period (postpartum hemorrhage), or in non-pregnant women (dysfunctional uterine bleeding). The bleeding may be light to heavy, intermittent or continuous, and can be accompanied by symptoms such as pain, dizziness, or fainting. Uterine hemorrhage is a common gynecological problem that can have various underlying causes, including hormonal imbalances, structural abnormalities, coagulopathies, and malignancies. It is important to seek medical attention if experiencing heavy or prolonged uterine bleeding to determine the cause and receive appropriate treatment.

A hot flash is a sudden, intense feeling of heat, particularly in the face, neck and chest regions, which is often accompanied by perspiration, reddening of the skin (flush or blush), and rapid heartbeat. It is a common symptom experienced by individuals, especially women during menopause or perimenopause, although it can also occur in other medical conditions or as a side effect of certain medications. The exact cause of hot flashes is not fully understood, but they are thought to be related to changes in hormone levels and the body's regulation of temperature.

Women's health is a branch of healthcare that focuses on the unique health needs, conditions, and concerns of women throughout their lifespan. It covers a broad range of topics including menstruation, fertility, pregnancy, menopause, breast health, sexual health, mental health, and chronic diseases that are more common in women such as osteoporosis and autoimmune disorders. Women's health also addresses issues related to gender-based violence, socioeconomic factors, and environmental impacts on women's health. It is aimed at promoting and maintaining the physical, emotional, and reproductive well-being of women, and preventing and treating diseases and conditions that disproportionately affect them.

In medical terms, the hip is a ball-and-socket joint where the rounded head of the femur (thigh bone) fits into the cup-shaped socket, also known as the acetabulum, of the pelvis. This joint allows for a wide range of movement in the lower extremities and supports the weight of the upper body during activities such as walking, running, and jumping. The hip joint is surrounded by strong ligaments, muscles, and tendons that provide stability and enable proper functioning.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a polypeptide hormone that plays a crucial role in the regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in the body. It is produced and secreted by the parathyroid glands, which are four small endocrine glands located on the back surface of the thyroid gland.

The primary function of PTH is to maintain normal calcium levels in the blood by increasing calcium absorption from the gut, mobilizing calcium from bones, and decreasing calcium excretion by the kidneys. PTH also increases phosphate excretion by the kidneys, which helps to lower serum phosphate levels.

In addition to its role in calcium and phosphate homeostasis, PTH has been shown to have anabolic effects on bone tissue, stimulating bone formation and preventing bone loss. However, chronic elevations in PTH levels can lead to excessive bone resorption and osteoporosis.

Overall, Parathyroid Hormone is a critical hormone that helps maintain mineral homeostasis and supports healthy bone metabolism.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Phytoestrogens are compounds found in plants that have estrogen-like properties. They can bind to and activate or inhibit the action of estrogen receptors in the body, depending on their structure and concentration. Phytoestrogens are present in a variety of foods, including soy products, nuts, seeds, fruits, and vegetables.

Phytoestrogens have been studied for their potential health benefits, such as reducing the risk of hormone-dependent cancers (e.g., breast cancer), improving menopausal symptoms, and promoting bone health. However, their effects on human health are complex and not fully understood, and some studies suggest that high intake of phytoestrogens may have adverse effects in certain populations or under specific conditions.

It is important to note that while phytoestrogens can mimic the effects of estrogen in the body, they are generally weaker than endogenous estrogens produced by the human body. Therefore, their impact on hormonal balance and health outcomes may vary depending on individual factors such as age, sex, hormonal status, and overall diet.

Estrogen receptors (ERs) are a type of nuclear receptor protein that are expressed in various tissues and cells throughout the body. They play a critical role in the regulation of gene expression and cellular responses to the hormone estrogen. There are two main subtypes of ERs, ERα and ERβ, which have distinct molecular structures, expression patterns, and functions.

ERs function as transcription factors that bind to specific DNA sequences called estrogen response elements (EREs) in the promoter regions of target genes. When estrogen binds to the ER, it causes a conformational change in the receptor that allows it to recruit co-activator proteins and initiate transcription of the target gene. This process can lead to a variety of cellular responses, including changes in cell growth, differentiation, and metabolism.

Estrogen receptors are involved in a wide range of physiological processes, including the development and maintenance of female reproductive tissues, bone homeostasis, cardiovascular function, and cognitive function. They have also been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as breast cancer, endometrial cancer, and osteoporosis. As a result, ERs are an important target for therapeutic interventions in these diseases.

Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells that are primarily responsible for bone resorption, a process in which they break down and dissolve the mineralized matrix of bones. They are derived from monocyte-macrophage precursor cells of hematopoietic origin and play a crucial role in maintaining bone homeostasis by balancing bone formation and bone resorption.

Osteoclasts adhere to the bone surface and create an isolated microenvironment, called the "resorption lacuna," between their cell membrane and the bone surface. Here, they release hydrogen ions into the lacuna through a process called proton pumping, which lowers the pH and dissolves the mineral component of the bone matrix. Additionally, osteoclasts secrete proteolytic enzymes, such as cathepsin K, that degrade the organic components, like collagen, in the bone matrix.

An imbalance in osteoclast activity can lead to various bone diseases, including osteoporosis and Paget's disease, where excessive bone resorption results in weakened and fragile bones.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure used to assess whether a person has a healthy weight for their height. It's calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters. Here is the medical definition:

Body Mass Index (BMI) = weight(kg) / [height(m)]^2

According to the World Health Organization, BMI categories are defined as follows:

* Less than 18.5: Underweight
* 18.5-24.9: Normal or healthy weight
* 25.0-29.9: Overweight
* 30.0 and above: Obese

It is important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying weight issues in populations, it does have limitations when applied to individuals. For example, it may not accurately reflect body fat distribution or muscle mass, which can affect health risks associated with excess weight. Therefore, BMI should be used as one of several factors when evaluating an individual's health status and risk for chronic diseases.

Collagen Type I is the most abundant form of collagen in the human body, found in various connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, skin, and bones. It is a structural protein that provides strength and integrity to these tissues. Collagen Type I is composed of three alpha chains, two alpha-1(I) chains, and one alpha-2(I) chain, arranged in a triple helix structure. This type of collagen is often used in medical research and clinical applications, such as tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, due to its excellent mechanical properties and biocompatibility.

Osteoblasts are specialized bone-forming cells that are derived from mesenchymal stem cells. They play a crucial role in the process of bone formation and remodeling. Osteoblasts synthesize, secrete, and mineralize the organic matrix of bones, which is mainly composed of type I collagen.

These cells have receptors for various hormones and growth factors that regulate their activity, such as parathyroid hormone, vitamin D, and transforming growth factor-beta. When osteoblasts are not actively producing bone matrix, they can become trapped within the matrix they produce, where they differentiate into osteocytes, which are mature bone cells that play a role in maintaining bone structure and responding to mechanical stress.

Abnormalities in osteoblast function can lead to various bone diseases, such as osteoporosis, osteogenesis imperfecta, and Paget's disease of bone.

Calcitonin is a hormone that is produced and released by the parafollicular cells (also known as C cells) of the thyroid gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating calcium homeostasis in the body. Specifically, it helps to lower elevated levels of calcium in the blood by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts, which are bone cells that break down bone tissue and release calcium into the bloodstream. Calcitonin also promotes the uptake of calcium in the bones and increases the excretion of calcium in the urine.

Calcitonin is typically released in response to high levels of calcium in the blood, and its effects help to bring calcium levels back into balance. In addition to its role in calcium regulation, calcitonin may also have other functions in the body, such as modulating immune function and reducing inflammation.

Clinically, synthetic forms of calcitonin are sometimes used as a medication to treat conditions related to abnormal calcium levels, such as hypercalcemia (high blood calcium) or osteoporosis. Calcitonin can be administered as an injection, nasal spray, or oral tablet, depending on the specific formulation and intended use.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

REceptor Activator of NF-kB (RANK) Ligand is a type of protein that plays a crucial role in the immune system and bone metabolism. It belongs to the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily and is primarily produced by osteoblasts, which are cells responsible for bone formation.

RANK Ligand binds to its receptor RANK, which is found on the surface of osteoclasts, a type of cell involved in bone resorption or breakdown. The binding of RANK Ligand to RANK activates signaling pathways that promote the differentiation, activation, and survival of osteoclasts, thereby increasing bone resorption.

Abnormalities in the RANKL-RANK signaling pathway have been implicated in various bone diseases, such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and certain types of cancer that metastasize to bones. Therefore, targeting this pathway with therapeutic agents has emerged as a promising approach for the treatment of these conditions.

Soybean proteins are the proteins derived from soybeans, a legume native to East Asia. Soybeans contain approximately 40% protein by weight, making them a significant source of plant-based protein. The two major types of soy protein are:

1. Soy protein isolate (SPI): This is a highly refined protein that contains at least 90% protein by weight. It is made by removing carbohydrates and fiber from defatted soy flour, leaving behind a protein-rich powder. SPI is often used as an ingredient in various food products, including meat alternatives, energy bars, and beverages.
2. Soy protein concentrate (SPC): This type of soy protein contains approximately 70% protein by weight. It is made by removing some of the carbohydrates from defatted soy flour, leaving behind a higher concentration of proteins. SPC has applications in food and industrial uses, such as in textured vegetable protein (TVP) for meat alternatives, baked goods, and functional foods.

Soy proteins are considered high-quality proteins due to their complete amino acid profile, containing all nine essential amino acids necessary for human nutrition. They also have various health benefits, such as lowering cholesterol levels, improving bone health, and promoting muscle growth and maintenance. However, it is important to note that soy protein consumption should be balanced with other protein sources to ensure a diverse intake of nutrients.

Osteogenesis is the process of bone formation or development. It involves the differentiation and maturation of osteoblasts, which are bone-forming cells that synthesize and deposit the organic matrix of bone tissue, composed mainly of type I collagen. This organic matrix later mineralizes to form the inorganic crystalline component of bone, primarily hydroxyapatite.

There are two primary types of osteogenesis: intramembranous and endochondral. Intramembranous osteogenesis occurs directly within connective tissue, where mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts and form bone tissue without an intervening cartilage template. This process is responsible for the formation of flat bones like the skull and clavicles.

Endochondral osteogenesis, on the other hand, involves the initial development of a cartilaginous model or template, which is later replaced by bone tissue. This process forms long bones, such as those in the limbs, and occurs through several stages involving chondrocyte proliferation, hypertrophy, and calcification, followed by invasion of blood vessels and osteoblasts to replace the cartilage with bone tissue.

Abnormalities in osteogenesis can lead to various skeletal disorders and diseases, such as osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease), achondroplasia (a form of dwarfism), and cleidocranial dysplasia (a disorder affecting skull and collarbone development).

Endometrial neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the endometrium, which is the innermost lining of the uterus. These neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). The two main types of endometrial cancer are type I, also known as endometrioid adenocarcinoma, and type II, which includes serous carcinoma, clear cell carcinoma, and carcinosarcoma.

Type I endometrial cancers are usually estrogen-dependent and associated with risk factors such as obesity, diabetes, and prolonged exposure to estrogen without progesterone. They tend to grow more slowly and have a better prognosis than type II cancers.

Type II endometrial cancers are less common but more aggressive, often presenting at an advanced stage and having a worse prognosis. They are not typically associated with hormonal factors and may occur in women who have gone through menopause.

Endometrial neoplasms can also include benign growths such as polyps, hyperplasia, and endometriosis. While these conditions are not cancerous, they can increase the risk of developing endometrial cancer and should be monitored closely by a healthcare provider.

Norethindrone is a synthetic form of progesterone, a female hormone that is produced naturally in the ovaries. It is used as a medication for various purposes such as:

* Preventing pregnancy when used as a birth control pill
* Treating endometriosis
* Managing symptoms associated with menopause
* Treating abnormal menstrual bleeding

Norethindrone works by thinning the lining of the uterus, preventing ovulation (the release of an egg from the ovary), and changing the cervical mucus to make it harder for sperm to reach the egg. It is important to note that norethindrone should be taken under the supervision of a healthcare provider, as it can have side effects and may interact with other medications.

Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones that are naturally produced in the adrenal gland, or can be synthetically manufactured. They play an essential role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and have significant anti-inflammatory effects. Glucocorticoids suppress immune responses and inflammation by inhibiting the release of inflammatory mediators from various cells, such as mast cells, eosinophils, and lymphocytes. They are frequently used in medical treatment for a wide range of conditions, including allergies, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, dermatological disorders, and certain cancers. Prolonged use or high doses of glucocorticoids can lead to several side effects, such as weight gain, mood changes, osteoporosis, and increased susceptibility to infections.

A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.

In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.

Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.

Risk assessment in the medical context refers to the process of identifying, evaluating, and prioritizing risks to patients, healthcare workers, or the community related to healthcare delivery. It involves determining the likelihood and potential impact of adverse events or hazards, such as infectious diseases, medication errors, or medical devices failures, and implementing measures to mitigate or manage those risks. The goal of risk assessment is to promote safe and high-quality care by identifying areas for improvement and taking action to minimize harm.

A dietary supplement is a product that contains nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, herbs or other botanicals, and is intended to be taken by mouth, to supplement the diet. Dietary supplements can include a wide range of products, such as vitamin and mineral supplements, herbal supplements, and sports nutrition products.

Dietary supplements are not intended to treat, diagnose, cure, or alleviate the effects of diseases. They are intended to be used as a way to add extra nutrients to the diet or to support specific health functions. It is important to note that dietary supplements are not subject to the same rigorous testing and regulations as drugs, so it is important to choose products carefully and consult with a healthcare provider if you have any questions or concerns about using them.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found in various body tissues, including the liver, bile ducts, digestive system, bones, and kidneys. It plays a role in breaking down proteins and minerals, such as phosphate, in the body.

The medical definition of alkaline phosphatase refers to its function as a hydrolase enzyme that removes phosphate groups from molecules at an alkaline pH level. In clinical settings, ALP is often measured through blood tests as a biomarker for various health conditions.

Elevated levels of ALP in the blood may indicate liver or bone diseases, such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, bone fractures, or cancer. Therefore, physicians may order an alkaline phosphatase test to help diagnose and monitor these conditions. However, it is essential to interpret ALP results in conjunction with other diagnostic tests and clinical findings for accurate diagnosis and treatment.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

A placebo is a substance or treatment that has no inherent therapeutic effect. It is often used in clinical trials as a control against which the effects of a new drug or therapy can be compared. Placebos are typically made to resemble the active treatment, such as a sugar pill for a medication trial, so that participants cannot tell the difference between what they are receiving and the actual treatment.

The placebo effect refers to the phenomenon where patients experience real improvements in their symptoms or conditions even when given a placebo. This may be due to psychological factors such as belief in the effectiveness of the treatment, suggestion, or conditioning. The placebo effect is often used as a comparison group in clinical trials to help determine if the active treatment has a greater effect than no treatment at all.

Testosterone is a steroid hormone that belongs to androsten class of hormones. It is primarily secreted by the Leydig cells in the testes of males and, to a lesser extent, by the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. Testosterone is the main male sex hormone and anabolic steroid. It plays a key role in the development of masculine characteristics, such as body hair and muscle mass, and contributes to bone density, fat distribution, red cell production, and sex drive. In females, testosterone contributes to sexual desire and bone health. Testosterone is synthesized from cholesterol and its production is regulated by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

Estrogen receptor modulators (ERMs) are a class of medications that act on the estrogen receptors in the body. They can have mixed estrogenic and anti-estrogenic effects, depending on the target tissue. In some tissues, ERMs behave as estrogen agonists, activating the estrogen receptor and mimicking the effects of estrogen. In other tissues, they act as estrogen antagonists, blocking the effects of estrogen.

ERMs are often used in hormone replacement therapy and to treat certain types of breast cancer. Tamoxifen is a well-known example of an ERM that is commonly used to treat estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer. It works by blocking the effects of estrogen on cancer cells, thereby slowing or stopping the growth of the tumor. Other examples of ERMs include raloxifene and toremifene.

While ERMs can be effective in treating certain conditions, they can also have side effects, including an increased risk of blood clots, hot flashes, and mood changes. It is important for individuals taking ERMs to be monitored by a healthcare provider to manage any potential side effects and ensure that the medication is working effectively.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a soluble decoy receptor for the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL). It is a member of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily and plays a crucial role in regulating bone metabolism. By binding to RANKL, OPG prevents it from interacting with its signaling receptor RANK on the surface of osteoclast precursor cells, thereby inhibiting osteoclast differentiation, activation, and survival. This results in reduced bone resorption and increased bone mass.

In addition to its role in bone homeostasis, OPG has also been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, including immune regulation, cancer progression, and cardiovascular disease.

Densitometry is a medical technique used to measure the density or degree of opacity of various structures, particularly bones and tissues. It is often used in the diagnosis and monitoring of osteoporosis, a condition characterized by weak and brittle bones. Bone densitometry measures the amount of calcium and other minerals in a segment of bone to determine its strength and density. This information can help doctors assess a patient's risk of fractures and make treatment recommendations. Densitometry is also used in other medical fields, such as mammography, where it is used to measure the density of breast tissue to detect abnormalities and potential signs of cancer.

Progesterone congeners refer to synthetic or naturally occurring compounds that are structurally similar to progesterone, a steroid hormone involved in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and embryogenesis. These compounds have similar chemical structures to progesterone and may exhibit similar physiological activities, although they can also have unique properties and uses. Examples of progesterone congeners include various synthetic progestins used in hormonal contraceptives and other medical treatments.

In the context of medicine, risk is the probability or likelihood of an adverse health effect or the occurrence of a negative event related to treatment or exposure to certain hazards. It is usually expressed as a ratio or percentage and can be influenced by various factors such as age, gender, lifestyle, genetics, and environmental conditions. Risk assessment involves identifying, quantifying, and prioritizing risks to make informed decisions about prevention, mitigation, or treatment strategies.

A diet, in medical terms, refers to the planned and regular consumption of food and drinks. It is a balanced selection of nutrient-rich foods that an individual eats on a daily or periodic basis to meet their energy needs and maintain good health. A well-balanced diet typically includes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy products.

A diet may also be prescribed for therapeutic purposes, such as in the management of certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypertension, or obesity. In these cases, a healthcare professional may recommend specific restrictions or modifications to an individual's regular diet to help manage their condition and improve their overall health.

It is important to note that a healthy and balanced diet should be tailored to an individual's age, gender, body size, activity level, and any underlying medical conditions. Consulting with a healthcare professional, such as a registered dietitian or nutritionist, can help ensure that an individual's dietary needs are being met in a safe and effective way.

Estrogen antagonists, also known as antiestrogens, are a class of drugs that block the effects of estrogen in the body. They work by binding to estrogen receptors and preventing the natural estrogen from attaching to them. This results in the inhibition of estrogen-mediated activities in various tissues, including breast and uterine tissue.

There are two main types of estrogen antagonists: selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) and pure estrogen receptor downregulators (PERDS), also known as estrogen receptor downregulators (ERDs). SERMs, such as tamoxifen and raloxifene, can act as estrogen agonists or antagonists depending on the tissue type. For example, they may block the effects of estrogen in breast tissue while acting as an estrogen agonist in bone tissue, helping to prevent osteoporosis.

PERDS, such as fulvestrant, are pure estrogen receptor antagonists and do not have any estrogen-like activity. They are used primarily for the treatment of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer in postmenopausal women.

Overall, estrogen antagonists play an important role in the management of hormone receptor-positive breast cancer and other conditions where inhibiting estrogen activity is beneficial.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Oral administration is a route of giving medications or other substances by mouth. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids, pastes, or other forms that can be swallowed. Once ingested, the substance is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to reach its intended target site in the body. Oral administration is a common and convenient route of medication delivery, but it may not be appropriate for all substances or in certain situations, such as when rapid onset of action is required or when the patient has difficulty swallowing.

"Cutaneous administration" is a route of administering medication or treatment through the skin. This can be done through various methods such as:

1. Topical application: This involves applying the medication directly to the skin in the form of creams, ointments, gels, lotions, patches, or solutions. The medication is absorbed into the skin and enters the systemic circulation slowly over a period of time. Topical medications are often used for local effects, such as treating eczema, psoriasis, or fungal infections.

