Infections with bacteria of the species STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
A gram-positive organism found in the upper respiratory tract, inflammatory exudates, and various body fluids of normal and/or diseased humans and, rarely, domestic animals.
A febrile disease caused by STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
Vaccines or candidate vaccines used to prevent infections with STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE.
An acute purulent infection of the meninges and subarachnoid space caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, most prevalent in children and adults over the age of 60. This illness may be associated with OTITIS MEDIA; MASTOIDITIS; SINUSITIS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; sickle cell disease (ANEMIA, SICKLE CELL); skull fractures; and other disorders. Clinical manifestations include FEVER; HEADACHE; neck stiffness; and somnolence followed by SEIZURES; focal neurologic deficits (notably DEAFNESS); and COMA. (From Miller et al., Merritt's Textbook of Neurology, 9th ed, p111)
Exotoxins produced by certain strains of streptococci, particularly those of group A (STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES), that cause HEMOLYSIS.
Semisynthetic vaccines consisting of polysaccharide antigens from microorganisms attached to protein carrier molecules. The carrier protein is recognized by macrophages and T-cells thus enhancing immunity. Conjugate vaccines induce antibody formation in people not responsive to polysaccharide alone, induce higher levels of antibody, and show a booster response on repeated injection.
The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion.
Process of determining and distinguishing species of bacteria or viruses based on antigens they share.
Immunoglobulins produced in a response to BACTERIAL ANTIGENS.
Suspensions of attenuated or killed bacteria administered for the prevention or treatment of infectious bacterial disease.
Nonsusceptibility of an organism to the action of penicillins.
Polysaccharides found in bacteria and in capsules thereof.
The top portion of the pharynx situated posterior to the nose and superior to the SOFT PALATE. The nasopharynx is the posterior extension of the nasal cavities and has a respiratory function.
Administration of vaccines to stimulate the host's immune response. This includes any preparation intended for active immunological prophylaxis.
Calcium and magnesium salts used therapeutically in hepatobiliary dysfunction.
A group of antibiotics that contain 6-aminopenicillanic acid with a side chain attached to the 6-amino group. The penicillin nucleus is the chief structural requirement for biological activity. The side-chain structure determines many of the antibacterial and pharmacological characteristics. (Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 8th ed, p1065)
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
Delivery of medications through the nasal mucosa.
An envelope of loose gel surrounding a bacterial cell which is associated with the virulence of pathogenic bacteria. Some capsules have a well-defined border, whereas others form a slime layer that trails off into the medium. Most capsules consist of relatively simple polysaccharides but there are some bacteria whose capsules are made of polypeptides.
Surgical procedure involving either partial or entire removal of the spleen.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
A glycoprotein that is important in the activation of CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY. C4 is cleaved by the activated COMPLEMENT C1S into COMPLEMENT C4A and COMPLEMENT C4B.
Substances elaborated by bacteria that have antigenic activity.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
Either of the pair of organs occupying the cavity of the thorax that effect the aeration of the blood.
Any infection acquired in the community, that is, contrasted with those acquired in a health care facility (CROSS INFECTION). An infection would be classified as community-acquired if the patient had not recently been in a health care facility or been in contact with someone who had been recently in a health care facility.
Proteins that bind to particles and cells to increase susceptibility to PHAGOCYTOSIS, especially ANTIBODIES bound to EPITOPES that attach to FC RECEPTORS. COMPLEMENT C3B may also participate.
The major immunoglobulin isotype class in normal human serum. There are several isotype subclasses of IgG, for example, IgG1, IgG2A, and IgG2B.
A disease characterized by chronic hemolytic anemia, episodic painful crises, and pathologic involvement of many organs. It is the clinical expression of homozygosity for hemoglobin S.
The condition of harboring an infective organism without manifesting symptoms of infection. The organism must be readily transmissible to another susceptible host.
Inflammation of the MIDDLE EAR including the AUDITORY OSSICLES and the EUSTACHIAN TUBE.
Deliberate stimulation of the host's immune response. ACTIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of ANTIGENS or IMMUNOLOGIC ADJUVANTS. PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION involves administration of IMMUNE SERA or LYMPHOCYTES or their extracts (e.g., transfer factor, immune RNA) or transplantation of immunocompetent cell producing tissue (thymus or bone marrow).
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by HYPOTENSION despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called SEPTIC SHOCK.
Inbred CBA mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical and uniform, which makes them useful for scientific research, particularly in the areas of immunology and cancer.
Inbred BALB/c mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical to each other, making them useful for scientific research and experiments due to their consistent genetic background and predictable responses to various stimuli or treatments.
Transfer of immunity from immunized to non-immune host by administration of serum antibodies, or transplantation of lymphocytes (ADOPTIVE TRANSFER).
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Serum glycoproteins participating in the host defense mechanism of COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION that creates the COMPLEMENT MEMBRANE ATTACK COMPLEX. Included are glycoproteins in the various pathways of complement activation (CLASSICAL COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; ALTERNATIVE COMPLEMENT PATHWAY; and LECTIN COMPLEMENT PATHWAY).
A constitution or condition of the body which makes the tissues react in special ways to certain extrinsic stimuli and thus tends to make the individual more than usually susceptible to certain diseases.
Inbred C57BL mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been produced by many generations of brother-sister matings, resulting in a high degree of genetic uniformity and homozygosity, making them widely used for biomedical research, including studies on genetics, immunology, cancer, and neuroscience.
The ability of microorganisms, especially bacteria, to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Infection of the lung often accompanied by inflammation.
The engulfing and degradation of microorganisms; other cells that are dead, dying, or pathogenic; and foreign particles by phagocytic cells (PHAGOCYTES).
Ongoing scrutiny of a population (general population, study population, target population, etc.), generally using methods distinguished by their practicability, uniformity, and frequently their rapidity, rather than by complete accuracy.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
An immunoassay utilizing an antibody labeled with an enzyme marker such as horseradish peroxidase. While either the enzyme or the antibody is bound to an immunosorbent substrate, they both retain their biologic activity; the change in enzyme activity as a result of the enzyme-antibody-antigen reaction is proportional to the concentration of the antigen and can be measured spectrophotometrically or with the naked eye. Many variations of the method have been developed.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of bacteria.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Strains of mice in which certain GENES of their GENOMES have been disrupted, or "knocked-out". To produce knockouts, using RECOMBINANT DNA technology, the normal DNA sequence of the gene being studied is altered to prevent synthesis of a normal gene product. Cloned cells in which this DNA alteration is successful are then injected into mouse EMBRYOS to produce chimeric mice. The chimeric mice are then bred to yield a strain in which all the cells of the mouse contain the disrupted gene. Knockout mice are used as EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL MODELS for diseases (DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL) and to clarify the functions of the genes.
An encapsulated lymphatic organ through which venous blood filters.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
An infant during the first month after birth.
Non-antibody proteins secreted by inflammatory leukocytes and some non-leukocytic cells, that act as intercellular mediators. They differ from classical hormones in that they are produced by a number of tissue or cell types rather than by specialized glands. They generally act locally in a paracrine or autocrine rather than endocrine manner.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.

Paediatric, invasive pneumococcal disease in Switzerland, 1985-1994. Swiss Pneumococcal Study Group. (1/2520)

BACKGROUND: Cost effective use of new vaccines against pneumococcal disease in children requires detailed information about the local epidemiology of pneumococcal infections. METHODS: Data on 393 culture-confirmed cases of invasive pneumococcal infection in children (<17 years) hospitalized in Swiss paediatric clinics were collected retrospectively for the years 1985-1994. RESULTS: Meningitis (42%) was most frequent, followed by pneumonia (28%) and bacteraemia (26%). The overall annual incidence was 2.7 cases per 100000 children <17 years old and 11 cases per 100000 children <2 years old. Annual incidence rates were stable over the study period. Lethality was high for meningitis (8.6%) and bacteraemia (8.9%). A history of basal skull fracture was reported in 3.3% of children with pneumococcal meningitis. Residence in a rural region was associated with an increased risk of pneumococcal infection (relative risk = 1.45, 95% confidence interval: 1.01-2.00). CONCLUSIONS: Paediatric, invasive pneumococcal disease seems to be less frequent in Switzerland than in other European and non-European countries. This may be due to differences in diagnostic strategies and lower frequency of risk factors such as the use of day care. Children with a history of basal skull fracture are at increased risk for pneumococcal meningitis. Further investigation of the association of invasive pneumococcal infection with rural residence and the use of antibiotics for upper respiratory tract infections might give new insight into the dynamics of Streptococcus pneumoniae infection and the development of antibiotic resistance.  (+info)

Pharmacodynamic comparisons of levofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and ampicillin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in an in vitro model of infection. (2/2520)

