The space enclosed by the peritoneum. It is divided into two portions, the greater sac and the lesser sac or omental bursa, which lies behind the STOMACH. The two sacs are connected by the foramen of Winslow, or epiploic foramen.
The serous fluid of ASCITES, the accumulation of fluids in the PERITONEAL CAVITY.
A membrane of squamous EPITHELIAL CELLS, the mesothelial cells, covered by apical MICROVILLI that allow rapid absorption of fluid and particles in the PERITONEAL CAVITY. The peritoneum is divided into parietal and visceral components. The parietal peritoneum covers the inside of the ABDOMINAL WALL. The visceral peritoneum covers the intraperitoneal organs. The double-layered peritoneum forms the MESENTERY that suspends these organs from the abdominal wall.
INFLAMMATION of the PERITONEUM lining the ABDOMINAL CAVITY as the result of infectious, autoimmune, or chemical processes. Primary peritonitis is due to infection of the PERITONEAL CAVITY via hematogenous or lymphatic spread and without intra-abdominal source. Secondary peritonitis arises from the ABDOMINAL CAVITY itself through RUPTURE or ABSCESS of intra-abdominal organs.
Washing out of the peritoneal cavity. The procedure is a diagnostic as well as a therapeutic technique following abdominal trauma or inflammation.
Forceful administration into the peritoneal cavity of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through a hollow needle piercing the abdominal wall.
Tumors or cancer of the PERITONEUM.
Organic esters of thioglycolic acid (HS-CH2COOH).
The proximal portion of the respiratory passages on either side of the NASAL SEPTUM. Nasal cavities, extending from the nares to the NASOPHARYNX, are lined with ciliated NASAL MUCOSA.
Pathological processes involving the PERITONEUM.
Accumulation or retention of free fluid within the peritoneal cavity.
A double-layered fold of peritoneum that attaches the STOMACH to other organs in the ABDOMINAL CAVITY.
Mononuclear phagocytes derived from bone marrow precursors but resident in the peritoneum.
Solutions prepared for exchange across a semipermeable membrane of solutes below a molecular size determined by the cutoff threshold of the membrane material.
A system of organs and tissues that process and transport immune cells and LYMPH.
Pathological processes consisting of the union of the opposing surfaces of a wound.
Dialysis fluid being introduced into and removed from the peritoneal cavity as either a continuous or an intermittent procedure.
Paired but separate cavity within the THORACIC CAVITY. It consists of the space between the parietal and visceral PLEURA and normally contains a capillary layer of serous fluid that lubricates the pleural surfaces.
The relatively long-lived phagocytic cell of mammalian tissues that are derived from blood MONOCYTES. Main types are PERITONEAL MACROPHAGES; ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES; HISTIOCYTES; KUPFFER CELLS of the liver; and OSTEOCLASTS. They may further differentiate within chronic inflammatory lesions to EPITHELIOID CELLS or may fuse to form FOREIGN BODY GIANT CELLS or LANGHANS GIANT CELLS. (from The Dictionary of Cell Biology, Lackie and Dow, 3rd ed.)
Normal human serum albumin mildly iodinated with radioactive iodine (131-I) which has a half-life of 8 days, and emits beta and gamma rays. It is used as a diagnostic aid in blood volume determination. (from Merck Index, 11th ed)
Portable peritoneal dialysis using the continuous (24 hours a day, 7 days a week) presence of peritoneal dialysis solution in the peritoneal cavity except for periods of drainage and instillation of fresh solution.
A condition with trapped gas or air in the PERITONEAL CAVITY, usually secondary to perforation of the internal organs such as the LUNG and the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, or to recent surgery. Pneumoperitoneum may be purposely introduced to aid radiological examination.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
The region in the abdomen extending from the thoracic DIAPHRAGM to the plane of the superior pelvic aperture (pelvic inlet). The abdominal cavity contains the PERITONEUM and abdominal VISCERA, as well as the extraperitoneal space which includes the RETROPERITONEAL SPACE.
Granular leukocytes having a nucleus with three to five lobes connected by slender threads of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing fine inconspicuous granules and stainable by neutral dyes.
A classification of B-lymphocytes based on structurally or functionally different populations of cells.
An operation in which carious material is removed from teeth and biomechanically correct forms are established in the teeth to receive and retain restorations. A constant requirement is provision for prevention of failure of the restoration through recurrence of decay or inadequate resistance to applied stresses. (Boucher's Clinical Dental Terminology, 4th ed, p239-40)
Tumors or cancer of the OVARY. These neoplasms can be benign or malignant. They are classified according to the tissue of origin, such as the surface EPITHELIUM, the stromal endocrine cells, and the totipotent GERM CELLS.
Incision into the side of the abdomen between the ribs and pelvis.
The administration of liquid medication, nutrient, or other fluid through some other route than the alimentary canal, usually over minutes or hours, either by gravity flow or often by infusion pumping.
The engulfing and degradation of microorganisms; other cells that are dead, dying, or pathogenic; and foreign particles by phagocytic cells (PHAGOCYTES).
A condition in which functional endometrial tissue is present outside the UTERUS. It is often confined to the PELVIS involving the OVARY, the ligaments, cul-de-sac, and the uterovesical peritoneum.
A condition characterized by poorly-circumscribed gelatinous masses filled with malignant mucin-secreting cells. Forty-five percent of pseudomyxomas arise from the ovary, usually in a mucinous cystadenocarcinoma (CYSTADENOCARCINOMA, MUCINOUS), which has prognostic significance. Pseudomyxoma peritonei must be differentiated from mucinous spillage into the peritoneum by a benign mucocele of the appendix. (Segen, Dictionary of Modern Medicine, 1992)
Exudates are fluids, CELLS, or other cellular substances that are slowly discharged from BLOOD VESSELS usually from inflamed tissues. Transudates are fluids that pass through a membrane or squeeze through tissue or into the EXTRACELLULAR SPACE of TISSUES. Transudates are thin and watery and contain few cells or PROTEINS.
The oval-shaped oral cavity located at the apex of the digestive tract and consisting of two parts: the vestibule and the oral cavity proper.
Granulated cells that are found in almost all tissues, most abundantly in the skin and the gastrointestinal tract. Like the BASOPHILS, mast cells contain large amounts of HISTAMINE and HEPARIN. Unlike basophils, mast cells normally remain in the tissues and do not circulate in the blood. Mast cells, derived from the bone marrow stem cells, are regulated by the STEM CELL FACTOR.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
Infections with bacteria of the genus LISTERIA.
A pathological process characterized by injury or destruction of tissues caused by a variety of cytologic and chemical reactions. It is usually manifested by typical signs of pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function.
Inbred C3H mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to maintain a high degree of genetic uniformity and share specific genetic characteristics, including susceptibility to certain diseases, which makes them valuable for biomedical research purposes.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Surgical procedures performed through a natural opening in the body such as the mouth, nose, urethra, or anus, and along the natural body cavities with which they are continuous.
A layer of the peritoneum which attaches the abdominal viscera to the ABDOMINAL WALL and conveys their blood vessels and nerves.
The interstitial fluid that is in the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
An abscess located in the abdominal cavity, i.e., the cavity between the diaphragm above and the pelvis below. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
Tear or break of an organ, vessel or other soft part of the body, occurring in the absence of external force.
The thin serous membrane enveloping the lungs (LUNG) and lining the THORACIC CAVITY. Pleura consist of two layers, the inner visceral pleura lying next to the pulmonary parenchyma and the outer parietal pleura. Between the two layers is the PLEURAL CAVITY which contains a thin film of liquid.
Zymosan is a polysaccharide derived from the cell walls of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, commonly used in research as an immunostimulant to induce inflammation and study phagocytosis, complement activation, and oxidative burst in neutrophils and macrophages.
Presence of milky lymph (CHYLE) in the PERITONEAL CAVITY, with or without infection.
The movement of cells from one location to another. Distinguish from CYTOKINESIS which is the process of dividing the CYTOPLASM of a cell.
The shifting in position or location of an INTRAUTERINE DEVICE from its original placement.
The physical or physiological processes by which substances, tissue, cells, etc. take up or take in other substances or energy.
A procedure in which a laparoscope (LAPAROSCOPES) is inserted through a small incision near the navel to examine the abdominal and pelvic organs in the PERITONEAL CAVITY. If appropriate, biopsy or surgery can be performed during laparoscopy.
Deliberate introduction of air into the peritoneal cavity.
The process of altering the morphology and functional activity of macrophages so that they become avidly phagocytic. It is initiated by lymphokines, such as the macrophage activation factor (MAF) and the macrophage migration-inhibitory factor (MMIF), immune complexes, C3b, and various peptides, polysaccharides, and immunologic adjuvants.
White blood cells. These include granular leukocytes (BASOPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; and NEUTROPHILS) as well as non-granular leukocytes (LYMPHOCYTES and MONOCYTES).
Abdominal neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors occurring within the abdominal cavity, which can be benign or malignant, and affect various organs such as the pancreas, liver, kidneys, or intestines.
Unstable isotopes of gold that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. Au 185-196, 198-201, and 203 are radioactive gold isotopes.
Opening or penetration through the wall of the INTESTINES.
The movement of leukocytes in response to a chemical concentration gradient or to products formed in an immunologic reaction.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
The separation of particles from a suspension by passage through a filter with very fine pores. In ultrafiltration the separation is accomplished by convective transport; in DIALYSIS separation relies instead upon differential diffusion. Ultrafiltration occurs naturally and is a laboratory procedure. Artificial ultrafiltration of the blood is referred to as HEMOFILTRATION or HEMODIAFILTRATION (if combined with HEMODIALYSIS).
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations, or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. All animals within an inbred strain trace back to a common ancestor in the twentieth generation.
Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others.
The diffusion or accumulation of neutrophils in tissues or cells in response to a wide variety of substances released at the sites of inflammatory reactions.
A CXC chemokine that is chemotactic for B-LYMPHOCYTES. It has specificity for CXCR5 RECEPTORS.
Surgical creation of a communication between a cerebral ventricle and the peritoneum by means of a plastic tube to permit drainage of cerebrospinal fluid for relief of hydrocephalus. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
The pressure due to the weight of fluid.
A clinical syndrome with acute abdominal pain that is severe, localized, and rapid in onset. Acute abdomen may be caused by a variety of disorders, injuries, or diseases.
Infections with bacteria of the species ESCHERICHIA COLI.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
The number of WHITE BLOOD CELLS per unit volume in venous BLOOD. A differential leukocyte count measures the relative numbers of the different types of white cells.
Cells that can carry out the process of PHAGOCYTOSIS.
That portion of the body that lies between the THORAX and the PELVIS.
The number of CELLS of a specific kind, usually measured per unit volume or area of sample.
A bacteria isolated from normal skin, intestinal contents, wounds, blood, pus, and soft tissue abscesses. It is a common contaminant of clinical specimens, presumably from the skin of patients or attendants.
The transfer of lymphocytes from a donor to a recipient or reinfusion to the donor.
Experimental transplantation of neoplasms in laboratory animals for research purposes.
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by HYPOTENSION despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called SEPTIC SHOCK.
Lipid-containing polysaccharides which are endotoxins and important group-specific antigens. They are often derived from the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria and induce immunoglobulin secretion. The lipopolysaccharide molecule consists of three parts: LIPID A, core polysaccharide, and O-specific chains (O ANTIGENS). When derived from Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharides serve as polyclonal B-cell mitogens commonly used in laboratory immunology. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Lymphoid cells concerned with humoral immunity. They are short-lived cells resembling bursa-derived lymphocytes of birds in their production of immunoglobulin upon appropriate stimulation.
The largest lymphatic vessel that passes through the chest and drains into the SUBCLAVIAN VEIN.
Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake.
Accumulations of blood in the PERITONEAL CAVITY due to internal HEMORRHAGE.
A type of ectopic pregnancy in which the EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN implants in the ABDOMINAL CAVITY instead of in the ENDOMETRIUM of the UTERUS.
A water-soluble extractive mixture of sulfated polysaccharides from RED ALGAE. Chief sources are the Irish moss CHONDRUS CRISPUS (Carrageen), and Gigartina stellata. It is used as a stabilizer, for suspending COCOA in chocolate manufacture, and to clarify BEVERAGES.
Glycoproteins expressed on all mature T-cells, thymocytes, and a subset of mature B-cells. Antibodies specific for CD5 can enhance T-cell receptor-mediated T-cell activation. The B-cell-specific molecule CD72 is a natural ligand for CD5. (From Abbas et al., Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 2d ed, p156)
Muscles forming the ABDOMINAL WALL including RECTUS ABDOMINIS, external and internal oblique muscles, transversus abdominis, and quadratus abdominis. (from Stedman, 25th ed)
Cells contained in the bone marrow including fat cells (see ADIPOCYTES); STROMAL CELLS; MEGAKARYOCYTES; and the immediate precursors of most blood cells.
Incision of tissues for injection of medication or for other diagnostic or therapeutic procedures. Punctures of the skin, for example may be used for diagnostic drainage; of blood vessels for diagnostic imaging procedures.
Bursting of the STOMACH.
Tumors or cancer of the MOUTH.
Experimentally induced new abnormal growth of TISSUES in animals to provide models for studying human neoplasms.
A class of immunoglobulin bearing mu chains (IMMUNOGLOBULIN MU-CHAINS). IgM can fix COMPLEMENT. The name comes from its high molecular weight and originally being called a macroglobulin.
Syndromes in which there is a deficiency or defect in the mechanisms of immunity, either cellular or humoral.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
Mice homozygous for the mutant autosomal recessive gene "scid" which is located on the centromeric end of chromosome 16. These mice lack mature, functional lymphocytes and are thus highly susceptible to lethal opportunistic infections if not chronically treated with antibiotics. The lack of B- and T-cell immunity resembles severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) syndrome in human infants. SCID mice are useful as animal models since they are receptive to implantation of a human immune system producing SCID-human (SCID-hu) hematochimeric mice.
Accumulation of purulent material in tissues, organs, or circumscribed spaces, usually associated with signs of infection.
Infection within the PERITONEAL CAVITY. A frequent cause is an ANASTOMOTIC LEAK following surgery.
The capacity of a normal organism to remain unaffected by microorganisms and their toxins. It results from the presence of naturally occurring ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS, constitutional factors such as BODY TEMPERATURE and immediate acting immune cells such as NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
Abnormal fluid accumulation in TISSUES or body cavities. Most cases of edema are present under the SKIN in SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE.
The property of blood capillary ENDOTHELIUM that allows for the selective exchange of substances between the blood and surrounding tissues and through membranous barriers such as the BLOOD-AIR BARRIER; BLOOD-AQUEOUS BARRIER; BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER; BLOOD-NERVE BARRIER; BLOOD-RETINAL BARRIER; and BLOOD-TESTIS BARRIER. Small lipid-soluble molecules such as carbon dioxide and oxygen move freely by diffusion. Water and water-soluble molecules cannot pass through the endothelial walls and are dependent on microscopic pores. These pores show narrow areas (TIGHT JUNCTIONS) which may limit large molecule movement.
Mice bearing mutant genes which are phenotypically expressed in the animals.
A protrusion of abdominal structures through the retaining ABDOMINAL WALL. It involves two parts: an opening in the abdominal wall, and a hernia sac consisting of PERITONEUM and abdominal contents. Abdominal hernias include groin hernia (HERNIA, FEMORAL; HERNIA, INGUINAL) and VENTRAL HERNIA.
Inbred CBA mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical and uniform, which makes them useful for scientific research, particularly in the areas of immunology and cancer.
A collection of watery fluid in the pleural cavity. (Dorland, 27th ed)
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
Mutant mice homozygous for the recessive gene "nude" which fail to develop a thymus. They are useful in tumor studies and studies on immune responses.
Antigens which may directly stimulate B lymphocytes without the cooperation of T lymphocytes.
A tumor derived from mesothelial tissue (peritoneum, pleura, pericardium). It appears as broad sheets of cells, with some regions containing spindle-shaped, sarcoma-like cells and other regions showing adenomatous patterns. Pleural mesotheliomas have been linked to exposure to asbestos. (Dorland, 27th ed)
An adhesion-promoting leukocyte surface membrane heterodimer. The alpha subunit consists of the CD11b ANTIGEN and the beta subunit the CD18 ANTIGEN. The antigen, which is an integrin, functions both as a receptor for complement 3 and in cell-cell and cell-substrate adhesive interactions.
Cells of the lymphoid series that can react with antigen to produce specific cell products called antibodies. Various cell subpopulations, often B-lymphocytes, can be defined, based on the different classes of immunoglobulins that they synthesize.
Transfer of immunity from immunized to non-immune host by administration of serum antibodies, or transplantation of lymphocytes (ADOPTIVE TRANSFER).
The washing of a body cavity or surface by flowing water or solution for therapy or diagnosis.
An inner coating, as of varnish or other protective substance, to cover the dental cavity wall. It is usually a resinous film-forming agent dissolved in a volatile solvent, or a suspension of calcium hydroxide in a solution of a synthetic resin. The lining seals the dentinal tubules and protects the pulp before a restoration is inserted. (Jablonski, Illustrated Dictionary of Dentistry, 1982)
The soft tissue filling the cavities of bones. Bone marrow exists in two types, yellow and red. Yellow marrow is found in the large cavities of large bones and consists mostly of fat cells and a few primitive blood cells. Red marrow is a hematopoietic tissue and is the site of production of erythrocytes and granular leukocytes. Bone marrow is made up of a framework of connective tissue containing branching fibers with the frame being filled with marrow cells.
Granular leukocytes with a nucleus that usually has two lobes connected by a slender thread of chromatin, and cytoplasm containing coarse, round granules that are uniform in size and stainable by eosin.
Chemical substances that attract or repel cells. The concept denotes especially those factors released as a result of tissue injury, microbial invasion, or immunologic activity, that attract LEUKOCYTES; MACROPHAGES; or other cells to the site of infection or insult.
Devices used in a technique by which cells or tissues are grown in vitro or, by implantation, in vivo within chambers permeable to diffusion of solutes across the chamber walls. The chambers are used for studies of drug effects, osmotic responses, cytogenic and immunologic phenomena, metabolism, etc., and include tissue cages.
The production of ANTIBODIES by proliferating and differentiated B-LYMPHOCYTES under stimulation by ANTIGENS.
Transplantation between animals of different species.
Solutions prepared for hemodialysis. The composition of the pre-dialysis solution may be varied in order to determine the effect of solvated metabolites on anoxia, malnutrition, acid-base balance, etc. Of principal interest are the effect of the choice of buffers (e.g., acetate or carbonate), the addition of cations (Na+, K+, Ca2+), and addition of carbohydrates (glucose).
The local implantation of tumor cells by contamination of instruments and surgical equipment during and after surgical resection, resulting in local growth of the cells and tumor formation.
Specialized tissues that are components of the lymphatic system. They provide fixed locations within the body where a variety of LYMPHOCYTES can form, mature and multiply. The lymphoid tissues are connected by a network of LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
The outer margins of the ABDOMEN, extending from the osteocartilaginous thoracic cage to the PELVIS. Though its major part is muscular, the abdominal wall consists of at least seven layers: the SKIN, subcutaneous fat, deep FASCIA; ABDOMINAL MUSCLES, transversalis fascia, extraperitoneal fat, and the parietal PERITONEUM.
Experimentally induced neoplasms of CONNECTIVE TISSUE in animals to provide a model for studying human SARCOMA.
They are oval or bean shaped bodies (1 - 30 mm in diameter) located along the lymphatic system.
A species of gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria widely distributed in nature. It has been isolated from sewage, soil, silage, and from feces of healthy animals and man. Infection with this bacterium leads to encephalitis, meningitis, endocarditis, and abortion.
Lymphocytes responsible for cell-mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER-INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the THYMUS GLAND and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.
Factors secreted by stimulated lymphocytes that prime macrophages to become nonspecifically cytotoxic to tumors. They also modulate the expression of macrophage cell surface Ia antigens. One MAF is INTERFERON-GAMMA. Other factors antigenically distinct from IFN-gamma have also been identified.
Inbred ICR mice are a strain of albino laboratory mice that have been selectively bred for consistent genetic makeup and high reproductive performance, making them widely used in biomedical research for studies involving reproduction, toxicology, pharmacology, and carcinogenesis.
A transplantable, poorly differentiated malignant tumor which appeared originally as a spontaneous breast carcinoma in a mouse. It grows in both solid and ascitic forms.
A sucrose polymer of high molecular weight.
The pit in the center of the ABDOMINAL WALL marking the point where the UMBILICAL CORD entered in the FETUS.
The musculofibrous partition that separates the THORACIC CAVITY from the ABDOMINAL CAVITY. Contraction of the diaphragm increases the volume of the thoracic cavity aiding INHALATION.
Migration of a foreign body from its original location to some other location in the body.
The region of the thorax that includes the PLEURAL CAVITY and MEDIASTINUM.
Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function that leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs.
Leukocytes with abundant granules in the cytoplasm. They are divided into three groups according to the staining properties of the granules: neutrophilic, eosinophilic, and basophilic. Mature granulocytes are the NEUTROPHILS; EOSINOPHILS; and BASOPHILS.
A potent mast cell degranulator. It is involved in histamine release.
Liver disease caused by infections with parasitic tapeworms of the genus ECHINOCOCCUS, such as Echinococcus granulosus or Echinococcus multilocularis. Ingested Echinococcus ova burrow into the intestinal mucosa. The larval migration to the liver via the PORTAL VEIN leads to watery vesicles (HYDATID CYST).
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
Antibodies produced by a single clone of cells.
Water-soluble proteins found in egg whites, blood, lymph, and other tissues and fluids. They coagulate upon heating.
Large, phagocytic mononuclear leukocytes produced in the vertebrate BONE MARROW and released into the BLOOD; contain a large, oval or somewhat indented nucleus surrounded by voluminous cytoplasm and numerous organelles.
Laboratory mice that have been produced from a genetically manipulated EGG or EMBRYO, MAMMALIAN.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
Tumors or cancer of the NOSE.
Serum that contains antibodies. It is obtained from an animal that has been immunized either by ANTIGEN injection or infection with microorganisms containing the antigen.
The species Oryctolagus cuniculus, in the family Leporidae, order LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits are born in burrows, furless, and with eyes and ears closed. In contrast with HARES, rabbits have 22 chromosome pairs.
Breakdown of the connection and subsequent leakage of effluent (fluids, secretions, air) from a SURGICAL ANASTOMOSIS of the digestive, respiratory, genitourinary, and cardiovascular systems. Most common leakages are from the breakdown of suture lines in gastrointestinal or bowel anastomosis.
One or more layers of EPITHELIAL CELLS, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
Injections made into a vein for therapeutic or experimental purposes.
General term for CYSTS and cystic diseases of the OVARY.
White blood cells formed in the body's lymphoid tissue. The nucleus is round or ovoid with coarse, irregularly clumped chromatin while the cytoplasm is typically pale blue with azurophilic (if any) granules. Most lymphocytes can be classified as either T or B (with subpopulations of each), or NATURAL KILLER CELLS.
Catheters designed to be left within an organ or passage for an extended period of time.
Hard or soft soluble containers used for the oral administration of medicine.
An organism whose body contains cell populations of different genotypes as a result of the TRANSPLANTATION of donor cells after sufficient ionizing radiation to destroy the mature recipient's cells which would otherwise reject the donor cells.
Substances that are recognized by the immune system and induce an immune reaction.
Inbred DBA mice are a strain of laboratory mice that are genetically identical and share specific characteristics, including a high incidence of deafness, coat color (black and white), and susceptibility to certain diseases, which make them useful for research purposes in biomedical studies.
Unstable isotopes of iodine that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. I atoms with atomic weights 117-139, except I 127, are radioactive iodine isotopes.
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
Serum glycoprotein produced by activated MACROPHAGES and other mammalian MONONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTES. It has necrotizing activity against tumor cell lines and increases ability to reject tumor transplants. Also known as TNF-alpha, it is only 30% homologous to TNF-beta (LYMPHOTOXIN), but they share TNF RECEPTORS.
A mixture of related phosphoproteins occurring in milk and cheese. The group is characterized as one of the most nutritive milk proteins, containing all of the common amino acids and rich in the essential ones.
The minor fragment formed when C5 convertase cleaves C5 into C5a and COMPLEMENT C5B. C5a is a 74-amino-acid glycopeptide with a carboxy-terminal ARGININE that is crucial for its spasmogenic activity. Of all the complement-derived anaphylatoxins, C5a is the most potent in mediating immediate hypersensitivity (HYPERSENSITIVITY, IMMEDIATE), smooth MUSCLE CONTRACTION; HISTAMINE RELEASE; and migration of LEUKOCYTES to site of INFLAMMATION.
Cell separation is the process of isolating and distinguishing specific cell types or individual cells from a heterogeneous mixture, often through the use of physical or biological techniques.
Transplantation between genetically identical individuals, i.e., members of the same species with identical histocompatibility antigens, such as monozygotic twins, members of the same inbred strain, or members of a hybrid population produced by crossing certain inbred strains.
A group of lymphocyte surface antigens located on mouse LYMPHOCYTES. Specific Ly antigens are useful markers for distinguishing subpopulations of lymphocytes.
The fission of a CELL. It includes CYTOKINESIS, when the CYTOPLASM of a cell is divided, and CELL NUCLEUS DIVISION.
Manifestations of the immune response which are mediated by antigen-sensitized T-lymphocytes via lymphokines or direct cytotoxicity. This takes place in the absence of circulating antibody or where antibody plays a subordinate role.
Infections by bacteria, general or unspecified.
Polysaccharides composed of repeating glucose units. They can consist of branched or unbranched chains in any linkages.
Formation of MYELOID CELLS from the pluripotent HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS in the BONE MARROW via MYELOID STEM CELLS. Myelopoiesis generally refers to the production of leukocytes in blood, such as MONOCYTES and GRANULOCYTES. This process also produces precursor cells for MACROPHAGE and DENDRITIC CELLS found in the lymphoid tissue.
Enumeration by direct count of viable, isolated bacterial, archaeal, or fungal CELLS or SPORES capable of growth on solid CULTURE MEDIA. The method is used routinely by environmental microbiologists for quantifying organisms in AIR; FOOD; and WATER; by clinicians for measuring patients' microbial load; and in antimicrobial drug testing.
Gram-negative bacteria occurring in the lower intestinal tracts of man and other animals. It is the most common species of anaerobic bacteria isolated from human soft tissue infections.
The secretion of histamine from mast cell and basophil granules by exocytosis. This can be initiated by a number of factors, all of which involve binding of IgE, cross-linked by antigen, to the mast cell or basophil's Fc receptors. Once released, histamine binds to a number of different target cell receptors and exerts a wide variety of effects.
Animals or humans raised in the absence of a particular disease-causing virus or other microorganism. Less frequently plants are cultivated pathogen-free.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.