2. Iontophoresis: This method uses a mild electrical current to help a medication penetrate deeper into the skin. A positive charge is applied to a medication with a negative charge, or vice versa, causing it to be attracted through the skin. Iontophoresis is often used for local pain management and treating conditions like hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating).

3. Transdermal delivery systems: These are specialized patches that contain medication within them. The patch is applied to the skin, and as time passes, the medication is released through the skin and into the systemic circulation. This method allows for a steady, controlled release of medication over an extended period. Common examples include nicotine patches for smoking cessation and hormone replacement therapy patches.

Cutaneous administration offers several advantages, such as avoiding first-pass metabolism (which can reduce the effectiveness of oral medications), providing localized treatment, and allowing for self-administration in some cases. However, it may not be suitable for all types of medications or conditions, and potential side effects include skin irritation, allergic reactions, and systemic absorption leading to unwanted systemic effects.

The metacarpus is the medical term for the part of the hand located between the carpus (wrist) and the digits (fingers). It consists of five bones, known as the metacarpal bones, which are numbered 1 to 5 from the thumb side to the little finger side. Each metacarpal bone has a base, a shaft, and a head. The bases of the metacarpal bones articulate with the carpal bones to form the wrist joint, while the heads of the metacarpal bones form the knuckles at the back of the hand.

The metacarpus plays an essential role in hand function as it provides stability and support for the movement of the fingers and thumb. Injuries or conditions affecting the metacarpus can significantly impact hand function, causing pain, stiffness, weakness, or deformity.

In the context of nutrition and health, minerals are inorganic elements that are essential for various bodily functions, such as nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, and bone structure. They are required in small amounts compared to macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) and are obtained from food and water.

Some of the major minerals include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and chloride, while trace minerals or microminerals are required in even smaller amounts and include iron, zinc, copper, manganese, iodine, selenium, and fluoride.

It's worth noting that the term "minerals" can also refer to geological substances found in the earth, but in medical terminology, it specifically refers to the essential inorganic elements required for human health.

A questionnaire in the medical context is a standardized, systematic, and structured tool used to gather information from individuals regarding their symptoms, medical history, lifestyle, or other health-related factors. It typically consists of a series of written questions that can be either self-administered or administered by an interviewer. Questionnaires are widely used in various areas of healthcare, including clinical research, epidemiological studies, patient care, and health services evaluation to collect data that can inform diagnosis, treatment planning, and population health management. They provide a consistent and organized method for obtaining information from large groups or individual patients, helping to ensure accurate and comprehensive data collection while minimizing bias and variability in the information gathered.

Endometrial hyperplasia is a condition in which the lining of the uterus (endometrium) becomes thickened due to an overgrowth of cells. This occurs as a result of excessive estrogen stimulation without adequate progesterone to balance it. The thickening of the endometrium can range from mild to severe, and in some cases, it may lead to the development of abnormal or precancerous cells.

There are different types of endometrial hyperplasia, including simple hyperplasia, complex hyperplasia, and atypical hyperplasia. Simple hyperplasia has an increased number of glands but no significant architectural distortion, while complex hyperplasia shows crowded glands with architectural complexity. Atypical hyperplasia is a more serious condition characterized by the presence of abnormal cells, which can increase the risk of developing endometrial cancer if left untreated.

The primary symptoms of endometrial hyperplasia include irregular menstrual periods, heavy or prolonged bleeding, and postmenopausal bleeding. The diagnosis typically involves a transvaginal ultrasound and an endometrial biopsy to evaluate the tissue sample for cell changes. Treatment options depend on the type and severity of hyperplasia, as well as the patient's age and overall health. Hormonal therapy, progestin-based medications, or a hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus) may be recommended to manage this condition.

A hysterectomy is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of the uterus (womb). Depending on the specific medical condition and necessity, a hysterectomy may also include the removal of the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and surrounding tissues. There are different types of hysterectomies, including:

1. Total hysterectomy: The uterus and cervix are removed.
2. Supracervical (or subtotal) hysterectomy: Only the upper part of the uterus is removed, leaving the cervix intact.
3. Radical hysterectomy: This procedure involves removing the uterus, cervix, surrounding tissues, and the upper part of the vagina. It is typically performed in cases of cervical cancer.
4. Oophorectomy: The removal of one or both ovaries can be performed along with a hysterectomy depending on the patient's medical condition and age.
5. Salpingectomy: The removal of one or both fallopian tubes can also be performed along with a hysterectomy if needed.

The reasons for performing a hysterectomy may include but are not limited to: uterine fibroids, heavy menstrual bleeding, endometriosis, adenomyosis, pelvic prolapse, cervical or uterine cancer, and chronic pelvic pain. The choice of the type of hysterectomy depends on the patient's medical condition, age, and personal preferences.

Spinal injuries refer to damages or traumas that occur to the vertebral column, which houses and protects the spinal cord. These injuries can be caused by various factors such as trauma from accidents (motor vehicle, sports-related, falls, etc.), violence, or degenerative conditions like arthritis, disc herniation, or spinal stenosis.

Spinal injuries can result in bruising, fractures, dislocations, or compression of the vertebrae, which may then cause damage to the spinal cord and its surrounding tissues, nerves, and blood vessels. The severity of a spinal injury can range from mild, with temporary symptoms, to severe, resulting in permanent impairment or paralysis below the level of injury.

Symptoms of spinal injuries may include:
- Pain or stiffness in the neck or back
- Numbness, tingling, or weakness in the limbs
- Loss of bladder or bowel control
- Difficulty walking or maintaining balance
- Paralysis or loss of sensation below the level of injury
- In severe cases, respiratory problems and difficulty in breathing

Immediate medical attention is crucial for spinal injuries to prevent further damage and ensure proper treatment. Treatment options may include immobilization, surgery, medication, rehabilitation, and physical therapy.

Calcium is an essential mineral that is vital for various physiological processes in the human body. The medical definition of calcium is as follows:

Calcium (Ca2+) is a crucial cation and the most abundant mineral in the human body, with approximately 99% of it found in bones and teeth. It plays a vital role in maintaining structural integrity, nerve impulse transmission, muscle contraction, hormonal secretion, blood coagulation, and enzyme activation.

Calcium homeostasis is tightly regulated through the interplay of several hormones, including parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, and vitamin D. Dietary calcium intake, absorption, and excretion are also critical factors in maintaining optimal calcium levels in the body.

Hypocalcemia refers to low serum calcium levels, while hypercalcemia indicates high serum calcium levels. Both conditions can have detrimental effects on various organ systems and require medical intervention to correct.

Bone diseases is a broad term that refers to various medical conditions that affect the bones. These conditions can be categorized into several groups, including:

1. Developmental and congenital bone diseases: These are conditions that affect bone growth and development before or at birth. Examples include osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease), achondroplasia (dwarfism), and cleidocranial dysostosis.
2. Metabolic bone diseases: These are conditions that affect the body's ability to maintain healthy bones. They are often caused by hormonal imbalances, vitamin deficiencies, or problems with mineral metabolism. Examples include osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and Paget's disease of bone.
3. Inflammatory bone diseases: These are conditions that cause inflammation in the bones. They can be caused by infections, autoimmune disorders, or other medical conditions. Examples include osteomyelitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
4. Degenerative bone diseases: These are conditions that cause the bones to break down over time. They can be caused by aging, injury, or disease. Examples include osteoarthritis, avascular necrosis, and diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH).
5. Tumors and cancers of the bone: These are conditions that involve abnormal growths in the bones. They can be benign or malignant. Examples include osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, and Ewing sarcoma.
6. Fractures and injuries: While not strictly a "disease," fractures and injuries are common conditions that affect the bones. They can result from trauma, overuse, or weakened bones. Examples include stress fractures, compound fractures, and dislocations.

Overall, bone diseases can cause a wide range of symptoms, including pain, stiffness, deformity, and decreased mobility. Treatment for these conditions varies depending on the specific diagnosis but may include medication, surgery, physical therapy, or lifestyle changes.

Aging is a complex, progressive and inevitable process of bodily changes over time, characterized by the accumulation of cellular damage and degenerative changes that eventually lead to increased vulnerability to disease and death. It involves various biological, genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that contribute to the decline in physical and mental functions. The medical field studies aging through the discipline of gerontology, which aims to understand the underlying mechanisms of aging and develop interventions to promote healthy aging and extend the human healthspan.

Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) is a steroid hormone that is produced by the adrenal glands. It is a modified form of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), which is converted to DHEA-S in the body for storage and later conversion back to DHEA or other steroid hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. DHEA-S is often measured in the blood as a marker of adrenal function. It is also available as a dietary supplement, although its effectiveness for any medical purpose is not well established.

The ilium is the largest and broadest of the three parts that make up the hip bone or coxal bone. It is the uppermost portion of the pelvis and forms the side of the waist. The ilium has a curved, fan-like shape and articulates with the sacrum at the back to form the sacroiliac joint. The large, concave surface on the top of the ilium is called the iliac crest, which can be felt as a prominent ridge extending from the front of the hip to the lower back. This region is significant in orthopedics and physical examinations for its use in assessing various medical conditions and performing certain maneuvers during the physical examination.

Exercise is defined in the medical context as a physical activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive, with the primary aim of improving or maintaining one or more components of physical fitness. Components of physical fitness include cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body composition. Exercise can be classified based on its intensity (light, moderate, or vigorous), duration (length of time), and frequency (number of times per week). Common types of exercise include aerobic exercises, such as walking, jogging, cycling, and swimming; resistance exercises, such as weightlifting; flexibility exercises, such as stretching; and balance exercises. Exercise has numerous health benefits, including reducing the risk of chronic diseases, improving mental health, and enhancing overall quality of life.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

An accidental fall is an unplanned, unexpected event in which a person suddenly and involuntarily comes to rest on the ground or other lower level, excluding intentional changes in position (e.g., jumping to catch a ball) and landings that are part of a planned activity (e.g., diving into a pool). Accidental falls can occur for various reasons, such as environmental hazards, muscle weakness, balance problems, visual impairment, or certain medical conditions. They are a significant health concern, particularly among older adults, as they can lead to serious injuries, loss of independence, reduced quality of life, and increased mortality.

A "Drug Administration Schedule" refers to the plan for when and how a medication should be given to a patient. It includes details such as the dose, frequency (how often it should be taken), route (how it should be administered, such as orally, intravenously, etc.), and duration (how long it should be taken) of the medication. This schedule is often created and prescribed by healthcare professionals, such as doctors or pharmacists, to ensure that the medication is taken safely and effectively. It may also include instructions for missed doses or changes in the dosage.

Androstenedione is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes. It is a precursor to both male and female sex hormones, including testosterone and estrogen. In the adrenal glands, it is produced from cholesterol through a series of biochemical reactions involving several enzymes. Androstenedione can also be converted into other steroid hormones, such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and estrone.

In the body, androstenedione plays an important role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial hair and a deep voice in men, and breast development and menstrual cycles in women. It also contributes to bone density, muscle mass, and overall physical strength.

Androstenedione is available as a dietary supplement and has been marketed as a way to boost athletic performance and increase muscle mass. However, its effectiveness for these purposes is not supported by scientific evidence, and it may have harmful side effects when taken in high doses or for extended periods of time. Additionally, the use of androstenedione as a dietary supplement is banned by many sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee and the National Collegiate Athletic Association.

The endometrium is the innermost layer of the uterus, which lines the uterine cavity and has a critical role in the menstrual cycle and pregnancy. It is composed of glands and blood vessels that undergo cyclic changes under the influence of hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone. During the menstrual cycle, the endometrium thickens in preparation for a potential pregnancy. If fertilization does not occur, it will break down and be shed, resulting in menstruation. In contrast, if implantation takes place, the endometrium provides essential nutrients to support the developing embryo and placenta throughout pregnancy.

A cross-over study is a type of experimental design in which participants receive two or more interventions in a specific order. After a washout period, each participant receives the opposite intervention(s). The primary advantage of this design is that it controls for individual variability by allowing each participant to act as their own control.

In medical research, cross-over studies are often used to compare the efficacy or safety of two treatments. For example, a researcher might conduct a cross-over study to compare the effectiveness of two different medications for treating high blood pressure. Half of the participants would be randomly assigned to receive one medication first and then switch to the other medication after a washout period. The other half of the participants would receive the opposite order of treatments.

Cross-over studies can provide valuable insights into the relative merits of different interventions, but they also have some limitations. For example, they may not be suitable for studying conditions that are chronic or irreversible, as it may not be possible to completely reverse the effects of the first intervention before administering the second one. Additionally, carryover effects from the first intervention can confound the results if they persist into the second treatment period.

Overall, cross-over studies are a useful tool in medical research when used appropriately and with careful consideration of their limitations.

Progesterone receptors (PRs) are a type of nuclear receptor proteins that are expressed in the nucleus of certain cells and play a crucial role in the regulation of various physiological processes, including the menstrual cycle, embryo implantation, and maintenance of pregnancy. These receptors bind to the steroid hormone progesterone, which is produced primarily in the ovaries during the second half of the menstrual cycle and during pregnancy.

Once progesterone binds to the PRs, it triggers a series of molecular events that lead to changes in gene expression, ultimately resulting in the modulation of various cellular functions. Progesterone receptors exist in two main isoforms, PR-A and PR-B, which differ in their size, structure, and transcriptional activity. Both isoforms are expressed in a variety of tissues, including the female reproductive tract, breast, brain, and bone.

Abnormalities in progesterone receptor expression or function have been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as uterine fibroids, endometriosis, breast cancer, and osteoporosis. Therefore, understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying PR signaling is essential for developing novel therapeutic strategies to treat these disorders.

Aminoglutethimide is a medication that is primarily used to treat hormone-sensitive cancers such as breast cancer and prostate cancer. It works by blocking the production of certain hormones in the body, including estrogen and cortisol. Aminoglutethimide is an inhibitor of steroid synthesis, specifically targeting the enzymes involved in the conversion of cholesterol to steroid hormones.

The medication is available in oral form and is typically taken 2-3 times a day. Common side effects include drowsiness, dizziness, dry mouth, skin rash, and changes in appetite or weight. More serious side effects may include liver damage, severe allergic reactions, and changes in heart rhythm.

It's important to note that aminoglutethimide can interact with other medications, so it's crucial to inform your healthcare provider about all the drugs you are currently taking before starting this medication. Additionally, regular monitoring of liver function and hormone levels may be necessary during treatment with aminoglutethimide.

A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a type of clinical study in which participants are randomly assigned to receive either the experimental intervention or the control condition, which may be a standard of care, placebo, or no treatment. The goal of an RCT is to minimize bias and ensure that the results are due to the intervention being tested rather than other factors. This design allows for a comparison between the two groups to determine if there is a significant difference in outcomes. RCTs are often considered the gold standard for evaluating the safety and efficacy of medical interventions, as they provide a high level of evidence for causal relationships between the intervention and health outcomes.

Hormone-dependent neoplasms are a type of tumor that requires the presence of specific hormones to grow and multiply. These neoplasms have receptors on their cell surfaces that bind to the hormones, leading to the activation of signaling pathways that promote cell division and growth.

Examples of hormone-dependent neoplasms include breast cancer, prostate cancer, and endometrial cancer. In breast cancer, for instance, estrogen and/or progesterone can bind to their respective receptors on the surface of cancer cells, leading to the activation of signaling pathways that promote tumor growth. Similarly, in prostate cancer, androgens such as testosterone can bind to androgen receptors on the surface of cancer cells, promoting cell division and tumor growth.

Hormone-dependent neoplasms are often treated with hormonal therapies that aim to reduce or block the production of the relevant hormones or interfere with their ability to bind to their respective receptors. This can help slow down or stop the growth of the tumor and improve outcomes for patients.

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It serves as a precursor to other hormones, including androgens such as testosterone and estrogens such as estradiol. DHEA levels typically peak during early adulthood and then gradually decline with age.

DHEA has been studied for its potential effects on various health conditions, including aging, cognitive function, sexual dysfunction, and certain chronic diseases. However, the evidence supporting its use for these purposes is generally limited and inconclusive. As with any supplement or medication, it's important to consult with a healthcare provider before taking DHEA to ensure safety and effectiveness.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

The tibia, also known as the shin bone, is the larger of the two bones in the lower leg and part of the knee joint. It supports most of the body's weight and is a major insertion point for muscles that flex the foot and bend the leg. The tibia articulates with the femur at the knee joint and with the fibula and talus bone at the ankle joint. Injuries to the tibia, such as fractures, are common in sports and other activities that put stress on the lower leg.

Medical mass screening, also known as population screening, is a public health service that aims to identify and detect asymptomatic individuals in a given population who have or are at risk of a specific disease. The goal is to provide early treatment, reduce morbidity and mortality, and prevent the spread of diseases within the community.

A mass screening program typically involves offering a simple, quick, and non-invasive test to a large number of people in a defined population, regardless of their risk factors or symptoms. Those who test positive are then referred for further diagnostic tests and appropriate medical interventions. Examples of mass screening programs include mammography for breast cancer detection, PSA (prostate-specific antigen) testing for prostate cancer, and fecal occult blood testing for colorectal cancer.

It is important to note that mass screening programs should be evidence-based, cost-effective, and ethically sound, with clear benefits outweighing potential harms. They should also consider factors such as the prevalence of the disease in the population, the accuracy and reliability of the screening test, and the availability and effectiveness of treatment options.

Soy foods are food products made from soybeans, which are a rich source of plant-based protein, fiber, and various beneficial compounds like isoflavones. Examples of soy foods include tofu, tempeh, soymilk, edamame (immature soybeans), soy flour, and textured vegetable protein (TVP). Soy products can be used as alternatives to animal-based proteins and can be incorporated into a variety of dishes, such as stir-fries, soups, smoothies, and baked goods. It's important to note that some people may have allergies to soy or sensitivities to its phytoestrogens, which can affect hormone balance in the body.

Aromatase is a enzyme that belongs to the cytochrome P450 superfamily, and it is responsible for converting androgens into estrogens through a process called aromatization. This enzyme plays a crucial role in the steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway, particularly in females where it is primarily expressed in adipose tissue, ovaries, brain, and breast tissue.

Aromatase inhibitors are used as a treatment for estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer in postmenopausal women, as they work by blocking the activity of aromatase and reducing the levels of circulating estrogens in the body.

Thiophenes are organic compounds that contain a heterocyclic ring made up of four carbon atoms and one sulfur atom. The structure of thiophene is similar to benzene, with the benzene ring being replaced by a thiophene ring. Thiophenes are aromatic compounds, which means they have a stable, planar ring structure and delocalized electrons.

Thiophenes can be found in various natural sources such as coal tar, crude oil, and some foods like onions and garlic. They also occur in certain medications, dyes, and pesticides. Some thiophene derivatives have been synthesized and studied for their potential therapeutic uses, including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antitumor activities.

In the medical field, thiophenes are used in some pharmaceuticals as building blocks to create drugs with various therapeutic effects. For example, tipepidine, a cough suppressant, contains a thiophene ring. Additionally, some anesthetics and antipsychotic medications also contain thiophene moieties.

It is important to note that while thiophenes themselves are not typically considered medical terms, they play a role in the chemistry of various pharmaceuticals and other medical-related compounds.

Obesity is a complex disease characterized by an excess accumulation of body fat to the extent that it negatively impacts health. It's typically defined using Body Mass Index (BMI), a measure calculated from a person's weight and height. A BMI of 30 or higher is indicative of obesity. However, it's important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying obesity in populations, it does not directly measure body fat and may not accurately reflect health status in individuals. Other factors such as waist circumference, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and blood sugar levels should also be considered when assessing health risks associated with weight.

Equol is a metabolite produced by intestinal bacteria that can metabolize the soy isoflavone daidzein. It has been studied for its potential role in various health outcomes, such as reducing menopause symptoms and protecting against certain types of cancer. However, not all individuals have the ability to produce equol, and its effects on human health are still a subject of ongoing research.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

Vitamin D deficiency is a condition characterized by insufficient levels of vitamin D in the body, typically defined as a serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D level below 20 nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL) or 50 nanomoles per liter (nmol/L). Vitamin D is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that plays a crucial role in maintaining healthy bones and teeth by regulating the absorption of calcium and phosphorus. It also has various other functions in the body, including modulation of cell growth, immune function, and neuromuscular activity.