The increasing frequency of penicillin-resistant pneumococcus continues to be of concern throughout the world. Newer fluoroquinolone antibiotics, such as levofloxacin, have shown enhanced in vitro activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae. In this study, the bactericidal characteristics and pharmacodynamic profiles of levofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and ampicillin against four isolates of S. pneumoniae were compared by using an in vitro model of infection. Standard antibiotic dosing regimens which simulated the pharmacokinetic profile observed in humans were used. Control and treatment models were sampled for bacterial CFU per milliliter over the duration of each 24- or 48-h experiment. In addition, treatment models were sampled for MIC determinations and drug concentration. Regrowth of all isolates as well as an increase in MICs throughout the study period was observed in the ciprofloxacin experiments. A limited amount of regrowth was noted during levofloxacin therapy for one isolate; however, no change in MIC was detected for any isolate. Ampicillin showed rapid and sustained bactericidal activity against all isolates. In this study, ratios of effective fluoroquinolone area under the concentration-time curve (AUC):MIC values ranged from 30 to 55. Levofloxacin, owing to its larger AUC0-24 values, has excellent and sustained activity against different pneumococcal strains superior to that of ciprofloxacin.  (+info)

Pneumococcal psoas abscess. (3/2520)

A 47-year-old woman was admitted to our hospital because of severe low back pain. A computed tomography (CT) scan revealed a left sided psoas muscle abscess. On the first hospital day, US-guided drainage was performed. Streptococcus pneumoniae was isolated from the pus. Thereafter, the open drainage of the abscess and antibiotic treatment were given with subsequent clinical improvement. Only 10 cases of pneumococcal psoas abscess have been previously reported in the world literature.  (+info)

Increased activity of 16-membered lactone ring macrolides against erythromycin-resistant Streptococcus pyogenes and Streptococcus pneumoniae: characterization of South African isolates. (4/2520)

The susceptibility of 40 erythromycin-resistant isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes and 40 multiply-resistant isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae to six macrolide antibiotics, representing 14-, 15- and 16-membered lactone ring structures, was tested. The genetic basis for macrolide resistance in the strains was also determined. Both erm and mef determinants were encountered in the 36 S. pneumoniae isolates tested, but only mef in the five S. pyogenes isolates tested. All isolates showed cross-resistance among the 14-membered macrolides erythromycin, clarithromycin and roxithromycin and the 15-membered macrolide, azithromycin. However, the erythromycin-resistant S. pyogenes isolates retained full susceptibility to spiramycin and josamycin (16-membered agents). These latter two antibiotics were also more active than the other macrolides against erythromycin-resistant S. pneumoniae isolates, especially josamycin which was 8-64 times more active than erythromycin; spiramycin was only two to eight times more active than erythromycin.  (+info)

Antibiotic strategies for developing countries: experience with acute respiratory tract infections in Pakistan. (5/2520)

The Pakistan program for control of acute respiratory tract infections (ARIs) adopted the standard ARI-case-management strategy of the World Health Organization and recommended co-trimoxazole for the management of nonsevere pneumonia. Reports in that country of high in vitro antimicrobial resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae to co-trimoxazole prompted the program to reevaluate its treatment policy. Two community-based studies during 1991-1993 showed in vivo efficacy of co-trimoxazole in 92% and 91% of children with nonsevere pneumonia. A third double-blind trial showed co-trimoxazole and oral amoxicillin to be equally effective in vivo in cases of nonsevere pneumonia, despite high in vitro resistance. Country-wide surveillance from 1991 to 1994 revealed 78.3%-79.9% in vitro resistance to co-trimoxazole among S. pneumoniae isolates and 59.5%-61.0% among H. influenzae isolates. Co-trimoxazole is still recommended by the Pakistan ARI control program. The fact that amoxicillin is three times more expensive and must be administered more frequently is a big impediment to recommending it as a first-line drug for nonsevere pneumonia.  (+info)

Extremely high incidence of macrolide and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance among clinical isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Taiwan. (6/2520)

From January 1996 to December 1997, 200 isolates of Streptococcus pneumoniae recovered from 200 patients treated at National Taiwan University Hospital were serotyped and their susceptibilities to 16 antimicrobial agents were determined by the agar dilution method. Sixty-one percent of the isolates were nonsusceptible to penicillin, exhibiting either intermediate resistance (28%) or high-level resistance (33%). About two-fifths of the isolates displayed intermediate or high-level resistance to cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, cefepime, imipenem, and meropenem. Extremely high proportions of the isolates were resistant to erythromycin (82%), clarithromycin (90%), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMZ) (87%). Among the isolates nonsusceptible to penicillin, 23.8% were resistant to imipenem; more than 60% displayed resistance to cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, cefepime, and carbapenems; 96.7% were resistant to erythromycin; and 100% were resistant to TMP-SMZ. All isolates were susceptible to rifampin and vancomycin. The MICs at which 50% and 90% of the isolates were inhibited were 0.12 and 1 microgram/ml, respectively, for cefpirome, and 0.12 and 0.25 microgram/ml, respectively, for moxifloxacin. Six serogroups or serotypes (23F, 19F, 6B, 14, 3, and 9) accounted for 77.5% of all isolates. Overall, 92.5% of the isolates were included in the serogroups or serotypes represented in the 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine. The incidence of macrolide and TMP-SMZ resistance for S. pneumoniae isolates in Taiwan in this study is among the highest in the world published to date.  (+info)

Use of an oxacillin disk screening test for detection of penicillin- and ceftriaxone-resistant pneumococci. (7/2520)

In a context of worldwide emergence of resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae strains, early detection of strains with decreased susceptibility to beta-lactam antibiotics is important for clinicians. If the 1-microgram oxacillin disk diffusion test is used as described by the National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards, no interpretation is available for strains showing zone sizes of /=2.0 microgram/ml) to penicillin. For ceftriaxone, among 98 strains with no zone of inhibition in response to oxacillin, 68 had intermediate resistance (MIC, 1.0 microgram/ml), and 22 were resistant (MIC, >/=2.0 microgram/ml). To optimize the use of the disk diffusion method, we propose that the absence of a zone of inhibition around the 1-microgram oxacillin disk be regarded as an indicator of nonsusceptibility to penicillin and ceftriaxone and recommend that such strains be reported as nonsusceptible to these antimicrobial agents, pending the results of a MIC quantitation method.  (+info)

The pneumococcus at the millennium: not down, not out. (8/2520)

In the 12 decades that will have elapsed between the first isolation of the pneumococcus and the coming millennium, much of fundamental biologic importance has been learned from the study of this bacterium and the diseases it causes. Streptococcus pneumoniae is associated with the development of Gram's stain, the Quellung reaction, and many of the fundamentals of immunology. It has also played a significant role in the history of antimicrobial therapy. After a transitory period of euphoria engendered by the improved prognosis of pneumococcal pneumonia resulting from therapeutic advances, recognition that the newer treatments could not bring about the recovery of those sustaining early irreversible physiologic injury led to renewed interest in immunoprophylaxis. Added impetus to this approach has been fostered by the recent rapid increase in the number of pneumococcal isolates resistant to antimicrobial agents and in the magnitude of their resistance. Pneumococcal vaccines are increasingly relevant.  (+info)

Pneumococcal infections are illnesses caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. This bacterium can infect different parts of the body, including the lungs (pneumonia), blood (bacteremia or sepsis), and the covering of the brain and spinal cord (meningitis). Pneumococcal infections can also cause ear infections and sinus infections. The bacteria spread through close contact with an infected person, who may spread the bacteria by coughing or sneezing. People with weakened immune systems, children under 2 years of age, adults over 65, and those with certain medical conditions are at increased risk for developing pneumococcal infections.

Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as the pneumococcus, is a gram-positive, alpha-hemolytic bacterium frequently found in the upper respiratory tract of healthy individuals. It is a leading cause of community-acquired pneumonia and can also cause other infectious diseases such as otitis media (ear infection), sinusitis, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection). The bacteria are encapsulated, and there are over 90 serotypes based on variations in the capsular polysaccharide. Some serotypes are more virulent or invasive than others, and the polysaccharide composition is crucial for vaccine development. S. pneumoniae infection can be treated with antibiotics, but the emergence of drug-resistant strains has become a significant global health concern.

Pneumonia, pneumococcal is a type of pneumonia caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (also known as pneumococcus). This bacteria can colonize the upper respiratory tract and occasionally invade the lower respiratory tract, causing infection.

Pneumococcal pneumonia can affect people of any age but is most common in young children, older adults, and those with weakened immune systems. The symptoms of pneumococcal pneumonia include fever, chills, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, and rapid breathing. In severe cases, it can lead to complications such as bacteremia (bacterial infection in the blood), meningitis (inflammation of the membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord), and respiratory failure.

Pneumococcal pneumonia can be prevented through vaccination with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV) or the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV). These vaccines protect against the most common strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae that cause invasive disease. It is also important to practice good hygiene, such as covering the mouth and nose when coughing or sneezing, and washing hands frequently, to prevent the spread of pneumococcal bacteria.

Pneumococcal vaccines are immunizing agents that protect against infections caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. These vaccines help to prevent several types of diseases, including pneumonia, meningitis, and bacteremia (bloodstream infection).

There are two main types of pneumococcal vaccines available:

1. Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV): This vaccine is recommended for children under 2 years old, adults aged 65 and older, and people with certain medical conditions that increase their risk of pneumococcal infections. PCV protects against 13 or 20 serotypes (strains) of Streptococcus pneumoniae, depending on the formulation (PCV13 or PCV20).
2. Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine (PPSV): This vaccine is recommended for adults aged 65 and older, children and adults with specific medical conditions, and smokers. PPSV protects against 23 serotypes of Streptococcus pneumoniae.

These vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that recognize and fight off the bacteria if an individual comes into contact with it in the future. Both types of pneumococcal vaccines have been proven to be safe and effective in preventing severe pneumococcal diseases.

Pneumococcal meningitis is a specific type of bacterial meningitis, which is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and spinal cord (meninges). It is caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae, also known as pneumococcus. This bacterium is commonly found in the upper respiratory tract and middle ear fluid of healthy individuals. However, under certain circumstances, it can invade the bloodstream and reach the meninges, leading to meningitis.

Pneumococcal meningitis is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention. Symptoms may include sudden onset of fever, severe headache, stiff neck, nausea, vomiting, confusion, and sensitivity to light (photophobia). In some cases, it can also lead to complications such as hearing loss, brain damage, or even death if not treated promptly and effectively.

Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics that are effective against pneumococcus, such as ceftriaxone or vancomycin. In some cases, corticosteroids may also be used to reduce inflammation and prevent complications. Prevention measures include vaccination with the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) or the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23), which can help protect against pneumococcal infections, including meningitis.

Streptolysins are exotoxins produced by certain strains of Streptococcus bacteria, primarily Group A Streptococcus (GAS). These toxins are classified into two types: streptolysin O (SLO) and streptolysin S (SLS).

1. Streptolysin O (SLO): It is a protein exotoxin that exhibits oxygen-labile hemolytic activity, meaning it can lyse or destroy red blood cells in the presence of oxygen. SLO is capable of entering host cells and causing various cellular damages, including inhibition of phagocytosis, modulation of immune responses, and induction of apoptosis (programmed cell death).

2. Streptolysin S (SLS): It is a non-protein, oxygen-stable hemolysin that can also lyse red blood cells but does so independently of oxygen presence. SLS is more heat-resistant than SLO and has a stronger ability to penetrate host cell membranes.

Both streptolysins contribute to the virulence of Streptococcus pyogenes, which can cause various clinical infections such as pharyngitis (strep throat), impetigo, scarlet fever, and invasive diseases like necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock syndrome.

The detection of streptolysin O antibodies (ASO titer) is often used as a diagnostic marker for past or recent GAS infections, particularly in cases of rheumatic fever, where elevated ASO titers indicate ongoing or previous streptococcal infection.

Conjugate vaccines are a type of vaccine that combines a part of a bacterium with a protein or other substance to boost the body's immune response to the bacteria. The bacterial component is usually a polysaccharide, which is a long chain of sugars that makes up part of the bacterial cell wall.

By itself, a polysaccharide is not very immunogenic, meaning it does not stimulate a strong immune response. However, when it is conjugated or linked to a protein or other carrier molecule, it becomes much more immunogenic and can elicit a stronger and longer-lasting immune response.

Conjugate vaccines are particularly effective in protecting against bacterial infections that affect young children, such as Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) and pneumococcal disease. These vaccines have been instrumental in reducing the incidence of these diseases and their associated complications, such as meningitis and pneumonia.

Overall, conjugate vaccines work by mimicking a natural infection and stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies that can protect against future infections with the same bacterium. By combining a weakly immunogenic polysaccharide with a protein carrier, these vaccines can elicit a stronger and more effective immune response, providing long-lasting protection against bacterial infections.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is a medical condition that occurs when bacteria from another source, such as an infection in another part of the body, enter the bloodstream. Bacteremia can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and rapid heart rate, and it can lead to serious complications such as sepsis if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

Bacteremia is often a result of an infection elsewhere in the body that allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream. This can happen through various routes, such as during medical procedures, intravenous (IV) drug use, or from infected wounds or devices that come into contact with the bloodstream. In some cases, bacteremia may also occur without any obvious source of infection.

It is important to note that not all bacteria in the bloodstream cause harm, and some people may have bacteria in their blood without showing any symptoms. However, if bacteria in the bloodstream multiply and cause an immune response, it can lead to bacteremia and potentially serious complications.

Serotyping is a laboratory technique used to classify microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, based on the specific antigens or proteins present on their surface. It involves treating the microorganism with different types of antibodies and observing which ones bind to its surface. Each distinct set of antigens corresponds to a specific serotype, allowing for precise identification and characterization of the microorganism. This technique is particularly useful in epidemiology, vaccine development, and infection control.

Bacterial antibodies are a type of antibodies produced by the immune system in response to an infection caused by bacteria. These antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to specific antigens on the surface of the bacterial cells, marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Bacterial antibodies can be classified into several types based on their structure and function, including IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE. They play a crucial role in the body's defense against bacterial infections and provide immunity to future infections with the same bacteria.

Bacterial vaccines are types of vaccines that are created using bacteria or parts of bacteria as the immunogen, which is the substance that triggers an immune response in the body. The purpose of a bacterial vaccine is to stimulate the immune system to develop protection against specific bacterial infections.

There are several types of bacterial vaccines, including:

1. Inactivated or killed whole-cell vaccines: These vaccines contain entire bacteria that have been killed or inactivated through various methods, such as heat or chemicals. The bacteria can no longer cause disease, but they still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response.
2. Subunit, protein, or polysaccharide vaccines: These vaccines use specific components of the bacterium, such as proteins or polysaccharides, that are known to trigger an immune response. By using only these components, the vaccine can avoid using the entire bacterium, which may reduce the risk of adverse reactions.
3. Live attenuated vaccines: These vaccines contain live bacteria that have been weakened or attenuated so that they cannot cause disease but still retain the ability to stimulate an immune response. This type of vaccine can provide long-lasting immunity, but it may not be suitable for people with weakened immune systems.

Bacterial vaccines are essential tools in preventing and controlling bacterial infections, reducing the burden of diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumococcal disease, meningococcal disease, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) disease. They work by exposing the immune system to a harmless form of the bacteria or its components, which triggers the production of antibodies and memory cells that can recognize and fight off future infections with that same bacterium.

It's important to note that while vaccines are generally safe and effective, they may cause mild side effects such as pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site, fever, or fatigue. Serious side effects are rare but can occur, so it's essential to consult with a healthcare provider before receiving any vaccine.

Penicillin resistance is the ability of certain bacteria to withstand the antibacterial effects of penicillin, a type of antibiotic. This occurs when these bacteria have developed mechanisms that prevent penicillin from binding to and inhibiting the function of their cell wall biosynthesis proteins, particularly the enzyme transpeptidase.

One common mechanism of penicillin resistance is the production of beta-lactamases, enzymes that can hydrolyze and inactivate the beta-lactam ring structure present in penicillin and other related antibiotics. Another mechanism involves alterations in the bacterial cell wall that prevent penicillin from binding to its target proteins.

Penicillin resistance is a significant concern in clinical settings, as it can limit treatment options for bacterial infections and may necessitate the use of more potent or toxic antibiotics. It is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can contribute to the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including those resistant to penicillin.

Bacterial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that consist of long chains of sugar molecules (monosaccharides) linked together by glycosidic bonds. They are produced and used by bacteria for various purposes such as:

1. Structural components: Bacterial polysaccharides, such as peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), play a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity of bacterial cells. Peptidoglycan is a major component of the bacterial cell wall, while LPS forms the outer layer of the outer membrane in gram-negative bacteria.
2. Nutrient storage: Some bacteria synthesize and store polysaccharides as an energy reserve, similar to how plants store starch. These polysaccharides can be broken down and utilized by the bacterium when needed.
3. Virulence factors: Bacterial polysaccharides can also function as virulence factors, contributing to the pathogenesis of bacterial infections. For example, certain bacteria produce capsular polysaccharides (CPS) that surround and protect the bacterial cells from host immune defenses, allowing them to evade phagocytosis and persist within the host.
4. Adhesins: Some polysaccharides act as adhesins, facilitating the attachment of bacteria to surfaces or host cells. This is important for biofilm formation, which helps bacteria resist environmental stresses and antibiotic treatments.
5. Antigenic properties: Bacterial polysaccharides can be highly antigenic, eliciting an immune response in the host. The antigenicity of these molecules can vary between different bacterial species or even strains within a species, making them useful as targets for vaccines and diagnostic tests.

In summary, bacterial polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that serve various functions in bacteria, including structural support, nutrient storage, virulence factor production, adhesion, and antigenicity.

The nasopharynx is the uppermost part of the pharynx (throat), which is located behind the nose. It is a muscular cavity that serves as a passageway for air and food. The nasopharynx extends from the base of the skull to the lower border of the soft palate, where it continues as the oropharynx. Its primary function is to allow air to flow into the respiratory system through the nostrils while also facilitating the drainage of mucus from the nose into the throat. The nasopharynx contains several important structures, including the adenoids and the opening of the Eustachian tubes, which connect the middle ear to the back of the nasopharynx.

Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way to protect people against harmful diseases, before they come into contact with them. It uses your body's natural defenses to build protection to specific infections and makes your immune system stronger.