Value of scintigraphy in chronic peritoneal dialysis patients. (1/1414)

BACKGROUND: A variety of factors can adversely impact chronic peritoneal dialysis (CPD) as an effective renal replacement therapy for patients with end-stage renal disease. These factors include peritonitis, poor clearances, loss of ultrafiltration, and a variety of anatomic problems, such as hernias, peritoneal fluid leaks, loculations, and catheter-related problems caused by omental blockage. This study reviews our experience with peritoneal scintigraphy for the evaluation of some of these difficulties. METHODS: From 1991 to 1996, 50 peritoneal scintigraphy scans were obtained in 48 CPD patients. Indications for scintigraphy were evaluated, and the patients were placed into four groups: group I, abdominal wall swelling; group II, inguinal or genital swelling; group III, pleural fluid; and group IV, poor drainage and/or poor ultrafiltration. A peritoneal scintigraphy protocol was established and the radiotracer isotope that was used was 2.0 mCi of 99mtechnetium sulfur colloid placed in two liters of 2.5% dextrose peritoneal dialysis solution. RESULTS: Ten scans were obtained to study abdominal wall swelling, with seven scans demonstrating leaks; six of these episodes improved with low-volume exchanges. Twenty scans were obtained to evaluate inguinal or genital swelling, and 10 of these had scintigraphic evidence for an inguinal hernia leak (9 of these were surgically corrected). One of four scans obtained to evaluate a pleural fluid collection demonstrated a peritoneal-pleural leak that corrected with a temporary discontinuation of CPD. Sixteen scans were obtained to assess poor drainage and/or ultrafiltration. Five of these scans demonstrated peritoneal location, and all of these patients required transfer to hemodialysis. The other 11 scans were normal; four patients underwent omentectomies, allowing three patients to continue with CPD. CONCLUSION: Peritoneal scintigraphy is useful in the evaluation and assessment of CPD patients who develop anatomical problems (such as anterior abdominal, pleural-peritoneal, inguinal, and genital leaks) and problems with ultrafiltration and/or drainage.  (+info)

The requirement of an adherent cell substratum for the growth of developing plasmacytoma cells in vivo. (2/1414)

The intraperitoneal injection of pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane) produces an environment conductive to primary plasmacytoma growth in as few as 3 days. After pristane injection, the total free peritoneal cell population increases from a normal value of 1.55 X 10(6) to 5.28 X 10(6) and remains at this elevated level for at least 50 days. The adherent peritoneal cell population, composed of both mononuclear cells and polymorphonuclear leukocytes, is the primary source of this increase. In the pristane-conditioned peritoneum, these cells rapidly form a chronic granuloma on the peritoneal connective tissues. Daily subcutaneous treatment of mice with 0.5 mg of hydrocortisone beginning simultaneously with pristane injection prevents the increase in the peritoneal cell population, granuloma formation, d the production of a conditoned environment. In mice treated with hydrocortisone beginning 3 days after pristane injection, however, neither the peritoneal cell increase nor the production of a conditioned environment is prevented. The intraperitoneal injection of thioglycolate medium at 4-day intervals produces an elevation of the free adherent peritoneal cell population similar to pristane, but does not produce a granuloma or a conditioned environment. The intraperitoneal transfer of thioglycolate-induced adherent peritonel cells to mice treated with pristane and hydrocortisone simultaneously restores the production of a conditioned environment. These findings indicate that the adherent peritoneal cell population is responsible for the conditioning effect, and that the establishment of a resident population of these cells is necessary to produce conditioning.  (+info)

LPS down-regulates the expression of chemokine receptor CCR2 in mice and abolishes macrophage infiltration in acute inflammation. (3/1414)

Interactions between chemokines and their specific receptors are important for leukocyte trafficking. The CC-chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and its specific receptor CCR2 are essential in monocytic infiltration and have been associated with several inflammatory diseases. It has been reported that several endotoxin and proinflammatory cytokines inhibit CCR2 expression in vitro in human monocytes. We report here that lipopolysaccharides (LPS) down-regulated CCR2 expression both in vitro and in vivo. Injection of LPS into mice dramatically reduced the expression of CCR2 on the surface of peripheral blood cells and completely blocked macrophage infiltration into the peritoneal cavity in response to thioglycollate elicitation. In addition, treatment of mice with LPS reduced their efficiency to clear Listeria monocytogenes infection. These results suggest that down-regulation of CCR2 and blockage of monocyte infiltration may contribute to the inhibition of macrophage function in vivo by a low dose of LPS.  (+info)

Disseminated tumor cells in pancreatic cancer patients detected by immunocytology: a new prognostic factor. (4/1414)

Using an immunocytological approach, we previously showed that disseminated cancer cells are frequently found in peritoneal cavity and bone marrow samples of gastrointestinal and pancreatic cancer patients. Recently, we demonstrated that the detection of isolated tumor cells could serve as a new prognostic factor in gastric and colorectal cancer. Thus far, no conclusive data concerning the clinical implication of minimal residual disease in pancreatic cancer exist. In this study, we investigated peritoneal lavage and bone marrow samples of 80 pancreatic cancer patients to determine the predictive value of immunocytologically detected disseminated tumor cells. Therefore, immunocytological findings were correlated with the clinical follow-up data (median observation time, 10.7 months; range, 2-61 months), and the findings in peritoneal cavity and bone marrow samples were compared. Fifty-two % of the patients showed minimal residual disease at least in one compartment (39% positive lavage and 38% positive bone marrow samples). The detection rate of isolated tumor cells increased in parallel to the tumor stage. The presence of tumor cells in the peritoneal cavity significantly correlated with the survival time of the patients (P = 0.0035). In bone marrow samples, a strong trend was seen (P = 0.06). The evaluation of both compartments increased the number of positive patients and resulted in a highly significant correlation: all patients who were positive in at least one compartment died within 18 months, whereas negative patients showed a 5-year survival rate of 30% (P<0.0001). We recommend immunocytological investigation of peritoneal cavity and bone marrow samples as a new prognostic marker in pancreatic cancer patients.  (+info)

CCAAT/enhancer binding protein epsilon is critical for effective neutrophil-mediated response to inflammatory challenge. (5/1414)

Targeted mutation of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein (C/EBP) epsilon in mice results in early death, primarily due to spontaneous infection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Functional analysis of C/EBPepsilon-deficient neutrophils, in an in vivo model of peritoneal inflammation, shows multiple defects. Reduction of phagocytotic killing by C/EBPepsilon-deficient neutrophils is a result of decreased uptake of opsonized bacteria as well as little to no expression of secondary granule proteins. Abnormalities in neutrophil migration detected in a chemical peritonitis model are likely secondary to abnormal CD11b integrin and L-selectin expression on C/EBPepsilon-deficient neutrophils. Alterations in neutrophil cytokine expression in response to inflammation show decreased levels of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) and increased levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) expression by C/EBPepsilon-deficient neutrophils. Additionally, TNF-alpha expression is increased in nonactivated, circulating C/EBPepsilon-deficient neutrophils. Overall, C/EBPepsilon-deficient neutrophils are severely functionally impaired, evoking an abnormal microenvironment, which may contribute to the loss of normal responses to inflammatory stimuli. Similarities between the C/EBPepsilon-deficient mouse model and the human disease, specific granule deficiency, will be discussed.  (+info)

Different doses of adenoviral vector expressing IL-12 enhance or depress the immune response to a coadministered antigen: the role of nitric oxide. (6/1414)

Joint immunization with two recombinant adenoviruses, one expressing hepatitis C virus (HCV) core and E1 proteins and another expressing IL-12 (RAdIL-12), strongly potentiates cellular immune response against HCV Ags in BALB/c mice when RAdIL-12 was used at doses of 1 x 105-1 x 107 plaque-forming units. However, cellular immunity against HCV Ags was abolished when higher doses (1 x 108 plaque-forming units) of RAdIL-12 were used. This immunosuppressive effect was associated with marked elevation of IFN-gamma and nitric oxide in the serum and increased cell apoptosis in the spleen. Administration of N-nitro-L -arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase, to mice that received high doses of RAdIL-12 was lethal, whereas no apparent systemic toxicity by L -NAME was observed in those immunized with lower doses of the adenovirus. Interestingly, in mice immunized with recombinant adenovirus expressing core and E1 proteins of HCV in combination with RAdIL-12 at low doses (1 x 107 plaque-forming units), L -NAME inhibited T cell proliferation and CTL activity in response to HCV Ags and also production of Abs against adenoviral proteins. In conclusion, gene transfer of IL-12 can increase or abolish cell immunity against an Ag depending of the dose of the vector expressing the cytokine. IL-12 stimulates the synthesis of NO which is needed for the immunostimulating effects of IL-12, but apoptosis of T cells and immunosuppression ensues when IFN-gamma and NO are generated at very high concentrations.  (+info)

Reciprocal effects of interleukin-4 and interferon-gamma on immunoglobulin E-mediated mast cell degranulation: a role for nitric oxide but not peroxynitrite or cyclic guanosine monophosphate. (7/1414)

We report that cultured rat peritoneal cells spontaneously synthesize nitric oxide and this is associated with active suppression of mast cell secretory function. Addition of interleukin-4 (IL-4) or the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor N-monomethyl-l-arginine to peritoneal cells inhibited nitric oxide synthesis and enhanced anti-IgE-mediated mast cell degranulation, measured as serotonin release. Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) completely overcame the enhancement of serotonin release and suppression of nitrite production induced by IL-4. Over several experiments, with or without IL-4 and/or IFN-gamma, serotonin release correlated inversely with nitrite production. On a cell-for-cell basis, non-mast cells produced approximately 30 times more nitrite than mast cells in peritoneal cell populations, with or without IFN-gamma stimulation. The nitric oxide donor S-nitrosoglutathione inhibited anti-IgE-induced serotonin release from purified mast cells, whereas 8-bromo-cyclic GMP, the guanylate cyclase inhibitor 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one, superoxide dismutase and the peroxynitrite scavenger uric acid, were without effect. We conclude that IL-4 and IFN-gamma reciprocally regulate mast cell secretory responsiveness via control of nitric oxide synthesis by accessory cells; the nitric oxide effect on mast cells is direct but does not involve cyclic GMP or peroxynitrite.  (+info)

Surface and gene expression of immunoglobulin E receptors on mast cells and mast-cell numbers in interleukin-4-gene knockout mice. (8/1414)

We quantified immunoglobulin E (IgE) on peritoneal mast cells of interleukin-4 (IL-4)-gene knockout (-/-) mice and wild-type (+/+) controls using a cytofluorometric method, and examined the expression of IgE receptors, estimated by quantifying the total binding of IgE on the mast cells of IL-4 (-/-) mice. The mast cells of IL-4 (+/+) mice, identified and measured using microscope fluorometry, had a fluorescence intensity five to six times higher than that of non-mast cells, while the mast cells obtained from IL-4 (-/-) mice had fluorescence intensities within the range of those of non-mast cells. Two weeks after an infection with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis, the fluorescence intensity of the mast cells of IL-4 (+/+) mice increased to a level about twice as high as that before immunization. However, no significant increase after infection was observed in IL-4 (-/-) mice. Furthermore, the mast cells of IL-4 (-/-) mice did not bind IgE when incubated with IgE at concentrations that saturated IgE receptors on the mast cells of wild-type controls, thereby indicating that the expression of IgE receptors on mast cells was impaired in the IL-4-deficient mice. Using a reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, we found gene expression of all three subunits (alpha-, beta- and gamma-chains) of the IgE receptor in IL-4 (-/-) like that in IL-4 (+/+) mice. The results thus suggest that the binding of IgE may be essential to induce the translation of mRNA to IgE-receptor proteins. We also observed that there were about twice as many peritoneal mast cells in the IL-4 (-/-) mice as there were in the IL-4 (+/+) mice, in both immunized and non-immunized animals. This was unexpected in view of previous findings suggesting that IL-4, in concert with stem cell factor and IL-3, stimulates the proliferation and differentiation of mast cells in vitro.  (+info)

The peritoneal cavity is the potential space within the abdominal and pelvic regions, bounded by the parietal peritoneum lining the inner aspect of the abdominal and pelvic walls, and the visceral peritoneum covering the abdominal and pelvic organs. It contains a small amount of serous fluid that allows for the gliding of organs against each other during normal physiological activities such as digestion and movement. This cavity can become pathologically involved in various conditions, including inflammation, infection, hemorrhage, or neoplasia, leading to symptoms like abdominal pain, distention, or tenderness.

Ascitic fluid is defined as the abnormal accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the two layers of the peritoneum, a serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. This buildup of fluid, also known as ascites, can be caused by various medical conditions such as liver cirrhosis, cancer, heart failure, or infection. The fluid itself is typically straw-colored and clear, but it may also contain cells, proteins, and other substances depending on the underlying cause. Analysis of ascitic fluid can help doctors diagnose and manage the underlying condition causing the accumulation of fluid.

The peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. It is composed of a mesothelial cell monolayer supported by a thin, loose connective tissue. The peritoneum has two layers: the parietal peritoneum, which lines the abdominal wall, and the visceral peritoneum, which covers the organs.

The potential space between these two layers is called the peritoneal cavity, which contains a small amount of serous fluid that allows for the smooth movement of the organs within the cavity. The peritoneum plays an important role in the absorption and secretion of fluids and electrolytes, as well as providing a surface for the circulation of immune cells.

In addition, it also provides a route for the spread of infection or malignant cells throughout the abdominal cavity, known as peritonitis. The peritoneum is highly vascularized and innervated, making it sensitive to pain and distention.

Peritonitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the peritoneum, which is the serous membrane that lines the inner wall of the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. The peritoneum has an important role in protecting the abdominal organs and providing a smooth surface for them to move against each other.

Peritonitis can occur as a result of bacterial or fungal infection, chemical irritation, or trauma to the abdomen. The most common cause of peritonitis is a rupture or perforation of an organ in the abdominal cavity, such as the appendix, stomach, or intestines, which allows bacteria from the gut to enter the peritoneal cavity.

Symptoms of peritonitis may include abdominal pain and tenderness, fever, nausea and vomiting, loss of appetite, and decreased bowel movements. In severe cases, peritonitis can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition characterized by widespread inflammation throughout the body.

Treatment for peritonitis typically involves antibiotics to treat the infection, as well as surgical intervention to repair any damage to the abdominal organs and remove any infected fluid or tissue from the peritoneal cavity. In some cases, a temporary or permanent drain may be placed in the abdomen to help remove excess fluid and promote healing.

Peritoneal lavage is a medical procedure where a sterile fluid is introduced into the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the organs within it. The fluid is then allowed to mix with any potentially present infectious or inflammatory material in the cavity. Afterward, the fluid is drained out and sent for laboratory analysis to diagnose various conditions such as bacterial peritonitis or other sources of abdominal infection or inflammation.

The procedure can help identify the presence of infection, determine the type of bacteria causing it, and guide appropriate antibiotic therapy. It is an invasive diagnostic test that requires careful monitoring and proper aseptic technique to avoid complications such as infection or bleeding.

"Intraperitoneal injection" is a medical term that refers to the administration of a substance or medication directly into the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the organs contained within it. This type of injection is typically used in clinical settings for various purposes, such as delivering chemotherapy drugs, anesthetics, or other medications directly to the abdominal organs.

The procedure involves inserting a needle through the abdominal wall and into the peritoneal cavity, taking care to avoid any vital structures such as blood vessels or nerves. Once the needle is properly positioned, the medication can be injected slowly and carefully to ensure even distribution throughout the cavity.

It's important to note that intraperitoneal injections are typically reserved for situations where other routes of administration are not feasible or effective, as they carry a higher risk of complications such as infection, bleeding, or injury to surrounding organs. As with any medical procedure, it should only be performed by trained healthcare professionals under appropriate clinical circumstances.

Peritoneal neoplasms refer to tumors or cancerous growths that develop in the peritoneum, which is the thin, transparent membrane that lines the inner wall of the abdomen and covers the organs within it. These neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Malignant peritoneal neoplasms are often associated with advanced stages of gastrointestinal, ovarian, or uterine cancers and can spread (metastasize) to other parts of the abdomen.

Peritoneal neoplasms can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Diagnosis typically involves imaging tests like CT scans or MRIs, followed by a biopsy to confirm the presence of cancerous cells. Treatment options may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or a combination of these approaches, depending on the type, stage, and location of the neoplasm.

Thioglycolates are a group of chemical compounds that contain a thiol (sulfhydryl) group (-SH) bonded to a glycolate group. In the context of medical and cosmetic use, the term "thioglycolates" often refers to salts of thioglycolic acid, which are used as depilatories or hair-curling agents.

Thioglycolates work by breaking the disulfide bonds in keratin, the protein that makes up hair and nails. When applied to hair, thioglycolates reduce the disulfide bonds into sulfhydryl groups, making the hair more flexible and easier to shape or remove. This property is exploited in hair-curling products and depilatories (hair removal creams).

It's important to note that thioglycolates can cause skin irritation, allergic reactions, and respiratory issues in some individuals. Therefore, they should be used with caution, following the manufacturer's instructions, and in a well-ventilated area.

The nasal cavity is the air-filled space located behind the nose, which is divided into two halves by the nasal septum. It is lined with mucous membrane and is responsible for several functions including respiration, filtration, humidification, and olfaction (smell). The nasal cavity serves as an important part of the upper respiratory tract, extending from the nares (nostrils) to the choanae (posterior openings of the nasal cavity that lead into the pharynx). It contains specialized structures such as turbinate bones, which help to warm, humidify and filter incoming air.

Peritoneal diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the peritoneum, which is the thin, transparent membrane that lines the inner wall of the abdomen and covers the organs within it. The peritoneum has several functions, including providing protection and support to the abdominal organs, producing and absorbing fluids, and serving as a site for the immune system's response to infections and other foreign substances.

Peritoneal diseases can be broadly classified into two categories: infectious and non-infectious. Infectious peritoneal diseases are caused by bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections that spread to the peritoneum from other parts of the body or through contaminated food, water, or medical devices. Non-infectious peritoneal diseases, on the other hand, are not caused by infections but rather by other factors such as autoimmune disorders, cancer, or chemical irritants.

Some examples of peritoneal diseases include:

1. Peritonitis: Inflammation of the peritoneum due to bacterial or fungal infections, often caused by a ruptured appendix, perforated ulcer, or other abdominal injuries or conditions.
2. Tuberculous peritonitis: A form of peritonitis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacterium that causes tuberculosis (TB).
3. Peritoneal dialysis-associated peritonitis: Infection of the peritoneum in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis, a type of kidney replacement therapy for patients with end-stage renal disease.
4. Malignant peritoneal mesothelioma: A rare and aggressive form of cancer that affects the mesothelial cells lining the peritoneum, often caused by exposure to asbestos.
5. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): An autoimmune disorder that can cause inflammation and scarring of the peritoneum.
6. Peritoneal carcinomatosis: The spread of cancer cells from other parts of the body to the peritoneum, often seen in patients with advanced ovarian or colorectal cancer.
7. Cirrhotic ascites: Fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity due to liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension.
8. Meigs' syndrome: A rare condition characterized by the presence of a benign ovarian tumor, ascites, and pleural effusion.

Ascites is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the organs within it. This buildup of fluid can cause the belly to swell and become distended. Ascites can be caused by various medical conditions, including liver cirrhosis, cancer, heart failure, and kidney disease. The accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity can lead to complications such as infection, reduced mobility, and difficulty breathing. Treatment for ascites depends on the underlying cause and may include diuretics, paracentesis (a procedure to remove excess fluid from the abdomen), or treatment of the underlying medical condition.

The omentum, in anatomical terms, refers to a large apron-like fold of abdominal fatty tissue that hangs down from the stomach and loops over the intestines. It is divided into two portions: the greater omentum, which is larger and hangs down further, and the lesser omentum, which is smaller and connects the stomach to the liver.

The omentum has several functions in the body, including providing protection and cushioning for the abdominal organs, assisting with the immune response by containing a large number of immune cells, and helping to repair damaged tissues. It can also serve as a source of nutrients and energy for the body during times of starvation or other stressors.

In medical contexts, the omentum may be surgically mobilized and used to wrap around injured or inflamed tissues in order to promote healing and reduce the risk of infection. This technique is known as an "omentopexy" or "omentoplasty."

Peritoneal macrophages are a type of immune cell that are present in the peritoneal cavity, which is the space within the abdomen that contains the liver, spleen, stomach, and intestines. These macrophages play a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and injury by engulfing and destroying foreign substances such as bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms.

Macrophages are large phagocytic cells that originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter tissue, they can differentiate into macrophages, which have a variety of functions depending on their location and activation state.

Peritoneal macrophages are involved in various physiological processes, including the regulation of inflammation, tissue repair, and the breakdown of foreign substances. They also play a role in the development and progression of certain diseases, such as cancer and autoimmune disorders.

These macrophages can be collected from animals or humans for research purposes by injecting a solution into the peritoneal cavity and then withdrawing the fluid, which contains the macrophages. These cells can then be studied in vitro to better understand their functions and potential therapeutic targets.

Dialysis solutions are fluids that are used during the process of dialysis, which is a treatment for patients with kidney failure. The main function of these solutions is to help remove waste products and excess fluid from the bloodstream, as the kidneys are no longer able to do so effectively.

The dialysis solution typically contains a mixture of water, electrolytes (such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate), and a small amount of glucose. The composition of the solution may vary depending on the individual patient's needs, but it is carefully controlled to match the patient's blood as closely as possible.

During dialysis, the patient's blood is circulated through a special filter called a dialyzer, which separates waste products and excess fluids from the blood. The used dialysis solution, which contains these waste products and excess fluids, is then discarded. Fresh dialysis solution is continuously introduced into the dialyzer to replace the used solution, creating a continuous flow of fluid that helps remove waste products and maintain the proper balance of electrolytes in the patient's blood.

Overall, dialysis solutions play a critical role in helping patients with kidney failure maintain their health and quality of life.

The lymphatic system is a complex network of organs, tissues, vessels, and cells that work together to defend the body against infectious diseases and also play a crucial role in the immune system. It is made up of:

1. Lymphoid Organs: These include the spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, and Peyer's patches (in the intestines). They produce and mature immune cells.

2. Lymphatic Vessels: These are thin tubes that carry clear fluid called lymph towards the heart.

3. Lymph: This is a clear-to-white fluid that contains white blood cells, mainly lymphocytes, which help fight infections.

4. Other tissues and cells: These include bone marrow where immune cells are produced, and lymphocytes (T cells and B cells) which are types of white blood cells that help protect the body from infection and disease.

The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph throughout the body, collecting waste products, bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances from the tissues, and filtering them out through the lymph nodes. The lymphatic system also helps in the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins from food in the digestive tract.

Tissue adhesions, also known as scar tissue adhesions, are abnormal bands of fibrous tissue that form between two or more internal organs, or between organs and the walls of the chest or abdominal cavity. These adhesions can develop after surgery, infection, injury, radiation, or prolonged inflammation. The fibrous bands can cause pain, restrict movement of the organs, and potentially lead to complications such as bowel obstruction. Treatment options for tissue adhesions may include medication, physical therapy, or surgical intervention to remove the adhesions.

Peritoneal dialysis is a type of renal replacement therapy used to treat patients with severe kidney dysfunction or end-stage renal disease. It is a process that utilizes the peritoneum, a membranous sac lining the abdominal cavity, as a natural semipermeable membrane for filtering waste products, excess fluids, and electrolytes from the bloodstream.

In peritoneal dialysis, a sterile dialysate solution is infused into the peritoneal cavity via a permanently implanted catheter. The dialysate contains various substances such as glucose or other osmotic agents, electrolytes, and buffer solutions that facilitate the diffusion of waste products and fluids from the blood vessels surrounding the peritoneum into the dialysate.

There are two primary types of peritoneal dialysis: continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) and automated peritoneal dialysis (APD). CAPD is performed manually, several times a day, while APD is carried out using a cycler machine overnight.

Peritoneal dialysis offers certain advantages over hemodialysis, such as better preservation of residual renal function, fewer dietary restrictions, and greater flexibility in scheduling treatments. However, it also has potential complications, including peritonitis (inflammation of the peritoneum), catheter-related infections, fluid imbalances, and membrane failure over time.

The pleural cavity is the potential space between the visceral and parietal pleura, which are the two membranes that surround the lungs. The visceral pleura covers the outside of the lungs, while the parietal pleura lines the inside of the chest wall. Under normal conditions, these two layers are in contact with each other, and the space between them is virtually nonexistent. However, when air, fluid or inflammation accumulates within this space, it results in the formation of a pleural effusion, which can cause discomfort and difficulty breathing.

Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that are an essential part of the immune system. They are large, specialized cells that engulf and destroy foreign substances, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, as well as damaged or dead cells. Macrophages are found throughout the body, including in the bloodstream, lymph nodes, spleen, liver, lungs, and connective tissues. They play a critical role in inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair and remodeling.