Vitamin D can be obtained through dietary sources such as fatty fish, fortified dairy products, and supplements, but the majority of vitamin D is produced in the skin upon exposure to sunlight. Deficiency can occur due to inadequate dietary intake, insufficient sun exposure, or impaired absorption or metabolism of vitamin D.

Risk factors for vitamin D deficiency include older age, darker skin tone, obesity, malabsorption syndromes, liver or kidney disease, and certain medications. Symptoms of vitamin D deficiency can be subtle and nonspecific, such as fatigue, bone pain, muscle weakness, and mood changes. However, prolonged deficiency can lead to more severe health consequences, including osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and increased risk of fractures.

"Plant preparations" is not a term with a specific medical definition in the field of medicine or pharmacology. However, it is commonly used to refer to various forms of plant material that have been prepared for medicinal use. This can include dried and powdered plant parts, such as leaves, roots, or flowers, as well as extracts or concentrates made from plants. These preparations may be used in traditional medicine or as the basis for modern pharmaceuticals. It is important to note that the safety, effectiveness, and quality of plant preparations can vary widely, and they should only be used under the guidance of a qualified healthcare provider.

I'm not aware of any recognized medical definition for the term "Iowa." Iowa is actually a state located in the Midwestern United States. It is known for its agricultural production, particularly corn and soybeans, and it is home to various cities such as Des Moines, Cedar Rapids, and Davenport. If you have any medical or health-related question, I would be happy to help with that instead.

Logistic models, specifically logistic regression models, are a type of statistical analysis used in medical and epidemiological research to identify the relationship between the risk of a certain health outcome or disease (dependent variable) and one or more independent variables, such as demographic factors, exposure variables, or other clinical measurements.

In contrast to linear regression models, logistic regression models are used when the dependent variable is binary or dichotomous in nature, meaning it can only take on two values, such as "disease present" or "disease absent." The model uses a logistic function to estimate the probability of the outcome based on the independent variables.

Logistic regression models are useful for identifying risk factors and estimating the strength of associations between exposures and health outcomes, adjusting for potential confounders, and predicting the probability of an outcome given certain values of the independent variables. They can also be used to develop clinical prediction rules or scores that can aid in decision-making and patient care.

Adjuvant chemotherapy is a medical treatment that is given in addition to the primary therapy, such as surgery or radiation, to increase the chances of a cure or to reduce the risk of recurrence in patients with cancer. It involves the use of chemicals (chemotherapeutic agents) to destroy any remaining cancer cells that may not have been removed by the primary treatment. This type of chemotherapy is typically given after the main treatment has been completed, and its goal is to kill any residual cancer cells that may be present in the body and reduce the risk of the cancer coming back. The specific drugs used and the duration of treatment will depend on the type and stage of cancer being treated.

Bone development, also known as ossification, is the process by which bone tissue is formed and grows. This complex process involves several different types of cells, including osteoblasts, which produce new bone matrix, and osteoclasts, which break down and resorb existing bone tissue.

There are two main types of bone development: intramembranous and endochondral ossification. Intramembranous ossification occurs when bone tissue forms directly from connective tissue, while endochondral ossification involves the formation of a cartilage model that is later replaced by bone.

During fetal development, most bones develop through endochondral ossification, starting as a cartilage template that is gradually replaced by bone tissue. However, some bones, such as those in the skull and clavicles, develop through intramembranous ossification.

Bone development continues after birth, with new bone tissue being laid down and existing tissue being remodeled throughout life. This ongoing process helps to maintain the strength and integrity of the skeleton, allowing it to adapt to changing mechanical forces and repair any damage that may occur.

The odds ratio (OR) is a statistical measure used in epidemiology and research to estimate the association between an exposure and an outcome. It represents the odds that an event will occur in one group versus the odds that it will occur in another group, assuming that all other factors are held constant.

In medical research, the odds ratio is often used to quantify the strength of the relationship between a risk factor (exposure) and a disease outcome. An OR of 1 indicates no association between the exposure and the outcome, while an OR greater than 1 suggests that there is a positive association between the two. Conversely, an OR less than 1 implies a negative association.

It's important to note that the odds ratio is not the same as the relative risk (RR), which compares the incidence rates of an outcome in two groups. While the OR can approximate the RR when the outcome is rare, they are not interchangeable and can lead to different conclusions about the association between an exposure and an outcome.

A femoral neck fracture is a type of hip fracture that occurs in the narrow, vertical section of bone just below the ball of the femur (thigh bone) that connects to the hip socket. This area is called the femoral neck. Femoral neck fractures can be categorized into different types based on their location and the direction of the fractured bone.

These fractures are typically caused by high-energy trauma, such as car accidents or falls from significant heights, in younger individuals. However, in older adults, particularly those with osteoporosis, femoral neck fractures can also result from low-energy trauma, like a simple fall from standing height.

Femoral neck fractures are often serious and require prompt medical attention. Treatment usually involves surgery to realign and stabilize the broken bone fragments, followed by rehabilitation to help regain mobility and strength. Potential complications of femoral neck fractures include avascular necrosis (loss of blood flow to the femoral head), nonunion or malunion (improper healing), and osteoarthritis in the hip joint.

The breast is the upper ventral region of the human body in females, which contains the mammary gland. The main function of the breast is to provide nutrition to infants through the production and secretion of milk, a process known as lactation. The breast is composed of fibrous connective tissue, adipose (fatty) tissue, and the mammary gland, which is made up of 15-20 lobes that are arranged in a radial pattern. Each lobe contains many smaller lobules, where milk is produced during lactation. The milk is then transported through a network of ducts to the nipple, where it can be expressed by the infant.

In addition to its role in lactation, the breast also has important endocrine and psychological functions. It contains receptors for hormones such as estrogen and progesterone, which play a key role in sexual development and reproduction. The breast is also a source of sexual pleasure and can be an important symbol of femininity and motherhood.

It's worth noting that males also have breast tissue, although it is usually less developed than in females. Male breast tissue consists mainly of adipose tissue and does not typically contain functional mammary glands. However, some men may develop enlarged breast tissue due to conditions such as gynecomastia, which can be caused by hormonal imbalances or certain medications.

Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.

The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.

It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.

Cholecalciferol is the chemical name for Vitamin D3. It is a fat-soluble vitamin that is essential for the regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in the body, which helps to maintain healthy bones and teeth. Cholecalciferol can be synthesized by the skin upon exposure to sunlight or obtained through dietary sources such as fatty fish, liver, and fortified foods. It is also available as a dietary supplement.

Estrogen Receptor alpha (ERα) is a type of nuclear receptor protein that is activated by the hormone estrogen. It is encoded by the gene ESR1 and is primarily expressed in the cells of the reproductive system, breast, bone, liver, heart, and brain tissue.

When estrogen binds to ERα, it causes a conformational change in the receptor, which allows it to dimerize and translocate to the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, ERα functions as a transcription factor, binding to specific DNA sequences called estrogen response elements (EREs) and regulating the expression of target genes.

ERα plays important roles in various physiological processes, including the development and maintenance of female reproductive organs, bone homeostasis, and lipid metabolism. It is also a critical factor in the growth and progression of certain types of breast cancer, making ERα status an important consideration in the diagnosis and treatment of this disease.

Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Linear Models" is actually a term from the field of statistics and machine learning, rather than medicine. A linear model is a type of statistical model that is used to analyze the relationship between two or more variables. In a linear model, the relationship between the dependent variable (the outcome or result) and the independent variable(s) (the factors being studied) is assumed to be linear, meaning that it can be described by a straight line on a graph.

The equation for a simple linear model with one independent variable (x) and one dependent variable (y) looks like this:

y = β0 + β1*x + ε

In this equation, β0 is the y-intercept or the value of y when x equals zero, β1 is the slope or the change in y for each unit increase in x, and ε is the error term or the difference between the actual values of y and the predicted values of y based on the linear model.

Linear models are widely used in medical research to study the relationship between various factors (such as exposure to a risk factor or treatment) and health outcomes (such as disease incidence or mortality). They can also be used to adjust for confounding variables, which are factors that may influence both the independent variable and the dependent variable, and thus affect the observed relationship between them.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

Microradiography is a radiographic technique that uses X-rays to produce detailed images of small specimens, such as microscopic slides or individual cells. In this process, the specimen is placed in close contact with a high-resolution photographic emulsion, and then exposed to X-rays. The resulting image shows the distribution of radiopaque materials within the specimen, providing information about its internal structure and composition at a microscopic level.

Microradiography can be used for various applications in medical research and diagnosis, including the study of bone and tooth microstructure, the analysis of tissue pathology, and the examination of mineralized tissues such as calcifications or osteogenic lesions. The technique offers high resolution and contrast, making it a valuable tool for researchers and clinicians seeking to understand the complex structures and processes that occur at the microscopic level in living organisms.

Body composition refers to the relative proportions of different components that make up a person's body, including fat mass, lean muscle mass, bone mass, and total body water. It is an important measure of health and fitness, as changes in body composition can indicate shifts in overall health status. For example, an increase in fat mass and decrease in lean muscle mass can be indicative of poor nutrition, sedentary behavior, or certain medical conditions.

There are several methods for measuring body composition, including:

1. Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA): This method uses low-level electrical currents to estimate body fat percentage based on the conductivity of different tissues.
2. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA): This method uses low-dose X-rays to measure bone density and body composition, including lean muscle mass and fat distribution.
3. Hydrostatic weighing: This method involves submerging a person in water and measuring their weight underwater to estimate body density and fat mass.
4. Air displacement plethysmography (ADP): This method uses air displacement to measure body volume and density, which can be used to estimate body composition.

Understanding body composition can help individuals make informed decisions about their health and fitness goals, as well as provide valuable information for healthcare providers in the management of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.

Hysteroscopy is a diagnostic procedure that allows healthcare professionals to examine the interior of the uterus (hyster(o)- and -scopy from Greek "womb" + "examination"). It is performed using a hysteroscope, which is a thin, lighted tube with a camera attached to its end. The hysteroscope is inserted through the vagina and cervix into the uterus, enabling the visualization of the uterine cavity and the detection of any abnormalities, such as polyps, fibroids, or structural issues like a septum.

Hysteroscopy can be performed in a doctor's office or an outpatient surgical center under local, regional, or general anesthesia depending on the situation and patient comfort. The procedure may also be used for minor surgical interventions, such as removing polyps or fibroids, or to assist with other procedures like laparoscopy.

In summary, hysteroscopy is a medical examination of the uterine cavity using a thin, lighted tube called a hysteroscope, which can aid in diagnosing and treating various conditions affecting the uterus.

Hydroxyestrones are metabolites of estrogens, which are female sex hormones. They are formed in the liver and other tissues when estrogens are broken down. Hydroxyestrones have weak estrogenic activity and can also act as antioxidants. Some hydroxyestrones, such as 2-hydroxyestrone and 4-hydroxyestrone, have been studied for their potential role in cancer development and progression, particularly hormone-dependent cancers like breast cancer. However, more research is needed to fully understand their effects on human health.

Anthropometry is the scientific study of measurements and proportions of the human body. It involves the systematic measurement and analysis of various physical characteristics, such as height, weight, blood pressure, waist circumference, and other body measurements. These measurements are used in a variety of fields, including medicine, ergonomics, forensics, and fashion design, to assess health status, fitness level, or to design products and environments that fit the human body. In a medical context, anthropometry is often used to assess growth and development, health status, and disease risk factors in individuals and populations.

Regression analysis is a statistical technique used in medicine, as well as in other fields, to examine the relationship between one or more independent variables (predictors) and a dependent variable (outcome). It allows for the estimation of the average change in the outcome variable associated with a one-unit change in an independent variable, while controlling for the effects of other independent variables. This technique is often used to identify risk factors for diseases or to evaluate the effectiveness of medical interventions. In medical research, regression analysis can be used to adjust for potential confounding variables and to quantify the relationship between exposures and health outcomes. It can also be used in predictive modeling to estimate the probability of a particular outcome based on multiple predictors.

Androgens are a class of hormones that are primarily responsible for the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics and reproductive function. Testosterone is the most well-known androgen, but other androgens include dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, and dihydrotestosterone (DHT).

Androgens are produced primarily by the testes in men and the ovaries in women, although small amounts are also produced by the adrenal glands in both sexes. They play a critical role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, such as the growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.

In addition to their role in sexual development and function, androgens also have important effects on bone density, mood, and cognitive function. Abnormal levels of androgens can contribute to a variety of medical conditions, including infertility, erectile dysfunction, acne, hirsutism (excessive hair growth), and prostate cancer.

Mammography is defined as a specialized medical imaging technique used to create detailed X-ray images of the breast tissue. It's primarily used as a screening tool to detect early signs of breast cancer in women who have no symptoms or complaints, as well as a diagnostic tool for further evaluation of abnormalities detected by other imaging techniques or during a clinical breast exam.

There are two primary types of mammography: film-screen mammography and digital mammography. Film-screen mammography uses traditional X-ray films to capture the images, while digital mammography utilizes digital detectors to convert X-rays into electronic signals, which are then displayed on a computer screen. Digital mammography offers several advantages over film-screen mammography, including lower radiation doses, improved image quality, and the ability to manipulate and enhance the images for better interpretation.

Mammography plays a crucial role in reducing breast cancer mortality by enabling early detection and treatment of this disease. Regular mammography screenings are recommended for women over a certain age (typically starting at age 40 or 50, depending on individual risk factors) to increase the chances of detecting breast cancer at an early stage when it is most treatable.

Osteomalacia is a medical condition characterized by the softening of bones due to defective bone mineralization, resulting from inadequate vitamin D, phosphate, or calcium. It mainly affects adults and is different from rickets, which occurs in children. The primary symptom is bone pain, but muscle weakness can also occur. Prolonged osteomalacia may lead to skeletal deformities and an increased risk of fractures. Treatment typically involves supplementation with vitamin D, calcium, and sometimes phosphate.

The hip joint, also known as the coxal joint, is a ball-and-socket type synovial joint that connects the femur (thigh bone) to the pelvis. The "ball" is the head of the femur, while the "socket" is the acetabulum, a concave surface on the pelvic bone.

The hip joint is surrounded by a strong fibrous capsule and is reinforced by several ligaments, including the iliofemoral, ischiofemoral, and pubofemoral ligaments. The joint allows for flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation, and circumduction movements, making it one of the most mobile joints in the body.

The hip joint is also supported by various muscles, including the gluteus maximus, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, iliopsoas, and other hip flexors and extensors. These muscles provide stability and strength to the joint, allowing for weight-bearing activities such as walking, running, and jumping.

Back pain is a common symptom characterized by discomfort or soreness in the back, often occurring in the lower region of the back (lumbago). It can range from a mild ache to a sharp stabbing or shooting pain, and it may be accompanied by stiffness, restricted mobility, and difficulty performing daily activities. Back pain is typically caused by strain or sprain to the muscles, ligaments, or spinal joints, but it can also result from degenerative conditions, disc herniation, spinal stenosis, osteoarthritis, or other medical issues affecting the spine. The severity and duration of back pain can vary widely, with some cases resolving on their own within a few days or weeks, while others may require medical treatment and rehabilitation.

Proportional hazards models are a type of statistical analysis used in medical research to investigate the relationship between covariates (predictor variables) and survival times. The most common application of proportional hazards models is in the Cox regression model, which is named after its developer, Sir David Cox.

In a proportional hazards model, the hazard rate or risk of an event occurring at a given time is assumed to be proportional to the hazard rate of a reference group, after adjusting for the covariates. This means that the ratio of the hazard rates between any two individuals remains constant over time, regardless of their survival times.

Mathematically, the hazard function h(t) at time t for an individual with a set of covariates X can be expressed as:

h(t|X) = h0(t) \* exp(β1X1 + β2X2 + ... + βpXp)

where h0(t) is the baseline hazard function, X1, X2, ..., Xp are the covariates, and β1, β2, ..., βp are the regression coefficients that represent the effect of each covariate on the hazard rate.

The assumption of proportionality is crucial in the interpretation of the results from a Cox regression model. If the assumption is violated, then the estimated regression coefficients may be biased and misleading. Therefore, it is important to test for the proportional hazards assumption before interpreting the results of a Cox regression analysis.

Longitudinal studies are a type of research design where data is collected from the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, often years or even decades. These studies are used to establish patterns of changes and events over time, and can help researchers identify causal relationships between variables. They are particularly useful in fields such as epidemiology, psychology, and sociology, where the focus is on understanding developmental trends and the long-term effects of various factors on health and behavior.

In medical research, longitudinal studies can be used to track the progression of diseases over time, identify risk factors for certain conditions, and evaluate the effectiveness of treatments or interventions. For example, a longitudinal study might follow a group of individuals over several decades to assess their exposure to certain environmental factors and their subsequent development of chronic diseases such as cancer or heart disease. By comparing data collected at multiple time points, researchers can identify trends and correlations that may not be apparent in shorter-term studies.

Longitudinal studies have several advantages over other research designs, including their ability to establish temporal relationships between variables, track changes over time, and reduce the impact of confounding factors. However, they also have some limitations, such as the potential for attrition (loss of participants over time), which can introduce bias and affect the validity of the results. Additionally, longitudinal studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, requiring significant resources and a long-term commitment from both researchers and study participants.

A confidence interval (CI) is a range of values that is likely to contain the true value of a population parameter with a certain level of confidence. It is commonly used in statistical analysis to express the uncertainty associated with estimates derived from sample data.

For example, if we calculate a 95% confidence interval for the mean height of a population based on a sample of individuals, we can say that we are 95% confident that the true population mean height falls within the calculated range. The width of the confidence interval gives us an idea of how precise our estimate is - narrower intervals indicate more precise estimates, while wider intervals suggest greater uncertainty.

Confidence intervals are typically calculated using statistical formulas that take into account the sample size, standard deviation, and level of confidence desired. They can be used to compare different groups or to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions in medical research.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.

Physiologic calcification is the normal deposit of calcium salts in body tissues and organs. It is a natural process that occurs as part of the growth and development of the human body, as well as during the repair and remodeling of tissues.

Calcium is an essential mineral that plays a critical role in many bodily functions, including bone formation, muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and blood clotting. In order to maintain proper levels of calcium in the body, excess calcium that is not needed for these functions may be deposited in various tissues as a normal part of the aging process.

Physiologic calcification typically occurs in areas such as the walls of blood vessels, the lungs, and the heart valves. While these calcifications are generally harmless, they can sometimes lead to complications, particularly if they occur in large amounts or in sensitive areas. For example, calcification of the coronary arteries can increase the risk of heart disease, while calcification of the lung tissue can cause respiratory symptoms.

It is important to note that pathologic calcification, on the other hand, refers to the abnormal deposit of calcium salts in tissues and organs, which can be caused by various medical conditions such as chronic kidney disease, hyperparathyroidism, and certain infections. Pathologic calcification is not a normal process and can lead to serious health complications if left untreated.

Anabolic agents are a class of drugs that promote anabolism, the building up of body tissues. These agents are often used medically to help people with certain medical conditions such as muscle wasting diseases, osteoporosis, and delayed puberty. Anabolic steroids are one type of anabolic agent. They mimic the effects of testosterone, the male sex hormone, leading to increased muscle mass and strength. However, anabolic steroids also have significant side effects and can be addictive. Therefore, their use is regulated and they are only available by prescription in many countries. Abuse of anabolic steroids for non-medical purposes, such as to improve athletic performance or appearance, is illegal and can lead to serious health consequences.

Reproductive history is a term used in medicine to describe the past experiences related to reproduction for an individual. This can include information about pregnancies, including the number of pregnancies, outcomes (such as live births, miscarriages, or stillbirths), and any complications that arose during pregnancy or childbirth. It may also include details about contraceptive use, menstrual history, sexually transmitted infections, and any reproductive health issues or surgeries.