A vaccination usually contains a small, harmless piece of a virus or bacteria (or toxins produced by these germs) that has been made inactive or weakened so it won't cause the disease itself. This piece of the germ is known as an antigen. When the vaccine is introduced into the body, the immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign and produces antibodies to fight it.

If a person then comes into contact with the actual disease-causing germ, their immune system will recognize it and immediately produce antibodies to destroy it. The person is therefore protected against that disease. This is known as active immunity.

Vaccinations are important for both individual and public health. They prevent the spread of contagious diseases and protect vulnerable members of the population, such as young children, the elderly, and people with weakened immune systems who cannot be vaccinated or for whom vaccination is not effective.

Phosphorylcholine is not a medical condition or disease, but rather a chemical compound. It is the choline ester of phosphoric acid, and it plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes. Phosphorylcholine is also found in certain types of lipoproteins, including low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or "bad" cholesterol.

In the context of medical research and therapy, phosphorylcholine has been studied for its potential role in various diseases, such as atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and other inflammatory conditions. Some studies have suggested that phosphorylcholine may contribute to the development of these diseases by promoting inflammation and immune responses. However, more research is needed to fully understand the role of phosphorylcholine in human health and disease.

Penicillins are a group of antibiotics derived from the Penicillium fungus. They are widely used to treat various bacterial infections due to their bactericidal activity, which means they kill bacteria by interfering with the synthesis of their cell walls. The first penicillin, benzylpenicillin (also known as penicillin G), was discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming. Since then, numerous semi-synthetic penicillins have been developed to expand the spectrum of activity and stability against bacterial enzymes that can inactivate these drugs.

Penicillins are classified into several groups based on their chemical structure and spectrum of activity:

1. Natural Penicillins (e.g., benzylpenicillin, phenoxymethylpenicillin): These have a narrow spectrum of activity, mainly targeting Gram-positive bacteria such as streptococci and staphylococci. However, they are susceptible to degradation by beta-lactamase enzymes produced by some bacteria.
2. Penicillinase-resistant Penicillins (e.g., methicillin, oxacillin, nafcillin): These penicillins resist degradation by certain bacterial beta-lactamases and are primarily used to treat infections caused by staphylococci, including methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA).
3. Aminopenicillins (e.g., ampicillin, amoxicillin): These penicillins have an extended spectrum of activity compared to natural penicillins, including some Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. However, they are still susceptible to degradation by many beta-lactamases.
4. Antipseudomonal Penicillins (e.g., carbenicillin, ticarcillin): These penicillins have activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other Gram-negative bacteria with increased resistance to other antibiotics. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate or tazobactam to protect them from degradation.
5. Extended-spectrum Penicillins (e.g., piperacillin): These penicillins have a broad spectrum of activity, including many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. They are often combined with beta-lactamase inhibitors to protect them from degradation.

Penicillins are generally well-tolerated antibiotics; however, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, ranging from mild skin rashes to life-threatening anaphylaxis. Cross-reactivity between different penicillin classes and other beta-lactam antibiotics (e.g., cephalosporins) is possible but varies depending on the specific drugs involved.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Intranasal administration refers to the delivery of medication or other substances through the nasal passages and into the nasal cavity. This route of administration can be used for systemic absorption of drugs or for localized effects in the nasal area.

When a medication is administered intranasally, it is typically sprayed or dropped into the nostril, where it is absorbed by the mucous membranes lining the nasal cavity. The medication can then pass into the bloodstream and be distributed throughout the body for systemic effects. Intranasal administration can also result in direct absorption of the medication into the local tissues of the nasal cavity, which can be useful for treating conditions such as allergies, migraines, or pain in the nasal area.

Intranasal administration has several advantages over other routes of administration. It is non-invasive and does not require needles or injections, making it a more comfortable option for many people. Additionally, intranasal administration can result in faster onset of action than oral administration, as the medication bypasses the digestive system and is absorbed directly into the bloodstream. However, there are also some limitations to this route of administration, including potential issues with dosing accuracy and patient tolerance.

Bacterial capsules are slimy, gel-like layers that surround many types of bacteria. They are made up of polysaccharides, proteins, or lipopolysaccharides and are synthesized by the bacterial cell. These capsules play a crucial role in the virulence and pathogenicity of bacteria as they help the bacteria to evade the host's immune system and promote their survival and colonization within the host. The presence of a capsule can also contribute to the bacteria's resistance to desiccation, phagocytosis, and antibiotics.

The chemical composition and structure of bacterial capsules vary among different species of bacteria, which is one factor that contributes to their serological specificity and allows for their identification and classification using methods such as the Quellung reaction or immunofluorescence microscopy.

A splenectomy is a surgical procedure in which the spleen is removed from the body. The spleen is an organ located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen, near the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays several important roles in the body, including fighting certain types of infections, removing old or damaged red blood cells from the circulation, and storing platelets and white blood cells.

There are several reasons why a splenectomy may be necessary, including:

* Trauma to the spleen that cannot be repaired
* Certain types of cancer, such as Hodgkin's lymphoma or non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
* Sickle cell disease, which can cause the spleen to enlarge and become damaged
* A ruptured spleen, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly
* Certain blood disorders, such as idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) or hemolytic anemia

A splenectomy is typically performed under general anesthesia and may be done using open surgery or laparoscopically. After the spleen is removed, the incision(s) are closed with sutures or staples. Recovery time varies depending on the individual and the type of surgery performed, but most people are able to return to their normal activities within a few weeks.

It's important to note that following a splenectomy, individuals may be at increased risk for certain types of infections, so it's recommended that they receive vaccinations to help protect against these infections. They should also seek medical attention promptly if they develop fever, chills, or other signs of infection.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

Complement C4 is a protein that plays a crucial role in the complement system, which is a part of the immune system that helps to clear pathogens and damaged cells from the body. Complement C4 is involved in the early stages of the complement activation cascade, where it helps to identify and tag foreign or abnormal cells for destruction by other components of the immune system.

Specifically, Complement C4 can be cleaved into two smaller proteins, C4a and C4b, during the complement activation process. C4b then binds to the surface of the target cell and helps to initiate the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC), which creates a pore in the cell membrane and leads to lysis or destruction of the target cell.

Deficiencies or mutations in the Complement C4 gene can lead to various immune disorders, including certain forms of autoimmune diseases and susceptibility to certain infections.

Bacterial antigens are substances found on the surface or produced by bacteria that can stimulate an immune response in a host organism. These antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, teichoic acids, lipopolysaccharides, or other molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host's immune system.

When a bacterial antigen is encountered by the host's immune system, it triggers a series of responses aimed at eliminating the bacteria and preventing infection. The host's immune system recognizes the antigen as foreign through the use of specialized receptors called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), which are found on various immune cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils.

Once a bacterial antigen is recognized by the host's immune system, it can stimulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses. The innate immune response involves the activation of inflammatory pathways, the recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, and the production of antimicrobial peptides.

The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, involves the activation of T cells and B cells, which are specific to the bacterial antigen. These cells can recognize and remember the antigen, allowing for a more rapid and effective response upon subsequent exposures.

Bacterial antigens are important in the development of vaccines, as they can be used to stimulate an immune response without causing disease. By identifying specific bacterial antigens that are associated with virulence or pathogenicity, researchers can develop vaccines that target these antigens and provide protection against infection.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

A lung is a pair of spongy, elastic organs in the chest that work together to enable breathing. They are responsible for taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through the process of respiration. The left lung has two lobes, while the right lung has three lobes. The lungs are protected by the ribcage and are covered by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The trachea divides into two bronchi, which further divide into smaller bronchioles, leading to millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, where the exchange of gases occurs.

Community-acquired infections are those that are acquired outside of a healthcare setting, such as in one's own home or community. These infections are typically contracted through close contact with an infected person, contaminated food or water, or animals. Examples of community-acquired infections include the common cold, flu, strep throat, and many types of viral and bacterial gastrointestinal infections.

These infections are different from healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), which are infections that patients acquire while they are receiving treatment for another condition in a healthcare setting, such as a hospital or long-term care facility. HAIs can be caused by a variety of factors, including contact with contaminated surfaces or equipment, invasive medical procedures, and the use of certain medications.

It is important to note that community-acquired infections can also occur in healthcare settings if proper infection control measures are not in place. Healthcare providers must take steps to prevent the spread of these infections, such as washing their hands regularly, using personal protective equipment (PPE), and implementing isolation precautions for patients with known or suspected infectious diseases.

Opsonins are proteins found in the blood that help enhance the immune system's response to foreign substances, such as bacteria and viruses. They do this by coating the surface of these pathogens, making them more recognizable to immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages. This process, known as opsonization, facilitates the phagocytosis (engulfing and destroying) of the pathogen by these immune cells.

There are two main types of opsonins:

1. IgG antibodies: These are a type of antibody produced by the immune system in response to an infection. They bind to specific antigens on the surface of the pathogen, marking them for destruction by phagocytic cells.
2. Complement proteins: The complement system is a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens. When activated, the complement system can produce various proteins that act as opsonins, including C3b and C4b. These proteins bind to the surface of the pathogen, making it easier for phagocytic cells to recognize and destroy them.