Macrophages originate from monocytes, which are a type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow. When monocytes enter the tissues, they differentiate into macrophages, which have a larger size and more specialized functions than monocytes. Macrophages can change their shape and move through tissues to reach sites of infection or injury. They also produce cytokines, chemokines, and other signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response and recruit other immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

Macrophages have a variety of surface receptors that allow them to recognize and respond to different types of foreign substances and signals from other cells. They can engulf and digest foreign particles, bacteria, and viruses through a process called phagocytosis. Macrophages also play a role in presenting antigens to T cells, which are another type of immune cell that helps coordinate the immune response.

Overall, macrophages are crucial for maintaining tissue homeostasis, defending against infection, and promoting wound healing and tissue repair. Dysregulation of macrophage function has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Radio-iodinated serum albumin refers to human serum albumin that has been chemically bonded with radioactive iodine isotopes, typically I-125 or I-131. This results in a radiolabeled protein that can be used in medical imaging and research to track the distribution and movement of the protein in the body.

In human physiology, serum albumin is the most abundant protein in plasma, synthesized by the liver, and it plays a crucial role in maintaining oncotic pressure and transporting various molecules in the bloodstream. Radio-iodination of serum albumin allows for non-invasive monitoring of its behavior in vivo, which can be useful in evaluating conditions such as protein losing enteropathies, nephrotic syndrome, or liver dysfunction.

It is essential to handle and dispose of radio-iodinated serum albumin with proper radiation safety protocols due to its radioactive nature.

Peritoneal dialysis, continuous ambulatory (CAPD), is a type of renal replacement therapy used to treat patients with end-stage kidney disease. It is a form of peritoneal dialysis that is performed continuously, without the need for machines or hospitalization. CAPD uses the patient's own peritoneum, a thin membrane that lines the abdominal cavity, as a natural filter to remove waste products and excess fluids from the bloodstream.

In CAPD, a sterile dialysis solution is introduced into the peritoneal cavity through a permanent catheter implanted in the patient's abdomen. The solution remains in the peritoneal cavity for a dwell time of several hours, during which diffusion occurs across the peritoneal membrane, allowing waste products and excess fluids to move from the bloodstream into the dialysis solution.

After the dwell time, the used dialysis solution is drained from the peritoneal cavity and discarded, and a fresh batch of dialysis solution is introduced. This process is typically repeated four to five times a day, with each exchange taking about 30 minutes to complete. Patients can perform CAPD exchanges while going about their daily activities, making it a convenient and flexible treatment option for many patients with end-stage kidney disease.

Overall, CAPD is a highly effective form of dialysis that offers several advantages over other types of renal replacement therapy, including improved quality of life, better preservation of residual kidney function, and lower costs. However, it does require careful attention to sterile technique and regular monitoring to ensure proper functioning of the peritoneal membrane and adequate clearance of waste products and fluids.

Pneumoperitoneum is a medical condition characterized by the presence of free air or gas within the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the internal organs. This accumulation of air can occur due to various reasons such as perforation of an organ (e.g., stomach, intestine, or esophagus), recent surgery, or medical procedures involving the introduction of air into the abdomen.

The presence of pneumoperitoneum is often diagnosed through imaging techniques like X-rays or computed tomography (CT) scans, which can reveal the presence of free gas in the peritoneal cavity. The condition may require prompt medical attention, depending on the underlying cause and the patient's symptoms. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause, such as repairing a perforation or managing an infection.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

The spleen is an organ in the upper left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays multiple supporting roles in the body:

1. It fights infection by acting as a filter for the blood. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there.
2. The spleen also helps to control the amount of blood in the body by removing excess red blood cells and storing platelets.
3. It has an important role in immune function, producing antibodies and removing microorganisms and damaged red blood cells from the bloodstream.

The spleen can be removed without causing any significant problems, as other organs take over its functions. This is known as a splenectomy and may be necessary if the spleen is damaged or diseased.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

The abdominal cavity is the portion of the abdominothoracic cavity that lies between the diaphragm and the pelvic inlet. It contains the stomach, small intestine, colon, liver, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, adrenal glands, and associated blood vessels and nerves. The abdominal cavity is enclosed by the abdominal wall, which consists of muscles, fascia, and skin. It is divided into several compartments by various membranes, including the peritoneum, a serous membrane that lines the walls of the cavity and covers many of the organs within it. The abdominal cavity provides protection and support for the organs it contains, and also serves as a site for the absorption and digestion of food.

Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that are part of the immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and released into the bloodstream where they circulate and are able to move quickly to sites of infection or inflammation in the body. Neutrophils are capable of engulfing and destroying bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances through a process called phagocytosis. They are also involved in the release of inflammatory mediators, which can contribute to tissue damage in some cases. Neutrophils are characterized by the presence of granules in their cytoplasm, which contain enzymes and other proteins that help them carry out their immune functions.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the humoral immune response. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy pathogens such as viruses and bacteria.

B-lymphocyte subsets refer to distinct populations of B-cells that can be identified based on their surface receptors and functional characteristics. Some common B-lymphocyte subsets include:

1. Naive B-cells: These are mature B-cells that have not yet been exposed to an antigen. They express surface receptors called immunoglobulin M (IgM) and immunoglobulin D (IgD).
2. Memory B-cells: These are B-cells that have previously encountered an antigen and mounted an immune response. They express high levels of surface immunoglobulins and can quickly differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells upon re-exposure to the same antigen.
3. Plasma cells: These are fully differentiated B-cells that secrete large amounts of antibodies in response to an antigen. They lack surface immunoglobulins and do not undergo further division.
4. Regulatory B-cells: These are a subset of B-cells that modulate the immune response by producing anti-inflammatory cytokines and suppressing the activation of other immune cells.
5. B-1 cells: These are a population of B-cells that are primarily found in the peripheral blood and mucosal tissues. They produce natural antibodies that provide early protection against pathogens and help to maintain tissue homeostasis.

Understanding the different B-lymphocyte subsets and their functions is important for diagnosing and treating immune-related disorders, including autoimmune diseases, infections, and cancer.

Dental cavity preparation is the process of removing decayed and damaged tissue from a tooth and shaping the remaining healthy structure in order to prepare it for the placement of a filling or a crown. The goal of cavity preparation is to remove all traces of decay and create a clean, stable surface for the restoration to bond with, while also maintaining as much of the natural tooth structure as possible.

The process typically involves the use of dental drills and other tools to remove the decayed tissue and shape the tooth. The size and depth of the preparation will depend on the extent of the decay and the type of restoration that will be used. After the preparation is complete, the dentist will place the filling or crown, restoring the function and integrity of the tooth.

Ovarian neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the ovary, which can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). These growths can originate from various cell types within the ovary, including epithelial cells, germ cells, and stromal cells. Ovarian neoplasms are often classified based on their cell type of origin, histological features, and potential for invasive or metastatic behavior.

Epithelial ovarian neoplasms are the most common type and can be further categorized into several subtypes, such as serous, mucinous, endometrioid, clear cell, and Brenner tumors. Some of these epithelial tumors have a higher risk of becoming malignant and spreading to other parts of the body.

Germ cell ovarian neoplasms arise from the cells that give rise to eggs (oocytes) and can include teratomas, dysgerminomas, yolk sac tumors, and embryonal carcinomas. Stromal ovarian neoplasms develop from the connective tissue cells supporting the ovary and can include granulosa cell tumors, thecomas, and fibromas.

It is essential to diagnose and treat ovarian neoplasms promptly, as some malignant forms can be aggressive and potentially life-threatening if not managed appropriately. Regular gynecological exams, imaging studies, and tumor marker tests are often used for early detection and monitoring of ovarian neoplasms. Treatment options may include surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy, depending on the type, stage, and patient's overall health condition.

A laparotomy is a surgical procedure that involves making an incision in the abdominal wall to gain access to the abdominal cavity. This procedure is typically performed to diagnose and treat various conditions such as abdominal trauma, tumors, infections, or inflammatory diseases. The size of the incision can vary depending on the reason for the surgery and the extent of the condition being treated. Once the procedure is complete, the incision is closed with sutures or staples.

The term "laparotomy" comes from the Greek words "lapara," which means "flank" or "side," and "tome," which means "to cut." Together, they describe the surgical procedure that involves cutting into the abdomen to examine its contents.

Parenteral infusions refer to the administration of fluids or medications directly into a patient's vein or subcutaneous tissue using a needle or catheter. This route bypasses the gastrointestinal tract and allows for rapid absorption and onset of action. Parenteral infusions can be used to correct fluid and electrolyte imbalances, administer medications that cannot be given orally, provide nutritional support, and deliver blood products. Common types of parenteral infusions include intravenous (IV) drips, IV push, and subcutaneous infusions. It is important that parenteral infusions are administered using aseptic technique to reduce the risk of infection.

Phagocytosis is the process by which certain cells in the body, known as phagocytes, engulf and destroy foreign particles, bacteria, or dead cells. This mechanism plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infection and inflammation. Phagocytes, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, have receptors on their surface that recognize and bind to specific molecules (known as antigens) on the target particles or microorganisms.

Once attached, the phagocyte extends pseudopodia (cell extensions) around the particle, forming a vesicle called a phagosome that completely encloses it. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, an intracellular organelle containing digestive enzymes and other chemicals. This fusion results in the formation of a phagolysosome, where the engulfed particle is broken down by the action of these enzymes, neutralizing its harmful effects and allowing for the removal of cellular debris or pathogens.

Phagocytosis not only serves as a crucial defense mechanism against infections but also contributes to tissue homeostasis by removing dead cells and debris.

Endometriosis is a medical condition in which tissue similar to the lining of the uterus (endometrium) grows outside the uterine cavity, most commonly on the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and the pelvic peritoneum. This misplaced endometrial tissue continues to act as it would inside the uterus, thickening, breaking down, and bleeding with each menstrual cycle. However, because it is outside the uterus, this blood and tissue have no way to exit the body and can lead to inflammation, scarring, and the formation of adhesions (tissue bands that bind organs together).

The symptoms of endometriosis may include pelvic pain, heavy menstrual periods, painful intercourse, and infertility. The exact cause of endometriosis is not known, but several theories have been proposed, including retrograde menstruation (the backflow of menstrual blood through the fallopian tubes into the pelvic cavity), genetic factors, and immune system dysfunction.

Endometriosis can be diagnosed through a combination of methods, such as medical history, physical examination, imaging tests like ultrasound or MRI, and laparoscopic surgery with tissue biopsy. Treatment options for endometriosis include pain management, hormonal therapies, and surgical intervention to remove the misplaced endometrial tissue. In severe cases, a hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) may be recommended, but this is typically considered a last resort due to its impact on fertility and quality of life.

Pseudomyxoma Peritonei (PMP) is a rare, slow-growing, and invasive cancer that typically starts in the appendix as a low-grade mucinous neoplasm, although it can also arise from other organs of the abdominal cavity. The primary characteristic of PMP is the accumulation of copious amounts of gelatinous ascites (peritoneal fluid containing mucin) within the peritoneal cavity, causing progressive abdominal distension and discomfort.

The condition is classified into three main histological subtypes: disseminated peritoneal adenomucinosis (DPAM), peritoneal mucinous carcinomatosis (PMCA), and hybrid tumors. DPAM is the least aggressive form, while PMCA is more invasive and has a worse prognosis.

The primary treatment for Pseudomyxoma Peritonei involves cytoreductive surgery (CRS) combined with hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy (HIPEC). This approach aims to remove all visible tumors and destroy any remaining cancer cells within the abdominal cavity. Early diagnosis and aggressive treatment can significantly improve the prognosis for patients with PMP, although long-term survival rates remain variable due to the disease's rarity and heterogeneity.

Exudates and transudates are two types of bodily fluids that can accumulate in various body cavities or tissues as a result of injury, inflammation, or other medical conditions. Here are the medical definitions:

1. Exudates: These are fluids that accumulate due to an active inflammatory process. Exudates contain high levels of protein, white blood cells (such as neutrophils and macrophages), and sometimes other cells like red blood cells or cellular debris. They can be yellow, green, or brown in color and may have a foul odor due to the presence of dead cells and bacteria. Exudates are often seen in conditions such as abscesses, pneumonia, pleurisy, or wound infections.

Examples of exudative fluids include pus, purulent discharge, or inflammatory effusions.

2. Transudates: These are fluids that accumulate due to increased hydrostatic pressure or decreased oncotic pressure within the blood vessels. Transudates contain low levels of protein and cells compared to exudates. They are typically clear and pale yellow in color, with no odor. Transudates can be found in conditions such as congestive heart failure, liver cirrhosis, or nephrotic syndrome.

Examples of transudative fluids include ascites, pleural effusions, or pericardial effusions.

It is essential to differentiate between exudates and transudates because their underlying causes and treatment approaches may differ significantly. Medical professionals often use various tests, such as fluid analysis, to determine whether a fluid sample is an exudate or transudate.

In medical terms, the mouth is officially referred to as the oral cavity. It is the first part of the digestive tract and includes several structures: the lips, vestibule (the space enclosed by the lips and teeth), teeth, gingiva (gums), hard and soft palate, tongue, floor of the mouth, and salivary glands. The mouth is responsible for several functions including speaking, swallowing, breathing, and eating, as it is the initial point of ingestion where food is broken down through mechanical and chemical processes, beginning the digestive process.

Mast cells are a type of white blood cell that are found in connective tissues throughout the body, including the skin, respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal tract. They play an important role in the immune system and help to defend the body against pathogens by releasing chemicals such as histamine, heparin, and leukotrienes, which help to attract other immune cells to the site of infection or injury. Mast cells also play a role in allergic reactions, as they release histamine and other chemicals in response to exposure to an allergen, leading to symptoms such as itching, swelling, and redness. They are derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow and mature in the tissues where they reside.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Listeriosis is an infection caused by the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes. It primarily affects older adults, individuals with weakened immune systems, pregnant women, and newborns. The bacteria can be found in contaminated food, water, or soil. Symptoms of listeriosis may include fever, muscle aches, headache, stiff neck, confusion, loss of balance, and convulsions. In severe cases, it can lead to meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord) or bacteremia (bacterial infection in the bloodstream). Pregnant women may experience only mild flu-like symptoms, but listeriosis can lead to miscarriage, stillbirth, premature delivery, or serious illness in newborns.

It's important to note that listeriosis is a foodborne illness, and proper food handling, cooking, and storage practices can help prevent infection. High-risk individuals should avoid consuming unpasteurized dairy products, raw or undercooked meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as soft cheeses made from unpasteurized milk.

Inflammation is a complex biological response of tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is characterized by the following signs: rubor (redness), tumor (swelling), calor (heat), dolor (pain), and functio laesa (loss of function). The process involves the activation of the immune system, recruitment of white blood cells, and release of inflammatory mediators, which contribute to the elimination of the injurious stimuli and initiation of the healing process. However, uncontrolled or chronic inflammation can also lead to tissue damage and diseases.

'C3H' is the name of an inbred strain of laboratory mice that was developed at the Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine. The mice are characterized by their uniform genetic background and have been widely used in biomedical research for many decades.

The C3H strain is particularly notable for its susceptibility to certain types of cancer, including mammary tumors and lymphomas. It also has a high incidence of age-related macular degeneration and other eye diseases. The strain is often used in studies of immunology, genetics, and carcinogenesis.

Like all inbred strains, the C3H mice are the result of many generations of brother-sister matings, which leads to a high degree of genetic uniformity within the strain. This makes them useful for studying the effects of specific genes or environmental factors on disease susceptibility and other traits. However, it also means that they may not always be representative of the genetic diversity found in outbred populations, including humans.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Natural Orifice Endoscopic Surgery (NOES) is a surgical technique that uses natural body openings, such as the mouth, anus, or vagina, to perform minimally invasive surgery. This approach eliminates the need for external incisions and can result in less postoperative pain, reduced risk of infection, faster recovery times, and improved cosmetic outcomes compared to traditional surgical methods.

In NOES, a flexible endoscope is inserted through a natural orifice and guided to the target organ or structure within the body. Specialized instruments are then passed through the endoscope to perform the necessary surgical procedures, such as removing organs, taking biopsies, or repairing tissues.

NOES has been used in various surgical procedures, including gallbladder removal, gastric bypass surgery, and hysterectomy. However, this technique is still considered experimental and requires further research and development to fully establish its safety and efficacy compared to traditional surgical methods.

The mesentery is a continuous fold of the peritoneum, the double-layered serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity, which attaches the stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), and rectum to the posterior wall of the abdomen. It provides blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels to these organs.

Traditionally, the mesentery was thought to consist of separate and distinct sections along the length of the intestines. However, recent research has shown that the mesentery is a continuous organ, with a single continuous tethering point to the posterior abdominal wall. This new understanding of the anatomy of the mesentery has implications for the study of various gastrointestinal diseases and disorders.

Lymph is a colorless, transparent fluid that circulates throughout the lymphatic system, which is a part of the immune and circulatory systems. It consists of white blood cells called lymphocytes, proteins, lipids, glucose, electrolytes, hormones, and waste products. Lymph plays an essential role in maintaining fluid balance, absorbing fats from the digestive tract, and defending the body against infection by transporting immune cells to various tissues and organs. It is collected from tissues through lymph capillaries and flows through increasingly larger lymphatic vessels, ultimately returning to the bloodstream via the subclavian veins in the chest region.

An abdominal abscess is a localized collection of pus in the abdominal cavity, caused by an infection. It can occur as a result of complications from surgery, trauma, or inflammatory conditions such as appendicitis or diverticulitis. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, fever, and tenderness at the site of the abscess. Abdominal abscesses can be serious and require medical treatment, which may include antibiotics, drainage of the abscess, or surgery.

Spontaneous rupture in medical terms refers to the sudden breaking or tearing of an organ, tissue, or structure within the body without any identifiable trauma or injury. This event can occur due to various reasons such as weakening of the tissue over time because of disease or degeneration, or excessive pressure on the tissue.

For instance, a spontaneous rupture of the appendix is called an "appendiceal rupture," which can lead to peritonitis, a serious inflammation of the abdominal cavity. Similarly, a spontaneous rupture of a blood vessel, like an aortic aneurysm, can result in life-threatening internal bleeding.

Spontaneous ruptures are often medical emergencies and require immediate medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment.

The pleura is the medical term for the double-layered serous membrane that surrounds the lungs and lines the inside of the chest cavity. The two layers of the pleura are called the parietal pleura, which lines the chest cavity, and the visceral pleura, which covers the surface of the lungs.

The space between these two layers is called the pleural cavity, which contains a small amount of lubricating fluid that allows the lungs to move smoothly within the chest during breathing. The main function of the pleura is to protect the lungs and facilitate their movement during respiration.

Zymosan is a type of substance that is derived from the cell walls of yeast and some types of fungi. It's often used in laboratory research as an agent to stimulate inflammation, because it can activate certain immune cells (such as neutrophils) and cause them to release pro-inflammatory chemicals.

In medical terms, Zymosan is sometimes used as a tool for studying the immune system and inflammation in experimental settings. It's important to note that Zymosan itself is not a medical condition or disease, but rather a research reagent with potential applications in understanding human health and disease.

Chylous ascites is a medical condition characterized by the accumulation of milky, fat-containing fluid in the peritoneal cavity, which is the space within the abdomen that contains the intestines, liver, and other organs. The fluid, called chyle, is normally found in the lymphatic system and is formed when dietary fats are absorbed from the small intestine.

Chylous ascites can occur as a result of damage to the lymphatic vessels that transport chyle from the intestines to the bloodstream. This damage can be caused by various conditions, such as trauma, surgery, tumors, inflammation, or congenital abnormalities. When the lymphatic vessels are damaged, chyle leaks into the peritoneal cavity and accumulates there, leading to ascites.

Symptoms of chylous ascites may include abdominal distension, pain, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss. The condition can be diagnosed through various tests, such as imaging studies or analysis of the fluid in the peritoneal cavity. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the condition, as well as managing symptoms and preventing complications. This may include dietary modifications, medications to reduce lymphatic flow, or surgical interventions to repair damaged lymphatic vessels.

Cell movement, also known as cell motility, refers to the ability of cells to move independently and change their location within tissue or inside the body. This process is essential for various biological functions, including embryonic development, wound healing, immune responses, and cancer metastasis.

There are several types of cell movement, including:

1. **Crawling or mesenchymal migration:** Cells move by extending and retracting protrusions called pseudopodia or filopodia, which contain actin filaments. This type of movement is common in fibroblasts, immune cells, and cancer cells during tissue invasion and metastasis.
2. **Amoeboid migration:** Cells move by changing their shape and squeezing through tight spaces without forming protrusions. This type of movement is often observed in white blood cells (leukocytes) as they migrate through the body to fight infections.
3. **Pseudopodial extension:** Cells extend pseudopodia, which are temporary cytoplasmic projections containing actin filaments. These protrusions help the cell explore its environment and move forward.
4. **Bacterial flagellar motion:** Bacteria use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel themselves through their environment. The rotation of the flagellum is driven by a molecular motor in the bacterial cell membrane.
5. **Ciliary and ependymal movement:** Ciliated cells, such as those lining the respiratory tract and fallopian tubes, have hair-like structures called cilia that beat in coordinated waves to move fluids or mucus across the cell surface.

Cell movement is regulated by a complex interplay of signaling pathways, cytoskeletal rearrangements, and adhesion molecules, which enable cells to respond to environmental cues and navigate through tissues.

Intrauterine Device (IUD) migration is a medical condition where the IUD, a long-acting reversible contraceptive device placed inside the uterus, moves from its original position. Normally, an IUD is designed to remain in the uterus, with the vertical strings attached to it trailing down through the cervix into the vagina, allowing for easy removal or checking of its position.

IUD migration refers to the unintended movement of the device, either partially or completely, outside the uterine cavity. This may occur due to various reasons such as a weakened uterus, infection, or anatomical abnormalities. The migration can lead to complications like perforation of the uterus, damage to nearby organs, and difficulty in removing or locating the IUD. Regular check-ups with healthcare providers are essential to ensure that the IUD remains in its proper place and to address any potential issues early on.

In medicine, "absorption" refers to the process by which substances, including nutrients, medications, or toxins, are taken up and assimilated into the body's tissues or bloodstream after they have been introduced into the body via various routes (such as oral, intravenous, or transdermal).

The absorption of a substance depends on several factors, including its chemical properties, the route of administration, and the presence of other substances that may affect its uptake. For example, some medications may be better absorbed when taken with food, while others may require an empty stomach for optimal absorption.

Once a substance is absorbed into the bloodstream, it can then be distributed to various tissues throughout the body, where it may exert its effects or be metabolized and eliminated by the body's detoxification systems. Understanding the process of absorption is crucial in developing effective medical treatments and determining appropriate dosages for medications.

Laparoscopy is a surgical procedure that involves the insertion of a laparoscope, which is a thin tube with a light and camera attached to it, through small incisions in the abdomen. This allows the surgeon to view the internal organs without making large incisions. It's commonly used to diagnose and treat various conditions such as endometriosis, ovarian cysts, infertility, and appendicitis. The advantages of laparoscopy over traditional open surgery include smaller incisions, less pain, shorter hospital stays, and quicker recovery times.

Artificial pneumoperitoneum is a medical condition that refers to the presence of air or gas in the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the organs within the abdomen. This condition is typically created intentionally during surgical procedures, such as laparoscopy, to provide a working space for the surgeon to perform the operation.

During laparoscopic surgery, a thin tube called a trocar is inserted through a small incision in the abdominal wall, and carbon dioxide gas is pumped into the peritoneal cavity to create a pneumoperitoneum. This allows the surgeon to insert specialized instruments through other small incisions and perform the surgery while visualizing the operative field with a camera.

While artificial pneumoperitoneum is generally safe, there are potential complications that can arise, such as injury to surrounding organs or blood vessels during trocar insertion, subcutaneous emphysema (air trapped under the skin), or gas embolism (gas in the bloodstream). These risks are typically minimized through careful technique and monitoring during the procedure.

Macrophage activation is a process in which these immune cells become increasingly active and responsive to various stimuli, such as pathogens or inflammatory signals. This activation triggers a series of changes within the macrophages, allowing them to perform important functions like phagocytosis (ingesting and destroying foreign particles or microorganisms), antigen presentation (presenting microbial fragments to T-cells to stimulate an immune response), and production of cytokines and chemokines (signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response).

There are two main types of macrophage activation: classical (or M1) activation and alternative (or M2) activation. Classical activation is typically induced by interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), leading to a proinflammatory response, enhanced microbicidal activity, and the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Alternative activation, on the other hand, is triggered by cytokines like interleukin-4 (IL-4) and IL-13, resulting in an anti-inflammatory response, tissue repair, and the promotion of wound healing.

It's important to note that macrophage activation plays a crucial role in various physiological and pathological processes, including immune defense, inflammation, tissue remodeling, and even cancer progression. Dysregulation of macrophage activation has been implicated in several diseases, such as autoimmune disorders, chronic infections, and cancer.

Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells (WBCs), are a crucial component of the human immune system. They are responsible for protecting the body against infections and foreign substances. Leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow and circulate throughout the body in the bloodstream and lymphatic system.

There are several types of leukocytes, including:

1. Neutrophils - These are the most abundant type of leukocyte and are primarily responsible for fighting bacterial infections. They contain enzymes that can destroy bacteria.
2. Lymphocytes - These are responsible for producing antibodies and destroying virus-infected cells, as well as cancer cells. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
3. Monocytes - These are the largest type of leukocyte and help to break down and remove dead or damaged tissues, as well as microorganisms.
4. Eosinophils - These play a role in fighting parasitic infections and are also involved in allergic reactions and inflammation.
5. Basophils - These release histamine and other chemicals that cause inflammation in response to allergens or irritants.