This information is often collected by healthcare providers to help assess fertility, plan for future pregnancies, identify potential risks, and provide appropriate care and management of reproductive health conditions. It's also used in research and public health to understand trends and disparities in reproductive outcomes.

The thoracic vertebrae are the 12 vertebrae in the thoracic region of the spine, which is the portion between the cervical and lumbar regions. These vertebrae are numbered T1 to T12, with T1 being closest to the skull and T12 connecting to the lumbar region.

The main function of the thoracic vertebrae is to provide stability and support for the chest region, including protection for the vital organs within, such as the heart and lungs. Each thoracic vertebra has costal facets on its sides, which articulate with the heads of the ribs, forming the costovertebral joints. This connection between the spine and the ribcage allows for a range of movements while maintaining stability.

The thoracic vertebrae have a unique structure compared to other regions of the spine. They are characterized by having long, narrow bodies, small bony processes, and prominent spinous processes that point downwards. This particular shape and orientation of the thoracic vertebrae contribute to their role in limiting excessive spinal movement and providing overall trunk stability.

Jaw diseases refer to a variety of conditions that affect the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) and the surrounding muscles, as well as dental disorders that can impact the jaw. Some common examples include:

1. Temporomandibular Joint Disorders (TMD): These are problems with the TMJ and the muscles that control jaw movement. Symptoms may include pain, clicking or popping sounds, and limited movement of the jaw.

2. Osteonecrosis of the Jaw: This is a condition where bone in the jaw dies due to lack of blood supply. It can be caused by radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or certain medications.

3. Dental Cavities: These are holes in the teeth caused by bacteria. If left untreated, they can cause pain, infection, and damage to the jawbone.

4. Periodontal Disease: This is an infection of the gums and bones that support the teeth. Advanced periodontal disease can lead to loss of teeth and damage to the jawbone.

5. Jaw Fractures: These are breaks in the jawbone, often caused by trauma.

6. Oral Cancer: This is a type of cancer that starts in the mouth or throat. If not treated early, it can spread to the jaw and other parts of the body.

7. Cysts and Tumors: These are abnormal growths in the jawbone or surrounding tissues. While some are benign (non-cancerous), others can be malignant (cancerous).

8. Osteomyelitis: This is an infection of the bone, often occurring in the lower jaw. It can cause pain, swelling, and fever.

9. Oral Thrush: This is a fungal infection that causes white patches on the inside of the mouth. If left untreated, it can spread to the jaw and other parts of the body.

10. Sinusitis: Inflammation of the sinuses can sometimes cause pain in the upper jaw.

Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.

It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.

Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.

Combination drug therapy is a treatment approach that involves the use of multiple medications with different mechanisms of action to achieve better therapeutic outcomes. This approach is often used in the management of complex medical conditions such as cancer, HIV/AIDS, and cardiovascular diseases. The goal of combination drug therapy is to improve efficacy, reduce the risk of drug resistance, decrease the likelihood of adverse effects, and enhance the overall quality of life for patients.

In combining drugs, healthcare providers aim to target various pathways involved in the disease process, which may help to:

1. Increase the effectiveness of treatment by attacking the disease from multiple angles.
2. Decrease the dosage of individual medications, reducing the risk and severity of side effects.
3. Slow down or prevent the development of drug resistance, a common problem in chronic diseases like HIV/AIDS and cancer.
4. Improve patient compliance by simplifying dosing schedules and reducing pill burden.

Examples of combination drug therapy include:

1. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV treatment, which typically involves three or more drugs from different classes to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
2. Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where multiple cytotoxic agents are used to target various stages of the cell cycle and reduce the likelihood of tumor cells developing resistance.
3. Cardiovascular disease management, which may involve combining medications such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers, diuretics, and statins to control blood pressure, heart rate, fluid balance, and cholesterol levels.
4. Treatment of tuberculosis, which often involves a combination of several antibiotics to target different aspects of the bacterial life cycle and prevent the development of drug-resistant strains.

When prescribing combination drug therapy, healthcare providers must carefully consider factors such as potential drug interactions, dosing schedules, adverse effects, and contraindications to ensure safe and effective treatment. Regular monitoring of patients is essential to assess treatment response, manage side effects, and adjust the treatment plan as needed.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "life style" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. It generally refers to the way an individual or group lives, including their habits, behaviors, and preferences in areas such as diet, exercise, recreation, and stress management. Some lifestyle factors can have a significant impact on health outcomes and risk for certain diseases. However, it is not a medical term with a specific clinical meaning.

Forearm injuries refer to damages or traumas that affect the anatomy and function of the forearm, which is the area between the elbow and wrist. This region consists of two long bones (the radius and ulna) and several muscles, tendons, ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels that enable movements such as flexion, extension, pronation, and supination of the hand and wrist.

Common forearm injuries include:

1. Fractures: Breaks in the radius or ulna bones can occur due to high-energy trauma, falls, or sports accidents. These fractures may be simple (stable) or compound (displaced), and might require immobilization, casting, or surgical intervention depending on their severity and location.

2. Sprains and Strains: Overstretching or tearing of the ligaments connecting the bones in the forearm or the muscles and tendons responsible for movement can lead to sprains and strains. These injuries often cause pain, swelling, bruising, and limited mobility.

3. Dislocations: In some cases, forceful trauma might result in the dislocation of the radioulnar joint, where the ends of the radius and ulna meet. This injury can be extremely painful and may necessitate immediate medical attention to realign the bones and stabilize the joint.

4. Tendonitis: Repetitive motions or overuse can cause inflammation and irritation of the tendons in the forearm, resulting in a condition known as tendonitis. This injury typically presents with localized pain, swelling, and stiffness that worsen with activity.

5. Nerve Injuries: Direct trauma, compression, or stretching can damage nerves in the forearm, leading to numbness, tingling, weakness, or paralysis in the hand and fingers. Common nerve injuries include radial nerve neuropathy and ulnar nerve entrapment.

6. Compartment Syndrome: Forearm compartment syndrome occurs when increased pressure within one of the forearm's fascial compartments restricts blood flow to the muscles, nerves, and tissues inside. This condition can result from trauma, bleeding, or swelling and requires immediate medical intervention to prevent permanent damage.

Accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment are crucial for managing forearm injuries and ensuring optimal recovery. Patients should consult with a healthcare professional if they experience persistent pain, swelling, stiffness, weakness, or numbness in their forearms or hands.

"Sex factors" is a term used in medicine and epidemiology to refer to the differences in disease incidence, prevalence, or response to treatment that are observed between males and females. These differences can be attributed to biological differences such as genetics, hormones, and anatomy, as well as social and cultural factors related to gender.

For example, some conditions such as autoimmune diseases, depression, and osteoporosis are more common in women, while others such as cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer are more prevalent in men. Additionally, sex differences have been observed in the effectiveness and side effects of various medications and treatments.

It is important to consider sex factors in medical research and clinical practice to ensure that patients receive appropriate and effective care.

Multivariate analysis is a statistical method used to examine the relationship between multiple independent variables and a dependent variable. It allows for the simultaneous examination of the effects of two or more independent variables on an outcome, while controlling for the effects of other variables in the model. This technique can be used to identify patterns, associations, and interactions among multiple variables, and is commonly used in medical research to understand complex health outcomes and disease processes. Examples of multivariate analysis methods include multiple regression, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and discriminant analysis.

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a class of diseases that affect the heart and blood vessels. They are the leading cause of death globally, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). The term "cardiovascular disease" refers to a group of conditions that include:

1. Coronary artery disease (CAD): This is the most common type of heart disease and occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the heart become narrowed or blocked due to the buildup of cholesterol, fat, and other substances in the walls of the arteries. This can lead to chest pain, shortness of breath, or a heart attack.
2. Heart failure: This occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood efficiently to meet the body's needs. It can be caused by various conditions, including coronary artery disease, high blood pressure, and cardiomyopathy.
3. Stroke: A stroke occurs when the blood supply to a part of the brain is interrupted or reduced, often due to a clot or a ruptured blood vessel. This can cause brain damage or death.
4. Peripheral artery disease (PAD): This occurs when the arteries that supply blood to the limbs become narrowed or blocked, leading to pain, numbness, or weakness in the legs or arms.
5. Rheumatic heart disease: This is a complication of untreated strep throat and can cause damage to the heart valves, leading to heart failure or other complications.
6. Congenital heart defects: These are structural problems with the heart that are present at birth. They can range from mild to severe and may require medical intervention.
7. Cardiomyopathy: This is a disease of the heart muscle that makes it harder for the heart to pump blood efficiently. It can be caused by various factors, including genetics, infections, and certain medications.
8. Heart arrhythmias: These are abnormal heart rhythms that can cause the heart to beat too fast, too slow, or irregularly. They can lead to symptoms such as palpitations, dizziness, or fainting.
9. Valvular heart disease: This occurs when one or more of the heart valves become damaged or diseased, leading to problems with blood flow through the heart.
10. Aortic aneurysm and dissection: These are conditions that affect the aorta, the largest artery in the body. An aneurysm is a bulge in the aorta, while a dissection is a tear in the inner layer of the aorta. Both can be life-threatening if not treated promptly.

It's important to note that many of these conditions can be managed or treated with medical interventions such as medications, surgery, or lifestyle changes. If you have any concerns about your heart health, it's important to speak with a healthcare provider.

The vagina is the canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of the uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as the birth canal because babies pass through it during childbirth. The vagina is where sexual intercourse occurs and where menstrual blood exits the body. It has a flexible wall that can expand and retract. During sexual arousal, the vaginal walls swell with blood to become more elastic in order to accommodate penetration.

It's important to note that sometimes people use the term "vagina" to refer to the entire female genital area, including the external structures like the labia and clitoris. But technically, these are considered part of the vulva, not the vagina.

Premature menopause, also known as premature ovarian insufficiency, is a medical condition characterized by the cessation of ovarian function before the age of 40. This results in the absence of menstrual periods and decreased levels of estrogen and progesterone, which can have significant impacts on a woman's health and fertility.

The symptoms of premature menopause are similar to those experienced during natural menopause and may include hot flashes, night sweats, mood changes, vaginal dryness, and decreased libido. However, because of the early age of onset, women with premature menopause have an increased risk of developing certain health conditions such as osteoporosis, cardiovascular disease, and cognitive decline.

The causes of premature menopause are varied and can include genetic factors, autoimmune disorders, surgical removal of the ovaries, chemotherapy or radiation therapy, and exposure to environmental toxins. In some cases, the cause may be unknown. Treatment for premature menopause typically involves hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to alleviate symptoms and reduce the risk of long-term health complications. However, HRT carries its own risks and benefits, and individualized treatment plans should be developed in consultation with a healthcare provider.

Androstadienes are a class of steroid hormones that are derived from androstenedione, which is a weak male sex hormone. Androstadienes include various compounds such as androstadiene-3,17-dione and androstanedione, which are intermediate products in the biosynthesis of more potent androgens like testosterone and dihydrotestosterone.

Androstadienes are present in both males and females but are found in higher concentrations in men. They can be detected in various bodily fluids, including blood, urine, sweat, and semen. In addition to their role in steroid hormone synthesis, androstadienes have been studied for their potential use as biomarkers of physiological processes and disease states.

It's worth noting that androstadienes are sometimes referred to as "androstenes" in the literature, although this term can also refer to other related compounds.

Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks and in the shells of many marine animals. As a mineral, it is known as calcite or aragonite.

In the medical field, calcium carbonate is often used as a dietary supplement to prevent or treat calcium deficiency. It is also commonly used as an antacid to neutralize stomach acid and relieve symptoms of heartburn, acid reflux, and indigestion.

Calcium carbonate works by reacting with hydrochloric acid in the stomach to form water, carbon dioxide, and calcium chloride. This reaction helps to raise the pH level in the stomach and neutralize excess acid.

It is important to note that excessive use of calcium carbonate can lead to hypercalcemia, a condition characterized by high levels of calcium in the blood, which can cause symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, constipation, confusion, and muscle weakness. Therefore, it is recommended to consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, it promotes the growth and development of ovarian follicles in the ovary, which ultimately leads to the maturation and release of an egg (ovulation). In males, FSH stimulates the testes to produce sperm. It works in conjunction with luteinizing hormone (LH) to regulate reproductive processes. The secretion of FSH is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and its release is influenced by the levels of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), estrogen, inhibin, and androgens.

Lignans are a type of plant compound that have antioxidant and estrogen properties. They are found in various plants such as seeds, grains, fruits, and vegetables. Once consumed, some lignans can be converted by intestinal bacteria into enterolactone and enterodiol, which can have weak estrogenic or anti-estrogenic effects in the body. These compounds have been studied for their potential health benefits, including reducing the risk of cancer and heart disease. However, more research is needed to fully understand their effects and potential health benefits.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Hormones are defined as chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands or specialized cells and are transported through the bloodstream to tissues and organs, where they elicit specific responses. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes such as growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood. Examples of hormones include insulin, estrogen, testosterone, adrenaline, and thyroxine.

Progesterone is a steroid hormone that is primarily produced in the ovaries during the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy. It plays an essential role in preparing the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and maintaining the early stages of pregnancy. Progesterone works to thicken the lining of the uterus, creating a nurturing environment for the developing embryo.

During the menstrual cycle, progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, a temporary structure formed in the ovary after an egg has been released from a follicle during ovulation. If pregnancy does not occur, the levels of progesterone will decrease, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining and menstruation.

In addition to its reproductive functions, progesterone also has various other effects on the body, such as helping to regulate the immune system, supporting bone health, and potentially influencing mood and cognition. Progesterone can be administered medically in the form of oral pills, intramuscular injections, or vaginal suppositories for various purposes, including hormone replacement therapy, contraception, and managing certain gynecological conditions.

A compression fracture is a type of bone fracture that occurs when there is a collapse of a vertebra in the spine. This type of fracture is most commonly seen in the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spine. Compression fractures are often caused by weakened bones due to osteoporosis, but they can also result from trauma or tumors that weaken the bone.

In a compression fracture, the front part (anterior) of the vertebra collapses, while the back part (posterior) remains intact, causing the height of the vertebra to decrease. This can lead to pain, deformity, and decreased mobility. In severe cases, multiple compression fractures can result in a condition called kyphosis, which is an abnormal curvature of the spine that leads to a hunchback appearance.

Compression fractures are typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as X-rays, CT scans, or MRI scans. Treatment may include pain medication, bracing, physical therapy, or in some cases, surgery. Preventive measures such as maintaining a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, and taking medications to prevent or treat osteoporosis can help reduce the risk of compression fractures.

Hydroxycholecalciferols are metabolites of vitamin D that are formed in the liver and kidneys. They are important for maintaining calcium homeostasis in the body by promoting the absorption of calcium from the gut and reabsorption of calcium from the kidneys.

The two main forms of hydroxycholecalciferols are 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25(OH)2D). 25-hydroxyvitamin D is the major circulating form of vitamin D in the body and is used as a clinical measure of vitamin D status. It is converted to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D in the kidneys by the enzyme 1α-hydroxylase, which is activated in response to low serum calcium or high phosphate levels.

1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D is the biologically active form of vitamin D and plays a critical role in regulating calcium homeostasis by increasing intestinal calcium absorption and promoting bone health. Deficiency in hydroxycholecalciferols can lead to rickets in children and osteomalacia or osteoporosis in adults, characterized by weakened bones and increased risk of fractures.

Clinical trials are research studies that involve human participants and are designed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of new medical treatments, drugs, devices, or behavioral interventions. The purpose of clinical trials is to determine whether a new intervention is safe, effective, and beneficial for patients, as well as to compare it with currently available treatments. Clinical trials follow a series of phases, each with specific goals and criteria, before a new intervention can be approved by regulatory authorities for widespread use.

Clinical trials are conducted according to a protocol, which is a detailed plan that outlines the study's objectives, design, methodology, statistical analysis, and ethical considerations. The protocol is developed and reviewed by a team of medical experts, statisticians, and ethicists, and it must be approved by an institutional review board (IRB) before the trial can begin.

Participation in clinical trials is voluntary, and participants must provide informed consent before enrolling in the study. Informed consent involves providing potential participants with detailed information about the study's purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and alternatives, as well as their rights as research subjects. Participants can withdraw from the study at any time without penalty or loss of benefits to which they are entitled.

Clinical trials are essential for advancing medical knowledge and improving patient care. They help researchers identify new treatments, diagnostic tools, and prevention strategies that can benefit patients and improve public health. However, clinical trials also pose potential risks to participants, including adverse effects from experimental interventions, time commitment, and inconvenience. Therefore, it is important for researchers to carefully design and conduct clinical trials to minimize risks and ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks.

Vitamin K2, also known as menaquinone, is a fat-soluble vitamin that plays a crucial role in the blood clotting process and bone metabolism. It is one of the two main forms of Vitamin K (the other being Vitamin K1 or phylloquinone), and it is found in animal-based foods and fermented foods.

Vitamin K2 is a collective name for a group of vitamin K compounds characterized by the presence of a long-chain fatty acid attached to the molecule. The most common forms of Vitamin K2 are MK-4 and MK-7, which differ in the length of their side chains.

Vitamin K2 is absorbed more efficiently than Vitamin K1 and has a longer half-life, which means it stays in the body for a longer period. It is stored in various tissues, including bones, where it plays an essential role in maintaining bone health by assisting in the regulation of calcium deposition and helping to prevent the calcification of blood vessels and other soft tissues.

Deficiency in Vitamin K2 is rare but can lead to bleeding disorders and weakened bones. Food sources of Vitamin K2 include animal-based foods such as liver, egg yolks, and fermented dairy products like cheese and natto (a Japanese food made from fermented soybeans). Some studies suggest that supplementing with Vitamin K2 may have benefits for bone health, heart health, and cognitive function. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential benefits.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "soybeans" are not a medical term. They are a type of legume that is commonly used in agriculture and food production. The medical community might discuss soybeans in the context of nutrition or allergies, but there isn't a formal medical definition for this term.

Here's some general information: Soybeans, scientifically known as Glycine max, are native to East Asia and are now grown worldwide. They are a significant source of plant-based protein and oil. Soybeans contain various nutrients, including essential amino acids, fiber, B vitamins, and minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc. They are used in various food products such as tofu, soy milk, tempeh, and miso. Additionally, soybeans are also used in the production of industrial products, including biodiesel, plastics, and inks. Some people may have allergic reactions to soybeans or soy products.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Japan" is not a medical term. Japan is the name of a country, officially known as Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku in Japanese, and is located in East Asia. It is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean with a population of about 126 million people.

If you have any medical questions or terms that you would like me to define, please let me know!

Patient compliance, also known as medication adherence or patient adherence, refers to the degree to which a patient's behavior matches the agreed-upon recommendations from their healthcare provider. This includes taking medications as prescribed (including the correct dosage, frequency, and duration), following dietary restrictions, making lifestyle changes, and attending follow-up appointments. Poor patient compliance can negatively impact treatment outcomes and lead to worsening of symptoms, increased healthcare costs, and development of drug-resistant strains in the case of antibiotics. It is a significant challenge in healthcare and efforts are being made to improve patient education, communication, and support to enhance compliance.

Cathepsin K is a proteolytic enzyme, which belongs to the family of papain-like cysteine proteases. It is primarily produced by osteoclasts, which are specialized cells responsible for bone resorption. Cathepsin K plays a crucial role in the degradation and remodeling of the extracellular matrix, particularly in bone tissue.

This enzyme is capable of breaking down various proteins, including collagen, elastin, and proteoglycans, which are major components of the bone matrix. By doing so, cathepsin K helps osteoclasts to dissolve and remove mineralized and non-mineralized bone matrix during the process of bone resorption.

Apart from its function in bone metabolism, cathepsin K has also been implicated in several pathological conditions, such as osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and tumor metastasis to bones. Inhibitors of cathepsin K are being investigated as potential therapeutic agents for the treatment of these disorders.