In summary, opsonin proteins are crucial components of the immune system's response to infections, helping to mark foreign substances for destruction by immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages.

Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a type of antibody, which is a protective protein produced by the immune system in response to foreign substances like bacteria or viruses. IgG is the most abundant type of antibody in human blood, making up about 75-80% of all antibodies. It is found in all body fluids and plays a crucial role in fighting infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

IgG has several important functions:

1. Neutralization: IgG can bind to the surface of bacteria or viruses, preventing them from attaching to and infecting human cells.
2. Opsonization: IgG coats the surface of pathogens, making them more recognizable and easier for immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages to phagocytose (engulf and destroy) them.
3. Complement activation: IgG can activate the complement system, a group of proteins that work together to help eliminate pathogens from the body. Activation of the complement system leads to the formation of the membrane attack complex, which creates holes in the cell membranes of bacteria, leading to their lysis (destruction).
4. Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC): IgG can bind to immune cells like natural killer (NK) cells and trigger them to release substances that cause target cells (such as virus-infected or cancerous cells) to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell death).
5. Immune complex formation: IgG can form immune complexes with antigens, which can then be removed from the body through various mechanisms, such as phagocytosis by immune cells or excretion in urine.

IgG is a critical component of adaptive immunity and provides long-lasting protection against reinfection with many pathogens. It has four subclasses (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4) that differ in their structure, function, and distribution in the body.

Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder that affects the hemoglobin in red blood cells. Hemoglobin is responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body. In sickle cell anemia, the hemoglobin is abnormal and causes the red blood cells to take on a sickle shape, rather than the normal disc shape. These sickled cells are stiff and sticky, and they can block blood vessels, causing tissue damage and pain. They also die more quickly than normal red blood cells, leading to anemia.

People with sickle cell anemia often experience fatigue, chronic pain, and jaundice. They may also have a higher risk of infections and complications such as stroke, acute chest syndrome, and priapism. The disease is inherited from both parents, who must both be carriers of the sickle cell gene. It primarily affects people of African descent, but it can also affect people from other ethnic backgrounds.

There is no cure for sickle cell anemia, but treatments such as blood transfusions, medications to manage pain and prevent complications, and bone marrow transplantation can help improve quality of life for affected individuals. Regular medical care and monitoring are essential for managing the disease effectively.

A carrier state is a condition in which a person carries and may be able to transmit a genetic disorder or infectious disease, but does not show any symptoms of the disease themselves. This occurs when an individual has a recessive allele for a genetic disorder or is infected with a pathogen, but does not have the necessary combination of genes or other factors required to develop the full-blown disease.

For example, in the case of cystic fibrosis, which is caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, a person who carries one normal allele and one mutated allele for the disease is considered a carrier. They do not have symptoms of cystic fibrosis themselves, but they can pass the mutated allele on to their offspring, who may then develop the disease if they inherit the mutation from both parents.

Similarly, in the case of infectious diseases, a person who is infected with a pathogen but does not show any symptoms may still be able to transmit the infection to others. This is known as being an asymptomatic carrier or a healthy carrier. For example, some people who are infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) may not develop any symptoms of liver disease, but they can still transmit the virus to others through contact with their blood or other bodily fluids.

It's important to note that in some cases, carriers of certain genetic disorders or infectious diseases may have mild or atypical symptoms that do not meet the full criteria for a diagnosis of the disease. In these cases, they may be considered to have a "reduced penetrance" or "incomplete expression" of the disorder or infection.

Otitis media is an inflammation or infection of the middle ear. It can occur as a result of a cold, respiratory infection, or allergy that causes fluid buildup behind the eardrum. The buildup of fluid can lead to infection and irritation of the middle ear, causing symptoms such as ear pain, hearing loss, and difficulty balancing. There are two types of otitis media: acute otitis media (AOM), which is a short-term infection that can cause fever and severe ear pain, and otitis media with effusion (OME), which is fluid buildup in the middle ear without symptoms of infection. In some cases, otitis media may require medical treatment, including antibiotics or the placement of ear tubes to drain the fluid and relieve pressure on the eardrum.

Immunization is defined medically as the process where an individual is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically through the administration of a vaccine. The vaccine stimulates the body's own immune system to recognize and fight off the specific disease-causing organism, thereby preventing or reducing the severity of future infections with that organism.

Immunization can be achieved actively, where the person is given a vaccine to trigger an immune response, or passively, where antibodies are transferred to the person through immunoglobulin therapy. Immunizations are an important part of preventive healthcare and have been successful in controlling and eliminating many infectious diseases worldwide.

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to an infection injures its own tissues and organs. It is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (systemic inflammation) that can lead to blood clotting issues, tissue damage, and multiple organ failure.

Sepsis happens when an infection you already have triggers a chain reaction throughout your body. Infections that lead to sepsis most often start in the lungs, urinary tract, skin, or gastrointestinal tract.

Sepsis is a medical emergency. If you suspect sepsis, seek immediate medical attention. Early recognition and treatment of sepsis are crucial to improve outcomes. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and may require oxygen, medication to raise blood pressure, and corticosteroids. In severe cases, surgery may be required to clear the infection.

"CBA" is an abbreviation for a specific strain of inbred mice that were developed at the Cancer Research Institute in London. The "Inbred CBA" mice are genetically identical individuals within the same strain, due to many generations of brother-sister matings. This results in a homozygous population, making them valuable tools for research because they reduce variability and increase reproducibility in experimental outcomes.

The CBA strain is known for its susceptibility to certain diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer, which makes it a popular choice for researchers studying those conditions. Additionally, the CBA strain has been widely used in studies related to transplantation immunology, infectious diseases, and genetic research.

It's important to note that while "Inbred CBA" mice are a well-established and useful tool in biomedical research, they represent only one of many inbred strains available for scientific investigation. Each strain has its own unique characteristics and advantages, depending on the specific research question being asked.

BALB/c is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The strain was developed at the Institute of Cancer Research in London by Henry Baldwin and his colleagues in the 1920s, and it has since become one of the most commonly used inbred strains in the world.

BALB/c mice are characterized by their black coat color, which is determined by a recessive allele at the tyrosinase locus. They are also known for their docile and friendly temperament, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory.

One of the key features of BALB/c mice that makes them useful for research is their susceptibility to certain types of tumors and immune responses. For example, they are highly susceptible to developing mammary tumors, which can be induced by chemical carcinogens or viral infection. They also have a strong Th2-biased immune response, which makes them useful models for studying allergic diseases and asthma.

BALB/c mice are also commonly used in studies of genetics, neuroscience, behavior, and infectious diseases. Because they are an inbred strain, they have a uniform genetic background, which makes it easier to control for genetic factors in experiments. Additionally, because they have been bred in the laboratory for many generations, they are highly standardized and reproducible, making them ideal subjects for scientific research.

Passive immunization is a type of temporary immunity that is transferred to an individual through the injection of antibodies produced outside of the body, rather than through the active production of antibodies in the body in response to vaccination or infection. This can be done through the administration of preformed antibodies, such as immune globulins, which contain a mixture of antibodies that provide immediate protection against specific diseases.

Passive immunization is often used in situations where individuals have been exposed to a disease and do not have time to develop their own active immune response, or in cases where individuals are unable to produce an adequate immune response due to certain medical conditions. It can also be used as a short-term measure to provide protection until an individual can receive a vaccination that will confer long-term immunity.

Passive immunization provides immediate protection against disease, but the protection is typically short-lived, lasting only a few weeks or months. This is because the transferred antibodies are gradually broken down and eliminated by the body over time. In contrast, active immunization confers long-term immunity through the production of memory cells that can mount a rapid and effective immune response upon re-exposure to the same pathogen in the future.

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

The complement system is a group of proteins found in the blood and on the surface of cells that when activated, work together to help eliminate pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi from the body. The proteins are normally inactive in the bloodstream. When they encounter an invading microorganism or foreign substance, a series of reactions take place leading to the activation of the complement system. Activation results in the production of effector molecules that can punch holes in the cell membranes of pathogens, recruit and activate immune cells, and help remove debris and dead cells from the body.

There are three main pathways that can lead to complement activation: the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, and the alternative pathway. Each pathway involves a series of proteins that work together in a cascade-like manner to amplify the response and generate effector molecules. The three main effector molecules produced by the complement system are C3b, C4b, and C5b. These molecules can bind to the surface of pathogens, marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

Complement proteins also play a role in the regulation of the immune response. They help to prevent excessive activation of the complement system, which could damage host tissues. Dysregulation of the complement system has been implicated in a number of diseases, including autoimmune disorders and inflammatory conditions.

In summary, Complement System Proteins are a group of proteins that play a crucial role in the immune response by helping to eliminate pathogens and regulate the immune response. They can be activated through three different pathways, leading to the production of effector molecules that mark pathogens for destruction. Dysregulation of the complement system has been linked to various diseases.

Disease susceptibility, also known as genetic predisposition or genetic susceptibility, refers to the increased likelihood or risk of developing a particular disease due to inheriting specific genetic variations or mutations. These genetic factors can make an individual more vulnerable to certain diseases compared to those who do not have these genetic changes.