An abnormal increase or decrease in the number of leukocytes can indicate an underlying medical condition, such as an infection, inflammation, or a blood disorder.

Abdominal neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the abdomen that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). These growths can occur in any of the organs within the abdominal cavity, including the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys.

Abdominal neoplasms can cause various symptoms depending on their size, location, and type. Some common symptoms include abdominal pain or discomfort, bloating, changes in bowel habits, unexplained weight loss, fatigue, and fever. In some cases, abdominal neoplasms may not cause any symptoms until they have grown quite large or spread to other parts of the body.

The diagnosis of abdominal neoplasms typically involves a combination of physical exam, medical history, imaging studies such as CT scans or MRIs, and sometimes biopsy to confirm the type of tumor. Treatment options depend on the type, stage, and location of the neoplasm but may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Gold radioisotopes are unstable forms of gold that emit radiation as they decay into more stable elements. They are not typically used for medical purposes, but there have been some experimental uses in the treatment of cancer. For example, Gold-198 is a radioisotope that has been used in the brachytherapy (internal radiation therapy) of certain types of tumors. It releases high-energy gamma rays and is often used as a sealed source for the treatment of cancer.

It's important to note that the use of radioisotopes in medicine, including gold radioisotopes, should only be performed under the supervision of trained medical professionals and radiation safety experts due to the potential risks associated with radiation exposure.

Intestinal perforation is a medical condition that refers to a hole or tear in the lining of the intestine. This can occur anywhere along the gastrointestinal tract, including the small intestine, large intestine (colon), or stomach. Intestinal perforation allows the contents of the intestines, such as digestive enzymes and bacteria, to leak into the abdominal cavity, which can lead to a serious inflammatory response known as peritonitis.

Intestinal perforation can be caused by various factors, including:

* Mechanical trauma (e.g., gunshot wounds, stab wounds)
* Inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis)
* Diverticulitis
* Appendicitis
* Intestinal obstruction
* Infections (e.g., typhoid fever, tuberculosis)
* Certain medications (e.g., nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids)
* Radiation therapy
* Ischemic bowel disease (lack of blood flow to the intestines)

Symptoms of intestinal perforation may include sudden abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, and decreased bowel movements. Treatment typically involves surgery to repair the perforation and remove any damaged tissue. Antibiotics are also administered to prevent infection. In severe cases, a temporary or permanent colostomy or ileostomy may be necessary.

Chemotaxis, Leukocyte is the movement of leukocytes (white blood cells) towards a higher concentration of a particular chemical substance, known as a chemotactic factor. This process plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infection and injury.

When there is an infection or tissue damage, certain cells release chemotactic factors, which are small molecules or proteins that can attract leukocytes to the site of inflammation. Leukocytes have receptors on their surface that can detect these chemotactic factors and move towards them through a process called chemotaxis.

Once they reach the site of inflammation, leukocytes can help eliminate pathogens or damaged cells by phagocytosis (engulfing and destroying) or releasing toxic substances that kill the invading microorganisms. Chemotaxis is an essential part of the immune system's defense mechanisms and helps to maintain tissue homeostasis and prevent the spread of infection.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

Ultrafiltration is a medical process that separates fluids and dissolved solutes based on their size and charge. It's a type of membrane filtration that uses a semipermeable membrane with pores small enough to allow the passage of water and low molecular weight solutes, while retaining larger molecules and cells.

In clinical practice, ultrafiltration is often used in patients with acute or chronic kidney failure to remove excess fluid from the bloodstream, a process known as renal replacement therapy or dialysis. During this procedure, the patient's blood is passed through a hollow fiber membrane, and pressure differences across the membrane cause water and small solutes to move through the pores, while larger molecules such as proteins and cells are retained.

Ultrafiltration can also be used in other medical contexts, such as plasma exchange or therapeutic apheresis, where specific components of the blood are removed for therapeutic purposes.

Inbred strains of mice are defined as lines of mice that have been brother-sister mated for at least 20 consecutive generations. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the mice of an inbred strain are genetically identical to one another, with the exception of spontaneous mutations.

Inbred strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research due to their genetic uniformity and stability, which makes them useful for studying the genetic basis of various traits, diseases, and biological processes. They also provide a consistent and reproducible experimental system, as compared to outbred or genetically heterogeneous populations.

Some commonly used inbred strains of mice include C57BL/6J, BALB/cByJ, DBA/2J, and 129SvEv. Each strain has its own unique genetic background and phenotypic characteristics, which can influence the results of experiments. Therefore, it is important to choose the appropriate inbred strain for a given research question.

"Cells, cultured" is a medical term that refers to cells that have been removed from an organism and grown in controlled laboratory conditions outside of the body. This process is called cell culture and it allows scientists to study cells in a more controlled and accessible environment than they would have inside the body. Cultured cells can be derived from a variety of sources, including tissues, organs, or fluids from humans, animals, or cell lines that have been previously established in the laboratory.

Cell culture involves several steps, including isolation of the cells from the tissue, purification and characterization of the cells, and maintenance of the cells in appropriate growth conditions. The cells are typically grown in specialized media that contain nutrients, growth factors, and other components necessary for their survival and proliferation. Cultured cells can be used for a variety of purposes, including basic research, drug development and testing, and production of biological products such as vaccines and gene therapies.

It is important to note that cultured cells may behave differently than they do in the body, and results obtained from cell culture studies may not always translate directly to human physiology or disease. Therefore, it is essential to validate findings from cell culture experiments using additional models and ultimately in clinical trials involving human subjects.

Neutrophil infiltration is a pathological process characterized by the accumulation of neutrophils, a type of white blood cell, in tissue. It is a common feature of inflammation and occurs in response to infection, injury, or other stimuli that trigger an immune response. Neutrophils are attracted to the site of tissue damage by chemical signals called chemokines, which are released by damaged cells and activated immune cells. Once they reach the site of inflammation, neutrophils help to clear away damaged tissue and microorganisms through a process called phagocytosis. However, excessive or prolonged neutrophil infiltration can also contribute to tissue damage and may be associated with various disease states, including cancer, autoimmune disorders, and ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 13 (CXCL13), also known as B cell-attracting chemokine 1 (BCA-1) or B lymphocyte chemoattractant (BLC), is a small signaling protein belonging to the CXC chemokine family. Chemokines are a group of chemotactic cytokines that play crucial roles in immunological and inflammatory processes, mainly by recruiting and activating various leukocytes.

CXCL13 is primarily produced by stromal cells, including follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) within secondary lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, spleen, and Peyer's patches. This chemokine specifically binds to the C-X-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CXCR5), which is expressed on various immune cells, most notably B cells, follicular helper T cells (Tfh), and some dendritic cell subsets.

The primary function of CXCL13 is to orchestrate the migration and positioning of immune cells, particularly B cells, within secondary lymphoid organs during an immune response. By attracting CXCR5-expressing B cells and Tfh cells, CXCL13 plays a critical role in the formation and maintenance of germinal centers (GCs), which are specialized microanatomical structures where affinity maturation and class switch recombination of B cells occur.

Abnormal levels or functions of CXCL13 have been implicated in several pathological conditions, including autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), certain types of cancer, and neurological disorders like multiple sclerosis (MS) and Alzheimer's disease.

A Ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt is a surgical procedure that involves the insertion of a long, flexible tube (shunt) into the cerebral ventricles of the brain to drain excess cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The other end of the shunt is directed into the peritoneal cavity, where the CSF can be absorbed.

The VP shunt is typically used to treat hydrocephalus, a condition characterized by an abnormal accumulation of CSF within the ventricles of the brain, which can cause increased intracranial pressure and damage to the brain. By diverting the excess CSF from the ventricles into the peritoneal cavity, the VP shunt helps to relieve the symptoms of hydrocephalus and prevent further neurological damage.

The shunt system consists of several components, including a ventricular catheter that is placed in the ventricle, a one-way valve that regulates the flow of CSF, and a distal catheter that is directed into the peritoneal cavity. The valve helps to prevent backflow of CSF into the brain and ensures that the fluid flows in only one direction, from the ventricles to the peritoneal cavity.

VP shunts are generally safe and effective, but they can be associated with complications such as infection, obstruction, or malfunction of the shunt system. Regular follow-up with a healthcare provider is necessary to monitor the function of the shunt and ensure that any potential issues are addressed promptly.

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within the fluid, due to the force of gravity. In medical terms, hydrostatic pressure is often discussed in relation to body fluids and tissues. For example, the hydrostatic pressure in the capillaries (tiny blood vessels) is the force that drives the fluid out of the blood vessels and into the surrounding tissues. This helps to maintain the balance of fluids in the body. Additionally, abnormal increases in hydrostatic pressure can contribute to the development of edema (swelling) in the tissues.

"Acute abdomen" is a medical term used to describe a sudden and severe abdominal pain that requires immediate medical attention. This condition can be caused by various factors such as inflammation, infection, obstruction, or perforation of the abdominal organs. Common causes of acute abdomen include appendicitis, cholecystitis, diverticulitis, intestinal obstruction, and perforated ulcers.

The symptoms of acute abdomen may include severe and localized or generalized abdominal pain, tenderness, rigidity, rebound tenderness, fever, nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. The diagnosis of acute abdomen is usually made based on the patient's history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as X-rays, ultrasound, or CT scan.

Treatment of acute abdomen depends on the underlying cause and may include antibiotics, intravenous fluids, pain management, and surgery in severe cases. Delayed diagnosis and treatment of acute abdomen can lead to serious complications such as sepsis, peritonitis, and even death.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) infections refer to illnesses caused by the bacterium E. coli, which can cause a range of symptoms depending on the specific strain and site of infection. The majority of E. coli strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals. However, some strains, particularly those that produce Shiga toxins, can cause severe illness.

E. coli infections can occur through various routes, including contaminated food or water, person-to-person contact, or direct contact with animals or their environments. Common symptoms of E. coli infections include diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting. In severe cases, complications such as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) can occur, which may lead to kidney failure and other long-term health problems.

Preventing E. coli infections involves practicing good hygiene, cooking meats thoroughly, avoiding cross-contamination of food during preparation, washing fruits and vegetables before eating, and avoiding unpasteurized dairy products and juices. Prompt medical attention is necessary if symptoms of an E. coli infection are suspected to prevent potential complications.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

A leukocyte count, also known as a white blood cell (WBC) count, is a laboratory test that measures the number of leukocytes in a sample of blood. Leukocytes are a vital part of the body's immune system and help fight infection and inflammation. A high or low leukocyte count may indicate an underlying medical condition, such as an infection, inflammation, or a bone marrow disorder. The normal range for a leukocyte count in adults is typically between 4,500 and 11,000 cells per microliter (mcL) of blood. However, the normal range can vary slightly depending on the laboratory and the individual's age and sex.

Phagocytes are a type of white blood cell in the immune system that engulf and destroy foreign particles, microbes, and cellular debris. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and tissue damage. There are several types of phagocytes, including neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. These cells have receptors that recognize and bind to specific molecules on the surface of foreign particles or microbes, allowing them to engulf and digest the invaders. Phagocytosis is an important mechanism for maintaining tissue homeostasis and preventing the spread of infection.

The abdomen refers to the portion of the body that lies between the thorax (chest) and the pelvis. It is a musculo-fascial cavity containing the digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs. The abdominal cavity is divided into several regions and quadrants for medical description and examination purposes. These include the upper and lower abdomen, as well as nine quadrants formed by the intersection of the midline and a horizontal line drawn at the level of the umbilicus (navel).

The major organs located within the abdominal cavity include:

1. Stomach - muscular organ responsible for initial digestion of food
2. Small intestine - long, coiled tube where most nutrient absorption occurs
3. Large intestine - consists of the colon and rectum; absorbs water and stores waste products
4. Liver - largest internal organ, involved in protein synthesis, detoxification, and metabolism
5. Pancreas - secretes digestive enzymes and hormones such as insulin
6. Spleen - filters blood and removes old red blood cells
7. Kidneys - pair of organs responsible for filtering waste products from the blood and producing urine
8. Adrenal glands - sit atop each kidney, produce hormones that regulate metabolism, immune response, and stress response

The abdomen is an essential part of the human body, playing a crucial role in digestion, absorption, and elimination of food and waste materials, as well as various metabolic processes.

"Cell count" is a medical term that refers to the process of determining the number of cells present in a given volume or sample of fluid or tissue. This can be done through various laboratory methods, such as counting individual cells under a microscope using a specialized grid called a hemocytometer, or using automated cell counters that use light scattering and electrical impedance techniques to count and classify different types of cells.

Cell counts are used in a variety of medical contexts, including hematology (the study of blood and blood-forming tissues), microbiology (the study of microscopic organisms), and pathology (the study of diseases and their causes). For example, a complete blood count (CBC) is a routine laboratory test that includes a white blood cell (WBC) count, red blood cell (RBC) count, hemoglobin level, hematocrit value, and platelet count. Abnormal cell counts can indicate the presence of various medical conditions, such as infections, anemia, or leukemia.

Propionibacterium acnes is a gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium that naturally colonizes the skin, predominantly in areas with a high density of sebaceous glands such as the face, back, and chest. It is part of the normal skin flora but can contribute to the development of acne vulgaris when it proliferates excessively and clogs the pilosebaceous units (hair follicles).

The bacterium metabolizes sebum, producing propionic acid and other short-chain fatty acids as byproducts. In acne, these byproducts can cause an inflammatory response in the skin, leading to the formation of papules, pustules, and nodules. Propionibacterium acnes has also been implicated in various other skin conditions and occasionally in opportunistic infections in other parts of the body, particularly in immunocompromised individuals or following surgical procedures.

A lymphocyte transfusion is not a standard medical practice. However, the term "lymphocyte transfusion" generally refers to the infusion of lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, from a donor to a recipient. This procedure is rarely performed and primarily used in research or experimental settings, such as in the context of adoptive immunotherapy for cancer treatment.

In adoptive immunotherapy, T lymphocytes (a subtype of lymphocytes) are collected from the patient or a donor, activated, expanded in the laboratory, and then reinfused into the patient to enhance their immune response against cancer cells. This is not a common procedure and should only be performed under the guidance of experienced medical professionals in specialized centers.

It's important to note that lymphocyte transfusions are different from stem cell or bone marrow transplants, which involve the infusion of hematopoietic stem cells to reconstitute the recipient's entire blood and immune system.

Neoplasm transplantation is not a recognized or established medical procedure in the field of oncology. The term "neoplasm" refers to an abnormal growth of cells, which can be benign or malignant (cancerous). "Transplantation" typically refers to the surgical transfer of living cells, tissues, or organs from one part of the body to another or between individuals.

The concept of neoplasm transplantation may imply the transfer of cancerous cells or tissues from a donor to a recipient, which is not a standard practice due to ethical considerations and the potential harm it could cause to the recipient. In some rare instances, researchers might use laboratory animals to study the transmission and growth of human cancer cells, but this is done for scientific research purposes only and under strict regulatory guidelines.

In summary, there is no medical definition for 'Neoplasm Transplantation' as it does not represent a standard or ethical medical practice.

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to an infection injures its own tissues and organs. It is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (systemic inflammation) that can lead to blood clotting issues, tissue damage, and multiple organ failure.

Sepsis happens when an infection you already have triggers a chain reaction throughout your body. Infections that lead to sepsis most often start in the lungs, urinary tract, skin, or gastrointestinal tract.

Sepsis is a medical emergency. If you suspect sepsis, seek immediate medical attention. Early recognition and treatment of sepsis are crucial to improve outcomes. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and may require oxygen, medication to raise blood pressure, and corticosteroids. In severe cases, surgery may be required to clear the infection.

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are large molecules found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. They consist of a hydrophilic polysaccharide called the O-antigen, a core oligosaccharide, and a lipid portion known as Lipid A. The Lipid A component is responsible for the endotoxic activity of LPS, which can trigger a powerful immune response in animals, including humans. This response can lead to symptoms such as fever, inflammation, and septic shock, especially when large amounts of LPS are introduced into the bloodstream.

B-lymphocytes, also known as B-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system's response to infection. They are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy pathogens such as bacteria and viruses.

When a B-lymphocyte encounters a pathogen, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies specific to the antigens on the surface of the pathogen. These antibodies bind to the pathogen, marking it for destruction by other immune cells such as neutrophils and macrophages.

B-lymphocytes also have a role in presenting antigens to T-lymphocytes, another type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. This helps to stimulate the activation and proliferation of T-lymphocytes, which can then go on to destroy infected cells or help to coordinate the overall immune response.

Overall, B-lymphocytes are an essential part of the adaptive immune system, providing long-lasting immunity to previously encountered pathogens and helping to protect against future infections.

The thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessel in the human body. It is a part of the lymphatic system, which helps to regulate fluid balance and immune function. The thoracic duct originates from the cisterna chyli, a dilated sac located in the abdomen near the aorta.

The thoracic duct collects lymph from the lower extremities, abdomen, pelvis, and left side of the thorax (chest). It ascends through the diaphragm and enters the chest, where it passes through the mediastinum (the central part of the chest between the lungs) and eventually drains into the left subclavian vein.

The thoracic duct plays a crucial role in transporting lymphatic fluid, which contains white blood cells, fats, proteins, and other substances, back into the circulatory system. Any obstruction or damage to the thoracic duct can lead to lymph accumulation in the surrounding tissues, causing swelling and other symptoms.

Flow cytometry is a medical and research technique used to measure physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles, one cell at a time, as they flow in a fluid stream through a beam of light. The properties measured include:

* Cell size (light scatter)
* Cell internal complexity (granularity, also light scatter)
* Presence or absence of specific proteins or other molecules on the cell surface or inside the cell (using fluorescent antibodies or other fluorescent probes)

The technique is widely used in cell counting, cell sorting, protein engineering, biomarker discovery and monitoring disease progression, particularly in hematology, immunology, and cancer research.

Hemoperitoneum is a medical condition characterized by the presence of blood in the peritoneal cavity, which is the space between the lining of the abdominal wall and the organs within it. This can occur due to various reasons such as trauma, rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, ectopic pregnancy, or other conditions that cause bleeding into the abdomen.

The accumulation of blood in the peritoneal cavity can lead to symptoms such as abdominal pain, tenderness, distension, and hypovolemic shock due to blood loss. Hemoperitoneum is a serious medical condition that requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent further complications.

"Abdominal pregnancy" is a type of ectopic pregnancy, which is a rare and potentially life-threatening condition in which a fertilized egg implants outside the uterus. In an abdominal pregnancy, the embryo implants and grows in the abdominal cavity, rather than in the fallopian tube or uterus.

Abdominal pregnancies can be caused by various factors, including previous abdominal surgeries, pelvic inflammatory disease, or a history of ectopic pregnancies. They are often difficult to diagnose and can pose significant risks to both the mother and the fetus, as they can lead to internal bleeding, infection, and other complications.

Treatment for abdominal pregnancy typically involves surgery to remove the embryo and repair any damage to surrounding organs. In some cases, it may be possible to preserve the fallopian tube and uterus, but in others, removal of one or both may be necessary. It is important for women who have had an ectopic pregnancy to receive appropriate follow-up care and counseling to reduce their risk of future ectopic pregnancies.

Carriageenans are a family of linear sulfated polysaccharides that are extracted from red edible seaweeds. They have been widely used in the food industry as thickening, gelling, and stabilizing agents. In the medical field, they have been studied for their potential therapeutic applications, such as in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders and inflammation. However, some studies have suggested that certain types of carriageenans may have negative health effects, including promoting inflammation and damaging the gut lining. Therefore, more research is needed to fully understand their safety and efficacy.

CD5 is a type of protein found on the surface of certain cells in the human body, including some immune cells like T cells and B cells. It is also known as a cell marker or identifier. Antigens are substances (usually proteins) on the surface of cells that can be recognized by the immune system, triggering an immune response.

In the context of CD5, antigens refer to foreign substances that can bind to the CD5 protein and stimulate an immune response. However, it's important to note that CD5 itself is not typically considered an antigen in the medical community. Instead, it is a marker used to identify certain types of cells and monitor their behavior in health and disease states.

In some cases, abnormal expression or regulation of CD5 has been associated with various diseases, including certain types of cancer. For example, some B-cell lymphomas may overexpress CD5, which can help doctors diagnose and monitor the progression of the disease. However, in these contexts, CD5 is not considered an antigen in the traditional sense.

The abdominal muscles, also known as the abdominals or abs, are a group of muscles in the anterior (front) wall of the abdominopelvic cavity. They play a crucial role in maintaining posture, supporting the trunk, and facilitating movement of the torso. The main abdominal muscles include:

1. Rectus Abdominis: These are the pair of long, flat muscles that run vertically along the middle of the anterior abdominal wall. They are often referred to as the "six-pack" muscles due to their visible, segmented appearance in well-trained individuals. The primary function of the rectus abdominis is to flex the spine, allowing for actions such as sitting up from a lying down position or performing a crunch exercise.

2. External Obliques: These are the largest and most superficial of the oblique muscles, located on the lateral (side) aspects of the abdominal wall. They run diagonally downward and forward from the lower ribs to the iliac crest (the upper part of the pelvis) and the pubic tubercle (a bony prominence at the front of the pelvis). The external obliques help rotate and flex the trunk, as well as assist in side-bending and exhalation.

3. Internal Obliques: These muscles lie deep to the external obliques and run diagonally downward and backward from the lower ribs to the iliac crest, pubic tubercle, and linea alba (the strong band of connective tissue that runs vertically along the midline of the abdomen). The internal obliques help rotate and flex the trunk, as well as assist in forced exhalation and increasing intra-abdominal pressure during actions such as coughing or lifting heavy objects.

4. Transversus Abdominis: This is the deepest of the abdominal muscles, located inner to both the internal obliques and the rectus sheath (a strong, fibrous covering that surrounds the rectus abdominis). The transversus abdominis runs horizontally around the abdomen, attaching to the lower six ribs, the thoracolumbar fascia (a broad sheet of connective tissue spanning from the lower back to the pelvis), and the pubic crest (the front part of the pelvic bone). The transversus abdominis helps maintain core stability by compressing the abdominal contents and increasing intra-abdominal pressure.

Together, these muscles form the muscular "corset" of the abdomen, providing support, stability, and flexibility to the trunk. They also play a crucial role in respiration, posture, and various movements such as bending, twisting, and lifting.

Bone marrow cells are the types of cells found within the bone marrow, which is the spongy tissue inside certain bones in the body. The main function of bone marrow is to produce blood cells. There are two types of bone marrow: red and yellow. Red bone marrow is where most blood cell production takes place, while yellow bone marrow serves as a fat storage site.

The three main types of bone marrow cells are:

1. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs): These are immature cells that can differentiate into any type of blood cell, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. They have the ability to self-renew, meaning they can divide and create more hematopoietic stem cells.
2. Red blood cell progenitors: These are immature cells that will develop into mature red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes. Red blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide back to the lungs.
3. Myeloid and lymphoid white blood cell progenitors: These are immature cells that will develop into various types of white blood cells, which play a crucial role in the body's immune system by fighting infections and diseases. Myeloid progenitors give rise to granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils), monocytes, and megakaryocytes (which eventually become platelets). Lymphoid progenitors differentiate into B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells.

Bone marrow cells are essential for maintaining a healthy blood cell count and immune system function. Abnormalities in bone marrow cells can lead to various medical conditions, such as anemia, leukopenia, leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, or thrombocytosis, depending on the specific type of blood cell affected. Additionally, bone marrow cells are often used in transplantation procedures to treat patients with certain types of cancer, such as leukemia and lymphoma, or other hematologic disorders.

A puncture, in medical terms, refers to a small hole or wound that is caused by a sharp object penetrating the skin or other body tissues. This can result in damage to underlying structures such as blood vessels, nerves, or organs, and may lead to complications such as bleeding, infection, or inflammation.

Punctures can occur accidentally, such as from stepping on a nail or getting pricked by a needle, or they can be inflicted intentionally, such as during medical procedures like injections or blood draws. In some cases, puncture wounds may require medical attention to clean and close the wound, prevent infection, and promote healing.

A stomach rupture, also known as gastrointestinal perforation, is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that occurs when there is a hole or tear in the lining of the stomach. This can allow the contents of the stomach to leak into the abdominal cavity, causing inflammation and infection (peritonitis).

Stomach rupture can be caused by several factors, including trauma, severe gastritis or ulcers, tumors, or certain medical procedures. Symptoms may include sudden and severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, and decreased bowel sounds. If left untreated, stomach rupture can lead to sepsis, organ failure, and even death. Treatment typically involves surgery to repair the perforation and antibiotics to treat any resulting infection.

A mouth neoplasm refers to an abnormal growth or tumor in the oral cavity, which can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Malignant mouth neoplasms are also known as oral cancer. They can develop on the lips, gums, tongue, roof and floor of the mouth, inside the cheeks, and in the oropharynx (the middle part of the throat at the back of the mouth).

Mouth neoplasms can have various causes, including genetic factors, tobacco use, alcohol consumption, and infection with human papillomavirus (HPV). Symptoms may include a lump or thickening in the oral soft tissues, white or red patches, persistent mouth sores, difficulty swallowing or speaking, and numbness in the mouth. Early detection and treatment of mouth neoplasms are crucial for improving outcomes and preventing complications.

Experimental neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that are induced and studied in a controlled laboratory setting, typically in animals or cell cultures. These studies are conducted to understand the fundamental mechanisms of cancer development, progression, and potential treatment strategies. By manipulating various factors such as genetic mutations, environmental exposures, and pharmacological interventions, researchers can gain valuable insights into the complex processes underlying neoplasm formation and identify novel targets for cancer therapy. It is important to note that experimental neoplasms may not always accurately represent human cancers, and further research is needed to translate these findings into clinically relevant applications.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid. It is the first antibody to be produced in response to an initial exposure to an antigen, making it an important part of the body's primary immune response. IgM antibodies are large molecules that are composed of five basic units, giving them a pentameric structure. They are primarily found on the surface of B cells as membrane-bound immunoglobulins (mlgM), where they function as receptors for antigens. Once an mlgM receptor binds to an antigen, it triggers the activation and differentiation of the B cell into a plasma cell that produces and secretes large amounts of soluble IgM antibodies.