"Men" is not a medical term that can be defined in a medical context. It generally refers to adult male human beings. If you are looking for a medical definition related to males, there are several terms that could potentially fit based on the context. Here are some examples:

* Male: A person who is biologically determined to be male, typically having XY chromosomes, testes, and certain physical characteristics such as greater muscle mass and body hair compared to females.
* Men's health: Refers to the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of medical conditions that are more common or specific to males, such as prostate cancer, testicular cancer, and erectile dysfunction.
* Menopause: A natural biological process that occurs in women, typically in their 40s or 50s, when their ovaries stop producing hormones and menstrual periods cease. Although not directly related to males, it is worth noting that some men may experience symptoms similar to those of menopause due to a decline in testosterone levels as they age (a condition known as andropause).

I hope this helps clarify! Let me know if you have any further questions or need more information.

Phosphorus is an essential mineral that is required by every cell in the body for normal functioning. It is a key component of several important biomolecules, including adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is the primary source of energy for cells, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), which are the genetic materials in cells.

Phosphorus is also a major constituent of bones and teeth, where it combines with calcium to provide strength and structure. In addition, phosphorus plays a critical role in various metabolic processes, including energy production, nerve impulse transmission, and pH regulation.

The medical definition of phosphorus refers to the chemical element with the atomic number 15 and the symbol P. It is a highly reactive non-metal that exists in several forms, including white phosphorus, red phosphorus, and black phosphorus. In the body, phosphorus is primarily found in the form of organic compounds, such as phospholipids, phosphoproteins, and nucleic acids.

Abnormal levels of phosphorus in the body can lead to various health problems. For example, high levels of phosphorus (hyperphosphatemia) can occur in patients with kidney disease or those who consume large amounts of phosphorus-rich foods, and can contribute to the development of calcification of soft tissues and cardiovascular disease. On the other hand, low levels of phosphorus (hypophosphatemia) can occur in patients with malnutrition, vitamin D deficiency, or alcoholism, and can lead to muscle weakness, bone pain, and an increased risk of infection.

"Age distribution" is a term used to describe the number of individuals within a population or sample that fall into different age categories. It is often presented in the form of a graph, table, or chart, and can provide important information about the demographic structure of a population.

The age distribution of a population can be influenced by a variety of factors, including birth rates, mortality rates, migration patterns, and aging. Public health officials and researchers use age distribution data to inform policies and programs related to healthcare, social services, and other areas that affect the well-being of populations.

For example, an age distribution graph might show a larger number of individuals in the younger age categories, indicating a population with a high birth rate. Alternatively, it might show a larger number of individuals in the older age categories, indicating a population with a high life expectancy or an aging population. Understanding the age distribution of a population can help policymakers plan for future needs and allocate resources more effectively.

The Predictive Value of Tests, specifically the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), are measures used in diagnostic tests to determine the probability that a positive or negative test result is correct.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the proportion of patients with a positive test result who actually have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true positives divided by the total number of positive results (true positives + false positives). A higher PPV indicates that a positive test result is more likely to be a true positive, and therefore the disease is more likely to be present.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the proportion of patients with a negative test result who do not have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true negatives divided by the total number of negative results (true negatives + false negatives). A higher NPV indicates that a negative test result is more likely to be a true negative, and therefore the disease is less likely to be present.

The predictive value of tests depends on the prevalence of the disease in the population being tested, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the test. A test with high sensitivity and specificity will generally have higher predictive values than a test with low sensitivity and specificity. However, even a highly sensitive and specific test can have low predictive values if the prevalence of the disease is low in the population being tested.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is a type of genetic variation that occurs when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the DNA sequence is altered. This alteration must occur in at least 1% of the population to be considered a SNP. These variations can help explain why some people are more susceptible to certain diseases than others and can also influence how an individual responds to certain medications. SNPs can serve as biological markers, helping scientists locate genes that are associated with disease. They can also provide information about an individual's ancestry and ethnic background.

X-ray microtomography, often referred to as micro-CT, is a non-destructive imaging technique used to visualize and analyze the internal structure of objects with high spatial resolution. It is based on the principles of computed tomography (CT), where multiple X-ray images are acquired at different angles and then reconstructed into cross-sectional slices using specialized software. These slices can be further processed to create 3D visualizations, allowing researchers and clinicians to examine the internal structure and composition of samples in great detail. Micro-CT is widely used in materials science, biology, medicine, and engineering for various applications such as material characterization, bone analysis, and defect inspection.

Organometallic compounds are a type of chemical compound that contain at least one metal-carbon bond. This means that the metal is directly attached to carbon atom(s) from an organic molecule. These compounds can be synthesized through various methods, and they have found widespread use in industrial and medicinal applications, including catalysis, polymerization, and pharmaceuticals.

It's worth noting that while organometallic compounds contain metal-carbon bonds, not all compounds with metal-carbon bonds are considered organometallic. For example, in classical inorganic chemistry, simple salts of metal carbonyls (M(CO)n) are not typically classified as organometallic, but rather as metal carbonyl complexes. The distinction between these classes of compounds can sometimes be subtle and is a matter of ongoing debate among chemists.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Medrogestone" does not appear to be a recognized or established term in medical literature, pharmacology, or physiology. It's possible that there may be a spelling error or a mix-up with the name of a medication. Please check the spelling and try again, or provide more context so I can give a more accurate response.

Fadrozole is a non-steroidal aromatase inhibitor drug that is used in the treatment of breast cancer. Aromatase inhibitors work by blocking the production of estrogen, which some types of breast cancer cells need to grow. By reducing the amount of estrogen in the body, fadrozole can help slow or stop the growth of these cancer cells.

Fadrozole is typically used as a treatment for postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive breast cancer. It may be used as a first-line therapy or after other treatments have failed. The drug is administered orally, and the typical dosage is 1-2 mg per day.

Like all medications, fadrozole can cause side effects, including hot flashes, nausea, vomiting, and joint pain. In some cases, it may also cause more serious side effects such as liver damage or an increased risk of bone fractures. Patients taking fadrozole should be monitored closely by their healthcare provider to ensure that the drug is working effectively and to manage any side effects that may occur.

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) cholesterol is often referred to as "good" cholesterol. It is a type of lipoprotein that helps remove excess cholesterol from cells and carry it back to the liver, where it can be broken down and removed from the body. High levels of HDL cholesterol have been associated with a lower risk of heart disease and stroke.

A polyp is a general term for a small growth that protrudes from a mucous membrane, such as the lining of the nose or the digestive tract. Polyps can vary in size and shape, but they are usually cherry-sized or smaller and have a stalk or a broad base. They are often benign (noncancerous), but some types of polyps, especially those in the colon, can become cancerous over time.

In the digestive tract, polyps can form in the colon, rectum, stomach, or small intestine. Colorectal polyps are the most common type and are usually found during routine colonoscopies. There are several types of colorectal polyps, including:

* Adenomatous polyps (adenomas): These polyps can become cancerous over time and are the most likely to turn into cancer.
* Hyperplastic polyps: These polyps are usually small and benign, but some types may have a higher risk of becoming cancerous.
* Inflammatory polyps: These polyps are caused by chronic inflammation in the digestive tract, such as from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Polyps can also form in other parts of the body, including the nose, sinuses, ears, and uterus. In most cases, polyps are benign and do not cause any symptoms. However, if they become large enough, they may cause problems such as bleeding, obstruction, or discomfort. Treatment typically involves removing the polyp through a surgical procedure.

Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-kappa B (RANK) is a type I transmembrane protein and a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily. It plays a crucial role in the regulation of bone metabolism through the activation of osteoclasts, which are cells responsible for bone resorption.

When RANK binds to its ligand, RANKL (Receptor Activator of Nuclear Factor-kappa B Ligand), it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that lead to the activation and differentiation of osteoclast precursors into mature osteoclasts. This process is essential for maintaining bone homeostasis, as excessive osteoclast activity can result in bone loss and diseases such as osteoporosis.

In addition to its role in bone metabolism, RANK has also been implicated in the regulation of immune responses, as it is involved in the activation and differentiation of dendritic cells and T cells. Dysregulation of RANK signaling has been associated with various pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases and cancer.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

Estriol is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It is produced in the placenta during pregnancy and is used as a marker for fetal growth and development. Estriol levels can be measured in the mother's urine or blood to assess fetal well-being during pregnancy. Additionally, synthetic forms of estriol are sometimes used in hormone replacement therapy to treat symptoms of menopause.

Calcifediol is the medical term for 25-hydroxyvitamin D, which is a form of vitamin D that is produced in the liver when it processes vitamin D from sunlight or from dietary sources. It is an important precursor to the active form of vitamin D, calcitriol, and is often used as a supplement for people who have low levels of vitamin D. Calcifediol is converted to calcitriol in the kidneys, where it plays a role in regulating calcium and phosphate levels in the body, which are important for maintaining healthy bones and teeth.

Osteonecrosis is a medical condition characterized by the death of bone tissue due to the disruption of blood supply. Also known as avascular necrosis, this process can lead to the collapse of the bone and adjacent joint surfaces, resulting in pain, limited mobility, and potential deformity if left untreated. Osteonecrosis most commonly affects the hips, shoulders, and knees, but it can occur in any bone. The condition may be caused by trauma, corticosteroid use, alcohol abuse, certain medical conditions (like sickle cell disease or lupus), or for no apparent reason (idiopathic).

Dydrogesterone is a synthetic form of the natural hormone progesterone, which is used in various forms of medical therapy. It is primarily used as a hormonal supplement during infertility treatments and to prevent pregnancy loss in women with a history of miscarriage due to progesterone deficiency.

Dydrogesterone works by mimicking the effects of natural progesterone, which helps to prepare the lining of the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and supports the early stages of pregnancy. It is also used in the treatment of endometriosis, a condition where tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows outside of it, causing pain and other symptoms.

Dydrogesterone is available in various forms, including tablets and capsules, and is typically taken orally. The dosage and duration of treatment may vary depending on the specific medical condition being treated and the individual patient's needs. As with any medication, dydrogesterone should only be used under the guidance and supervision of a qualified healthcare provider.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Menarche is the first occurrence of menstruation in a female adolescent, indicating the onset of reproductive capability. It usually happens between the ages of 10 and 16, with an average age of around 12-13 years old, but it can vary widely from one individual to another due to various factors such as genetics, nutrition, and overall health.

Achieving menarche is a significant milestone in a girl's life, signaling the transition from childhood to adolescence. It is also an essential indicator of sexual maturation, often used in conjunction with other physical changes to assess pubertal development. However, it does not necessarily mean that a girl is psychologically or emotionally prepared for menstruation and sexual activity; therefore, appropriate education and support are crucial during this period.

Soy milk is not a medical term, but it is a common term used to describe a plant-based milk alternative made from soybeans. Here's a brief description:

Soy milk is a beverage produced by soaking and grinding soybeans, then filtering the resulting mixture to remove solid particles. It is often consumed as a dairy substitute by individuals who are lactose intolerant or have milk allergies. Soy milk contains protein, carbohydrates, and fat, similar to cow's milk, but its nutritional profile may vary depending on the manufacturing process. Some brands of soy milk are fortified with calcium, vitamins B12, D, and riboflavin (B2) to resemble the nutritional content of cow's milk.

Please note that while soy milk can be a healthy alternative for many people, it may not be suitable for everyone, especially those with soy allergies or sensitivities. If you have any concerns about incorporating soy milk into your diet, consult a healthcare professional or a registered dietitian.

Megestrol acetate is a synthetic progestin, which is a hormone that acts like progesterone in the body. It is used to treat various conditions such as endometrial cancer, breast cancer, and anorexia associated with AIDS. It works by blocking the action of certain hormones in the body, which can slow or stop the growth of some types of cancer cells. In addition, megestrol acetate can help increase appetite and weight gain in people with HIV/AIDS.

The medication is available in various forms, including tablets and oral suspension, and its use should be under the supervision of a healthcare professional who will determine the appropriate dosage based on the patient's medical condition and response to treatment. Common side effects of megestrol acetate include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, gas, headache, dizziness, and changes in mood or sex drive.

Adipose tissue, also known as fatty tissue, is a type of connective tissue that is composed mainly of adipocytes (fat cells). It is found throughout the body, but is particularly abundant in the abdominal cavity, beneath the skin, and around organs such as the heart and kidneys.

Adipose tissue serves several important functions in the body. One of its primary roles is to store energy in the form of fat, which can be mobilized and used as an energy source during periods of fasting or exercise. Adipose tissue also provides insulation and cushioning for the body, and produces hormones that help regulate metabolism, appetite, and reproductive function.

There are two main types of adipose tissue: white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT). WAT is the more common form and is responsible for storing energy as fat. BAT, on the other hand, contains a higher number of mitochondria and is involved in heat production and energy expenditure.

Excessive accumulation of adipose tissue can lead to obesity, which is associated with an increased risk of various health problems such as diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

Quality of Life (QOL) is a broad, multidimensional concept that usually includes an individual's physical health, psychological state, level of independence, social relationships, personal beliefs, and their relationship to salient features of their environment. It reflects the impact of disease and treatment on a patient's overall well-being and ability to function in daily life.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines QOL as "an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns." It is a subjective concept, meaning it can vary greatly from person to person.

In healthcare, QOL is often used as an outcome measure in clinical trials and other research studies to assess the impact of interventions or treatments on overall patient well-being.

Calcitriol receptors, also known as Vitamin D receptors (VDR), are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3), the active form of vitamin D. These receptors are found in various tissues and cells throughout the body, including the small intestine, bone, kidney, and parathyroid gland.

When calcitriol binds to its receptor, it forms a complex that regulates the expression of genes involved in calcium and phosphate homeostasis, cell growth, differentiation, and immune function. Calcitriol receptors play a critical role in maintaining normal levels of calcium and phosphate in the blood by increasing the absorption of these minerals from the gut, promoting bone mineralization, and regulating the production of parathyroid hormone (PTH).

Calcitriol receptors have also been implicated in various disease processes, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. Modulation of calcitriol receptor activity has emerged as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of these conditions.

Estradiol congeners refer to chemical compounds that are structurally similar to estradiol, which is the most potent and prevalent form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol congeners can be naturally occurring or synthetic and may have similar or different biological activities compared to estradiol.

These compounds can be found in various sources, including plants, animals, and industrial products. Some estradiol congeners are used in pharmaceuticals as hormone replacement therapies, while others are considered environmental pollutants and may have endocrine-disrupting effects on wildlife and humans.

Examples of estradiol congeners include:

1. Estrone (E1): a weak estrogen that is produced in the body from estradiol and is also found in some plants.
2. Estriol (E3): a weaker estrogen that is produced in large quantities during pregnancy.
3. Diethylstilbestrol (DES): a synthetic estrogen that was prescribed to pregnant women from the 1940s to the 1970s to prevent miscarriage, but was later found to have serious health effects on their offspring.
4. Zeranol: a synthetic non-steroidal estrogen used as a growth promoter in livestock.
5. Bisphenol A (BPA): a chemical used in the production of plastics and epoxy resins, which has been shown to have weak estrogenic activity and may disrupt the endocrine system.

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs that produce, store, and secrete hormones. It plays a crucial role in regulating various functions in the body, including metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood.

Endocrine system diseases or disorders occur when there is a problem with the production or regulation of hormones. This can result from:

1. Overproduction or underproduction of hormones by the endocrine glands.
2. Impaired response of target cells to hormones.
3. Disruption in the feedback mechanisms that regulate hormone production.

Examples of endocrine system diseases include:

1. Diabetes Mellitus - a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels due to insulin deficiency or resistance.
2. Hypothyroidism - underactive thyroid gland leading to slow metabolism, weight gain, fatigue, and depression.
3. Hyperthyroidism - overactive thyroid gland causing rapid heartbeat, anxiety, weight loss, and heat intolerance.
4. Cushing's Syndrome - excess cortisol production resulting in obesity, high blood pressure, and weak muscles.
5. Addison's Disease - insufficient adrenal hormone production leading to weakness, fatigue, and low blood pressure.
6. Acromegaly - overproduction of growth hormone after puberty causing enlargement of bones, organs, and soft tissues.
7. Gigantism - similar to acromegaly but occurs before puberty resulting in excessive height and body size.
8. Hypopituitarism - underactive pituitary gland leading to deficiencies in various hormones.
9. Hyperparathyroidism - overactivity of the parathyroid glands causing calcium imbalances and kidney stones.
10. Precocious Puberty - early onset of puberty due to premature activation of the pituitary gland.

Treatment for endocrine system diseases varies depending on the specific disorder and may involve medication, surgery, lifestyle changes, or a combination of these approaches.

Vitamins are organic substances that are essential in small quantities for the normal growth, development, and maintenance of life in humans. They are required for various biochemical functions in the body such as energy production, blood clotting, immune function, and making DNA.

Unlike macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, and fats), vitamins do not provide energy but they play a crucial role in energy metabolism. Humans require 13 essential vitamins, which can be divided into two categories: fat-soluble and water-soluble.

Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are stored in the body's fat tissues and liver, and can stay in the body for a longer period of time. Water-soluble vitamins (B-complex vitamins and vitamin C) are not stored in the body and need to be replenished regularly through diet or supplementation.

Deficiency of vitamins can lead to various health problems, while excessive intake of certain fat-soluble vitamins can also be harmful due to toxicity. Therefore, it is important to maintain a balanced diet that provides all the essential vitamins in adequate amounts.

The menstrual cycle is a series of natural changes that occur in the female reproductive system over an approximate 28-day interval, marking the body's preparation for potential pregnancy. It involves the interplay of hormones that regulate the growth and disintegration of the uterine lining (endometrium) and the release of an egg (ovulation) from the ovaries.

The menstrual cycle can be divided into three main phases:

1. Menstrual phase: The cycle begins with the onset of menstruation, where the thickened uterine lining is shed through the vagina, lasting typically for 3-7 days. This shedding occurs due to a decrease in estrogen and progesterone levels, which are hormones essential for maintaining the endometrium during the previous cycle.

2. Follicular phase: After menstruation, the follicular phase commences with the pituitary gland releasing follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH stimulates the growth of several ovarian follicles, each containing an immature egg. One dominant follicle usually becomes selected to mature and release an egg during ovulation. Estrogen levels rise as the dominant follicle grows, causing the endometrium to thicken in preparation for a potential pregnancy.

3. Luteal phase: Following ovulation, the ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and estrogen to further support the endometrial thickening. If fertilization does not occur within approximately 24 hours after ovulation, the corpus luteum will degenerate, leading to a decline in hormone levels. This drop triggers the onset of menstruation, initiating a new menstrual cycle.

Understanding the menstrual cycle is crucial for monitoring reproductive health and planning or preventing pregnancies. Variations in cycle length and symptoms are common among women, but persistent irregularities may indicate underlying medical conditions requiring further evaluation by a healthcare professional.

In medical terms, parity refers to the number of times a woman has given birth to a viable fetus, usually defined as a pregnancy that reaches at least 20 weeks' gestation. It is often used in obstetrics and gynecology to describe a woman's childbearing history and to assess potential risks associated with childbirth.

Parity is typically categorized as follows:

* Nulliparous: A woman who has never given birth to a viable fetus.
* Primiparous: A woman who has given birth to one viable fetus.
* Multiparous: A woman who has given birth to more than one viable fetus.

In some cases, parity may also consider the number of pregnancies that resulted in stillbirths or miscarriages, although this is not always the case. It's important to note that parity does not necessarily reflect the total number of pregnancies a woman has had, only those that resulted in viable births.

Insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) is a hormone that plays a crucial role in growth and development. It is a small protein with structural and functional similarity to insulin, hence the name "insulin-like." IGF-I is primarily produced in the liver under the regulation of growth hormone (GH).

IGF-I binds to its specific receptor, the IGF-1 receptor, which is widely expressed throughout the body. This binding activates a signaling cascade that promotes cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. In addition, IGF-I has anabolic effects on various tissues, including muscle, bone, and cartilage, contributing to their growth and maintenance.

IGF-I is essential for normal growth during childhood and adolescence, and it continues to play a role in maintaining tissue homeostasis throughout adulthood. Abnormal levels of IGF-I have been associated with various medical conditions, such as growth disorders, diabetes, and certain types of cancer.