It is important to note that having a genetic predisposition does not guarantee that a person will definitely develop the disease. Other factors, such as environmental exposures, lifestyle choices, and additional genetic variations, can influence whether or not the disease will manifest. In some cases, early detection and intervention may help reduce the risk or delay the onset of the disease in individuals with a known genetic susceptibility.

C57BL/6 (C57 Black 6) is an inbred strain of laboratory mouse that is widely used in biomedical research. The term "inbred" refers to a strain of animals where matings have been carried out between siblings or other closely related individuals for many generations, resulting in a population that is highly homozygous at most genetic loci.

The C57BL/6 strain was established in 1920 by crossing a female mouse from the dilute brown (DBA) strain with a male mouse from the black strain. The resulting offspring were then interbred for many generations to create the inbred C57BL/6 strain.

C57BL/6 mice are known for their robust health, longevity, and ease of handling, making them a popular choice for researchers. They have been used in a wide range of biomedical research areas, including studies of cancer, immunology, neuroscience, cardiovascular disease, and metabolism.

One of the most notable features of the C57BL/6 strain is its sensitivity to certain genetic modifications, such as the introduction of mutations that lead to obesity or impaired glucose tolerance. This has made it a valuable tool for studying the genetic basis of complex diseases and traits.

Overall, the C57BL/6 inbred mouse strain is an important model organism in biomedical research, providing a valuable resource for understanding the genetic and molecular mechanisms underlying human health and disease.

Microbial drug resistance is a significant medical issue that refers to the ability of microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand or survive exposure to drugs or medications designed to kill them or limit their growth. This phenomenon has become a major global health concern, particularly in the context of bacterial infections, where it is also known as antibiotic resistance.

Drug resistance arises due to genetic changes in microorganisms that enable them to modify or bypass the effects of antimicrobial agents. These genetic alterations can be caused by mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. The resistant microbes then replicate and multiply, forming populations that are increasingly difficult to eradicate with conventional treatments.

The consequences of drug-resistant infections include increased morbidity, mortality, healthcare costs, and the potential for widespread outbreaks. Factors contributing to the emergence and spread of microbial drug resistance include the overuse or misuse of antimicrobials, poor infection control practices, and inadequate surveillance systems.

To address this challenge, it is crucial to promote prudent antibiotic use, strengthen infection prevention and control measures, develop new antimicrobial agents, and invest in research to better understand the mechanisms underlying drug resistance.

Pneumonia is an infection or inflammation of the alveoli (tiny air sacs) in one or both lungs. It's often caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Accumulated pus and fluid in these air sacs make it difficult to breathe, which can lead to coughing, chest pain, fever, and difficulty breathing. The severity of symptoms can vary from mild to life-threatening, depending on the underlying cause, the patient's overall health, and age. Pneumonia is typically diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, and diagnostic tests such as chest X-rays or blood tests. Treatment usually involves antibiotics for bacterial pneumonia, antivirals for viral pneumonia, and supportive care like oxygen therapy, hydration, and rest.

Phagocytosis is the process by which certain cells in the body, known as phagocytes, engulf and destroy foreign particles, bacteria, or dead cells. This mechanism plays a crucial role in the immune system's response to infection and inflammation. Phagocytes, such as neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, have receptors on their surface that recognize and bind to specific molecules (known as antigens) on the target particles or microorganisms.

Once attached, the phagocyte extends pseudopodia (cell extensions) around the particle, forming a vesicle called a phagosome that completely encloses it. The phagosome then fuses with a lysosome, an intracellular organelle containing digestive enzymes and other chemicals. This fusion results in the formation of a phagolysosome, where the engulfed particle is broken down by the action of these enzymes, neutralizing its harmful effects and allowing for the removal of cellular debris or pathogens.

Phagocytosis not only serves as a crucial defense mechanism against infections but also contributes to tissue homeostasis by removing dead cells and debris.

Population surveillance in a public health and medical context refers to the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of health-related data for a defined population over time. It aims to monitor the health status, identify emerging health threats or trends, and evaluate the impact of interventions within that population. This information is used to inform public health policy, prioritize healthcare resources, and guide disease prevention and control efforts. Population surveillance can involve various data sources, such as vital records, disease registries, surveys, and electronic health records.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

An Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is a type of analytical biochemistry assay used to detect and quantify the presence of a substance, typically a protein or peptide, in a liquid sample. It takes its name from the enzyme-linked antibodies used in the assay.

In an ELISA, the sample is added to a well containing a surface that has been treated to capture the target substance. If the target substance is present in the sample, it will bind to the surface. Next, an enzyme-linked antibody specific to the target substance is added. This antibody will bind to the captured target substance if it is present. After washing away any unbound material, a substrate for the enzyme is added. If the enzyme is present due to its linkage to the antibody, it will catalyze a reaction that produces a detectable signal, such as a color change or fluorescence. The intensity of this signal is proportional to the amount of target substance present in the sample, allowing for quantification.

ELISAs are widely used in research and clinical settings to detect and measure various substances, including hormones, viruses, and bacteria. They offer high sensitivity, specificity, and reproducibility, making them a reliable choice for many applications.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

A "knockout" mouse is a genetically engineered mouse in which one or more genes have been deleted or "knocked out" using molecular biology techniques. This allows researchers to study the function of specific genes and their role in various biological processes, as well as potential associations with human diseases. The mice are generated by introducing targeted DNA modifications into embryonic stem cells, which are then used to create a live animal. Knockout mice have been widely used in biomedical research to investigate gene function, disease mechanisms, and potential therapeutic targets.

The spleen is an organ in the upper left side of the abdomen, next to the stomach and behind the ribs. It plays multiple supporting roles in the body:

1. It fights infection by acting as a filter for the blood. Old red blood cells are recycled in the spleen, and platelets and white blood cells are stored there.
2. The spleen also helps to control the amount of blood in the body by removing excess red blood cells and storing platelets.
3. It has an important role in immune function, producing antibodies and removing microorganisms and damaged red blood cells from the bloodstream.

The spleen can be removed without causing any significant problems, as other organs take over its functions. This is known as a splenectomy and may be necessary if the spleen is damaged or diseased.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

Cytokines are a broad and diverse category of small signaling proteins that are secreted by various cells, including immune cells, in response to different stimuli. They play crucial roles in regulating the immune response, inflammation, hematopoiesis, and cellular communication.

Cytokines mediate their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers intracellular signaling pathways that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cell behavior, and function. Some key functions of cytokines include:

1. Regulating the activation, differentiation, and proliferation of immune cells such as T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells, and macrophages.
2. Coordinating the inflammatory response by recruiting immune cells to sites of infection or tissue damage and modulating their effector functions.
3. Regulating hematopoiesis, the process of blood cell formation in the bone marrow, by controlling the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.
4. Modulating the development and function of the nervous system, including neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, and neuroregeneration.

Cytokines can be classified into several categories based on their structure, function, or cellular origin. Some common types of cytokines include interleukins (ILs), interferons (IFNs), tumor necrosis factors (TNFs), chemokines, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and transforming growth factors (TGFs). Dysregulation of cytokine production and signaling has been implicated in various pathological conditions, such as autoimmune diseases, chronic inflammation, cancer, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