IgM antibodies are particularly effective at agglutination (clumping) and complement activation, which makes them important in the early stages of an immune response to help clear pathogens from the bloodstream. However, they are not as stable or long-lived as other types of antibodies, such as IgG, and their levels tend to decline after the initial immune response has occurred.

In summary, Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is a type of antibody that plays a crucial role in the primary immune response to antigens by agglutination and complement activation. It is primarily found in the blood and lymph fluid, and it is produced by B cells after they are activated by an antigen.

Immunologic deficiency syndromes refer to a group of disorders characterized by defective functioning of the immune system, leading to increased susceptibility to infections and malignancies. These deficiencies can be primary (genetic or congenital) or secondary (acquired due to environmental factors, medications, or diseases).

Primary immunodeficiency syndromes (PIDS) are caused by inherited genetic mutations that affect the development and function of immune cells, such as T cells, B cells, and phagocytes. Examples include severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID), common variable immunodeficiency (CVID), Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, and X-linked agammaglobulinemia.

Secondary immunodeficiency syndromes can result from various factors, including:

1. HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection leads to the depletion of CD4+ T cells, causing profound immune dysfunction and increased vulnerability to opportunistic infections and malignancies.
2. Medications: Certain medications, such as chemotherapy, immunosuppressive drugs, and long-term corticosteroid use, can impair immune function and increase infection risk.
3. Malnutrition: Deficiencies in essential nutrients like protein, vitamins, and minerals can weaken the immune system and make individuals more susceptible to infections.
4. Aging: The immune system naturally declines with age, leading to an increased incidence of infections and poorer vaccine responses in older adults.
5. Other medical conditions: Chronic diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and chronic kidney or liver disease can also compromise the immune system and contribute to immunodeficiency syndromes.

Immunologic deficiency syndromes require appropriate diagnosis and management strategies, which may include antimicrobial therapy, immunoglobulin replacement, hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, or targeted treatments for the underlying cause.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

SCID mice is an acronym for Severe Combined Immunodeficiency mice. These are genetically modified mice that lack a functional immune system due to the mutation or knockout of several key genes required for immunity. This makes them ideal for studying the human immune system, infectious diseases, and cancer, as well as testing new therapies and treatments in a controlled environment without the risk of interference from the mouse's own immune system. SCID mice are often used in xenotransplantation studies, where human cells or tissues are transplanted into the mouse to study their behavior and interactions with the human immune system.

An abscess is a localized collection of pus caused by an infection. It is typically characterized by inflammation, redness, warmth, pain, and swelling in the affected area. Abscesses can form in various parts of the body, including the skin, teeth, lungs, brain, and abdominal organs. They are usually treated with antibiotics to eliminate the infection and may require drainage if they are large or located in a critical area. If left untreated, an abscess can lead to serious complications such as sepsis or organ failure.

Intra-abdominal infections (IAIs) refer to the invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms within the abdominopelvic cavity, which can lead to inflammation, abscess formation, and potentially sepsis if left untreated. These infections can arise from various sources, including perforations of the gastrointestinal tract, abdominal surgical procedures, or direct spread from neighboring organs. Commonly involved pathogens include bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Bacteroides fragilis, although fungi and viruses can also be implicated in certain situations.

IAIs are classified into two main categories: complicated and uncomplicated. Complicated IAIs involve deep-seated infections that spread beyond the confines of a single organ, often leading to abscess formation or peritonitis. Uncomplicated IAIs, on the other hand, are typically limited to a single organ, such as appendicitis or cholecystitis, without spreading to the peritoneal cavity.

Clinical manifestations of IAIs vary depending on the severity and location of the infection but may include abdominal pain, distention, nausea, vomiting, fever, and altered bowel habits. Diagnosis often relies on a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies (such as ultrasound or CT scan), and laboratory tests (including white blood cell count, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin levels). Treatment typically involves antibiotic therapy, source control (e.g., surgical intervention to repair perforations or drain abscesses), and supportive care.

Innate immunity, also known as non-specific immunity or natural immunity, is the inherent defense mechanism that provides immediate protection against potentially harmful pathogens (like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites) without the need for prior exposure. This type of immunity is present from birth and does not adapt to specific threats over time.

Innate immune responses involve various mechanisms such as:

1. Physical barriers: Skin and mucous membranes prevent pathogens from entering the body.
2. Chemical barriers: Enzymes, stomach acid, and lysozyme in tears, saliva, and sweat help to destroy or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
3. Cellular responses: Phagocytic cells (neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages) recognize and engulf foreign particles and pathogens, while natural killer (NK) cells target and eliminate virus-infected or cancerous cells.
4. Inflammatory response: When an infection occurs, the innate immune system triggers inflammation to increase blood flow, recruit immune cells, and remove damaged tissue.
5. Complement system: A group of proteins that work together to recognize and destroy pathogens directly or enhance phagocytosis by coating them with complement components (opsonization).

Innate immunity plays a crucial role in initiating the adaptive immune response, which is specific to particular pathogens and provides long-term protection through memory cells. Both innate and adaptive immunity work together to maintain overall immune homeostasis and protect the body from infections and diseases.

Edema is the medical term for swelling caused by excess fluid accumulation in the body tissues. It can affect any part of the body, but it's most commonly noticed in the hands, feet, ankles, and legs. Edema can be a symptom of various underlying medical conditions, such as heart failure, kidney disease, liver disease, or venous insufficiency.

The swelling occurs when the capillaries leak fluid into the surrounding tissues, causing them to become swollen and puffy. The excess fluid can also collect in the cavities of the body, leading to conditions such as pleural effusion (fluid around the lungs) or ascites (fluid in the abdominal cavity).

The severity of edema can vary from mild to severe, and it may be accompanied by other symptoms such as skin discoloration, stiffness, and pain. Treatment for edema depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, lifestyle changes, or medical procedures.

Capillary permeability refers to the ability of substances to pass through the walls of capillaries, which are the smallest blood vessels in the body. These tiny vessels connect the arterioles and venules, allowing for the exchange of nutrients, waste products, and gases between the blood and the surrounding tissues.

The capillary wall is composed of a single layer of endothelial cells that are held together by tight junctions. The permeability of these walls varies depending on the size and charge of the molecules attempting to pass through. Small, uncharged molecules such as water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide can easily diffuse through the capillary wall, while larger or charged molecules such as proteins and large ions have more difficulty passing through.

Increased capillary permeability can occur in response to inflammation, infection, or injury, allowing larger molecules and immune cells to enter the surrounding tissues. This can lead to swelling (edema) and tissue damage if not controlled. Decreased capillary permeability, on the other hand, can lead to impaired nutrient exchange and tissue hypoxia.

Overall, the permeability of capillaries is a critical factor in maintaining the health and function of tissues throughout the body.

A "mutant strain of mice" in a medical context refers to genetically engineered mice that have specific genetic mutations introduced into their DNA. These mutations can be designed to mimic certain human diseases or conditions, allowing researchers to study the underlying biological mechanisms and test potential therapies in a controlled laboratory setting.

Mutant strains of mice are created through various techniques, including embryonic stem cell manipulation, gene editing technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9, and radiation-induced mutagenesis. These methods allow scientists to introduce specific genetic changes into the mouse genome, resulting in mice that exhibit altered physiological or behavioral traits.

These strains of mice are widely used in biomedical research because their short lifespan, small size, and high reproductive rate make them an ideal model organism for studying human diseases. Additionally, the mouse genome has been well-characterized, and many genetic tools and resources are available to researchers working with these animals.

Examples of mutant strains of mice include those that carry mutations in genes associated with cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic diseases, and immunological conditions. These mice provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of human diseases and help advance our understanding of potential therapeutic interventions.

An abdominal hernia refers to the protrusion of an organ or tissue through a weakened area in the abdominal wall, resulting in a bulge. This condition can occur due to various factors such as congenital defects, aging, obesity, pregnancy, persistent coughing, or previous surgeries that have left behind weak spots in the abdominal wall.

There are several types of abdominal hernias, including:

1. Inguinal Hernia: This is the most common type of hernia, occurring when the intestine or bladder protrudes through the inguinal canal in the lower abdomen. Inguinal hernias are more prevalent in men than women.
2. Femoral Hernia: This type of hernia occurs when the intestine or fatty tissue pushes through a weakened area near the femoral artery, located in the upper thigh region. Femoral hernias are more common in women, especially those who are pregnant or obese.
3. Incisional Hernia: This type of hernia develops at the site of a previous abdominal surgery where the abdominal muscles have weakened or failed to heal properly.
4. Umbilical Hernia: An umbilical hernia occurs when the intestine protrudes through the abdominal wall near the navel, often visible as a bulge around the belly button. This type of hernia is more common in infants but can also affect adults, particularly those who are overweight or have had multiple pregnancies.
5. Epigastric Hernia: An epigastric hernia occurs when fatty tissue protrudes through a weakened area between the breastbone and the navel. These hernias are usually small and often painless but can cause discomfort or complications if they become incarcerated or strangulated.

Abdominal hernias can vary in size, from small and barely noticeable to large and severely painful. Symptoms may include a visible bulge, localized pain or discomfort, especially when lifting heavy objects, coughing, or straining during bowel movements. In some cases, hernias may become incarcerated (trapped) or strangulated (blood supply is cut off), which can lead to severe pain, nausea, vomiting, and require immediate medical attention.

Treatment for abdominal hernias typically involves surgical repair, either through open surgery or laparoscopic techniques. The choice of procedure depends on various factors, including the size and location of the hernia, the patient's overall health, and their personal preferences. In some cases, watchful waiting may be recommended for small, asymptomatic hernias, but it is essential to consult with a healthcare professional to determine the best course of action.

"CBA" is an abbreviation for a specific strain of inbred mice that were developed at the Cancer Research Institute in London. The "Inbred CBA" mice are genetically identical individuals within the same strain, due to many generations of brother-sister matings. This results in a homozygous population, making them valuable tools for research because they reduce variability and increase reproducibility in experimental outcomes.

The CBA strain is known for its susceptibility to certain diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer, which makes it a popular choice for researchers studying those conditions. Additionally, the CBA strain has been widely used in studies related to transplantation immunology, infectious diseases, and genetic research.

It's important to note that while "Inbred CBA" mice are a well-established and useful tool in biomedical research, they represent only one of many inbred strains available for scientific investigation. Each strain has its own unique characteristics and advantages, depending on the specific research question being asked.

Hydrothorax is a medical term that refers to the abnormal accumulation of serous fluid in the pleural space, which is the potential space between the lungs and the chest wall. This condition often results from various underlying pathological processes such as liver cirrhosis, heart failure, or kidney disease, where there is an imbalance in the body's fluid regulation leading to the accumulation of fluid in the pleural cavity. The presence of hydrothorax can cause respiratory distress and other symptoms related to lung function impairment.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

"Nude mice" is a term used in the field of laboratory research to describe a strain of mice that have been genetically engineered to lack a functional immune system. Specifically, nude mice lack a thymus gland and have a mutation in the FOXN1 gene, which results in a failure to develop a mature T-cell population. This means that they are unable to mount an effective immune response against foreign substances or organisms.

The name "nude" refers to the fact that these mice also have a lack of functional hair follicles, resulting in a hairless or partially hairless phenotype. This feature is actually a secondary consequence of the same genetic mutation that causes their immune deficiency.

Nude mice are commonly used in research because their weakened immune system makes them an ideal host for transplanted tumors, tissues, and cells from other species, including humans. This allows researchers to study the behavior of these foreign substances in a living organism without the complication of an immune response. However, it's important to note that because nude mice lack a functional immune system, they must be kept in sterile conditions and are more susceptible to infection than normal mice.

T-independent antigens are types of antigens that can stimulate an immune response without the help of T cells. They are typically small molecules with repetitive structures, such as polysaccharides found on bacterial cell walls, that can directly activate B cells through their surface receptors. This results in the production of antibodies specific to the antigen, but it does not lead to the development of immunological memory. Therefore, immunity to T-independent antigens is usually short-lived and provides limited protection against future infections.

Mesothelioma is a rare and aggressive form of cancer that develops in the mesothelial cells, which are the thin layers of tissue that cover many of the internal organs. The most common site for mesothelioma to occur is in the pleura, the membrane that surrounds the lungs. This type is called pleural mesothelioma. Other types include peritoneal mesothelioma (which occurs in the lining of the abdominal cavity) and pericardial mesothelioma (which occurs in the lining around the heart).

Mesothelioma is almost always caused by exposure to asbestos, a group of naturally occurring minerals that were widely used in construction, insulation, and other industries because of their heat resistance and insulating properties. When asbestos fibers are inhaled or ingested, they can become lodged in the mesothelium, leading to inflammation, scarring, and eventually cancerous changes in the cells.

The symptoms of mesothelioma can take many years to develop after exposure to asbestos, and they may include chest pain, coughing, shortness of breath, fatigue, and weight loss. Treatment options for mesothelioma depend on the stage and location of the cancer, but may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches. Unfortunately, the prognosis for mesothelioma is often poor, with a median survival time of around 12-18 months after diagnosis.

The Macrophage-1 Antigen (also known as Macrophage Antigen-1 or CD14) is a glycoprotein found on the surface of various cells, including monocytes, macrophages, and some dendritic cells. It functions as a receptor for complexes formed by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and LPS-binding protein (LBP), which are involved in the immune response to gram-negative bacteria. CD14 plays a crucial role in activating immune cells and initiating the release of proinflammatory cytokines upon recognizing bacterial components.

In summary, Macrophage-1 Antigen is a cell surface receptor that contributes to the recognition and response against gram-negative bacteria by interacting with LPS-LBP complexes.

Antibody-producing cells, also known as plasma cells, are a type of white blood cell that is responsible for producing and secreting antibodies in response to a foreign substance or antigen. These cells are derived from B lymphocytes, which become activated upon encountering an antigen and differentiate into plasma cells.

Once activated, plasma cells can produce large amounts of specific antibodies that bind to the antigen, marking it for destruction by other immune cells. Antibody-producing cells play a crucial role in the body's humoral immune response, which helps protect against infection and disease.

Passive immunization is a type of temporary immunity that is transferred to an individual through the injection of antibodies produced outside of the body, rather than through the active production of antibodies in the body in response to vaccination or infection. This can be done through the administration of preformed antibodies, such as immune globulins, which contain a mixture of antibodies that provide immediate protection against specific diseases.

Passive immunization is often used in situations where individuals have been exposed to a disease and do not have time to develop their own active immune response, or in cases where individuals are unable to produce an adequate immune response due to certain medical conditions. It can also be used as a short-term measure to provide protection until an individual can receive a vaccination that will confer long-term immunity.

Passive immunization provides immediate protection against disease, but the protection is typically short-lived, lasting only a few weeks or months. This is because the transferred antibodies are gradually broken down and eliminated by the body over time. In contrast, active immunization confers long-term immunity through the production of memory cells that can mount a rapid and effective immune response upon re-exposure to the same pathogen in the future.

Therapeutic irrigation, also known as lavage, is a medical procedure that involves the introduction of fluids or other agents into a body cavity or natural passageway for therapeutic purposes. This technique is used to cleanse, flush out, or introduce medication into various parts of the body, such as the bladder, lungs, stomach, or colon.

The fluid used in therapeutic irrigation can be sterile saline solution, distilled water, or a medicated solution, depending on the specific purpose of the procedure. The flow and pressure of the fluid are carefully controlled to ensure that it reaches the desired area without causing damage to surrounding tissues.

Therapeutic irrigation is used to treat a variety of medical conditions, including infections, inflammation, obstructions, and toxic exposures. It can also be used as a diagnostic tool to help identify abnormalities or lesions within body cavities.

Overall, therapeutic irrigation is a valuable technique in modern medicine that allows healthcare providers to deliver targeted treatment directly to specific areas of the body, improving patient outcomes and quality of life.

A dental cavity lining, also known as a dental restoration or filling, refers to the material used to fill and seal a tooth after decay has been removed. The purpose of the lining is to restore the function, integrity, and morphology of the tooth, while preventing further decay and infection. Common materials used for dental cavity linings include:

1. Amalgam: A mixture of metals, such as silver, tin, copper, and mercury, amalgam fillings are strong, durable, and resistant to wear. They are often used for posterior teeth that undergo heavy chewing forces. However, due to their dark color, they may be less aesthetically pleasing compared to other materials.
2. Composite resin: A tooth-colored material made of a mixture of plastic and glass particles, composite resins provide a more natural appearance and are often used for anterior teeth or cosmetic restorations. They bond directly to the tooth structure, which can help reinforce the remaining tooth structure. However, they may be less durable than amalgam fillings and may wear down or discolor over time.
3. Glass ionomer: A tooth-colored material made of acrylic and a type of glass, glass ionomers release fluoride, which can help protect the tooth from further decay. They are often used for fillings near the gum line, for cementing crowns or orthodontic appliances, or as a base layer under other restorative materials. Glass ionomers are less durable than composite resins and amalgam fillings and may not withstand heavy chewing forces as well.
4. Gold: A precious metal used for dental restorations, gold is highly durable, non-reactive, and resistant to corrosion. It can be used for inlays, onlays, or crowns and provides excellent longevity. However, due to its high cost and less desirable aesthetics, it is not as commonly used as other materials.
5. Porcelain: A ceramic material that can be matched to the color of natural teeth, porcelain is often used for inlays, onlays, crowns, or veneers. It provides excellent aesthetics and durability but may be more brittle than other materials and requires a skilled dental technician for fabrication.

Ultimately, the choice of restorative material depends on several factors, including the location and extent of the decay, the patient's oral health status, aesthetic preferences, and budget. Dentists will consider these factors when recommending the most appropriate material for a specific situation.

Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside certain bones in the body, such as the hips, thighs, and vertebrae. It is responsible for producing blood-forming cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. There are two types of bone marrow: red marrow, which is involved in blood cell production, and yellow marrow, which contains fatty tissue.

Red bone marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells, which can differentiate into various types of blood cells. These stem cells continuously divide and mature to produce new blood cells that are released into the circulation. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body, white blood cells help fight infections, and platelets play a crucial role in blood clotting.

Bone marrow also serves as a site for immune cell development and maturation. It contains various types of immune cells, such as lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells, which help protect the body against infections and diseases.

Abnormalities in bone marrow function can lead to several medical conditions, including anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, and various types of cancer, such as leukemia and multiple myeloma. Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy are common diagnostic procedures used to evaluate bone marrow health and function.

Eosinophils are a type of white blood cell that play an important role in the body's immune response. They are produced in the bone marrow and released into the bloodstream, where they can travel to different tissues and organs throughout the body. Eosinophils are characterized by their granules, which contain various proteins and enzymes that are toxic to parasites and can contribute to inflammation.

Eosinophils are typically associated with allergic reactions, asthma, and other inflammatory conditions. They can also be involved in the body's response to certain infections, particularly those caused by parasites such as worms. In some cases, elevated levels of eosinophils in the blood or tissues (a condition called eosinophilia) can indicate an underlying medical condition, such as a parasitic infection, autoimmune disorder, or cancer.

Eosinophils are named for their staining properties - they readily take up eosin dye, which is why they appear pink or red under the microscope. They make up only about 1-6% of circulating white blood cells in healthy individuals, but their numbers can increase significantly in response to certain triggers.

Chemotactic factors are substances that attract or repel cells, particularly immune cells, by stimulating directional movement in response to a chemical gradient. These factors play a crucial role in the body's immune response and inflammation process. They include:

1. Chemokines: A family of small signaling proteins that direct the migration of immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage.
2. Cytokines: A broad category of signaling molecules that mediate and regulate immunity, inflammation, and hematopoiesis. Some cytokines can also act as chemotactic factors.
3. Complement components: Cleavage products of the complement system can attract immune cells to the site of infection or tissue injury.
4. Growth factors: Certain growth factors, like colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), can stimulate the migration and proliferation of specific cell types.
5. Lipid mediators: Products derived from arachidonic acid metabolism, such as leukotrienes and prostaglandins, can also act as chemotactic factors.
6. Formyl peptides: Bacterial-derived formylated peptides can attract and activate neutrophils during an infection.
7. Extracellular matrix (ECM) components: Fragments of ECM proteins, like collagen and fibronectin, can serve as chemotactic factors for immune cells.

These factors help orchestrate the immune response by guiding the movement of immune cells to specific locations in the body where they are needed.

Diffusion chambers are devices used in tissue culture and microbiology to maintain a sterile environment while allowing for the exchange of nutrients, gases, or other molecules between two separate environments. In the context of cell or tissue culture, diffusion chambers are often used to maintain cells or tissues in a controlled environment while allowing them to interact with other cells, molecules, or drugs present in a separate compartment.

Culture diffusion chambers typically consist of two compartments separated by a semi-permeable membrane that allows for the passive diffusion of small molecules. One compartment contains the cells or tissues of interest, while the other compartment may contain various nutrients, growth factors, drugs, or other substances to be tested.

The use of diffusion chambers in cell and tissue culture has several advantages, including:

1. Maintaining a sterile environment for the cells or tissues being cultured.
2. Allowing for the exchange of nutrients, gases, or other molecules between the two compartments.
3. Enabling the study of cell-cell interactions and the effects of various substances on cell behavior without direct contact between the cells and the test substance.
4. Providing a means to culture sensitive or difficult-to-grow cells in a controlled environment.

Diffusion chambers are widely used in research settings, particularly in the fields of cell biology, tissue engineering, and drug development.

Antibody formation, also known as humoral immune response, is the process by which the immune system produces proteins called antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign substance (antigen) in the body. This process involves several steps:

1. Recognition: The antigen is recognized and bound by a type of white blood cell called a B lymphocyte or B cell, which then becomes activated.
2. Differentiation: The activated B cell undergoes differentiation to become a plasma cell, which is a type of cell that produces and secretes large amounts of antibodies.
3. Antibody production: The plasma cells produce and release antibodies, which are proteins made up of four polypeptide chains (two heavy chains and two light chains) arranged in a Y-shape. Each antibody has two binding sites that can recognize and bind to specific regions on the antigen called epitopes.
4. Neutralization or elimination: The antibodies bind to the antigens, neutralizing them or marking them for destruction by other immune cells. This helps to prevent the spread of infection and protect the body from harmful substances.

Antibody formation is an important part of the adaptive immune response, which allows the body to specifically recognize and respond to a wide variety of pathogens and foreign substances.

Heterologous transplantation is a type of transplantation where an organ or tissue is transferred from one species to another. This is in contrast to allogeneic transplantation, where the donor and recipient are of the same species, or autologous transplantation, where the donor and recipient are the same individual.

In heterologous transplantation, the immune systems of the donor and recipient are significantly different, which can lead to a strong immune response against the transplanted organ or tissue. This is known as a graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), where the immune cells in the transplanted tissue attack the recipient's body.

Heterologous transplantation is not commonly performed in clinical medicine due to the high risk of rejection and GVHD. However, it may be used in research settings to study the biology of transplantation and to develop new therapies for transplant rejection.

Hemodialysis solutions are sterile, pyrogen-free fluids used in the process of hemodialysis, a renal replacement therapy for patients with kidney failure. These solutions are formulated to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood by means of diffusion and osmosis across a semipermeable membrane.

The primary components of hemodialysis solutions include:

1. Electrolytes: Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and magnesium ions are present in concentrations that aim to restore normal levels in the body or to correct for abnormalities in patients' serum electrolyte levels.
2. Buffer: Bicarbonate or acetate is added as a buffer to maintain the pH of the dialysate and prevent acidification of the blood during hemodialysis.
3. Glucose: A small amount of glucose may be included in the solution to provide energy for the patient.
4. Water: Ultrapure water is used to prepare the solution, free from microbial contaminants and endotoxins.

Hemodialysis solutions are available in different concentrations and formulations to address individual patient needs and specific clinical situations. The composition of these solutions must be carefully controlled to ensure their effectiveness and safety during hemodialysis treatments.

Neoplasm seeding, also known as tumor seeding or iatrogenic implantation, is a rare complication that can occur during surgical procedures. It refers to the accidental spread of cancer cells from the primary tumor site to other locations in the body, usually along the path of a surgical incision or via bodily fluids. This can result in new tumor growths (metastases) at these sites, which may complicate treatment and worsen the patient's prognosis.

Neoplasm seeding is more commonly associated with certain types of surgeries, such as those involving the liver, pancreas, or other organs with highly vascular tumors. It can also occur during biopsy procedures, where a needle is used to remove tissue samples for diagnostic purposes. While neoplasm seeding is a known risk of these procedures, it is relatively uncommon and often outweighed by the benefits of timely and effective treatment.

Lymphoid tissue is a specialized type of connective tissue that is involved in the immune function of the body. It is composed of lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell), which are responsible for producing antibodies and destroying infected or cancerous cells. Lymphoid tissue can be found throughout the body, but it is particularly concentrated in certain areas such as the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, and Peyer's patches in the small intestine.

Lymphoid tissue provides a site for the activation, proliferation, and differentiation of lymphocytes, which are critical components of the adaptive immune response. It also serves as a filter for foreign particles, such as bacteria and viruses, that may enter the body through various routes. The lymphatic system, which includes lymphoid tissue, helps to maintain the health and integrity of the body by protecting it from infection and disease.

The abdominal wall refers to the group of muscles, fascia (sheaths of connective tissue), and skin that make up the front and sides of the abdomen, extending from the thorax (chest) to the pelvis. It provides protection to the abdominal organs, supports the trunk, and allows for movement of the torso.