Genetic predisposition to disease refers to an increased susceptibility or vulnerability to develop a particular illness or condition due to inheriting specific genetic variations or mutations from one's parents. These genetic factors can make it more likely for an individual to develop a certain disease, but it does not guarantee that the person will definitely get the disease. Environmental factors, lifestyle choices, and interactions between genes also play crucial roles in determining if a genetically predisposed person will actually develop the disease. It is essential to understand that having a genetic predisposition only implies a higher risk, not an inevitable outcome.

"Body height" is a measure of the vertical length of a person's body from the top of their head to the bottom of their feet. It is typically measured in units such as centimeters (cm) or inches (in). In medical settings, body height is often used as a basic anthropometric measurement to assess overall health status, growth and development, nutritional status, and aging-related changes.

There are different methods for measuring body height, but the most common one involves having the person stand upright against a vertical surface (such as a wall or a stadiometer) with their heels, buttocks, shoulders, and head touching the surface. The measurement is taken at the point where the top of the person's head meets the surface.

Body height can be influenced by various factors, including genetics, nutrition, health status, and environmental conditions. Changes in body height over time can provide important insights into a person's health trajectory and potential health risks. For example, a significant decrease in body height may indicate bone loss or spinal compression, while a rapid increase in height during childhood or adolescence may suggest optimal growth and development.

Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein 5 (LRP5) is a gene that encodes a single transmembrane protein, which belongs to the low-density lipoprotein receptor family. This protein plays crucial roles in various biological processes such as bone formation, vascular biology, and cancer progression. It functions as a co-receptor for Wnt signaling pathways that regulate gene expression involved in cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration.

In the context of lipid metabolism, LRP5 has been shown to modulate lipoprotein particle uptake and cholesterol homeostasis through its interaction with LDL receptors. Mutations in the LRP5 gene have been associated with several diseases, including osteoporosis, familial exudative vitreoretinopathy, and adiposity-associated disorders.

In summary, Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-Related Protein 5 is a multifunctional receptor involved in various physiological processes, including bone formation, lipid metabolism, and cell signaling.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

The term "European Continental Ancestry Group" is a medical/ethnic classification that refers to individuals who trace their genetic ancestry to the continent of Europe. This group includes people from various ethnic backgrounds and nationalities, such as Northern, Southern, Eastern, and Western European descent. It is often used in research and medical settings for population studies or to identify genetic patterns and predispositions to certain diseases that may be more common in specific ancestral groups. However, it's important to note that this classification can oversimplify the complex genetic diversity within and between populations, and should be used with caution.

Wrist injuries refer to damages or traumas affecting the structures of the wrist, including bones, ligaments, tendons, muscles, and cartilage. These injuries can occur due to various reasons such as falls, accidents, sports-related impacts, or repetitive stress. Common types of wrist injuries include fractures (such as scaphoid fracture), sprains (like ligament tears), strains (involving muscles or tendons), dislocations, and carpal tunnel syndrome. Symptoms may include pain, swelling, tenderness, bruising, limited mobility, and in severe cases, deformity or numbness. Immediate medical attention is necessary for proper diagnosis and treatment to ensure optimal recovery and prevent long-term complications.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Calcium isotopes refer to variants of the chemical element calcium (ca) that have different numbers of neutrons in their atomic nuclei, and therefore differ in their atomic masses while having the same number of protons. The most common and stable calcium isotope is Calcium-40, which contains 20 protons and 20 neutrons. However, calcium has several other isotopes, including Calcium-42, Calcium-43, Calcium-44, and Calcium-46 to -52, each with different numbers of neutrons. Some of these isotopes are radioactive and decay over time. The relative abundances of calcium isotopes can vary in different environments and can provide information about geological and biological processes.

Imidazoles are a class of heterocyclic organic compounds that contain a double-bonded nitrogen atom and two additional nitrogen atoms in the ring. They have the chemical formula C3H4N2. In a medical context, imidazoles are commonly used as antifungal agents. Some examples of imidazole-derived antifungals include clotrimazole, miconazole, and ketoconazole. These medications work by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes, leading to increased permeability and death of the fungal cells. Imidazoles may also have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and anticancer properties.

Pathologic bone demineralization is a condition characterized by the loss of minerals, such as calcium and phosphate, from the bones. This process makes the bones more porous, weaker, and more susceptible to fractures. It can occur due to various medical conditions, including osteoporosis, hyperparathyroidism, Paget's disease of bone, and cancer that has spread to the bones (metastatic cancer).

In a healthy individual, the body constantly remodels the bones by removing old bone tissue (resorption) and replacing it with new tissue. This process is regulated by two types of cells: osteoclasts, which are responsible for bone resorption, and osteoblasts, which produce new bone tissue. In pathologic bone demineralization, there is an imbalance between the activity of these two cell types, with excessive resorption and inadequate formation of new bone tissue.

Pathologic bone demineralization can lead to a range of symptoms, including bone pain, fractures, loss of height, and a decreased ability to perform daily activities. Treatment for this condition depends on the underlying cause but may include medications that slow down bone resorption or promote bone formation, as well as lifestyle changes such as exercise and dietary modifications.

Procollagen is the precursor protein of collagen, which is a major structural protein in the extracellular matrix of various connective tissues, such as tendons, ligaments, skin, and bones. Procollagen is synthesized inside the cell (in the rough endoplasmic reticulum) and then processed by enzymes to remove specific segments, resulting in the formation of tropocollagen, which are the basic units of collagen fibrils.

Procollagen consists of three polypeptide chains (two alpha-1 and one alpha-2 chain), each containing a central triple-helical domain flanked by non-helical regions at both ends. These non-helical regions, called propeptides, are cleaved off during the processing of procollagen to tropocollagen, allowing the individual collagen molecules to align and form fibrils through covalent cross-linking.

Abnormalities in procollagen synthesis or processing can lead to various connective tissue disorders, such as osteogenesis imperfecta (brittle bone disease) and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (a group of disorders characterized by joint hypermobility, skin hyperextensibility, and tissue fragility).

The adrenal cortex hormones are a group of steroid hormones produced and released by the outer portion (cortex) of the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each kidney. These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes, including:

1. Glucose metabolism: Cortisol helps control blood sugar levels by increasing glucose production in the liver and reducing its uptake in peripheral tissues.
2. Protein and fat metabolism: Cortisol promotes protein breakdown and fatty acid mobilization, providing essential building blocks for energy production during stressful situations.
3. Immune response regulation: Cortisol suppresses immune function to prevent overactivation and potential damage to the body during stress.
4. Cardiovascular function: Aldosterone regulates electrolyte balance and blood pressure by promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys.
5. Sex hormone production: The adrenal cortex produces small amounts of sex hormones, such as androgens and estrogens, which contribute to sexual development and function.
6. Growth and development: Cortisol plays a role in normal growth and development by influencing the activity of growth-promoting hormones like insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1).

The main adrenal cortex hormones include:

1. Glucocorticoids: Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid, responsible for regulating metabolism and stress response.
2. Mineralocorticoids: Aldosterone is the primary mineralocorticoid, involved in electrolyte balance and blood pressure regulation.
3. Androgens: Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate derivative (DHEAS) are the most abundant adrenal androgens, contributing to sexual development and function.
4. Estrogens: Small amounts of estrogens are produced by the adrenal cortex, mainly in women.

Disorders related to impaired adrenal cortex hormone production or regulation can lead to various clinical manifestations, such as Addison's disease (adrenal insufficiency), Cushing's syndrome (hypercortisolism), and congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH).

A femoral fracture is a medical term that refers to a break in the thigh bone, which is the longest and strongest bone in the human body. The femur extends from the hip joint to the knee joint and is responsible for supporting the weight of the upper body and allowing movement of the lower extremity. Femoral fractures can occur due to various reasons such as high-energy trauma, low-energy trauma in individuals with weak bones (osteoporosis), or as a result of a direct blow to the thigh.

Femoral fractures can be classified into different types based on their location, pattern, and severity. Some common types of femoral fractures include:

1. Transverse fracture: A break that occurs straight across the bone.
2. Oblique fracture: A break that occurs at an angle across the bone.
3. Spiral fracture: A break that occurs in a helical pattern around the bone.
4. Comminuted fracture: A break that results in multiple fragments of the bone.
5. Open or compound fracture: A break in which the bone pierces through the skin.
6. Closed or simple fracture: A break in which the bone does not pierce through the skin.

Femoral fractures can cause severe pain, swelling, bruising, and difficulty walking or bearing weight on the affected leg. Diagnosis typically involves a physical examination, medical history, and imaging tests such as X-rays or CT scans. Treatment may involve surgical intervention, including the use of metal rods, plates, or screws to stabilize the bone, followed by rehabilitation and physical therapy to restore mobility and strength.

Peptides are short chains of amino acid residues linked by covalent bonds, known as peptide bonds. They are formed when two or more amino acids are joined together through a condensation reaction, which results in the elimination of a water molecule and the formation of an amide bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

Peptides can vary in length from two to about fifty amino acids, and they are often classified based on their size. For example, dipeptides contain two amino acids, tripeptides contain three, and so on. Oligopeptides typically contain up to ten amino acids, while polypeptides can contain dozens or even hundreds of amino acids.

Peptides play many important roles in the body, including serving as hormones, neurotransmitters, enzymes, and antibiotics. They are also used in medical research and therapeutic applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering.

The term "Asian Continental Ancestry Group" is a medical/ethnic classification used to describe a person's genetic background and ancestry. According to this categorization, individuals with origins in the Asian continent are grouped together. This includes populations from regions such as East Asia (e.g., China, Japan, Korea), South Asia (e.g., India, Pakistan, Bangladesh), Southeast Asia (e.g., Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand), and Central Asia (e.g., Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan). It is important to note that this broad categorization may not fully capture the genetic diversity within these regions or accurately reflect an individual's specific ancestral origins.

Toremifene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) that is primarily used in the treatment of metastatic breast cancer in postmenopausal women with estrogen receptor-positive tumors. It works by binding to estrogen receptors and blocking the effects of estrogen, which can help slow or stop the growth of certain types of breast cancer cells.

Toremifene may also be used to reduce the risk of invasive breast cancer in postmenopausal women who are at high risk for the disease. It is important to note that Toremifene can have significant side effects, including hot flashes, mood changes, and an increased risk of blood clots, and should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

Genistein is defined as a type of isoflavone, which is a plant-derived compound with estrogen-like properties. It is found in soybeans and other legumes. Genistein acts as a phytoestrogen, meaning it can bind to estrogen receptors and have both weak estrogenic and anti-estrogenic effects in the body.

In addition to its estrogenic activity, genistein has been found to have various biological activities, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. It has been studied for its potential role in preventing or treating a variety of health conditions, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and menopausal symptoms. However, more research is needed to fully understand the potential benefits and risks of genistein supplementation.

Non-steroidal estrogens are a class of compounds that exhibit estrogenic activity but do not have a steroid chemical structure. They are often used in hormone replacement therapy and to treat symptoms associated with menopause. Examples of non-steroidal estrogens include:

1. Phytoestrogens: These are plant-derived compounds that have estrogenic activity. They can be found in various foods such as soy, nuts, seeds, and some fruits and vegetables.
2. Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): These are synthetic compounds that act as estrogen receptor agonists or antagonists, depending on the target tissue. Examples include tamoxifen, raloxifene, and toremifene. They are used in the treatment of breast cancer and osteoporosis.
3. Designer Estrogens: These are synthetic compounds that have been specifically designed to mimic the effects of estrogen. They are often used in research but have not been approved for clinical use.

It is important to note that non-steroidal estrogens can also have side effects and risks, including an increased risk of certain types of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and thromboembolic events. Therefore, their use should be carefully monitored and managed by a healthcare professional.

A radius fracture is a break in the bone that runs from the wrist to the elbow, located on the thumb side of the forearm. Radius fractures can occur as a result of a fall, direct blow to the forearm, or a high-energy collision such as a car accident. There are various types of radius fractures, including:

1. Distal radius fracture: A break at the end of the radius bone, near the wrist joint, which is the most common type of radius fracture.
2. Radial shaft fracture: A break in the middle portion of the radius bone.
3. Radial head and neck fractures: Breaks in the upper part of the radius bone, near the elbow joint.
4. Comminuted fracture: A complex radius fracture where the bone is broken into multiple pieces.
5. Open (compound) fracture: A radius fracture with a wound or laceration in the skin, allowing for communication between the outside environment and the fractured bone.
6. Intra-articular fracture: A radius fracture that extends into the wrist joint or elbow joint.
7. Torus (buckle) fracture: A stable fracture where one side of the bone is compressed, causing it to buckle or bend, but not break completely through.

Symptoms of a radius fracture may include pain, swelling, tenderness, bruising, deformity, limited mobility, and in some cases, numbness or tingling in the fingers. Treatment options depend on the type and severity of the fracture but can range from casting to surgical intervention with implant fixation.

Nonparametric statistics is a branch of statistics that does not rely on assumptions about the distribution of variables in the population from which the sample is drawn. In contrast to parametric methods, nonparametric techniques make fewer assumptions about the data and are therefore more flexible in their application. Nonparametric tests are often used when the data do not meet the assumptions required for parametric tests, such as normality or equal variances.

Nonparametric statistical methods include tests such as the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (also known as the Mann-Whitney U test) for comparing two independent groups, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for comparing two related groups, and the Kruskal-Wallis test for comparing more than two independent groups. These tests use the ranks of the data rather than the actual values to make comparisons, which allows them to be used with ordinal or continuous data that do not meet the assumptions of parametric tests.

Overall, nonparametric statistics provide a useful set of tools for analyzing data in situations where the assumptions of parametric methods are not met, and can help researchers draw valid conclusions from their data even when the data are not normally distributed or have other characteristics that violate the assumptions of parametric tests.

Triglycerides are the most common type of fat in the body, and they're found in the food we eat. They're carried in the bloodstream to provide energy to the cells in our body. High levels of triglycerides in the blood can increase the risk of heart disease, especially in combination with other risk factors such as high LDL (bad) cholesterol, low HDL (good) cholesterol, and high blood pressure.

It's important to note that while triglycerides are a type of fat, they should not be confused with cholesterol, which is a waxy substance found in the cells of our body. Both triglycerides and cholesterol are important for maintaining good health, but high levels of either can increase the risk of heart disease.

Triglyceride levels are measured through a blood test called a lipid panel or lipid profile. A normal triglyceride level is less than 150 mg/dL. Borderline-high levels range from 150 to 199 mg/dL, high levels range from 200 to 499 mg/dL, and very high levels are 500 mg/dL or higher.

Elevated triglycerides can be caused by various factors such as obesity, physical inactivity, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, and certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypothyroidism, and kidney disease. Medications such as beta-blockers, steroids, and diuretics can also raise triglyceride levels.

Lifestyle changes such as losing weight, exercising regularly, eating a healthy diet low in saturated and trans fats, avoiding excessive alcohol consumption, and quitting smoking can help lower triglyceride levels. In some cases, medication may be necessary to reduce triglycerides to recommended levels.

Biomechanics is the application of mechanical laws to living structures and systems, particularly in the field of medicine and healthcare. A biomechanical phenomenon refers to a observable event or occurrence that involves the interaction of biological tissues or systems with mechanical forces. These phenomena can be studied at various levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the tissue, organ, and whole-body level.

Examples of biomechanical phenomena include:

1. The way that bones and muscles work together to produce movement (known as joint kinematics).
2. The mechanical behavior of biological tissues such as bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments under various loads and stresses.
3. The response of cells and tissues to mechanical stimuli, such as the way that bone tissue adapts to changes in loading conditions (known as Wolff's law).
4. The biomechanics of injury and disease processes, such as the mechanisms of joint injury or the development of osteoarthritis.
5. The use of mechanical devices and interventions to treat medical conditions, such as orthopedic implants or assistive devices for mobility impairments.

Understanding biomechanical phenomena is essential for developing effective treatments and prevention strategies for a wide range of medical conditions, from musculoskeletal injuries to neurological disorders.

Carcinoma, ductal, breast is a type of breast cancer that begins in the milk ducts (the tubes that carry milk from the lobules of the breast to the nipple). It is called "ductal" because it starts in the cells that line the milk ducts. Ductal carcinoma can be further classified as either non-invasive or invasive, based on whether the cancer cells are confined to the ducts or have spread beyond them into the surrounding breast tissue.

Non-invasive ductal carcinoma (also known as intraductal carcinoma or ductal carcinoma in situ) is a condition where abnormal cells have been found in the lining of the milk ducts, but they have not spread outside of the ducts. These cells have the potential to become invasive and spread to other parts of the breast or body if left untreated.

Invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) is a type of breast cancer that starts in a milk duct and then grows into the surrounding breast tissue. From there, it can spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream and lymphatic system. IDC is the most common form of breast cancer, accounting for about 80% of all cases.

Symptoms of ductal carcinoma may include a lump or thickening in the breast, changes in the size or shape of the breast, dimpling or puckering of the skin on the breast, nipple discharge (especially if it is clear or bloody), and/or redness or scaling of the nipple or breast skin. However, many cases of ductal carcinoma are detected through mammography before any symptoms develop.

Treatment for ductal carcinoma depends on several factors, including the stage and grade of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and personal preferences. Treatment options may include surgery (such as a lumpectomy or mastectomy), radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and/or targeted therapies.

I apologize for any confusion, but "flax" is not a medical term. It is actually a type of plant also known as Linum usitatissimum. The seeds of the flax plant are used in making linseed oil, and flax fibers are used to make linen. Flaxseeds are often consumed for their health benefits, as they are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, fiber, and lignans. If you have any questions about the use of flax or its components in a medical context, I would be happy to try to help further.

Dilatation and Curettage (D&C) is a medical procedure commonly performed on the uterus. The term "dilatation" refers to the widening or opening of the cervix, which is the lower part of the uterus that opens into the vagina. This is achieved using dilators, which are gradually inserted into the cervical canal to stretch it open.

The term "curettage" refers to the scraping or suctioning out of tissue from the lining of the uterus (endometrium). A curette, a long, loop-shaped surgical instrument, is used to scrape the lining, or suction equipment may be used to remove the tissue.

A D&C procedure is typically performed to diagnose and treat various conditions affecting the uterus, such as abnormal uterine bleeding, heavy menstrual periods, endometrial hyperplasia, or to remove residual tissue after a miscarriage or abortion. It's usually a minor surgical procedure that can be done in a hospital, clinic, or doctor's office, and is often performed under local anesthesia, conscious sedation, or general anesthesia depending on the situation and patient preference.

I apologize, but "Canada" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located in North America, known for its vast wilderness, multicultural cities, and significant natural resources. If you have any questions related to healthcare or medical terms, I would be happy to help answer those!

"Adiposity" is a medical term that refers to the condition of having an excessive amount of fat in the body. It is often used to describe obesity or being significantly overweight. Adipose tissue, which is the technical name for body fat, is important for many bodily functions, such as storing energy and insulating the body. However, an excess of adipose tissue can lead to a range of health problems, including heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer.

There are different ways to measure adiposity, including body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and skinfold thickness. BMI is the most commonly used method and is calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by their height in meters squared. A BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese, while a BMI between 25 and 29.9 is considered overweight. However, it's important to note that BMI may not accurately reflect adiposity in some individuals, such as those with a lot of muscle mass.

In summary, adiposity refers to the condition of having too much body fat, which can increase the risk of various health problems.

Osteocytes are the most abundant cell type in mature bone tissue. They are star-shaped cells that are located inside the mineralized matrix of bones, with their processes extending into small spaces called lacunae and canaliculi. Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts, which are bone-forming cells that become trapped within the matrix they produce.

Osteocytes play a crucial role in maintaining bone homeostasis by regulating bone remodeling, sensing mechanical stress, and modulating mineralization. They communicate with each other and with osteoblasts and osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells) through a network of interconnected processes and via the release of signaling molecules. Osteocytes can also respond to changes in their environment, such as hormonal signals or mechanical loading, by altering their gene expression and releasing factors that regulate bone metabolism.

Dysfunction of osteocytes has been implicated in various bone diseases, including osteoporosis, osteogenesis imperfecta, and Paget's disease of bone.