... is an infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. S. pneumoniae is a common member of ... The World Health Organization estimates that in 2005 pneumococcal infections were responsible for the death of 1.6 million ... In 1936, a pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine was used to abort an epidemic of pneumococcal pneumonia. In the 1940s, ... in pneumococcal infections. The test was initially validated on urine samples but has been applied successfully to other body ...
Infectious diseases, especially in the field of HIV infection. Pathology associated with pneumococcal infection. Prevention and ...
Moberley S, Holden J, Tatham DP, Andrews RM (January 2013). "Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults". The ... Typical bacterial Infections: Haemophilus influenzae Staphylococcus aureus Klebsiella pneumoniae Atypical bacterial Infections ... "Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections--full version". Clinical Microbiology and Infection. ... Lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) is a term often used as a synonym for pneumonia but can also be applied to other types ...
... indicates drug-resistant pneumococcal infections; these are the 23 most prevalent or invasive pneumococcal types of ... These antibodies have been shown to prolong survival in a mouse model of pneumococcal infection characterized by a reduction in ... Burns T, Abadi M, Pirofski LA (August 2005). "Modulation of the lung inflammatory response to serotype 8 pneumococcal infection ... Additional pneumococcal vaccine research is taking place to find a vaccine that offers broad protection against pneumococcal ...
Moberley S, Holden J, Tatham DP, Andrews RM (2013). "Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults". Cochrane ... Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine, sold under the brand name Pneumovax 23, is a pneumococcal vaccine that is used for the ... Pneumococcal vaccines". Archived from the original on 6 March 2002. Retrieved 29 May 2009. "Who should have the pneumococcal ... Pneumococcal Disease World Health Organization (WHO) "Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine Information Statement". U.S. Centers ...
Moberley S, Holden J, Tatham DP, Andrews RM (January 2013). "Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults". The ... Mixed infections with both viruses and bacteria may occur in roughly 45% of infections in children and 15% of infections in ... Active Bacterial Core Surveillance of the Emerging Infections Program Network) (May 2003). "Decline in invasive pneumococcal ... October 2009). "Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines for preventing vaccine-type invasive pneumococcal disease and X-ray defined ...
Conant JE & Sawyer WD (June 1967). "Transformation during mixed pneumococcal infection of mice". Journal of Bacteriology. 93 (6 ... Streptococcal infection was a frequent coinfection complicating recovery from lobar pneumonia by pneumococci infection. By 1967 ... dual infection by two pneumococcal strains could increase transformation-and virulence-while for the first time pneumococcal ... America's leading pneumococcal researcher, Oswald T. Avery, speculated that Griffith had failed to apply adequate controls. A ...
... this is used for the prevention of invasive pneumococcal infections. The introduction of the original, 7-valent version of the ... reduction in the incidence of invasive pneumococcal infections among children under age 5 in the United States. Pfizer ... By 2012, the rate of invasive infections among children under age 5 had been reduced by an additional 50%. In 2010, Ian Read ... A federal lawsuit was filed by a scientist claiming she got an infection by a genetically modified lentivirus while working for ...
Sexton, Daniel J. "Invasive pneumococcal (Streptococcus pneumoniae) infections and bacteremia". www.uptodate.com. Retrieved ... Instead, histories of infection with anything from the Neisseria genus as well as family history can be indicators, but only ... While the frequency of properdin deficiency has not been assessed worldwide, the risk of meningococcal infection in an ... However, individuals that have a properdin deficiency do have a heightened susceptibility to bacterial infections, most notably ...
This unique property became widely used to diagnose pneumococcal infections. Then, using immunological techniques, Neufeld ... Addition of a small amount of ox bile to a pneumococcal culture results in complete destruction of the culture after a short ... This discovery led Fred Griffith to show that one pneumococcal type could be transformed into another (Griffith's experiment). ... Fred (Friedrich) Neufeld (17 February 1869 - 18 April 1945) was a physician and bacteriologist who discovered the pneumococcal ...
"Lung epithelium and myeloid cells cooperate to clear acute pneumococcal infection". Mucosal Immunology. 9 (5): 1288-1502. doi: ... PCLS research in infection and inflammation enhances our understanding of immune responses, paving the way for insights into ... Such interactions not only affect infectability but also shape the system's response to infection. The PCLS system serves as a ... For instance, bovine parainfluenza virus infection was observed primarily in cells beneath the lung epithelium within the PCLS ...
Tomasello caught a Pneumococcal infection on his trip back to Boston. Upon learning of his son's death, Tomasello put off ... seeking treatment and his condition worsened into an infection of the middle ear which in turn caused a bloodstream infection. ...
The organism also causes many types of pneumococcal infections other than pneumonia. These invasive pneumococcal diseases ... Pneumococcal meningitis is an infection of the tissue covering the brain and spinal cord. Symptoms include stiff neck, fever, ... The pneumococcal genome is known to contain a large and diverse repertoire of antimicrobial peptides, including 11 different ... 16: Pneumococcal Disease". In Atkinson W; Wolfe S; Hamborsky J (eds.). Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable ...
Dagan R (April 2009). "Impact of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on infections caused by antibiotic-resistant Streptococcus ... It occurs when a sufficient percentage of a population has become immune to an infection, whether through previous infections ... or are more likely to develop complications from infection, may receive antibody preparations to prevent these infections or to ... while infections that require sexual contact like HIV have a lower R0 (2-5). Prather, Kimberly A.; Marr, Linsey C.; Schooley, ...
"Host-pathogen interaction during pneumococcal infection in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease". Infection and ... For her PhD she was a student at Erasmus University Rotterdam where she worked on the pathogenesis of pneumococcal infections ... D Bogaert; R De Groot; P W M Hermans (1 March 2004). "Streptococcus pneumoniae colonisation: the key to pneumococcal disease". ... Her research considers the physiology and pathophysiology of respiratory infections. Debby Bogaert was born in Goes, in the ...
His thesis, titled The Effect of Alcoholic Intoxication Upon Acquired Resistance to Pneumococcal Infection in Rabbits, was ... Lushbaugh, Clarence (March 1, 1943). "The Effect of Alcoholic Intoxication Upon Acquired Resistance to Pneumococcal Infection ...
... cervical cancer screening and pneumococcal infections. During 2011 the Treatment Action Campaign, an HIV/AIDS non-governmental ...
A Newly Recognized Pneumococcal Infection Threat". PLOS ONE. 7 (3): e32134. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...732134S. doi:10.1371/journal. ... A member of Pneumococcal Awareness Council of Experts (PACE), he also heads the steering committee of the Coalition Against ... He has also led research into the resistance to treatment of some pneumococcal diseases. Saha along with his team designed and ... After the publication of the article Saha was invited to attend a panel discussion on the various aspects of pneumococcal ...
... crossover design study of the pharmacology of extended-spectrum fluoroquinolones for pneumococcal infections". Chest. 116 (1): ... labelled for use in adults with lower respiratory tract infections, skin and skin structure infections, urinary tract ... An eye drop may be used for a superficial bacterial infection of the eye and an ear drop may be used for otitis media when a ... Ofloxacin is a quinolone antibiotic useful for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. When taken by mouth or ...
August 2021). "The GPCR adaptor protein norbin suppresses the neutrophil-mediated immunity of mice to pneumococcal infection". ...
In 2013 he defended his doctoral thesis on the epidemiology of pneumococcal infections in young Icelandic children. The ...
... pneumococcal) infections. She also identified rare strains of S. pneumoniae that caused a form of kidney failure called ... "Exposure of Thomsen-Friedenreich antigen in Streptococcus pneumoniae infection is dependent on pneumococcal neuraminidase A". ... The reasons were that little was known about the extent of asymptomatic Hib infection among children attending child day care ... Herva, E.; Luotonen, J.; Timonen, M.; Sibakov, M.; Karma, P.; Mäkelä, P. H. (1980). "The effect of polyvalent pneumococcal ...
A third study of note, from 2016, was able to examine pneumococcal transmission without co-infection of an URT infection. This ... and one of the common types of pneumococcal infection. The estimated number of Americans with pneumococcal pneumonia is 900,000 ... Dockrell, David H.; Whyte, Moira K. B.; Mitchell, Timothy J. (2012-08-01). "Pneumococcal Pneumonia: Mechanisms of Infection and ... Three stages can be used to categorize the infection process of pneumococcal pneumonia: transmission, colonization, and ...
"The Lectin Pathway of Complement Activation Is a Critical Component of the Innate Immune Response to Pneumococcal Infection". ... Depending on the type of infection, the symptoms caused by the infections vary in frequency and severity. Although the clinical ... Mannose-binding Lectin deficiency - These individuals are prone to recurrent infections, including infections of the upper ... Infants and young children with mannose-binding lectin deficiency seem to be more susceptible to infections, but adults can ...
... but identification of specific serotypes remained important as the understanding of the epidemiology of pneumococcal infections ... The pneumococcal quellung reaction was first described in 1902 by the scientist Fred Neufeld, and applied only to Streptococcus ... "GPS :: Global Pneumococcal Sequencing Project". www.pneumogen.net. Retrieved 2021-10-09. Park, I. H., Pritchard, D., Cartee, R ... PCR Deduction of Pneumococcal Serotypes Archived September 4, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Center for Disease Control. ...
In the same year she was awarded a grant from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation to study pneumococcal infections, which ... focusing on the field of host-bacteria interactions and pneumococcal infections. She is a professor of Clinical Microbiology at ... "She wants to defuse pneumococcal bacteria , Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation". kaw.wallenberg.org. Retrieved 2023-04-24. " ...
Policy statement: recommendations for the prevention of pneumococcal infections, including the use of pneumococcal conjugate ... Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is a pneumococcal vaccine and a conjugate vaccine used to protect infants, young children, and ... "GRADE: 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV15) in series with 23-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PPSV23) for ... April 2006). "Invasive pneumococcal disease among infants before and after introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine". ...