The main muscles of the anterior abdominal wall include:

1. Rectus sheaths (Rectus Abdominis): paired vertical muscles running from the pubic symphysis to the xiphoid process and costal cartilages of ribs 5-7.
2. External obliques: thin, irregular muscles that lie over the lower part of the abdomen and run diagonally downward and forward from the lower ribs to the iliac crest (pelvic bone) and pubic tubercle.
3. Internal obliques: thicker muscles that lie under the external obliques, running diagonally upward and forward from the iliac crest to the lower ribs.
4. Transverse abdominis: deepest of the abdominal muscles, lying horizontally across the abdomen, attaching from the lower ribs to the pelvis.

These muscles are interconnected by various layers of fascia and aponeuroses (flat, broad tendons), forming a complex structure that allows for both stability and mobility. The linea alba, a fibrous band, runs down the midline of the anterior abdominal wall, connecting the rectus sheaths.

Damage to the abdominal wall can occur due to trauma, surgery, or various medical conditions, which may require surgical intervention for repair.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Sarcoma, Experimental" is not a recognized medical term or definition. Sarcomas are a type of cancer that develop in the body's connective tissues, such as bones, muscles, tendons, cartilage, and fat. There are many different types of sarcomas, classified based on the specific type of tissue they originate from.

Experimental, on the other hand, refers to something that is being tested or tried out for the first time, typically as part of a scientific experiment or clinical trial. In the context of cancer treatment, an experimental therapy might refer to a new drug, procedure, or device that is still being studied in clinical trials to determine its safety and effectiveness.

Therefore, "Sarcoma, Experimental" could potentially refer to a clinical trial or research study involving a new treatment for sarcoma, but it would not be a medical definition in and of itself. If you have any specific questions about sarcomas or experimental treatments, I would recommend consulting with a healthcare professional or medical researcher for more accurate information.

Lymph nodes are small, bean-shaped organs that are part of the immune system. They are found throughout the body, especially in the neck, armpits, groin, and abdomen. Lymph nodes filter lymph fluid, which carries waste and unwanted substances such as bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells. They contain white blood cells called lymphocytes that help fight infections and diseases by attacking and destroying the harmful substances found in the lymph fluid. When an infection or disease is present, lymph nodes may swell due to the increased number of immune cells and fluid accumulation as they work to fight off the invaders.

"Listeria monocytogenes" is a gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that is a major cause of foodborne illness. It is widely distributed in the environment and can be found in water, soil, vegetation, and various animal species. This pathogen is particularly notable for its ability to grow at low temperatures, allowing it to survive and multiply in refrigerated foods.

In humans, Listeria monocytogenes can cause a serious infection known as listeriosis, which primarily affects pregnant women, newborns, older adults, and individuals with weakened immune systems. The bacterium can cross the intestinal barrier, enter the bloodstream, and spread to the central nervous system, causing meningitis or encephalitis. Pregnant women infected with Listeria monocytogenes may experience mild flu-like symptoms but are at risk of transmitting the infection to their unborn children, which can result in stillbirth, premature delivery, or severe illness in newborns.

Common sources of Listeria monocytogenes include raw or undercooked meat, poultry, and seafood; unpasteurized dairy products; and ready-to-eat foods like deli meats, hot dogs, and soft cheeses. Proper food handling, cooking, and storage practices can help prevent listeriosis.

T-lymphocytes, also known as T-cells, are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the adaptive immune system's response to infection. They are produced in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland. There are several different types of T-cells, including CD4+ helper T-cells, CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells, and regulatory T-cells (Tregs).

CD4+ helper T-cells assist in activating other immune cells, such as B-lymphocytes and macrophages. They also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help coordinate the immune response. CD8+ cytotoxic T-cells directly kill infected cells by releasing toxic substances. Regulatory T-cells help maintain immune tolerance and prevent autoimmune diseases by suppressing the activity of other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes are important in the immune response to viral infections, cancer, and other diseases. Dysfunction or depletion of T-cells can lead to immunodeficiency and increased susceptibility to infections. On the other hand, an overactive T-cell response can contribute to autoimmune diseases and chronic inflammation.

Macrophage-activating factors (MAFs) are substances that stimulate the activation and function of macrophages, which are a type of white blood cell involved in the immune response. These factors can be produced by various cells, including T lymphocytes, and can enhance the ability of macrophages to phagocytize (ingest and destroy) foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses, and to produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that mediate and regulate the immune response.

MAFs can be classified into two main groups: endogenous and exogenous. Endogenous MAFs are produced by cells of the body in response to various stimuli, such as infection or inflammation. Examples of endogenous MAFs include interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Exogenous MAFs, on the other hand, are substances that are introduced into the body from outside sources, such as bacterial toxins or synthetic compounds, and can also activate macrophages.

MAFs play an important role in the immune response by helping to coordinate the activities of different types of immune cells and regulate the intensity and duration of the immune response. Dysregulation of MAF production or activity has been implicated in various diseases, including autoimmune disorders, chronic infections, and cancer.

ICR (Institute of Cancer Research) is a strain of albino Swiss mice that are widely used in scientific research. They are an outbred strain, which means that they have been bred to maintain maximum genetic heterogeneity. However, it is also possible to find inbred strains of ICR mice, which are genetically identical individuals produced by many generations of brother-sister mating.

Inbred ICR mice are a specific type of ICR mouse that has been inbred for at least 20 generations. This means that they have a high degree of genetic uniformity and are essentially genetically identical to one another. Inbred strains of mice are often used in research because their genetic consistency makes them more reliable models for studying biological phenomena and testing new therapies or treatments.

It is important to note that while inbred ICR mice may be useful for certain types of research, they do not necessarily represent the genetic diversity found in human populations. Therefore, it is important to consider the limitations of using any animal model when interpreting research findings and applying them to human health.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Carcinoma, Ehrlich Tumor" is not a recognized medical term or a valid medical definition. The term "Ehrlich tumor" is sometimes used to refer to a type of transplantable tumor that was first developed by the German physician Paul Ehrlich in the early 20th century for cancer research purposes. However, it's important to note that this type of tumor is not a naturally occurring cancer and is typically used only in laboratory experiments.

Carcinoma, on the other hand, is a medical term that refers to a type of cancer that starts in cells that line the inner or outer surfaces of organs. Carcinomas can develop in various parts of the body, including the lungs, breasts, colon, and skin.

If you have any specific questions about cancer or a particular medical condition, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you.

Ficoll is not a medical term itself, but it is a type of synthetic polymer that is often used in laboratory settings for various medical and scientific purposes. Ficoll is a high-molecular-weight coopolymer of sucrose and epichlorohydrin, which forms a highly flexible and soluble structure with unique physical properties.

In medicine and research, Ficoll is commonly used as a component in density gradient media for the separation and purification of biological cells, viruses, and other particles based on their size, density, or sedimentation rate. The most common application of Ficoll is in the preparation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from whole blood samples.

Ficoll-Paque is a commercially available density gradient medium that contains Ficoll and a high-density solution of sodium diatrizoate. When a blood sample is layered onto the Ficoll-Paque solution and centrifuged, the various cell types in the blood separate into distinct bands based on their densities. The PBMCs, which include lymphocytes, monocytes, and other immune cells, collect at the interface between the Ficoll layer and the plasma layer, allowing for easy isolation and further analysis.

Therefore, while not a medical term itself, Ficoll plays an essential role in many laboratory procedures used in medical research and diagnostics.

The umbilicus, also known as the navel, is the scar left on the abdominal wall after the removal of the umbilical cord in a newborn. The umbilical cord connects the developing fetus to the placenta in the uterus during pregnancy, providing essential nutrients and oxygen while removing waste products. After birth, the cord is clamped and cut, leaving behind a small stump that eventually dries up and falls off, leaving the umbilicus. In adults, it typically appears as a slight depression or dimple on the abdomen.

A diaphragm is a thin, dome-shaped muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It plays a vital role in the process of breathing as it contracts and flattens to draw air into the lungs (inhalation) and relaxes and returns to its domed shape to expel air out of the lungs (exhalation).

In addition, a diaphragm is also a type of barrier method of birth control. It is a flexible dome-shaped device made of silicone that fits over the cervix inside the vagina. When used correctly and consistently, it prevents sperm from entering the uterus and fertilizing an egg, thereby preventing pregnancy.

Foreign-body migration is a medical condition that occurs when a foreign object, such as a surgical implant, tissue graft, or trauma-induced fragment, moves from its original position within the body to a different location. This displacement can cause various complications and symptoms depending on the type of foreign body, the location it migrated to, and the individual's specific physiological response.

Foreign-body migration may result from insufficient fixation or anchoring of the object during implantation, inadequate wound healing, infection, or an inflammatory reaction. Symptoms can include pain, swelling, redness, or infection at the new location, as well as potential damage to surrounding tissues and organs. Diagnosis typically involves imaging techniques like X-rays, CT scans, or MRIs to locate the foreign body, followed by a surgical procedure to remove it and address any resulting complications.

The thoracic cavity is the medical term for the chest region that lies between the neck and the diaphragm. It is one of the main body cavities, enclosed by the ribcage and protected by the sternum in front and the vertebral column behind. This cavity contains vital organs such as the heart and lungs, along with the esophagus, trachea, thoracic aorta, and various nerves and blood vessels. The thoracic cavity is lined by a serous membrane called the pleura, which covers the lungs (visceral pleura) and lines the inner surface of the chest wall (parietal pleura). This cavity plays a crucial role in respiration and protection of vital organs.

Cell differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell, or stem cell, becomes a more specialized cell type with specific functions and structures. This process involves changes in gene expression, which are regulated by various intracellular signaling pathways and transcription factors. Differentiation results in the development of distinct cell types that make up tissues and organs in multicellular organisms. It is a crucial aspect of embryonic development, tissue repair, and maintenance of homeostasis in the body.

Granulocytes are a type of white blood cell that plays a crucial role in the body's immune system. They are called granulocytes because they contain small granules in their cytoplasm, which are filled with various enzymes and proteins that help them fight off infections and destroy foreign substances.

There are three types of granulocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Neutrophils are the most abundant type and are primarily responsible for fighting bacterial infections. Eosinophils play a role in defending against parasitic infections and regulating immune responses. Basophils are involved in inflammatory reactions and allergic responses.

Granulocytes are produced in the bone marrow and released into the bloodstream, where they circulate and patrol for any signs of infection or foreign substances. When they encounter a threat, they quickly move to the site of infection or injury and release their granules to destroy the invading organisms or substances.

Abnormal levels of granulocytes in the blood can indicate an underlying medical condition, such as an infection, inflammation, or a bone marrow disorder.

4-Methoxy-N-methylphenethylamine (also known as 4-MeO-N-MEPEA or 4-MeO-PMA) is a synthetic psychoactive substance that belongs to the phenethylamine class. It is a designer drug, which means it is manufactured and distributed for recreational use as an alternative to illegal drugs.

It acts as a stimulant and entactogen, producing effects similar to those of MDMA (ecstasy) but with less potency. The compound has been linked to several cases of severe intoxication, including fatalities, due to its ability to increase heart rate and blood pressure, cause dehydration, hyperthermia, and serotonin syndrome.

It is important to note that the use of 4-Methoxy-N-methylphenethylamine and other designer drugs can be dangerous and illegal in many jurisdictions. Always consult a medical professional for accurate information regarding specific substances.

Echinococcosis, hepatic is a type of parasitic infection caused by the larval stage of the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. The infection typically occurs when a person accidentally ingests microscopic eggs of the tapeworm, which can be present in contaminated food, water, or soil.

Once inside the body, the eggs hatch and release larvae that can migrate to various organs, including the liver. In the liver, the larvae form hydatid cysts, which are fluid-filled sacs that can grow slowly over several years, causing symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and jaundice.

Hepatic echinococcosis is a serious condition that can lead to complications such as cyst rupture, infection, or organ damage if left untreated. Treatment options include surgery to remove the cysts, medication to kill the parasites, or a combination of both. Prevention measures include good hygiene practices, avoiding contact with contaminated soil or water, and cooking meat thoroughly before eating it.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

Monoclonal antibodies are a type of antibody that are identical because they are produced by a single clone of cells. They are laboratory-produced molecules that act like human antibodies in the immune system. They can be designed to attach to specific proteins found on the surface of cancer cells, making them useful for targeting and treating cancer. Monoclonal antibodies can also be used as a therapy for other diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

Monoclonal antibodies are produced by fusing a single type of immune cell, called a B cell, with a tumor cell to create a hybrid cell, or hybridoma. This hybrid cell is then able to replicate indefinitely, producing a large number of identical copies of the original antibody. These antibodies can be further modified and engineered to enhance their ability to bind to specific targets, increase their stability, and improve their effectiveness as therapeutic agents.

Monoclonal antibodies have several mechanisms of action in cancer therapy. They can directly kill cancer cells by binding to them and triggering an immune response. They can also block the signals that promote cancer growth and survival. Additionally, monoclonal antibodies can be used to deliver drugs or radiation directly to cancer cells, increasing the effectiveness of these treatments while minimizing their side effects on healthy tissues.

Monoclonal antibodies have become an important tool in modern medicine, with several approved for use in cancer therapy and other diseases. They are continuing to be studied and developed as a promising approach to treating a wide range of medical conditions.

Albumins are a type of protein found in various biological fluids, including blood plasma. The most well-known albumin is serum albumin, which is produced by the liver and is the most abundant protein in blood plasma. Serum albumin plays several important roles in the body, such as maintaining oncotic pressure (which helps to regulate fluid balance in the body), transporting various substances (such as hormones, fatty acids, and drugs), and acting as an antioxidant.

Albumins are soluble in water and have a molecular weight ranging from 65,000 to 69,000 daltons. They are composed of a single polypeptide chain that contains approximately 585 amino acid residues. The structure of albumin is characterized by a high proportion of alpha-helices and beta-sheets, which give it a stable, folded conformation.

In addition to their role in human physiology, albumins are also used as diagnostic markers in medicine. For example, low serum albumin levels may indicate liver disease, malnutrition, or inflammation, while high levels may be seen in dehydration or certain types of kidney disease. Albumins may also be used as a replacement therapy in patients with severe protein loss, such as those with nephrotic syndrome or burn injuries.

Monocytes are a type of white blood cell that are part of the immune system. They are large cells with a round or oval shape and a nucleus that is typically indented or horseshoe-shaped. Monocytes are produced in the bone marrow and then circulate in the bloodstream, where they can differentiate into other types of immune cells such as macrophages and dendritic cells.

Monocytes play an important role in the body's defense against infection and tissue damage. They are able to engulf and digest foreign particles, microorganisms, and dead or damaged cells, which helps to clear them from the body. Monocytes also produce cytokines, which are signaling molecules that help to coordinate the immune response.

Elevated levels of monocytes in the bloodstream can be a sign of an ongoing infection, inflammation, or other medical conditions such as cancer or autoimmune disorders.

Transgenic mice are genetically modified rodents that have incorporated foreign DNA (exogenous DNA) into their own genome. This is typically done through the use of recombinant DNA technology, where a specific gene or genetic sequence of interest is isolated and then introduced into the mouse embryo. The resulting transgenic mice can then express the protein encoded by the foreign gene, allowing researchers to study its function in a living organism.

The process of creating transgenic mice usually involves microinjecting the exogenous DNA into the pronucleus of a fertilized egg, which is then implanted into a surrogate mother. The offspring that result from this procedure are screened for the presence of the foreign DNA, and those that carry the desired genetic modification are used to establish a transgenic mouse line.

Transgenic mice have been widely used in biomedical research to model human diseases, study gene function, and test new therapies. They provide a valuable tool for understanding complex biological processes and developing new treatments for a variety of medical conditions.

Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.

Nose neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the nasal cavity or paranasal sinuses. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow-growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms can invade surrounding tissues and have the potential to metastasize.

Nose neoplasms can cause various symptoms such as nasal congestion, nosebleeds, difficulty breathing through the nose, loss of smell, facial pain or numbness, and visual changes if they affect the eye. The diagnosis of nose neoplasms usually involves a combination of physical examination, imaging studies (such as CT or MRI scans), and biopsy to determine the type and extent of the growth. Treatment options depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the neoplasm and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

'Immune sera' refers to the serum fraction of blood that contains antibodies produced in response to an antigenic stimulus, such as a vaccine or an infection. These antibodies are proteins known as immunoglobulins, which are secreted by B cells (a type of white blood cell) and can recognize and bind to specific antigens. Immune sera can be collected from an immunized individual and used as a source of passive immunity to protect against infection or disease. It is often used in research and diagnostic settings to identify or measure the presence of specific antigens or antibodies.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rabbits" is a common name used to refer to the Lagomorpha species, particularly members of the family Leporidae. They are small mammals known for their long ears, strong legs, and quick reproduction.

However, if you're referring to "rabbits" in a medical context, there is a term called "rabbit syndrome," which is a rare movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements of the fingers, resembling those of a rabbit chewing. It is also known as "finger-chewing chorea." This condition is usually associated with certain medications, particularly antipsychotics, and typically resolves when the medication is stopped or adjusted.

An anastomotic leak is a medical condition that occurs after a surgical procedure where two hollow organs or vessels are connected (anastomosed). It refers to the failure of the connection, resulting in a communication between the inside of the connected structures and the outside, which can lead to the escape of fluids, such as digestive contents or blood, into the surrounding tissues.

Anastomotic leaks can occur in various parts of the body where anastomoses are performed, including the gastrointestinal tract, vasculature, and respiratory system. The leakage can cause localized or systemic infection, inflammation, sepsis, organ failure, or even death if not promptly diagnosed and treated.

The risk of anastomotic leaks depends on several factors, such as the patient's overall health, the type and location of the surgery, the quality of the surgical technique, and the presence of any underlying medical conditions that may affect wound healing. Treatment options for anastomotic leaks vary depending on the severity and location of the leak, ranging from conservative management with antibiotics and bowel rest to surgical intervention, such as drainage, revision of the anastomosis, or resection of the affected segment.

Epithelium is the tissue that covers the outer surface of the body, lines the internal cavities and organs, and forms various glands. It is composed of one or more layers of tightly packed cells that have a uniform shape and size, and rest on a basement membrane. Epithelial tissues are avascular, meaning they do not contain blood vessels, and are supplied with nutrients by diffusion from the underlying connective tissue.

Epithelial cells perform a variety of functions, including protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensation. They can be classified based on their shape and the number of cell layers they contain. The main types of epithelium are:

1. Squamous epithelium: composed of flat, scalelike cells that fit together like tiles on a roof. It forms the lining of blood vessels, air sacs in the lungs, and the outermost layer of the skin.
2. Cuboidal epithelium: composed of cube-shaped cells with equal height and width. It is found in glands, tubules, and ducts.
3. Columnar epithelium: composed of tall, rectangular cells that are taller than they are wide. It lines the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
4. Pseudostratified epithelium: appears stratified or layered but is actually made up of a single layer of cells that vary in height. The nuclei of these cells appear at different levels, giving the tissue a stratified appearance. It lines the respiratory and reproductive tracts.
5. Transitional epithelium: composed of several layers of cells that can stretch and change shape to accommodate changes in volume. It is found in the urinary bladder and ureters.

Epithelial tissue provides a barrier between the internal and external environments, protecting the body from physical, chemical, and biological damage. It also plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating the exchange of substances between the body and its environment.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Intravenous injections are a type of medical procedure where medication or fluids are administered directly into a vein using a needle and syringe. This route of administration is also known as an IV injection. The solution injected enters the patient's bloodstream immediately, allowing for rapid absorption and onset of action. Intravenous injections are commonly used to provide quick relief from symptoms, deliver medications that are not easily absorbed by other routes, or administer fluids and electrolytes in cases of dehydration or severe illness. It is important that intravenous injections are performed using aseptic technique to minimize the risk of infection.

An ovarian cyst is a sac or pouch filled with fluid that forms on the ovary. Ovarian cysts are quite common in women during their childbearing years, and they often cause no symptoms. In most cases, ovarian cysts disappear without treatment over a few months. However, larger or persistent cysts may require medical intervention, including surgical removal.

There are various types of ovarian cysts, such as functional cysts (follicular and corpus luteum cysts), which develop during the menstrual cycle due to hormonal changes, and non-functional cysts (dermoid cysts, endometriomas, and cystadenomas), which can form due to different causes.

While many ovarian cysts are benign, some may have malignant potential or indicate an underlying medical condition like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Regular gynecological check-ups, including pelvic examinations and ultrasounds, can help detect and monitor ovarian cysts.

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell that is an essential part of the immune system. They are responsible for recognizing and responding to potentially harmful substances such as viruses, bacteria, and other foreign invaders. There are two main types of lymphocytes: B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells).

B-lymphocytes produce antibodies, which are proteins that help to neutralize or destroy foreign substances. When a B-cell encounters a foreign substance, it becomes activated and begins to divide and differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large amounts of antibodies. These antibodies bind to the foreign substance, marking it for destruction by other immune cells.

T-lymphocytes, on the other hand, are involved in cell-mediated immunity. They directly attack and destroy infected cells or cancerous cells. T-cells can also help to regulate the immune response by producing chemical signals that activate or inhibit other immune cells.

Lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow and mature in either the bone marrow (B-cells) or the thymus gland (T-cells). They circulate throughout the body in the blood and lymphatic system, where they can be found in high concentrations in lymph nodes, the spleen, and other lymphoid organs.

Abnormalities in the number or function of lymphocytes can lead to a variety of immune-related disorders, including immunodeficiency diseases, autoimmune disorders, and cancer.

Indwelling catheters, also known as Foley catheters, are medical devices that are inserted into the bladder to drain urine. They have a small balloon at the tip that is inflated with water once the catheter is in the correct position in the bladder, allowing it to remain in place and continuously drain urine. Indwelling catheters are typically used for patients who are unable to empty their bladders on their own, such as those who are bedridden or have nerve damage that affects bladder function. They are also used during and after certain surgical procedures. Prolonged use of indwelling catheters can increase the risk of urinary tract infections and other complications.

A capsule is a type of solid pharmaceutical dosage form in which the drug is enclosed in a small shell or container, usually composed of gelatin or other suitable material. The shell serves to protect the drug from degradation, improve its stability and shelf life, and facilitate swallowing by making it easier to consume. Capsules come in various sizes and colors and can contain one or more drugs in powder, liquid, or solid form. They are typically administered orally but can also be used for other routes of administration, such as rectal or vaginal.

A radiation chimera is not a widely used or recognized medical term. However, in the field of genetics and radiation biology, a "chimera" refers to an individual that contains cells with different genetic backgrounds. A radiation chimera, therefore, could refer to an organism that has become a chimera as a result of exposure to radiation, which can cause mutations and changes in the genetic makeup of cells.

Ionizing radiation, such as that used in cancer treatments or nuclear accidents, can cause DNA damage and mutations in cells. If an organism is exposed to radiation and some of its cells undergo mutations while others do not, this could result in a chimera with genetically distinct populations of cells.

However, it's important to note that the term "radiation chimera" is not commonly used in medical literature or clinical settings. If you encounter this term in a different context, I would recommend seeking clarification from the source to ensure a proper understanding.

An antigen is a substance (usually a protein) that is recognized as foreign by the immune system and stimulates an immune response, leading to the production of antibodies or activation of T-cells. Antigens can be derived from various sources, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and tumor cells. They can also come from non-living substances such as pollen, dust mites, or chemicals.

Antigens contain epitopes, which are specific regions on the antigen molecule that are recognized by the immune system. The immune system's response to an antigen depends on several factors, including the type of antigen, its size, and its location in the body.

In general, antigens can be classified into two main categories:

1. T-dependent antigens: These require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are typically larger, more complex molecules that contain multiple epitopes capable of binding to both MHC class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells and T-cell receptors on CD4+ T-cells.
2. T-independent antigens: These do not require the help of T-cells to stimulate an immune response. They are usually smaller, simpler molecules that contain repetitive epitopes capable of cross-linking B-cell receptors and activating them directly.

Understanding antigens and their properties is crucial for developing vaccines, diagnostic tests, and immunotherapies.

'DBA' is an abbreviation for 'Database of Genotypes and Phenotypes,' but in the context of "Inbred DBA mice," it refers to a specific strain of laboratory mice that have been inbred for many generations. The DBA strain is one of the oldest inbred strains, and it was established in 1909 by C.C. Little at the Bussey Institute of Harvard University.

The "Inbred DBA" mice are genetically identical mice that have been produced by brother-sister matings for more than 20 generations. This extensive inbreeding results in a homozygous population, where all members of the strain have the same genetic makeup. The DBA strain is further divided into several sub-strains, including DBA/1, DBA/2, and DBA/J, among others.

DBA mice are known for their black coat color, which can fade to gray with age, and they exhibit a range of phenotypic traits that make them useful for research purposes. For example, DBA mice have a high incidence of retinal degeneration, making them a valuable model for studying eye diseases. They also show differences in behavior, immune response, and susceptibility to various diseases compared to other inbred strains.

In summary, "Inbred DBA" mice are a specific strain of laboratory mice that have been inbred for many generations, resulting in a genetically identical population with distinct phenotypic traits. They are widely used in biomedical research to study various diseases and biological processes.

Iodine radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element iodine, which decays and emits radiation in the form of gamma rays. Some commonly used iodine radioisotopes include I-123, I-125, I-131. These radioisotopes have various medical applications such as in diagnostic imaging, therapy for thyroid disorders, and cancer treatment.

For example, I-131 is commonly used to treat hyperthyroidism and differentiated thyroid cancer due to its ability to destroy thyroid tissue. On the other hand, I-123 is often used in nuclear medicine scans of the thyroid gland because it emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera, allowing for detailed images of the gland's structure and function.

It is important to note that handling and administering radioisotopes require specialized training and safety precautions due to their radiation-emitting properties.

Electron microscopy (EM) is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the sample being examined, resulting in much higher magnification and resolution than light microscopy. There are several types of electron microscopy, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and reflection electron microscopy (REM).

In TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin slice of the sample, and the electrons that pass through the sample are focused to form an image. This technique can provide detailed information about the internal structure of cells, viruses, and other biological specimens, as well as the composition and structure of materials at the atomic level.

In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of the sample, and the electrons that are scattered back from the surface are detected to create an image. This technique can provide information about the topography and composition of surfaces, as well as the structure of materials at the microscopic level.

REM is a variation of SEM in which the beam of electrons is reflected off the surface of the sample, rather than scattered back from it. This technique can provide information about the surface chemistry and composition of materials.

Electron microscopy has a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and materials science, including the study of cellular structure and function, disease diagnosis, and the development of new materials and technologies.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a cytokine, a type of small signaling protein involved in immune response and inflammation. It is primarily produced by activated macrophages, although other cell types such as T-cells, natural killer cells, and mast cells can also produce it.

TNF-α plays a crucial role in the body's defense against infection and tissue injury by mediating inflammatory responses, activating immune cells, and inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) in certain types of cells. It does this by binding to its receptors, TNFR1 and TNFR2, which are found on the surface of many cell types.

In addition to its role in the immune response, TNF-α has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and psoriasis, as well as cancer, where it can promote tumor growth and metastasis.

Therapeutic agents that target TNF-α, such as infliximab, adalimumab, and etanercept, have been developed to treat these conditions. However, these drugs can also increase the risk of infections and other side effects, so their use must be carefully monitored.

Caseins are a group of phosphoproteins found in the milk of mammals, including cows and humans. They are the major proteins in milk, making up about 80% of the total protein content. Caseins are characterized by their ability to form micelles, or tiny particles, in milk when it is mixed with calcium. This property allows caseins to help transport calcium and other minerals throughout the body.

Caseins are also known for their nutritional value, as they provide essential amino acids and are easily digestible. They are often used as ingredients in infant formula and other food products. Additionally, caseins have been studied for their potential health benefits, such as reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease and improving bone health. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential benefits.

Complement C5a is a protein fragment that is generated during the activation of the complement system, which is a part of the immune system. The complement system helps to eliminate pathogens and damaged cells from the body by tagging them for destruction and attracting immune cells to the site of infection or injury.

C5a is formed when the fifth component of the complement system (C5) is cleaved into two smaller fragments, C5a and C5b, during the complement activation cascade. C5a is a potent pro-inflammatory mediator that can attract and activate various immune cells, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils, to the site of infection or injury. It can also increase vascular permeability, promote the release of histamine, and induce the production of reactive oxygen species, all of which contribute to the inflammatory response.

However, excessive or uncontrolled activation of the complement system and generation of C5a can lead to tissue damage and inflammation, contributing to the pathogenesis of various diseases, such as sepsis, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, targeting C5a or its receptors has been explored as a potential therapeutic strategy for these conditions.

Cell separation is a process used to separate and isolate specific cell types from a heterogeneous mixture of cells. This can be accomplished through various physical or biological methods, depending on the characteristics of the cells of interest. Some common techniques for cell separation include:

1. Density gradient centrifugation: In this method, a sample containing a mixture of cells is layered onto a density gradient medium and then centrifuged. The cells are separated based on their size, density, and sedimentation rate, with denser cells settling closer to the bottom of the tube and less dense cells remaining near the top.

2. Magnetic-activated cell sorting (MACS): This technique uses magnetic beads coated with antibodies that bind to specific cell surface markers. The labeled cells are then passed through a column placed in a magnetic field, which retains the magnetically labeled cells while allowing unlabeled cells to flow through.

3. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS): In this method, cells are stained with fluorochrome-conjugated antibodies that recognize specific cell surface or intracellular markers. The stained cells are then passed through a laser beam, which excites the fluorophores and allows for the detection and sorting of individual cells based on their fluorescence profile.

4. Filtration: This simple method relies on the physical size differences between cells to separate them. Cells can be passed through filters with pore sizes that allow smaller cells to pass through while retaining larger cells.

5. Enzymatic digestion: In some cases, cells can be separated by enzymatically dissociating tissues into single-cell suspensions and then using various separation techniques to isolate specific cell types.

These methods are widely used in research and clinical settings for applications such as isolating immune cells, stem cells, or tumor cells from biological samples.

Isogeneic transplantation is a type of transplant where the donor and recipient are genetically identical, meaning they are identical twins or have the same genetic makeup. In this case, the immune system recognizes the transplanted organ or tissue as its own and does not mount an immune response to reject it. This reduces the need for immunosuppressive drugs, which are typically required in other types of transplantation to prevent rejection.

In medical terms, isogeneic transplantation is defined as the transfer of genetic identical tissues or organs between genetically identical individuals, resulting in minimal risk of rejection and no need for immunosuppressive therapy.

I'm assuming you are asking for information about "Ly" antigens in the context of human immune system and immunology.

Ly (Lymphocyte) antigens are a group of cell surface markers found on human leukocytes, including T cells, NK cells, and some B cells. These antigens were originally identified through serological analysis and were historically used to distinguish different subsets of lymphocytes based on their surface phenotype.

The "Ly" nomenclature has been largely replaced by the CD (Cluster of Differentiation) system, which is a more standardized and internationally recognized classification system for cell surface markers. However, some Ly antigens are still commonly referred to by their historical names, such as:

* Ly-1 or CD5: A marker found on mature T cells, including both CD4+ and CD8+ subsets.
* Ly-2 or CD8: A marker found on cytotoxic T cells, which are a subset of CD8+ T cells that can directly kill infected or damaged cells.
* Ly-3 or CD56: A marker found on natural killer (NK) cells, which are a type of immune cell that can recognize and destroy virus-infected or cancerous cells without the need for prior activation.

It's worth noting that while these antigens were originally identified through serological analysis, they are now more commonly detected using flow cytometry, which allows for the simultaneous measurement of multiple surface markers on individual cells. This has greatly expanded our ability to identify and characterize different subsets of immune cells and has led to a better understanding of their roles in health and disease.

Cell division is the process by which a single eukaryotic cell (a cell with a true nucleus) divides into two identical daughter cells. This complex process involves several stages, including replication of DNA, separation of chromosomes, and division of the cytoplasm. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis is the type of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells. It is a fundamental process for growth, development, and tissue repair in multicellular organisms. The stages of mitosis include prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase, followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is a type of cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) during the production of gametes (sex cells). Meiosis results in four genetically unique daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This process is essential for sexual reproduction and genetic diversity. The stages of meiosis include meiosis I and meiosis II, which are further divided into prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

In summary, cell division is the process by which a single cell divides into two daughter cells, either through mitosis or meiosis. This process is critical for growth, development, tissue repair, and sexual reproduction in multicellular organisms.

Cellular immunity, also known as cell-mediated immunity, is a type of immune response that involves the activation of immune cells, such as T lymphocytes (T cells), to protect the body against infected or damaged cells. This form of immunity is important for fighting off infections caused by viruses and intracellular bacteria, as well as for recognizing and destroying cancer cells.

Cellular immunity involves a complex series of interactions between various immune cells and molecules. When a pathogen infects a cell, the infected cell displays pieces of the pathogen on its surface in a process called antigen presentation. This attracts T cells, which recognize the antigens and become activated. Activated T cells then release cytokines, chemicals that help coordinate the immune response, and can directly attack and kill infected cells or help activate other immune cells to do so.

Cellular immunity is an important component of the adaptive immune system, which is able to learn and remember specific pathogens in order to mount a faster and more effective response upon subsequent exposure. This form of immunity is also critical for the rejection of transplanted organs, as the immune system recognizes the transplanted tissue as foreign and attacks it.

Bacterial infections are caused by the invasion and multiplication of bacteria in or on tissues of the body. These infections can range from mild, like a common cold, to severe, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or sepsis. The symptoms of a bacterial infection depend on the type of bacteria invading the body and the area of the body that is affected.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can live in many different environments, including in the human body. While some bacteria are beneficial to humans and help with digestion or protect against harmful pathogens, others can cause illness and disease. When bacteria invade the body, they can release toxins and other harmful substances that damage tissues and trigger an immune response.

Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, which work by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria. However, it is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, making treatment more difficult. It is also essential to complete the full course of antibiotics as prescribed, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that all bacteria are eliminated and reduce the risk of recurrence or development of antibiotic resistance.

Glucans are polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates) that are made up of long chains of glucose molecules. They can be found in the cell walls of certain plants, fungi, and bacteria. In medicine, beta-glucans derived from yeast or mushrooms have been studied for their potential immune-enhancing effects. However, more research is needed to fully understand their role and effectiveness in human health.

Myelopoiesis is the process of formation and development of myeloid cells (a type of blood cell) within the bone marrow. This includes the production of red blood cells (erythropoiesis), platelets (thrombopoiesis), and white blood cells such as granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils), monocytes, and mast cells. Myelopoiesis is a continuous process that is regulated by various growth factors and hormones to maintain the normal levels of these cells in the body. Abnormalities in myelopoiesis can lead to several hematological disorders like anemia, leukopenia, leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, or thrombocytosis.

A "colony count" is a method used to estimate the number of viable microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, in a sample. In this technique, a known volume of the sample is spread onto the surface of a solid nutrient medium in a petri dish and then incubated under conditions that allow the microorganisms to grow and form visible colonies. Each colony that grows on the plate represents an individual cell (or small cluster of cells) from the original sample that was able to divide and grow under the given conditions. By counting the number of colonies that form, researchers can make a rough estimate of the concentration of microorganisms in the original sample.

The term "microbial" simply refers to microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Therefore, a "colony count, microbial" is a general term that encompasses the use of colony counting techniques to estimate the number of any type of microorganism in a sample.

Colony counts are used in various fields, including medical research, food safety testing, and environmental monitoring, to assess the levels of contamination or the effectiveness of disinfection procedures. However, it is important to note that colony counts may not always provide an accurate measure of the total number of microorganisms present in a sample, as some cells may be injured or unable to grow under the conditions used for counting. Additionally, some microorganisms may form clusters or chains that can appear as single colonies, leading to an overestimation of the true cell count.

'Bacteroides fragilis' is a species of gram-negative, anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the human gastrointestinal tract. They are part of the normal gut flora and play an important role in maintaining a healthy digestive system. However, they can also cause infections when they enter other parts of the body, such as the abdomen or bloodstream, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.

Bacteroides fragilis is known for its ability to produce enzymes that allow it to resist antibiotics and evade the host's immune system. This makes it a challenging bacterium to treat and can lead to serious and potentially life-threatening infections, such as abscesses, sepsis, and meningitis.

Proper hygiene, such as handwashing and safe food handling practices, can help prevent the spread of Bacteroides fragilis and other bacteria that can cause infections. If an infection does occur, it is typically treated with a combination of surgical drainage and antibiotics that are effective against anaerobic bacteria.

Histamine release is the process by which mast cells and basophils (types of white blood cells) release histamine, a type of chemical messenger or mediator, into the surrounding tissue fluid in response to an antigen-antibody reaction. This process is a key part of the body's immune response to foreign substances, such as allergens, and helps to initiate local inflammation, increase blood flow, and recruit other immune cells to the site of the reaction.

Histamine release can also occur in response to certain medications, physical trauma, or other stimuli. When histamine is released in large amounts, it can cause symptoms such as itching, sneezing, runny nose, watery eyes, and hives. In severe cases, it can lead to anaphylaxis, a life-threatening allergic reaction that requires immediate medical attention.

"Specific Pathogen-Free (SPF)" is a term used to describe animals or organisms that are raised and maintained in a controlled environment, free from specific pathogens (disease-causing agents) that could interfere with research outcomes or pose a risk to human or animal health. The "specific" part of the term refers to the fact that the exclusion of pathogens is targeted to those that are relevant to the particular organism or research being conducted.

To maintain an SPF status, animals are typically housed in specialized facilities with strict biosecurity measures, such as air filtration systems, quarantine procedures, and rigorous sanitation protocols. They are usually bred and raised in isolation from other animals, and their health status is closely monitored to ensure that they remain free from specific pathogens.

It's important to note that SPF does not necessarily mean "germ-free" or "sterile," as some microorganisms may still be present in the environment or on the animals themselves, even in an SPF facility. Instead, it means that the animals are free from specific pathogens that have been identified and targeted for exclusion.

In summary, Specific Pathogen-Free Organisms refer to animals or organisms that are raised and maintained in a controlled environment, free from specific disease-causing agents that are relevant to the research being conducted or human/animal health.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