Phytotherapy is the use of extracts of natural origin, especially plants or plant parts, for therapeutic purposes. It is also known as herbal medicine and is a traditional practice in many cultures. The active compounds in these plant extracts are believed to have various medicinal properties, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, or sedative effects. Practitioners of phytotherapy may use the whole plant, dried parts, or concentrated extracts to prepare teas, capsules, tinctures, or ointments for therapeutic use. It is important to note that the effectiveness and safety of phytotherapy are not always supported by scientific evidence, and it should be used with caution and preferably under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

LDL, or low-density lipoprotein, is often referred to as "bad" cholesterol. It is one of the lipoproteins that helps carry cholesterol throughout your body. High levels of LDL cholesterol can lead to a buildup of cholesterol in your arteries, which can increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.

Cholesterol is a type of fat (lipid) that is found in the cells of your body. Your body needs some cholesterol to function properly, but having too much can lead to health problems. LDL cholesterol is one of the two main types of cholesterol; the other is high-density lipoprotein (HDL), or "good" cholesterol.

It's important to keep your LDL cholesterol levels in a healthy range to reduce your risk of developing heart disease and stroke. A healthcare professional can help you determine what your target LDL cholesterol level should be based on your individual health status and risk factors.

Panoramic radiography is a specialized type of dental X-ray imaging that captures a panoramic view of the entire mouth, including the teeth, upper and lower jaws, and surrounding structures. It uses a special machine that rotates around the head, capturing images as it moves. This technique provides a two-dimensional image that is helpful in diagnosing and planning treatment for various dental conditions such as impacted teeth, bone abnormalities, and jaw disorders.

The panoramic radiograph can also be used to assess the development and positioning of wisdom teeth, detect cysts or tumors in the jaws, and evaluate the effects of trauma or injury to the mouth. It is a valuable tool for dental professionals as it allows them to see a comprehensive view of the oral structures, which may not be visible with traditional X-ray techniques.

It's important to note that while panoramic radiography provides valuable information, it should be used in conjunction with other diagnostic tools and clinical examinations to ensure accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints. It is characterized by persistent inflammation, synovial hyperplasia, and subsequent damage to the articular cartilage and bone. The immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, specifically targeting the synovial membrane lining the joint capsule. This results in swelling, pain, warmth, and stiffness in affected joints, often most severely in the hands and feet.

RA can also have extra-articular manifestations, affecting other organs such as the lungs, heart, skin, eyes, and blood vessels. The exact cause of RA remains unknown, but it is believed to involve a complex interplay between genetic susceptibility and environmental triggers. Early diagnosis and treatment are crucial in managing rheumatoid arthritis to prevent joint damage, disability, and systemic complications.

Practice guidelines, also known as clinical practice guidelines, are systematically developed statements that aim to assist healthcare professionals and patients in making informed decisions about appropriate health care for specific clinical circumstances. They are based on a thorough evaluation of the available scientific evidence, consensus of expert opinion, and consideration of patient preferences. Practice guidelines can cover a wide range of topics, including diagnosis, management, prevention, and treatment options for various medical conditions. They are intended to improve the quality and consistency of care, reduce unnecessary variations in practice, and promote evidence-based medicine. However, they should not replace clinical judgment or individualized patient care.

Smoking is not a medical condition, but it's a significant health risk behavior. Here is the definition from a public health perspective:

Smoking is the act of inhaling and exhaling the smoke of burning tobacco that is commonly consumed through cigarettes, pipes, and cigars. The smoke contains over 7,000 chemicals, including nicotine, tar, carbon monoxide, and numerous toxic and carcinogenic substances. These toxins contribute to a wide range of diseases and health conditions, such as lung cancer, heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and various other cancers, as well as adverse reproductive outcomes and negative impacts on the developing fetus during pregnancy. Smoking is highly addictive due to the nicotine content, which makes quitting smoking a significant challenge for many individuals.

Carcinoma, lobular is a type of breast cancer that begins in the milk-producing glands (lobules) of the breast. It can be either invasive or non-invasive (in situ). Invasive lobular carcinoma (ILC) occurs when the cancer cells break through the wall of the lobule and invade the surrounding breast tissue, and can potentially spread to other parts of the body. Non-invasive lobular carcinoma (LCIS), on the other hand, refers to the presence of abnormal cells within the lobule that have not invaded nearby breast tissue.

ILC is usually detected as a mass or thickening in the breast, and it may not cause any symptoms or show up on mammograms until it has grown quite large. It tends to grow more slowly than some other types of breast cancer, but it can still be serious and require extensive treatment. LCIS does not typically cause any symptoms and is usually found during a biopsy performed for another reason.

Treatment options for carcinoma, lobular depend on several factors, including the stage of the cancer, the patient's overall health, and their personal preferences. Treatment may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, or targeted therapy. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor for recurrence or the development of new cancers.

Calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D, also known as 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. It is a steroid hormone that plays a crucial role in regulating calcium and phosphate levels in the body to maintain healthy bones. Calcitriol is produced in the kidneys from its precursor, calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D), which is derived from dietary sources or synthesized in the skin upon exposure to sunlight.

Calcitriol promotes calcium absorption in the intestines, helps regulate calcium and phosphate levels in the kidneys, and stimulates bone cells (osteoblasts) to form new bone tissue while inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts, which resorb bone. This hormone is essential for normal bone mineralization and growth, as well as for preventing hypocalcemia (low calcium levels).

In addition to its role in bone health, calcitriol has various other physiological functions, including modulating immune responses, cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Calcitriol deficiency or resistance can lead to conditions such as rickets in children and osteomalacia or osteoporosis in adults.

Hyperparathyroidism is a condition in which the parathyroid glands produce excessive amounts of parathyroid hormone (PTH). There are four small parathyroid glands located in the neck, near or within the thyroid gland. They release PTH into the bloodstream to help regulate the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

In hyperparathyroidism, overproduction of PTH can lead to an imbalance in these minerals, causing high blood calcium levels (hypercalcemia) and low phosphate levels (hypophosphatemia). This can result in various symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, bone pain, kidney stones, and cognitive issues.

There are two types of hyperparathyroidism: primary and secondary. Primary hyperparathyroidism occurs when there is a problem with one or more of the parathyroid glands, causing them to become overactive and produce too much PTH. Secondary hyperparathyroidism develops as a response to low calcium levels in the body due to conditions like vitamin D deficiency, chronic kidney disease, or malabsorption syndromes.

Treatment for hyperparathyroidism depends on the underlying cause and severity of symptoms. In primary hyperparathyroidism, surgery to remove the overactive parathyroid gland(s) is often recommended. For secondary hyperparathyroidism, treating the underlying condition and managing calcium levels with medications or dietary changes may be sufficient.

Leptin is a hormone primarily produced and released by adipocytes, which are the fat cells in our body. It plays a crucial role in regulating energy balance and appetite by sending signals to the brain when the body has had enough food. This helps control body weight by suppressing hunger and increasing energy expenditure. Leptin also influences various metabolic processes, including glucose homeostasis, neuroendocrine function, and immune response. Defects in leptin signaling can lead to obesity and other metabolic disorders.

'Alcohol drinking' refers to the consumption of alcoholic beverages, which contain ethanol (ethyl alcohol) as the active ingredient. Ethanol is a central nervous system depressant that can cause euphoria, disinhibition, and sedation when consumed in small to moderate amounts. However, excessive drinking can lead to alcohol intoxication, with symptoms ranging from slurred speech and impaired coordination to coma and death.

Alcohol is metabolized in the liver by enzymes such as alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH). The breakdown of ethanol produces acetaldehyde, a toxic compound that can cause damage to various organs in the body. Chronic alcohol drinking can lead to a range of health problems, including liver disease, pancreatitis, cardiovascular disease, neurological disorders, and increased risk of cancer.

Moderate drinking is generally defined as up to one drink per day for women and up to two drinks per day for men, where a standard drink contains about 14 grams (0.6 ounces) of pure alcohol. However, it's important to note that there are no safe levels of alcohol consumption, and any level of drinking carries some risk to health.

The uterus, also known as the womb, is a hollow, muscular organ located in the female pelvic cavity, between the bladder and the rectum. It has a thick, middle layer called the myometrium, which is composed of smooth muscle tissue, and an inner lining called the endometrium, which provides a nurturing environment for the fertilized egg to develop into a fetus during pregnancy.

The uterus is where the baby grows and develops until it is ready for birth through the cervix, which is the lower, narrow part of the uterus that opens into the vagina. The uterus plays a critical role in the menstrual cycle as well, by shedding its lining each month if pregnancy does not occur.

Kyphosis is a medical term used to describe an excessive curvature of the spine in the sagittal plane, leading to a rounded or humped back appearance. This condition often affects the thoracic region of the spine and can result from various factors such as age-related degenerative changes, congenital disorders, Scheuermann's disease, osteoporosis, or traumatic injuries. Mild kyphosis may not cause any significant symptoms; however, severe cases can lead to pain, respiratory difficulties, and decreased quality of life. Treatment options typically include physical therapy, bracing, and, in some cases, surgical intervention.

The pelvic bones, also known as the hip bones, are a set of three irregularly shaped bones that connect to form the pelvic girdle in the lower part of the human body. They play a crucial role in supporting the spine and protecting the abdominal and pelvic organs.

The pelvic bones consist of three bones:

1. The ilium: This is the largest and uppermost bone, forming the majority of the hip bone and the broad, flaring part of the pelvis known as the wing of the ilium or the iliac crest, which can be felt on the side of the body.
2. The ischium: This is the lower and back portion of the pelvic bone that forms part of the sitting surface or the "sit bones."
3. The pubis: This is the front part of the pelvic bone, which connects to the other side at the pubic symphysis in the midline of the body.

The pelvic bones are joined together at the acetabulum, a cup-shaped socket that forms the hip joint and articulates with the head of the femur (thigh bone). The pelvic bones also have several openings for the passage of blood vessels, nerves, and reproductive and excretory organs.

The shape and size of the pelvic bones differ between males and females due to their different roles in childbirth and locomotion. Females typically have a wider and shallower pelvis than males to accommodate childbirth, while males usually have a narrower and deeper pelvis that is better suited for weight-bearing and movement.

Menstruation is the regular, cyclical shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium) in women and female individuals of reproductive age, accompanied by the discharge of blood and other materials from the vagina. It typically occurs every 21 to 35 days and lasts for approximately 2-7 days. This process is a part of the menstrual cycle, which is under the control of hormonal fluctuations involving follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estrogen, and progesterone.

The menstrual cycle can be divided into three main phases:

1. Menstruation phase: The beginning of the cycle is marked by the start of menstrual bleeding, which signals the breakdown and shedding of the endometrium due to the absence of pregnancy and low levels of estrogen and progesterone. This phase typically lasts for 2-7 days.

2. Proliferative phase: After menstruation, under the influence of rising estrogen levels, the endometrium starts to thicken and regenerate. The uterine lining becomes rich in blood vessels and glands, preparing for a potential pregnancy. This phase lasts from day 5 until around day 14 of an average 28-day cycle.

3. Secretory phase: Following ovulation (release of an egg from the ovaries), which usually occurs around day 14, increased levels of progesterone cause further thickening and maturation of the endometrium. The glands in the lining produce nutrients to support a fertilized egg. If pregnancy does not occur, both estrogen and progesterone levels will drop, leading to menstruation and the start of a new cycle.

Understanding menstruation is essential for monitoring reproductive health, identifying potential issues such as irregular periods or menstrual disorders, and planning family planning strategies.

C-reactive protein (CRP) is a protein produced by the liver in response to inflammation or infection in the body. It is named after its ability to bind to the C-polysaccharide of pneumococcus, a type of bacteria. CRP levels can be measured with a simple blood test and are often used as a marker of inflammation or infection. Elevated CRP levels may indicate a variety of conditions, including infections, tissue damage, and chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. However, it is important to note that CRP is not specific to any particular condition, so additional tests are usually needed to make a definitive diagnosis.

Hypogonadism is a medical condition characterized by the inability of the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) to produce sufficient amounts of sex hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. This can lead to various symptoms including decreased libido, erectile dysfunction in men, irregular menstrual periods in women, and reduced fertility in both sexes. Hypogonadism may be caused by genetic factors, aging, injury to the gonads, or certain medical conditions such as pituitary disorders. It can be treated with hormone replacement therapy.

Spinal diseases refer to a range of medical conditions that affect the spinal column, which is made up of vertebrae (bones), intervertebral discs, facet joints, nerves, ligaments, and muscles. These diseases can cause pain, discomfort, stiffness, numbness, weakness, or even paralysis, depending on the severity and location of the condition. Here are some examples of spinal diseases:

1. Degenerative disc disease: This is a condition where the intervertebral discs lose their elasticity and height, leading to stiffness, pain, and decreased mobility.
2. Herniated disc: This occurs when the inner material of the intervertebral disc bulges or herniates out through a tear in the outer layer, causing pressure on the spinal nerves and resulting in pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness in the affected area.
3. Spinal stenosis: This is a narrowing of the spinal canal or the neural foramen (the openings where the spinal nerves exit the spinal column), which can cause pressure on the spinal cord or nerves and result in pain, numbness, tingling, or weakness.
4. Scoliosis: This is a curvature of the spine that can occur in children or adults, leading to an abnormal posture, back pain, and decreased lung function.
5. Osteoarthritis: This is a degenerative joint disease that affects the facet joints in the spine, causing pain, stiffness, and decreased mobility.
6. Ankylosing spondylitis: This is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the spine and sacroiliac joints, leading to pain, stiffness, and fusion of the vertebrae.
7. Spinal tumors: These are abnormal growths that can occur in the spinal column, which can be benign or malignant, causing pain, neurological symptoms, or even paralysis.
8. Infections: Bacterial or viral infections can affect the spine, leading to pain, fever, and other systemic symptoms.
9. Trauma: Fractures, dislocations, or sprains of the spine can occur due to accidents, falls, or sports injuries, causing pain, neurological deficits, or even paralysis.

Medically, 'overweight' is a term used to describe a person whose body weight is greater than what is considered healthy for their height. This excess weight often comes from fat, muscle, bone, or water accumulation. The most commonly used measure to define overweight is the Body Mass Index (BMI), which is calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters. A BMI of 25.0 to 29.9 is considered overweight, while a BMI of 30.0 or higher is considered obese. However, it's important to note that BMI doesn't directly measure body fat and may not accurately reflect health status for all individuals, such as athletes with high muscle mass.

Minority Health is a term used to describe the health status and disparities that affect racial, ethnic, sexual, and gender minority populations. According to the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NIMHD), minority health refers to "the study of differences in health status or events and access to health care across racial and ethnic groups."

Minority health disparities are differences in the incidence, prevalence, mortality, and burden of diseases and other adverse health conditions that exist among minorities and other population groups. These disparities are often related to social, economic, and environmental factors, such as poverty, lack of access to quality healthcare, discrimination, and limited educational opportunities.

Minority Health is an important field of study because it helps to identify and address the health needs and challenges faced by marginalized populations. By understanding and addressing these disparities, healthcare providers can develop more effective strategies to improve the health outcomes of minority populations and reduce health inequities.

Comorbidity is the presence of one or more additional health conditions or diseases alongside a primary illness or condition. These co-occurring health issues can have an impact on the treatment plan, prognosis, and overall healthcare management of an individual. Comorbidities often interact with each other and the primary condition, leading to more complex clinical situations and increased healthcare needs. It is essential for healthcare professionals to consider and address comorbidities to provide comprehensive care and improve patient outcomes.

Medication adherence, also known as medication compliance, refers to the degree or extent of conformity to a treatment regimen as prescribed by a healthcare provider. This includes taking medications at the right time, in the correct dosage, and for the designated duration. Poor medication adherence can lead to worsening health conditions, increased hospitalizations, and higher healthcare costs.

Physical fitness is a state of being able to perform various physical activities that require endurance, strength, flexibility, balance, and coordination. According to the American Heart Association (AHA), physical fitness is defined as "a set of attributes that people have or achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity."

The AHA identifies five components of physical fitness:

1. Cardiorespiratory endurance: The ability of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels to supply oxygen to muscles during sustained physical activity.
2. Muscular strength: The amount of force a muscle can exert in a single effort.
3. Muscular endurance: The ability of a muscle or group of muscles to sustain repeated contractions or to continue to apply force against an external resistance over time.
4. Flexibility: The range of motion possible at a joint.
5. Body composition: The proportion of fat-free mass (muscle, bone, and organs) to fat mass in the body.

Being physically fit can help reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and some types of cancer. It can also improve mental health, increase energy levels, and enhance overall quality of life.

The forearm is the region of the upper limb between the elbow and the wrist. It consists of two bones, the radius and ulna, which are located side by side and run parallel to each other. The forearm is responsible for movements such as flexion, extension, supination, and pronation of the hand and wrist.

Postmenopausal women have a higher rate of osteoporosis and fractures than older men. Postmenopausal women have decreased ... The term "established osteoporosis" is used when a broken bone due to osteoporosis has occurred. Osteoporosis is a part of ... "Postmenopausal osteoporosis". Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians. 55: 298-305. Hirata K, Morimoto I (1994). "Vertebral Osteoporosis ... "European guidance for the diagnosis and management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women". Osteoporosis international: a ...
Type I refers to postmenopausal osteoporosis and is caused by the deficiency of estrogen. While senile osteoporosis is ... it can still be a contributing factor to primary osteoporosis. Secondary osteoporosis can be present in pre- and post- ... Postmenopausal Osteoporosis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (3): 254-62. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1513724. PMID 26789873. ... Brandão CM, Lima MG, Silva AL, Silva GD, Guerra AA, Acúrcio F (2008). "Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis in women: a ...
Haguenauer D, Welch V, Shea B, Tugwell P, Wells G (2000). "Fluoride for treating postmenopausal osteoporosis". The Cochrane ... Fluoride supplementation has been extensively studied for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. This supplementation ... Reports have claimed that water fluoridation can be linked to the development of osteoporosis and various cancers; however, a ... Osteoporosis International. 19 (3): 257-68. doi:10.1007/s00198-007-0437-6. PMID 17701094. S2CID 25890845. Takahashi R, Ota E, ...
Fluoride supplementation has been extensively studied for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. This supplementation ... "Fluoride for treating postmenopausal osteoporosis". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2010 (4): CD002825. doi: ... "Prevention and management of osteoporosis: consensus statements from the Scientific Advisory Board of the Osteoporosis Society ... In the higher doses used to treat osteoporosis, plain sodium fluoride can cause pain in the legs and incomplete stress ...
In 2007, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also approved it for the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. ... May 2007). "Once-yearly zoledronic acid for treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 356 ... Vondracek SF (April 2010). "Managing osteoporosis in postmenopausal women". American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy. 67 (7 ... "Biotech PRESS RELEASE: Novartis's Reclast Receives FDA Approval FOR Women With Postmenopausal Osteoporosis" (Press release). ...
Ji, Meng-Xia; Yu, Qi (2015-03-21). "Primary osteoporosis in postmenopausal women". Chronic Diseases and Translational Medicine ... Elderly people with osteoporosis and frailty have a higher risk of hip, vertebra, distal radius and humerus fractures. These ... 700-800 mg of calcium per day is recommended to prevent osteoporosis. Protein supplementation has been shown to have additive ... Endo, Naoto (2016-06-01). "Osteoporosis as a Cause of Locomotive Syndrome: The Influence on Functional Mobility and Activities ...
ISBN 978-1-4511-7861-6. Andrea R. Genazzani (17 January 2006). Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: Hormones & Other Therapies. Taylor ... 243-. ISBN 978-1-84214-311-7. Lobo RA (June 2001). "Androgens in postmenopausal women: production, possible role, and ... osteoporosis, and low sexual desire in women, and to treat breast cancer in women. It is taken by mouth or held in the cheek or ... specifically for osteoporosis, hot flashes, and to increase libido and energy), postpartum breast pain and engorgement, and ...
... is approved in Japan for second-line treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Evidence is restricted to small- ... Iwamoto J (May 2014). "Vitamin K2 therapy for postmenopausal osteoporosis". Nutrients. 6 (5): 1971-80. doi:10.3390/nu6051971. ... mass parameters evaluated by microdensitometry and/or single photon absorptiometry in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis ...
In postmenopausal women with osteoporosis, lasofoxifene at a dose of 0.5 mg per day was associated with reduced risks of ... "Lasofoxifene in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 362 (8): 686-96. doi:10.1056/ ... for the treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: focus on lasofoxifene". Clinical Interventions in Aging. 5: 19-29. ... Gennari L (June 2006). "Lasofoxifene: a new type of selective estrogen receptor modulator for the treatment of osteoporosis". ...
... is used in the treatment of menopausal symptoms like hot flashes and vaginal atrophy, postmenopausal osteoporosis, and ... Ettinger B (May 2007). "Tibolone for prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis". Maturitas. 57 (1): 35-38. doi: ... Meeta (15 December 2013). Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: Basic and Clinical Concepts. Jaypee Brothers Publishers. pp. 117-. ISBN ... is a medication which is used in menopausal hormone therapy and in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis and ...
August 2002). "Meta-analyses of therapies for postmenopausal osteoporosis. VII. Meta-analysis of calcium supplementation for ... "Effects of estrogen or estrogen/progestin regimens on heart disease risk factors in postmenopausal women. The Postmenopausal ... and osteoporosis.[citation needed] In its entirety, the WHI enrolled more than 160,000 postmenopausal women aged 50-79 years ( ... Among postmenopausal women, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and osteoporosis are the leading causes of morbidity and mortality ...
Oral Calcitonin in Postmenopausal Osteoporosis (ORACAL), Investigators. (August 2012). "A phase 3 trial of the efficacy and ... Paget's disease is not associated with osteoporosis. Although Paget's disease and osteoporosis can occur in the same patient, ... The oral calcitonin in postmenopausal osteoporosis (ORACAL) trial". Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 27 (8): 1821-1829. ... study to evaluate the efficacy and safety of oral salmon calcitonin in the treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women ...
October 2016). "Romosozumab Treatment in Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 375 (16 ... Victoria Rees (13 December 2019). "EC approves treatment for severe osteoporosis postmenopausal women". European Pharmaceutical ... and bone strength in a rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis". Journal of Bone and Mineral Research. 24 (4): 578-88. doi: ... "Modulating Bone Resorption and Bone Formation in Opposite Directions in the Treatment of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis". Drugs. ...
"FDA approves new treatment for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at high risk of fracture". U.S. Food and Drug ... October 2016). "Romosozumab Treatment in Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 375 (16 ... Rees V (13 December 2019). "EC approves treatment for severe osteoporosis postmenopausal women". European Pharmaceutical Review ... Romosozumab, sold under the brand name Evenity, is a medication used to treat osteoporosis. It has been found to decrease the ...
Estrogen therapy in postmenopausal osteoporosis reduces BMAT. Antiresorptive therapies like risedronate or zoledronate also ... "Effects of estrogen therapy on bone marrow adipocytes in postmenopausal osteoporotic women". Osteoporosis International. 19 (9 ... Thus, bone fragility, osteoporosis, and osteoporotic fractures are thought to be linked to mechanisms which promote BMAT ... Duque G, Li W, Adams M, Xu S, Phipps R (May 2011). "Effects of risedronate on bone marrow adipocytes in postmenopausal women". ...
"Long-term treatment with calcitriol in postmenopausal osteoporosis". Metabolism. 39 (4 Suppl 1): 43-9. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.223. ...
In those with postmenopausal osteoporosis denosumab decreases the risk of fractures but increases the risk of infection. A 2013 ... On 2 June 2010, denosumab was approved by the FDA for use in postmenopausal women with risk of osteoporosis under the trade ... Josse R, Khan A, Ngui D, Shapiro M (March 2013). "Denosumab, a new pharmacotherapy option for postmenopausal osteoporosis". ... 2014). "Safety of denosumab in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis or low bone mineral density: a meta-analysis". ...
"Long-term treatment with calcitriol in postmenopausal osteoporosis". Metabolism. 39 (4 Suppl 1): 43-9. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.223. ...
Prevention or treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. Nandrolone decanoate is approved for this use. Although they ... In low doses as a component of hormone therapy for postmenopausal and transgender women, for instance to increase energy, well- ... specifically for osteoporosis, hot flashes, and to increase libido and energy), postpartum breast pain and engorgement, and ... anabolic ratio are preferred for anemia and osteoporosis, and to reverse protein loss following trauma, surgery, or prolonged ...
FSH may contribute to postmenopausal osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. If high FSH levels occur during the reproductive ... "Extragonadal Effects of Follicle-Stimulating Hormone on Osteoporosis and Cardiovascular Disease in Women during Menopausal ...
More common in women because of post-menopausal osteoporosis. The Colles fracture is named after Abraham Colles (1773-1843), an ... Risk factors include osteoporosis. The diagnosis may be confirmed via X-rays. The tip of the ulna may also be broken. Treatment ... Originally it was described in elderly and/or post-menopausal women. It usually occurs about three to five centimetres proximal ... Colles fracture is a common fracture in people with osteoporosis, second only to vertebral fractures.[citation needed] ...
... is used in the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Bazedoxifene is marketed both alone and in combination ... of postmenopausal osteoporosis. It is also being studied for possible treatment of breast cancer and pancreatic cancer. ... "Osteoporosis drug stops growth of breast cancer cells, even in resistant tumors". Duke University Medical Center. June 15, 2013 ... for the treatment of menopausal osteoporosis and the treatment of moderate to severe hot flushes. This is the first approved ...
... a 68-year-old female with advanced postmenopausal osteoporosis; and a healthy 24-year-old medical student without any clinical ... resulting in weaker bones that are more prone to pathologic fracture and osteoporosis. However, deficiency is rare in adults, ...
Lindsay R, Cosman F (January 2007). "Pathogenesis of osteoporosis.". Treatment of the Postmenopausal Woman (3rd ed.). pp. 323- ... Bone resorption rates are much higher in post-menopausal older women due to estrogen deficiency related with menopause. Common ... Some diseases with symptoms of decreased bone density are osteoporosis, and rickets. Some people who experience increased bone ... especially osteopenia and osteoporosis, endocrine diseases, rheumatic disorders, and other cases, as well as in patients with ...
"Abaloparatide May Help Prevent Fractures in Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis". Newswise. Retrieved 2016-04-03. "Felicia ... in the treatment of severe osteoporosis. Her research has focused on the causes of osteoporosis and how the female hormone ... She is an osteoporosis specialist and was a clinical scientist at Helen Hayes Hospital in West Haverstraw, New York. Dr. Cosman ... She also is studying experimental treatments for osteoporosis, including parathyroid hormone, and the causes of stress ...
... and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis and breast cancer prevention in high-risk postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. ... Bazedoxifene is used as treatment for osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at increased risk of fracture. It has been shown to ... Bazedoxifene is also used in the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis. The search for a potent SERM with bone efficacy and ... In Europe, bazedoxifene is indicated for the treatment of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women at increased risk of fracture ...
... maintain bone density and to prevent osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. It is not used to treat osteoporosis. It slows down ... March 2001). "Ipriflavone in the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis: a randomized controlled trial". JAMA. 285 (11): 1482 ... A clinical trial reported in 2001 that it was not effective in prevention or treatment of osteoporosis. A double-blind study ... as the drug does not bind to or activate the estrogen receptor and shows no estrogenic effects in postmenopausal women. The ...
"Labisia pumila regulates bone-related genes expressions in postmenopausal osteoporosis model". BMC Complementary and ... and relieving postmenopausal discomfort. Currently accepted species include: Labisia acuta Ridl. Labisia alata N.E.Br. Labisia ...
Blueberry prevents bone loss in ovariectomized rat model of postmenopausal osteoporosis. J Nutr Bioch, 19(10):694-9, 2008. ... 2010 Jul 8. One year soy protein supplementation does not improve lipid profile in postmenopausal women. Menopause 2010 Mar 3. ... Flaxseed Reduces LDL- and Total-Cholesterol Concentrations in Native American Postmenopausal Women. J Women's Health Gend, 17: ... His current research emphasis is women's health including cardiovascular health, osteoporosis, and osteoarthritis. Arjmandi ...
In the higher doses used to treat osteoporosis, sodium fluoride can cause pain in the legs and incomplete stress fractures when ... Haguenauer, D; Welch, V; Shea, B; Tugwell, P; Adachi, JD; Wells, G (2000). "Fluoride for the treatment of postmenopausal ... Murray TM, Ste-Marie LG (1996). "Prevention and management of osteoporosis: consensus statements from the Scientific Advisory ... 7. Fluoride therapy for osteoporosis". CMAJ. 155 (7): 949-54. PMC 1335460. PMID 8837545. National Health and Medical Research ...
Postmenopausal women are at increased risk for fractures. Hormone replacement therapy, particularly estrogen, can be beneficial ... Why Increased Fracture Risk in Postmenopausal Women? The primary cause of postmenopausal osteoporosis is the cessation of ... The risk for postmenopausal osteoporosis is reported to be highest in Asian women (40%), followed by Hispanic (20.5%), non- ... Postmenopausal osteoporosis can have far-reaching consequences on ones quality of life, given the risk for fractures that are ...
Three years of growth hormone injections in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis continued to give bone benefits for a decade ... Over the course of 18 months, 80 postmenopausal women with osteoporosis received daily injections of either a placebo, a single ... Effect of growth hormone treatment on fractures and quality of life in postmenopausal osteoporosis: a 10-year follow-up study ... Spine osteoporosis: Causes and treatment. Spine osteoporosis causes bones in the spine to lose density and strength. Treatment ...
Osteoporosis is the most common cause of fragility fractures. Bone remodelling is essential for repairing damaged areas within ... Bone turnover markers in the management of postmenopausal osteoporosis Clin Biochem. 2009 Jul;42(10-11):929-42. doi: 10.1016/j. ... Osteoporosis is the most common cause of fragility fractures. Bone remodelling is essential for repairing damaged areas within ... Further, the use of BTMs to monitor individuals administered osteoporosis therapy is attractive as monitoring anti-fracture ...
... quantify osteoporosis-related burden, and understand preferences for treating postmenopausal women with osteoporosis ... Postmenopausal women with self-reported severe osteoporosis evaluated their health status, osteoporosis management, and disease ... Our study revealed that osteoporosis can place a considerable burden on QoL for postmenopausal women with severe osteoporosis ... Our study revealed that osteoporosis placed a considerable burden on QoL for postmenopausal women with severe osteoporosis in ...
Prevalence of Osteopenia and Osteoporosis in Postmenopausal Women Prevalencia de osteopenia y osteoporosis en mujeres ...
Along with increased incidences of fractures in older, postmenopausal women, osteoporosis may often lead to mobility loss and ... Worldwide, one in three women over the age of 50 years is at risk of developing osteoporosis. It can be due to hormonal changes ... Osteoporosis is a medical condition in which the bones become brittle and fragile due to decreased bone mass and bone mineral ... Along with increased incidences of fractures in older, postmenopausal women, osteoporosis may often lead to mobility loss and ...
Gene combinations are found to be related to hip osteoporosis in postmenopausal women ... References: Risk factors associated with osteoporosis in Spanish postmenopausal women: the benefit of Mediterranean and ... Gene combinations are found to be related to hip osteoporosis in postmenopausal women. ... researchers have found at least three genetic markers associated with osteoporosis in the hip in postmenopausal women. ...
Osteoporosis is a disorder characterized by decreased bone mass and microarchitecture deterioration of bone tissue which ... It is my intention for this paper to shed light on the prevalence of osteoporosis specifically in postmenopausal women, which ... Understanding the Prevalence of Osteoporosis in Postmenopausal Women. November 17, 2021. by CCA Students ... Categories Student Articles Tags Ayurveda and Osteoporosis, holistic health, Osteoporosis, Womens Health. Post navigation. ...
Teriparatide in East Asian Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis in a Real-World Setting: A Baseline Analysis of the Asia and ... Teriparatide in East Asian Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis in a Real-World Setting: A Baseline Analysis of the Asia and ...
... is under clinical development by Teva Pharmaceutical Industries and currently in Phase III for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis. ... According to GlobalData, Phase III drugs for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis have an 83% phase transition success rate (PTSR) ... Denosumab biosimilar by Teva Pharmaceutical Industries for Post Menopausal Osteoporosis: Likelihood of Approval. Brought to you ... Denosumab biosimilar (TVB-009) is under development for treatment of post menopausal osteoporosis. The therapeutic candidate is ...
ASSOCIATION BETWEEN VITAMIN D RECEPTOR Bsm I POLYMORPHISM AND OSTEOPOROSIS IN POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN B. Süsleyici; B. Süsleyici ... ASSOCIATION BETWEEN VITAMIN D RECEPTOR Bsm I POLYMORPHISM AND OSTEOPOROSIS IN POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN. Biochem Soc Trans 1 October ...
We need to urgently make postmenopausal osteoporosis a womens health priority.". Osteoporosis is a serious, chronic condition ... Fractures for postmenopausal women can be life-altering events which can lead to loss of mobility.1 Each year, osteoporosis- ... with postmenopausal osteoporosis. "Im very excited for a new treatment option for myself, as well as the thousands of other ... ARCH (Active-controlled fracture study in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis at high risk of fracture) is a randomized, ...
... it is estimated that 6.2 million Australians older than 50 years of age will have osteoporosis or osteopenia, a rise of 31% ... Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis and management in postmenopausal women and men over 50 years of age, 2nd edition was ... Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis and management in postmenopausal women and men over 50 years of age. ... Supporting clinical judgements for osteoporosis. The publication of new data on the prevalence of osteoporosis in Australia and ...
Postmenopausal osteoporosis is the most common cause of osteoporosis. It is heralded by the cessation of oestrogen production ... Postmenopausal osteoporosis is the most common cause of osteoporosis. It is heralded by the cessation of oestrogen production ... Urinary Deoxypyridinoline is a Useful Biochemical Bone Marker for the Management of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis. S L Yu, L M Ho ... Group A: premenopausal women (n = 10), Group B: postmenopausal women, no osteoporosis, not on hormone replacement therapy (HRT ...
... and the use of artificial intelligence in osteoporosis screening. ... Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis who had received oral bisphosphonate (BP) therapy for ≥3 years and ALN for ≥1 year prior ... Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis were randomized to romosozumab 210 mg monthly (ROMO) or a comparator (FRAME: PBO; ARCH: ... Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis were randomized to romosozumab (ROMO) 210 mg monthly or comparator (FRAME: PBO; ARCH: ...
Dose-response study of denosumab on bone mineral density and bone turnover markers in Japanese postmenopausal women with ... CONCLUSIONS: Denosumab 60 mg could be an effective dose for Japanese postmenopausal women with osteoporosis as was shown in the ... The efficacy and safety of denosumab were evaluated in Japanese postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Total hip and distal 1/ ... study of denosumab on bone mineral density and bone turnover markers in Japanese postmenopausal women with osteoporosis.. ...
Treatment for postmenopausal osteoporosis is lifelong. *DEXA testing will repeat every 1-3 years. ... Management of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: ACOG Clinical Practice Guideline No. 2. Obstet Gynecol. 2022 Apr 1;139(4):698-717. ... Osteoporosis most often occurs in postmenopausal women since estrogen is a major promotor of bone growth. ... This patient summary focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. ...
Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis who took romosozumab for a year experienced ... Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis who took romosozumab for a year experienced "rapid and large reductions" in risk of ... Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis who took romosozumab for a year experienced "rapid and large reductions" in risk of ... "Postmenopausal osteoporosis is considered a serious public health concern due to its high prevalence worldwide," it added. " ...
The results of the study, involving 113 patients with postmenopausal osteoporosis showed a high frequency of the following risk ... postmenopausal osteoporosis, bone resorbtion markers, osteocalcine, bone specific alkaline phosphatase, ceruloplasmine, ... Clinical and evolvement aspects of postmenopausal osteoporosis and treatment efficacy of bisphosphonates. ... The concordance of the same group of factors with osteoporosis (-2,5 SD and below, T score) was 87,5%, and for osteopenia (T ...
OH vitamin D total and corrected calcium in 100 Saudi postmenopausal women with osteoporosis and 100 women without osteoporosis ... Endotoxin and bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women with and without osteoporosis. International Journal of Clinical ... Endotoxin and bone turnover markers in postmenopausal women with and without osteoporosis ... association amongst endotoxin and bone turnover markers in a cohort of Saudi postmenopausal women with or without osteoporosis ...
Prevention of Osteoporosis and Osteoporotic Fractures in Postmenopausal Women (2002). Home Guidelines (1979-2006) Prevention of ... For postmenopausal women with osteoporosis but no prevalent fractures, there is good evidence to recommend alendronate (A ... For postmenopausal women with osteoporosis and prevalent fractures there is good evidence to recommend alendronate (A ... All postmenopausal women are recommended to have adequate calcium and vitamin D, since participants in these clinical trials ...
Risk factors for osteoporosis and associated fractures. Cite CITE. Title : Risk factors for osteoporosis and associated ... Osteoporosis: a priority womens health concern Cite CITE. Title : Osteoporosis: a priority womens health concern Personal ... The role of exercise in preventing osteoporosis. Cite CITE. Title : The role of exercise in preventing osteoporosis. Personal ... Title : Alternative strategies for prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis. Personal Author(s) : Lindsay, R Published Date : ...
... Catalano, Antonino;DI MARTINO, ... and x-ray vertebral morphometry was carried out in postmenopausal women referred for osteoporosis. Results: Of the 192 women ... and x-ray vertebral morphometry was carried out in postmenopausal women referred for osteoporosis. Results: Of the 192 women ... In postmenopausal women, anxiety levels were associated with BMD in the lumbar spine and femoral neck. ...
Osteoporosis. Osteoporosis, Postmenopausal. Bone Diseases, Metabolic. Bone Diseases. Musculoskeletal Diseases. Metabolic ... A Study to Test if TVB-009P is Effective in Relieving Postmenopausal Osteoporosis. The safety and scientific validity of this ... Approximately 326 postmenopausal women with osteoporosis will be randomized to receive either TVB-009 or Prolia®. At week 52, ...
This article describes the development of a model for postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMO) based on Swedish data that is easily ... Development and validation of a disease model for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Gauthier A., Kanis JA., Martin M., Compston J., ... UNLABELLED: This article describes the development of a model for postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMO) based on Swedish data that ... Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Bone Density, Female, Humans, Incidence, Middle Aged, Models, Statistical, Osteoporosis, ...
A POSSIBLE ROLE OF OXIDATIVE STRESS IN BONE RESORPTION AND POSTMENOPAUSAL OSTEOPOROSIS. CREMONINI, Eleonora;Cremonini G; ... RESULTS: according to the WHO densitometric criteria for postmenopausal osteoporosis, n. 29 subjects were healthy, n.50 ... RESULTS: according to the WHO densitometric criteria for postmenopausal osteoporosis, n. 29 subjects were healthy, n.50 ... might be involved in the pathogenesis of postmenopausal osteoporosis (PO), one of the most critical disorders for aged women1. ...
Posts about postmenopausal women written by What Doctors Dont Tell You ... These days, the first line of pharmaceutical defence against osteoporosis is a class of drugs called bisphosphonates, ... KEEP ON WALKING: a simple remedy for postmenopausal women. What Doctors Dont Tell You ...
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Review the AACE/ACE guidelines for fracture risk and treatment recommendations for women with postmenopausal osteoporosis. See ... postmenopausal osteoporosis; TBS = trabecular bone score.. FRAX® is a trademark owned by the International Osteoporosis ... who have failed or are intolerant to other available osteoporosis therapy. In postmenopausal women with osteoporosis, Prolia® ... In postmenopausal women with... Read More osteoporosis, Prolia® reduces the incidence of vertebral, nonvertebral, and hip ...
Postmenopausal osteoporosis is a condition on the rise amongst aged women as the world demography experiences marked ageing of ... Postmenopausal osteoporosis is characterized by increased low-grade inflammation contributing to low bone mass and degradation ... 1. Osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a major public health concern with the aging populations [1]. Worldwide, 8.9 million fractures ... Our nutrient and dietary-based investigation into the pathogenesis of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women showed the ...

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