Body fluid sampling from the peritoneal cavity is called peritoneocentesis. The peritoneal cavity is involved in peritoneal ... The peritoneal cavity is divided into two compartments - one above, and one below the transverse colon. The peritoneal cavity ... The peritoneal cavity is a potential space between the parietal peritoneum (the serous membrane that surrounds the abdominal ... The peritoneal cavity is a common injection site, used in intraperitoneal injection.[citation needed] An increase in the ...
Ellis, Harold; Mahadevan, Vishy (2010). "Peritoneal cavity". Clinical Anatomy: Applied Anatomy for Students and Junior Doctors ...
2017). "Peritoneal Cavity". Imaging Anatomy: Chest, Abdomen, Pelvis. pp. 528-549. doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-47781-9.50027-1. ISBN ... It is derived from the peritoneum, where the wall of the general peritoneal cavity comes into contact with the lesser sac ... ISBN 0-7817-5309-0. "Module - Peritoneal Cavity Development". Archived from the original on 2007-11-13. Retrieved 2007-12-01. " ... Main cavity, red; omental bursa, blue. (Greater omentum labeled at left.) The greater omentum is attached to the lower portion ...
Fluid in the peritoneal cavity causing ascites. Generalized edema throughout the body known as anasarca. Most of the people ... In the advanced stages it also extends to the pleural cavity and peritoneum (ascites) and can even develop into a generalized ... Fluid in the pleural cavity causing pleural effusion. More commonly associated with excess fluid is pulmonary edema. ... IV drug use or some hereditary diseases can lead to swelling in the lower extremities and the abdominal cavity. Other ...
Gonads are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The whiteface hagfish becomes male when the posterior part of the gonads develop ...
Flushing of peritoneal cavity at end of operation. In 1881, it was suggested to him to remove the ruptured tube in case of an ...
Other causes are peritonitis (inflammation of peritoneal cavity). The Canadian astronaut, Colonel Chris Hadfield, underwent an ...
These cells generally reside in the peritoneal cavity. When reintroduced to antigen, some of these B1 cells can differentiate ...
A cystoperitoneal shunt drains to the peritoneal cavity. Fenestration: Craniotomy with excision Various endoscopic techniques ...
... to the peritoneal cavity (which normally never contains air). This leads to "free gas" within the peritoneal cavity. If the ... Therefore, gas in the peritoneal cavity, shown on an erect chest X-ray or supine lateral abdominal X-ray, is an omen of ... of the gastrointestinal wall by the ulcer leads to spillage of the stomach or intestinal contents into the abdominal cavity, ...
The peritoneal cavity may also be bloody and inflamed. Bacteria must be isolated to positively identify the disease. Isolates ...
The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the ...
It colonized the ovary by spreading through the peritoneal cavity. These tumors cause virilization. Increased androgen ...
Intraperitoneal perforations allow for urine to enter the peritoneal cavity. Symptoms typically develop immediately if the ...
Ascites is an accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity. The usual treatment of malignant ascites is to puncture the ... Removing cancer cells from the abdominal cavity reduces the tumour burden which is seen as the cause for ascites in people with ...
The gonads of hagfishes are situated in the peritoneal cavity. The ovary is found in the anterior portion of the gonad, and the ...
The peritoneal or abdominal cavity is located anterior to the duodenum. Therefore, if the ulcer grows deep enough, it will ...
The patient died due to infected bile leakage into the peritoneal cavity. A German surgeon named Otto Sprengel reported the ...
Blood may also escape into the peritoneal cavity leading to a hemoperitoneum. A hematosalpinx can also be associated with ...
He wrote a paper in 1875 describing an operation whereby the peritoneal cavity was opened to drain pus. In 1910 he wrote a book ... He was the first to open the peritoneal cavity to drain pus. He was professor of anatomy and clinical surgery at the ...
He also had metastases in his peritoneal and retroperitoneal cavities. On June 26, 2008, Pausch announced that he was ...
During open surgery the surgeon exposes the peritoneal cavity to the ambient air. Exposure to ambient air results in ... Clinically, peritoneal injury caused by drying has been linked to post-operative pain, evaporative cooling resulting in a ... Peng, Y; Zheng M; Ye Q; Chen X; Yu B; Liu B (2009). "Heated and humidified CO2 prevents hypothermia, peritoneal injury, and ... Conditioning the CO2 with humidity, in combination with heat, has been shown to decrease peritoneal damage by reducing the ...
Effects of portal hypertension include: Ascites is a build-up of fluid in the peritoneal cavity in the abdomen An enlarged ... This procedure requires the insertion of a plastic tube into the peritoneal cavity. Human serum albumin solution is usually ...
The appendix was resected and antibiotics were applied directly into the peritoneal cavity. General weakness and nausea ...
The rectouterine pouch, being the lowest part of the peritoneal cavity in a woman at supine position, is a common site for the ... In women, the rectouterine pouch is the deepest point of the peritoneal cavity. It is posterior to the uterus, and anterior to ... As it is the furthest point of the abdominopelvic cavity in women, it is a site where infection and fluids typically collect. ... The rectouterine pouch can be used in the treatment of end-stage kidney failure in patients who are treated by peritoneal ...
Splenic injury can cause low blood volume or blood in the peritoneal cavity. The treatment and prognosis of splenic injuries ... Breathing is evaluated by evaluating motion of the chest wall and checking for blood or air in the pleural cavity. Circulation ... Puncture injuries result in a cavity in the tissue. Burn injury is caused by contact with extreme temperature, chemicals, or ... and its position between two major cavities of the human body may complicate diagnosis. Most injuries to the skin are minor and ...
Ventriculo-peritoneal shunts are used to drain the fluid into the peritoneal cavity. These brain abnormalities were first ... The lateral ventricles are formed as large cavities of the telencephalic vesicle. The size of the ventricles are decreased in ... A bi-ventricular peritoneal shunt was performed, which greatly improved the symptoms of the condition. ... "A rare case of colpocephaly with macrocephaly successfully treated with ventriculo-peritoneal shunting". Journal of Pediatric ...
This case presents the question of how THC is absorbed in the peritoneal cavity. It also shows how easily substances are ... These findings could be advanced by studying how the route of injection affects the organs in the peritoneal cavity. In another ... The benefit of administering drugs intraperitoneally is the ability for the peritoneal cavity to absorb large amounts of a drug ... Sonazoid was utilized to aid with contrast-enhanced ultrasonography by enhancing the peritoneal and pleural cavities. This ...
Species such as B. fragilis are opportunistic pathogens, causing infections of the peritoneal cavity. They inhibit phagocytosis ... TLRs are a major class of pattern recognition receptor, that exists in all coelomates (animals with a body-cavity), including ...
In severe cases, fluid can shift into the peritoneal cavity (abdomen) and cause ascites. As a result of the excess fluid, ...
Body fluid sampling from the peritoneal cavity is called peritoneocentesis. The peritoneal cavity is involved in peritoneal ... The peritoneal cavity is divided into two compartments - one above, and one below the transverse colon. The peritoneal cavity ... The peritoneal cavity is a potential space between the parietal peritoneum (the serous membrane that surrounds the abdominal ... The peritoneal cavity is a common injection site, used in intraperitoneal injection.[citation needed] An increase in the ...
Video Tag: Peritoneal Cavity. SAGES Resident Resident Webinar : Work-up and Treatment of Achalasia-February 2017. ... peritoneal cavity, pneumatic dilation, pneumonia, pneumothorax, POEM, polypectomy, PPI, pseudoachalasia, reconstruction, reflux ... peritoneal cavity, pH, physical examination, platelets, pneumatosis intestinalis, pneumoperitoneum, polypoid lesion, ...
Leukocytes in the spleen or in the peritoneal cavity were quantified by flow cytometry. We found that the loss of IL-6 ... The recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages into the spleen or peritoneal cavity was largely inhibited in the absence of LT, ... but only neutrophil recruitment was inhibited in the peritoneal cavity. Similarly, a lack of B cells significantly impeded the ... decreased macrophage recruitment to the spleen and the peritoneal cavity during pristane-induced inflammation. The loss of TNF, ...
... right lower quadrant without penetration into peritoneal cavity, seque ... Puncture wound of abdominal wall without foreign body, right lower quadrant without penetration into peritoneal cavity, sequela ... Excludes2: open wound of abdominal wall with penetration into peritoneal cavity (S31.6-) ... right lower quadrant without penetration into peritoneal cavity, sequela S31.133S ICD-10 code S31.133S for Puncture wound of ...
However, the hepatic Hydatid Cyst rupture in the abdominal cavity is a life-threatening incident that requires urgent and ... and cases of peritoneal hydatidosis, which witnessed an old and unnoticed rupture in the peritoneal cavity. Each patient ... Traumatic rupture of liver hydatid cysts into the peritoneal cavity of an 11-year-old boy: a case report from Iran. Rev Soc ... Unalp HR, Yilmaz Y, Durak E, Kamer E, Tarcan E. Rupture of liver hydatid cysts into the peritoneal cavity. A challenge in ...
Learn about the Peritoneal Cavity topic of Biology in detail explained by subject experts on vedantu.com. register free for the ... What is Peritoneal Cavity?. The peritoneal cavity is named after the potential space that is found between the visceral and the ... Function of Peritoneal Cavity The peritoneal cavity that is a part of the peritoneum performs a great variety of functions. The ... The greater peritoneal sac takes a major share of the peritoneal cavity. The lesser peritoneal sac which is also called the ...
GSE23114_PERITONEAL_CAVITY_B1A_BCELL_VS_SPLEEN_BCELL_UP GSE23114_WT_VS_SLE2C1_MOUSE_PERITONEAL_CAVITY_B1A_BCELL_UP GSE23114_WT_ ... GSE23114_PERITONEAL_CAVITY_B1A_BCELL_VS_SPLEEN_BCELL_DN GSE23114_PERITONEAL_CAVITY_B1A_BCELL_VS_SPLEEN_BCELL_IN_SLE2C1_MOUSE_DN ... CAVITY_B1A_BCELL_DN Standard name. GSE23114_WT_VS_SLE2C1_MOUSE_PERITONEAL_CAVITY_B1A_BCELL_DN. ... GSE23114_PERITONEAL_CAVITY_B1A_BCELL_VS_SPLEEN_BCELL_IN_SLE2C1_MOUSE_UP ...
Peritoneal cavity is a space between membranes in the abdominal cavity, the fluid is a lubricant that helps the abdominal ... The peritoneal cavity can store fats.. FLUID IN THE PERITONEAL CAVITY. The peritoneal cavity has fluid in it, this is normal. ... The peritoneal cavity cannot exist without the abdominal cavity. The functions of the peritoneal cavity can only be useful when ... WHERE IS THE PERITONEAL CAVITY. The peritoneal cavity can be found in the abdominal section of the body. It is a space between ...
... air in peritoneal cavity and retroperitoneum. CASE. Plain abdominal series show massive amount of free air in the peritoneal ... Pneumoperitoneum, pneumoretroperitoneum, massive, air in peritoneal cavity and retroperitoneum (7883). AG. CT. MMG. MRI. NM. RF ... cavity and retroperitoneum. Free air outlines contours of the liver, spleen, both kidenys as well both psoas muscles. Free ...
Kumar, M, Bandi, S, Cheng, K & Gupta, S 2011, Transplantation of human cells in the peritoneal cavity of immunodeficient mice ... Kumar, M., Bandi, S., Cheng, K., & Gupta, S. (2011). Transplantation of human cells in the peritoneal cavity of immunodeficient ... Aims: We examined whether transplantation of human cells in the peritoneal cavity of mice will generate an appropriate mass of ... Aims: We examined whether transplantation of human cells in the peritoneal cavity of mice will generate an appropriate mass of ...
The peritoneal cavities of all exposed mice were lavaged with ×1 PBS. a Cells extracted from the peritoneal cavity were counted ... Raman mapping of peritoneal cavity cells extracted from the peritoneal cavity of mice injected with carbon nanomaterials ... Ex vivo exposure of peritoneal cavity cells to carbon nanomaterials. The peritoneal cavities of two untreated C57BL/6 mice were ... Inflammatory response in the peritoneal cavity 1 day after injection of carbon nanomaterials. The peritoneal cavities of all ...
Exploration of peritoneal cavity. Retrocecal fossa; retrocecal appendix. Image #140-1. KEYWORDS: ...
Peritoneal cancer affects the peritoneal cavity. Doctors will use various imaging methods and more invasive procedures for a ... Peritoneal cancer affects the peritoneal cavity, a part of the abdomen. Some types of peritoneal cancers affect females, ... Primary peritoneal cancer (PPC) is when cancer originates in the peritoneal cavity itself. Secondary peritoneal cancer is when ... What the cavity contains?. The peritoneal cavity contains the:. *omentum - a fold of the peritoneum, the thin tissue that lines ...
Peritoneal Cavity * Tomography, X-Ray Computed ...
By contrast, peritoneal cavity B cells expressed normal CD20 densities and were coated with CD20 mAb, but only 30-43% of B1 ... " " Hamaguchi, Y., Uchida, J., Cain, D. W., Venturi, G. M., Poe, J. C., Haas, K. M., & Tedder, T. F. (2005). The peritoneal cavity ... Inflammation-elicited effector cells did not promote peritoneal cavity B cell depletion in FcR-deficient mice treated with CD20 ... Spleen B cells adoptively transferred into the peritoneal cavity were similarly resistant to mAb-induced depletion, while ...
... forming a connection between the endometrial and peritoneal cavities. Each uterine tube is approximately 10 cm in length and 1 ... The uterine tubes are uterine appendages located bilaterally at the superior portion of the uterine cavity. These tubes exit ... Advantages of vertical incisions include faster entry into the abdominal cavity, decreased blood loss, decreased risk of nerve ... and peritoneal surfaces for any abnormal findings. ... The peritoneal cavity should be inspected. See the images below ...
Peritoneal neoplasia can originate de novo from the peritoneal tissues (primary) or invade or metastasize into the peritoneum ... It involves the peritoneal cavity in most cases. Unlike the other primary peritoneal neoplasms, desmoplastic small round cell ... to completely lavage all regions of the peritoneal cavity and to detect cancer cells being shed into the peritoneal cavity by ... Peritoneal carcinomas are divided into primary and secondary peritoneal tumors. Primary peritoneal carcinomas originate from ...
Intra peritoneal injections (into the abdominal cavity).. *Intradermal injections (into the skin). ...
Purulent material in the peritoneal cavity obtained by culdocentesis or laparoscopy *. Pelvic abscess or inflammatory complex ... Oropharyngeal (mucosal lesion in the oral cavity or oropharynx, cervical adenopathy and edema, and fever) ...
Inside the peritoneum, theres a space called the peritoneal cavity. This space is able to collect and hold fluid and waste so ... La diálisis peritoneal. What Is Peritoneal Dialysis?. Peritoneal dialysis (pronounced: per-uh-tuh-NEE-ul dye-AL-uh-sis) is a ... Dialysate uses a type of sugar called dextrose to pull wastes and fluids out of the peritoneum and into the peritoneal cavity. ... In the morning, the machine fills the peritoneal cavity again, and the solution stays in the body all day. Sometimes, a person ...
This space is called the abdominal cavity or peritoneal cavity. ... This space is called the abdominal cavity or peritoneal cavity. ... This space is called the abdominal cavity or peritoneal cavity.. How the Test is Performed. ... Normally, the abdominal cavity contains only a small amount of fluid if any. In certain conditions, large amounts of fluid can ... Paracentesis and diagnostic peritoneal lavage. In: Vincent J-L, Abraham E, Moore FA, Kochanek PM, Fink MP, eds. Textbook of ...
Inside the peritoneum, theres a space called the peritoneal cavity. This space is able to collect and hold fluid and waste so ... La diálisis peritoneal. What Is Peritoneal Dialysis?. Peritoneal dialysis (pronounced: per-uh-tuh-NEE-ul dye-AL-uh-sis) is a ... Dialysate uses a type of sugar called dextrose to pull wastes and fluids out of the peritoneum and into the peritoneal cavity. ... In the morning, the machine fills the peritoneal cavity again, and the solution stays in the body all day. Sometimes, a person ...
... Adipose tissue lipoma Peritoneal cavity. Model Name. Adipose tissue lipoma (Peritoneal cavity) ...
After 4 h, peritoneal cavities were lavaged with ice-cold PBS. Collected peritoneal lavage fluid was centrifuged for 3 min at ... we challenged gefitinib into peritoneal cavity without LPS, a condition that lacks the priming of peritoneal macrophages for ... After 0.5 h, peritoneal cavities were lavaged with ice-cold PBS, and then heparin and protease inhibitor cocktail were added to ... After 1 h, peritoneal lavage fluid was collected, and IL-1β levels were analyzed by ELISA. Graphs are shown as mean ± SEM (LPS ...
Some of these fibers stay in the peritoneal cavity. Others move into the bloodstream and into the kidneys, where some are ... Some fibers move to pleural or peritoneal spaces or the mesothelium.. *The half-lives of asbestos fibers vary, but some are ... From the lungs, some asbestos fibers (mainly short fibers) can migrate to pleural and peritoneal spaces, especially following ...
In a closed technique, a blunt-tipped Veress needle is introduced into the peritoneal cavity after the skin incision while the ... pelvic peritoneal biopsy and peritoneal lavage can further improve the diagnostic yield by 20-25%. Diagnostic laparoscopy is a ... and peritoneal lavage cytology enhanced identification of occult peritoneal metastasis by 10-15%. [36] ... or performing peritoneal lavage cytology to exclude the presence of occult peritoneal metastasis ...
"Generation of a dual-functioning antitumor immune response in the peritoneal cavity." The American journal of pathology.. 2013 ... "Omental immune aggregates and tumor metastasis within the peritoneal cavity." Immunologic research.. 2009 Dec; 45(2-3):185-94. ... "Preferential attachment of peritoneal tumor metastases to omental immune aggregates and possible role of a unique vascular ...
Chemotherapy administration into peritoneal cavity via indwelling port or catheter. CPT codes not covered for indications ... The therapy of choice was to treat firstly peritoneal recurrence with CRS and HIPEC to obtain a cytoreduction score of 0, which ... SC has a limited effect on peritoneal metastasis (PM). In the past several years, novel treatments like ECT with bleomycine ( ... Cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC associated with liver electrochemotherapy in a cholangiocarcinoma patient with peritoneal ...
Ascites is the pathologic accumulation of fluid within the peritoneal cavity. There are many causes of fetal, neonatal and ... Ascites is the pathologic accumulation of fluid within the peritoneal cavity. There are many causes of fetal, neonatal and ...
  • citation needed] An increase in the capillary pressure in the abdominal viscera can cause fluid to leave the interstitial space and enter the peritoneal cavity, a condition called ascites. (wikipedia.org)
  • Although the peritoneal cavity has fluid in it, it can be termed as a potential space because the increase in the amount of fluid can lead to clinical conditions such as ascites. (vedantu.com)
  • However, some health problems can cause excess fluid to pool inside the cavity, this condition is known as an ascites. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • Primary peritoneal carcinoma usually manifests as abdominal distention and diffuse nonspecific abdominal pain secondary to ascites. (medscape.com)
  • CT findings in patients with malignant peritoneal mesotheliomas range from peritoneum-based masses (a so-called "dry" appearance) to ascites, irregular or nodular peritoneal thickening, and an omental mass (a so-called "wet" appearance). (medscape.com)
  • Ascites is the pathologic accumulation of fluid within the peritoneal cavity. (nih.gov)
  • In the absence of ascites, doctors may perform peritoneal washing during surgery. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The research suggests that some forms of peritoneal cancer, such as extraovarian primary peritoneal carcinoma (EOPPC), affect only females. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A pelvic imaging study, if there is clinical suspicion of peritoneal carcinoma. (medscape.com)
  • The management of peritoneal carcinoma is similar to that of epithelial cancers of ovarian and fallopian tube, due to similar clinical characteristics. (medscape.com)
  • Peritoneal Carcinoma Questions to ask doctors? (cancer.org)
  • They are suspecting it is Peritoneal Carcinoma. (cancer.org)
  • We excluded from our study: other liver hydatid cyst complications, cyst rupture in an organ or space other than the abdominal cavity, and cases of peritoneal hydatidosis, which witnessed an old and unnoticed rupture in the peritoneal cavity. (researchsquare.com)
  • There are about 2,000 cases of pleural mesothelioma and 1,000 cases of peritoneal mesothelioma each year. (survivingmesothelioma.com)
  • The greater peritoneal sac takes a major share of the peritoneal cavity. (vedantu.com)
  • One of the two parts of the greater peritoneal sac is termed the Supracolic compartment. (vedantu.com)
  • It is the largest serosal sac, and the largest fluid-filled cavity, in the body and secretes approximately 50 ml of fluid per day. (wikipedia.org)
  • In cases where cerebrospinal fluid builds up, such as in hydrocephalus, the fluid is commonly diverted to the peritoneal cavity by use of a shunt placed by surgery. (wikipedia.org)
  • Body fluid sampling from the peritoneal cavity is called peritoneocentesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • The peritoneal cavity is filled with a serous peritoneal fluid that is secreted by all the mesothelial cells lining the peritoneum. (vedantu.com)
  • This fluid enables all the peritoneal layers to slide properly against each other with very little friction. (vedantu.com)
  • This cavity contains the peritoneal cavity fluid that is created with leukocytes, electrolytes, antibodies, and water. (vedantu.com)
  • The main function of the peritoneal fluid is to act as a lubricating agent, enabling the free movement of the viscera in the abdominal layers. (vedantu.com)
  • The cavity is filled with a serous fluid which acts as a lubricating agent for all the internal organs. (vedantu.com)
  • Apart from that, the peritoneal cavity fluid consists of several antibodies that help in fighting different infections that might occur in the surrounding organs. (vedantu.com)
  • The cavity has a thin film of fluid which is made up of water, electrolytes, antibodies and leukocytes. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • The peritoneal fluid is a lubricant that helps the abdominal viscera to move freely, the antibodies in the cloud also helps to fight bacteria and other infections. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • It is the largest sac that is filled with the largest fluid, in fact this cavity produces and discharges 50 ml of fluid every day. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • The peritoneal cavity has fluid in it, this is normal. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • The most important function of this cavity fluid is to help with the movement of the organs in the abdominal cavity and reduce friction. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • Negative pressure in the body coupled with how the diaphragm moves causes the peritoneal fluid to move towards the diaphragm. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • Normally, the abdominal cavity contains only a small amount of fluid if any. (medlineplus.gov)
  • How To Do E-FAST Examination E-FAST (Extended Focused Assessment with Sonography in Trauma) is a bedside ultrasonographic protocol designed to detect peritoneal fluid, pericardial fluid, pneumothorax, and/or hemothorax. (msdmanuals.com)
  • A large heterogeneous mass with a fluid-filled center occupies most of the abdominal cavity and appears confluent with the splenic tail (black arrow). (avma.org)
  • My mother who is 68 went into the hospital on Friday bc she had fluid in her belly, she had bloating and pain when eating, the typical Peritoneal symptoms I keep reading about. (cancer.org)
  • This article is about peritoneal cancer and will describe and compare this cancer to ovarian cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • While ovarian cancer is different from peritoneal cancer, there are some important connections between the two. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Research shows that certain forms of peritoneal cancer have symptoms indistinguishable from some forms of ovarian cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Ovarian cancer can also cause secondary peritoneal cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Indeed, in 75% of ovarian cancer diagnoses, doctors will also find secondary peritoneal cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • For example, if someone develops peritoneal cancer from ovarian cancer, both cancers will have the same cause. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • As a 2022 review explains, peritoneal cancer symptoms are nonspecific as these symptoms are also similar to other conditions, such as ovarian cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Women with higher risk of ovarian cancer also have increased risk of peritoneal cancer. (medscape.com)
  • Epithelial cancers of ovarian, fallopian tube, and peritoneal origin are known as epithelial ovarian cancer in clinical practice. (medscape.com)
  • Stage 3 ovarian cancer is in one or both ovaries or fallopian tubes or the lining of the abdominal cavity, which is called the peritoneum. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • But for now, I will tell you that from what you say, it could well be that your mother has had a recurrence from the Ovarian Cancer that has spread to the peritoneal cavity. (cancer.org)
  • I will tell you that lots of clinical trials are going on for Peritoneal and Ovarian cancer, and there is a site for that as well. (cancer.org)
  • Dr. Tejal's poster titled Phase II Study of Intraperitoneal Chemotherapy in Inoperable Epithelial Ovarian and Primary Peritoneal Cancers after Optimal Cytoreduction won the first prize. (amrita.edu)
  • There are studies that prove that that survival rates are higher for patients with ovarian tumors and peritoneal cancers who receive intraperitoneal chemotherapy treatment. (amrita.edu)
  • Paracentesis and diagnostic peritoneal lavage. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Diagnostic peritoneal lavage (DPL) is an invasive emergency procedure used to detect hemoperitoneum and help determine the need for laparotomy following abdominal trauma. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Data collected in the Czech Republic for a 2021 study suggests that this peritoneal cancer may affect around 4.36 per 1 million people . (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • From the lungs, some asbestos fibers (mainly short fibers) can migrate to pleural and peritoneal spaces, especially following patterns of lymphatic drainage [Broaddus 2001]. (cdc.gov)
  • The two most common types of mesothelioma are pleural and peritoneal. (survivingmesothelioma.com)
  • The peritoneal cavity is a potential space between the parietal peritoneum (the serous membrane that surrounds the abdominal wall) and visceral peritoneum (which surrounds the internal organs). (wikipedia.org)
  • The peritoneal cavity is named after the potential space that is found between the visceral and the parietal layers in the peritoneum. (vedantu.com)
  • The space that is located between the visceral and the parietal peritoneum of the abdominal cavity can be defined as the peritoneal cavity. (vedantu.com)
  • The peritoneal cavity that is a part of the peritoneum performs a great variety of functions. (vedantu.com)
  • The peritoneal cavity is the space existing between the parietal and the visceral peritoneum layers that line the abdominal cavity. (vedantu.com)
  • Peritoneal cavity is the space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum (the peritoneum is a membrane that lines along the abdominal cavity and covers the organs in the abdomen, it also help blood vessels and lymph to pass to and fro the viscera by acting as a passage). (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • We already know that the peritoneum is a membrane that lines along the abdominal cavity and covers the abdominal organs. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • The parietal peritoneum encloses the abdominal wall while the visceral peritoneum encloses the organs in the abdominal cavity. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • Cecum, although this organ is not covered in the visceral peritoneum, it is considered as inside of the peritoneal cavity because it can move around the cavity. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • Primary peritoneal carcinomas originate from the cells lining the peritoneum. (medscape.com)
  • Secondary peritoneal carcinomas usually invade locally or metastasize into the peritoneum from adjacent or remote organs. (medscape.com)
  • Inside the peritoneum, there's a space called the peritoneal cavity . (kidshealth.org)
  • Dialysate uses a type of sugar called dextrose to pull wastes and fluids out of the peritoneum and into the peritoneal cavity. (kidshealth.org)
  • An open technique (mini-laparotomy) in which the operator dissects into the abdominal cavity to directly visualize the peritoneum and incise it to insert the catheter in a more directed fashion is less often done and is not discussed here. (msdmanuals.com)
  • check the tag ADOLESCENCE HN - 2008 BX - Nutrition in Adolescence FX - Adolescent Nutrition Physiology MH - Peritoneal Stomata UI - D054048 MN - A01.047.025.600.700 MN - A10.810 MS - Natural openings in the subdiaphragmatic lymphatic plexus in the PERITONEUM, delimited by adjacent mesothelial cells. (bvsalud.org)
  • Other forms of peritoneal cancer, such as malignant peritoneal mesothelioma (MPM), can affect older males. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Peritoneal cancer affects the peritoneal cavity, a part of the abdomen. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • swelling of the abdomen from gas in the intestinal or peritoneal cavity. (diagnose-me.com)
  • 1 µm) in terms of mesothelial damage and peritoneal inflammation, after intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection in mice. (springer.com)
  • Secondary peritoneal cancer is when cancer spreads from a different body part to the peritoneal cavity. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Secondary peritoneal cancer is more common, affecting around 99.0 per 1 million people. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A secondary peritoneal cancer has the same cause as whichever cancer it came from. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Peritoneal carcinomas are divided into primary and secondary peritoneal tumors. (medscape.com)
  • Leukocytes in the spleen or in the peritoneal cavity were quantified by flow cytometry. (hindawi.com)
  • We found that the loss of IL-6 decreased macrophage recruitment to the spleen and the peritoneal cavity during pristane-induced inflammation. (hindawi.com)
  • The recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages into the spleen or peritoneal cavity was largely inhibited in the absence of LT α . (hindawi.com)
  • The loss of TNF α receptor 1/2 resulted in reduced recruitment of neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells into the spleen, but only neutrophil recruitment was inhibited in the peritoneal cavity. (hindawi.com)
  • Pristane-induced chronic inflammation has been characterized by the continuous recruitment of leukocytes, including lymphocytes, neutrophils, and macrophages, to the peritoneal cavity and the spleen [ 6 - 8 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • This section of the peritoneal space contains the liver, spleen, and stomach. (vedantu.com)
  • Spleen B cells adoptively transferred into the peritoneal cavity were similarly resistant to mAb-induced depletion, while transferred B cells that had migrated to the spleen were depleted. (duke.edu)
  • After a set amount of time called the "dwell time," the dialysate, waste products, and extra fluids are drained out of the peritoneal cavity through the catheter. (kidshealth.org)
  • After the surgery to put in a catheter, peritoneal dialysis exchanges are painless. (kidshealth.org)
  • A catheter is inserted into the peritoneal cavity, followed by aspiration of intraperitoneal contents, often after their dilution with crystalloid. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Dialysis access surgery creates the vascular opening so a needle can be inserted for hemodialysis or an abdominal catheter inserted for peritoneal dialysis. (bidmc.org)
  • It is one of the spaces derived from the coelomic cavity of the embryo, the others being the pleural cavities around the lungs and the pericardial cavity around the heart. (wikipedia.org)
  • Peritoneal stomata constitute the principal pathways for the drainage of intraperitoneal contents from the PERITONEAL CAVITY to the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM. (bvsalud.org)
  • Since the pelvic organs situated in the sexes are different, the structure of the peritoneal cavity varies from one sex to another. (vedantu.com)
  • Plain abdominal series show massive amount of free air in the peritoneal cavity and retroperitoneum. (mudr.org)
  • One of the main differences is in the location of the distal section of the peritoneal cavity. (vedantu.com)
  • The structure of the pelvis is different and this makes the cavity including the most distal portion of the cavity to differ as well. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • These tubes exit the uterus through an area referred to as the cornua, forming a connection between the endometrial and peritoneal cavities. (medscape.com)
  • 1.Sampson, J. A. Peritoneal endometriosis due to premenstrual dissemination of endometrial tissue into the peritoneal cavity. (bvsalud.org)
  • Uninfected or Leishmania -infected thioglycollate-elicited peritoneal exudate cells were transferred from C57BL/6 to BALB/c mice or from Ly5.1 + to Ly5.1 - mice. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This photomicrograph is the second in a series of three images, depicting the cellular content of a peritoneal exudate extracted from the abdominal cavity of a guinea pig. (cdc.gov)
  • The uterine tubes are uterine appendages located bilaterally at the superior portion of the uterine cavity. (medscape.com)
  • It is the implantation of the fertilised ovum outside the normal uterine cavity. (gfmer.ch)
  • May prevent or retard the passage of the fertilised ovum into the uterine cavity. (gfmer.ch)
  • The peritoneal cavity is divided into two compartments - one above, and one below the transverse colon. (wikipedia.org)
  • The migration of inflammatory leukocytes, including dendritic cells, neutrophils, and macrophages, to the peritoneal mesentery has been shown to be promoted in LAT −/− (lack mature T cells) mice but inhibited in μ MT (lack mature B cells) mice during the pristane-induced immune response [ 10 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • Such recruitment coincided with the greater ability of s-GO to interact in vivo with peritoneal macrophages and was associated with a greater surface reactivity in comparison to l-GO. (springer.com)
  • Scientists define peritoneal cancer as cancer that affects the peritoneal cavity. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • In peritoneal cancer, cancer cells grow within the serous membrane, a component of the peritoneal cavity. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • There are two main types of peritoneal cancer: primary and secondary. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Primary peritoneal cancer (PPC) is when cancer originates in the peritoneal cavity itself. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This is because peritoneal cells provide an environment for cancer cells to multiply easily. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Researchers remain uncertain about all of the possible causes of peritoneal cancer. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Anyone experiencing symptoms of peritoneal cancer should seek a doctor's advice. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • As the review also explains, staging for peritoneal cancer works differently in primary and secondary cases. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Primary peritoneal cancer has been linked to certain variants of BRCA1/2 . (medscape.com)
  • The sensitivity of the test results depends on the ability to completely lavage all regions of the peritoneal cavity and to detect cancer cells being shed into the peritoneal cavity by the tumor. (medscape.com)
  • Direct visualization of the peritoneal surfaces along with palpation of the abdominal contents is by far the most sensitive modality for detecting peritoneal cancer. (medscape.com)
  • Hi: I think omentum cancer is the same as or similar to peritoneal carcinomatosis which I seem to have. (cancer.org)
  • This is one of the peritoneal cavity organs that is situated on the posterior section of the lesser omentum and the stomach. (vedantu.com)
  • Dialysis, either hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, is a life-saving procedure that replaces kidney function when the organs fail. (bidmc.org)
  • The peritoneal cavity is involved in peritoneal dialysis. (wikipedia.org)
  • What Is Peritoneal Dialysis? (kidshealth.org)
  • Peritoneal dialysis (pronounced: per-uh-tuh-NEE-ul dye-AL-uh-sis) is a kind of kidney dialysis . (kidshealth.org)
  • Peritoneal dialysis uses one of the body's natural systems - the lining of the belly - as a filter. (kidshealth.org)
  • Why Do People Need Peritoneal Dialysis? (kidshealth.org)
  • How Does Peritoneal Dialysis Work? (kidshealth.org)
  • Most of the time, people need to do peritoneal dialysis every day. (kidshealth.org)
  • There are two main types of peritoneal dialysis. (kidshealth.org)
  • Automated peritoneal dialysis (APD) is done mostly at night. (kidshealth.org)
  • Continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) is done mostly during the day. (kidshealth.org)
  • Peritoneal dialysis might not be a good choice for some people. (kidshealth.org)
  • Peritoneal dialysis does have some risks, though. (kidshealth.org)
  • If you're doing peritoneal dialysis, it helps to stay healthy. (kidshealth.org)
  • Scholars@Duke publication: The peritoneal cavity provides a protective niche for B1 and conventional B lymphocytes during anti-CD20 immunotherapy in mice. (duke.edu)
  • However, peritoneal B1 and B2 cells were effectively depleted in mAb-treated wild-type and C3-deficient mice by thioglycolate-induced monocyte migration into this otherwise privileged niche. (duke.edu)
  • Inflammation-elicited effector cells did not promote peritoneal cavity B cell depletion in FcR-deficient mice treated with CD20 mAb. (duke.edu)
  • However, the latest CT scan showed multiple nodules (diagnosis peritoneal carcinomatosis) several which have increased in size to 1 cm. (cancer.org)
  • Standard imaging tests, including ultrasonography and helical CT scans, are notably insensitive for the detection of peritoneal tumors. (medscape.com)
  • Open abdominal exploration and palpation are extremely sensitive for 1- to 2-mm peritoneal nodules. (medscape.com)
  • Genes down-regulated in peritoneal cavity B lymphocytes: wildtype versus lupus susceptibility locus Sle2c1. (gsea-msigdb.org)
  • The lesser peritoneal sac which is also called the omental bursa is located in the posterior section of the stomach near the lesser omentum. (vedantu.com)
  • All patients underwent unroofing procedure associated with intra-operative peritoneal lavage and external drainage. (researchsquare.com)
  • Laparoscopy is minimally invasive and allows for safe, directed peritoneal lavage. (medscape.com)
  • Separation of the gestational sac is followed by its expulsion into the peritoneal cavity through the tubal ostium. (gfmer.ch)
  • The greater sac which takes up the major share in the peritoneal cavity can be further classified into two different compartments. (vedantu.com)
  • This is made up of the greater part of the cavity, it is subdivided into two compartments by the mesentery of the transverse colon. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • We and others have discovered factors that control the recruitment of inflammatory leukocytes to the peritoneal mesentery in response to pristane [ 9 , 10 ]. (hindawi.com)
  • There are two different sacs constituting the peritoneal cavity known as the lesser and greater peritoneal sacs. (vedantu.com)
  • The peritoneal cavity is divided into two sacs - the greater sac and the lesser sac. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • The greater sac from the name is made up of majority of the cavity while the lesser sac has smaller cavity. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • This study describes clinical and paraclinical liver hydatid cyst rupture in the peritoneal cavity and details the appropriate treatment. (researchsquare.com)
  • Fifteen liver hydatid cyst cases ruptured into the abdominal cavity that underwent urgent surgery were collected over eight years. (researchsquare.com)
  • This study aims to describe various clinical and paraclinical features of a ruptured liver hydatid cyst in the peritoneal cavity and detail the appropriate treatment. (researchsquare.com)
  • Laparotomy revealed a macerated fetus in the peritoneal cavity. (bvsalud.org)
  • Rupture of a hydatid cyst in the abdominal cavity should be evoked in front of acute abdominal pain, especially in endemic areas, and in the presence of an allergic reaction or anaphylactic shock signs. (researchsquare.com)
  • The space between these two membranes is known as the peritoneal cavity. (everyhealthmatter.com)
  • This space is called the abdominal cavity or peritoneal cavity. (medlineplus.gov)
  • This involves washing out the space inside the belly, called the peritoneal cavity. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Infraumbilical semi-open or open DPL is done to more safely and accurately access the peritoneal space through thick subcutaneous fat. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The hernia orifice (arrowheads) separates the peritoneal cavity and the intradural space. (auntminnie.com)
  • It will then provide further information about this condition, including the risk factors, symptoms, treatment, and prognosis of peritoneal cancers. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • These functions performed by the peritoneal cavity make it one of the most important sections of the organ system. (vedantu.com)
  • One allows surgeons to insert within the body an endoscope, a device consisting of a tube and optical system for observing the inside of a hollow organ or cavity. (stlouischildrens.org)
  • The peritoneal cavity is divided by the transverse colon (and its mesocolon) into an upper supracolic compartment, and a lower infracolic compartment. (wikipedia.org)
  • Doctors only have two stages for primary peritoneal cancers - stages 3 and 4. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Although the change of dispersion did not alter the impact of GO on the mesothelium (i.e. no granuloma), we observed that, when dispersed in protein-free 5% dextrose solution, s-GO elicited a greater recruitment of monocytic cells to the peritoneal cavity than l-GO, or when dispersed in protein-containing solution. (springer.com)
  • By contrast, peritoneal cavity B cells expressed normal CD20 densities and were coated with CD20 mAb, but only 30-43% of B1 cells and 43-78% of B2 cells were depleted by day 7. (duke.edu)
  • The transferred cells were injected into the peritoneal cavity and tracked to the draining lymph node. (biomedcentral.com)