This discovery has saved the lives of millions of individuals by preventing pneumococcal infection, particularly in children ... and his role in the development of the first successful vaccine to prevent pneumococcal infection in 1977. He founded Global ... a series of clinical trials aimed at protecting children with sickle cell anemia and the elderly from pneumococcal infection, a ... Polyvalent pneumococcal-polysaccharide immunization of patients with sickle-cell anemia and patients with splenectomy. NEJM, ...
If symptoms are present they may range from mild pneumonia resembling a pneumococcal infection to acute respiratory distress ... In most such cases, the infection in the dog becomes apparent before the human infection. This may be due to a shortened ... "A rare fungal infection broke out at a paper mill. Here's what to know about blastomycosis in Wisconsin". The Post-Crescent. ... In 25% to 40% of cases, the infection also spreads to other parts of the body, such as the skin, bones or central nervous ...
When antibiotics came into use for the cure of pneumococcal infections in the 1950s and 60s, further pneumococcal vaccine ... He analyzed 83 known types of pneumococci, and determined 14 types were responsible for 80% of invasive pneumococcal infections ... Austrian established a tremendous knowledge base of pneumococcal biology. ... which describes the clinical syndrome of pneumococcal meningitis, pneumonia and endocarditis, after his 1957 paper in Archives ...
Risk of infection with Listeria monocytogenes is increased in people over 50 years old. The introduction of pneumococcal ... Severe meningococcal and pneumococcal infections may result in hemorrhaging of the adrenal glands, leading to Waterhouse- ... Meningitis is typically caused by an infection. Most infections are due to viruses, and others due to bacteria, fungi, and ... January 2009). "Effect of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on pneumococcal meningitis". The New England Journal of Medicine. 360 ...
The most common types of infections are Meningitis, Sepsis, Pneumonia, and ear and sinus infections ... Pneumococcal Infections (American Academy of Pediatrics) Also in Spanish * Pneumococcal Vaccines (PCV, PPSV) (Nemours ... Pneumococcal Disease: Types of Infection (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) Also in Spanish ... Vaccines can prevent pneumococcal infections. There are two vaccines. One is for infants and young children. The other is for ...
Common infections caused by this pathogen include otitis media (OM), sinusitis, occult bacteremia, pneumonia, and meningitis. ... colonizes the upper respiratory tract of healthy individuals and is one of the most frequent causes of bacterial infection in ... encoded search term (Pediatric Pneumococcal Infections) and Pediatric Pneumococcal Infections What to Read Next on Medscape ... Children with pneumococcal infections usually have a temperature higher than 102°F, along with symptoms of specific infections ...
Pneumococcal infection is an infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. S. pneumoniae is a common member of ... The World Health Organization estimates that in 2005 pneumococcal infections were responsible for the death of 1.6 million ... In 1936, a pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine was used to abort an epidemic of pneumococcal pneumonia. In the 1940s, ... in pneumococcal infections. The test was initially validated on urine samples but has been applied successfully to other body ...
... that the measurement of circulating ICs is more sensitive than other serologic methods for the diagnosis of pneumococcal lower ... respiratory infection. In infants, however, it was as insensitive as antigen and antibody assays. ... Pneumococcal immune complexes in the diagnosis of lower respiratory infections in children Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998 Nov;17(11 ... In 5 (7%) of the 68 IC-positive patients pneumococcal antigen was present in acute serum; those patients formed 18% of the 28 ...
"Invasive penicillin-resistant pneumococcal infections: a prevalence and historical cohort study." vol. 2, no. 2, 1996. Export ... "Invasive penicillin-resistant pneumococcal infections: a prevalence and historical cohort study." 2, no. 2 (1996). Kronenberger ... 1996). Invasive penicillin-resistant pneumococcal infections: a prevalence and historical cohort study.. 2(2). Kronenberger, C ... Title : Invasive penicillin-resistant pneumococcal infections: a prevalence and historical cohort study. Personal Author(s) : ...
Pneumococcal infections are caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, a gram-positive, catalase-negative organism commonly referred ... encoded search term (Pneumococcal Infections) and Pneumococcal Infections What to Read Next on Medscape ... Pediatric pneumococcal bone and joint infections. The Pediatric Multicenter Pneumococcal Surveillance Study Group (PMPSSG). ... has led to decreased rates of invasive pneumococcal infections (,90%) caused by pneumococcal serotypes covered by the vaccine, ...
Pneumococcal Infections - Learn about the causes, symptoms, diagnosis & treatment from the MSD Manuals - Medical Consumer ... Prevention of Pneumococcal Infections Pneumococcal infections can be prevented with vaccines and, for certain people, ... Symptoms and Diagnosis of Pneumococcal Infections Symptoms of pneumococcal infections vary depending on the site of the ... see also Pneumococcal Vaccine Pneumococcal Vaccine Pneumococcal vaccines help protect against bacterial infections caused by ...
Return to Article Details CHARACTERISTICS OF PNEUMOCOCCAL INFECTION IN THE ERA OF IMMUNIZATION Download Download PDF ...
Topic: Pneumococcal Infections. (Please note that the documents listed below are sorted by date.). Update: Respiratory ... Pneumococcal and Influenza Vaccination Levels Among Adults Aged greater than or equal to 65 Years -- United States, 1995; 1997: ... Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine; 1989:02:10. This page ... Prevention of Pneumococcal Disease: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP); 1997:04:04. ...
Pneumococcal infections can be a serious complication of respiratory infections and can cause death. Pneumococcal vaccine may ... Pneumococcal Pneumonia. If you have asthma, you should get the pneumococcal vaccine to protect yourself against pneumococcal ... Flu virus infection can cause you to have an asthma attack. Flu vaccine is the most important step you can take to protect ... COVID-19 infection can cause you to have an asthma attack. Staying up to date on your COVID-19 vaccines is the most important ...
Infection-specific dosing for Pen Vee K, Penicillin V (penicillin VK), frequency-based adverse effects, comprehensive ... Pneumococcal Infection Prophylaxis. >5 years: 250 mg PO q12hr. Streptococcal Pharyngitis. Children: 250 mg PO q8-12hr for 10 ... It will not work for virus infections (such as the common cold, flu). Using any antibiotic when it is not needed can cause it ... Do not use it later for another infection unless your doctor tells you to.With long term treatment, lab and/or medical tests ( ...
Impact of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccination in pregnancy against infant acute lower respiratory infections ... We assessed the impact of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (23vPPV) in pregnancy against infant ALRI in this ... colonised with the pneumococcus within weeks of birth antecedent to a high prevalence of acute lower respiratory infection ( ...
Puerperal and neonatal pneumococcal infection. / Yagupsky, P.; Dagan, R.; Zmora, E. In: Harefuah, Vol. 105, No. 7, 01.12.1983, ... Yagupsky, P. ; Dagan, R. ; Zmora, E. / Puerperal and neonatal pneumococcal infection. In: Harefuah. 1983 ; Vol. 105, No. 7. pp ... Yagupsky, P, Dagan, R & Zmora, E 1983, Puerperal and neonatal pneumococcal infection, Harefuah, vol. 105, no. 7, pp. 165-166+ ... Yagupsky, P., Dagan, R., & Zmora, E. (1983). Puerperal and neonatal pneumococcal infection. Harefuah, 105(7), 165-166+199. ...
Pneumococcal infections are caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae), also known as ... Pneumococcal infections usually fall into one of two categories:. Non-invasive pneumococcal infections - these occur outside ... Pneumococcal Infection. Definition: Pneumococcal infections are caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae ... Causes, Sign, and Symptoms of Pneumococcal Infections: Pneumococcal infections are caused by the gram-positive, sphere-shaped ( ...
Title: Systems of Pneumococcal Infection. Medium: Graphite Pencil, Adobe Photoshop. Format: Poster or PR presentation. Client: ... a bacteria which causes various diseases and infections, especially in young children of developing countries in Asia, Africa ...
... What is pneumococcal infection?. Pneumococcal infection is caused by the pneumococcus ... Can I prevent pneumococcal infection in my child? The best way to prevent the infection is with a vaccine. The pneumococcal ... infection of the tissues covering the brain and spinal cord). In young children, pneumococcal infection often causes ear ... Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13). This is also called Prevnar 13. This vaccine protects against 13 types of pneumococcal ...
Streptococcus pneumoniae Infections. On-line free medical diagnosis assistant. Ranked list of possible diseases from either ... pneumococcal infections in hiv-infected adults. Bacterial pneumonia, specifically pneumococcal infection, is a frequent cause ... The other five patients had pneumococcal arthritis without evidence of other foci of pneumococcal infection. With penicillin ... Seven of the 12 patients had underlying diseases which predisposed them to pneumococcal infections; five were alcoholics and ...
Pneumococcal Infections, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Virus Replication. in Infection and Immunity. volume. 62. issue. 7. pages. 8 ... Kidd, A ; Wadell, G ; Sabharwal, H and Svanborg, C LU (1994) In Infection and Immunity 62(7). p.14-2707 Abstract. Viruses are ... Pneumococcal Infections; Streptococcus pneumoniae; Virus Replication}}, language = {{eng}}, number = {{7}}, pages = {{14--2707 ... Adenovirus infection enhances in vitro adherence of Streptococcus pneumoniae. *Mark. HÃ¥kansson, Anders P LU ; ...
Categories: Pneumococcal Infections Image Types: Photo, Illustrations, Video, Color, Black&White, PublicDomain, ...
PCV-10 for pneumococcal infections including pneumonia, meningitis, etc.; IPV - inactivated polio vaccine; VAR for measles, ...
Pneumococcal Infections. * Vaccine Information Statement (VIS) -- Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine (PCV): What You Need to Know ... Bacterial Infections. * Vaccine Information Statement (VIS) -- Pneumococcal Polysaccharide Vaccine (PPSV23): What You Need to ... Rotavirus Infections. * Vaccine Information Statement (VIS) -- Rotavirus Vaccine: What You Need to Know - English PDF Vaccine ... Meningococcal Infections. * Vaccine Information Statement (VIS) -- Meningococcal ACWY Vaccine: What You Need to Know - English ...
Pneumococcal urinary antigen testing (UAT) is a non-culture-based test for diagnosing pneumococcal infection that has a ... Cavitation is not a typical feature of pneumococcal pneumonia but is relatively common in K pneumoniae infections. ... Pneumococcal vaccines have been shown to have some efficacy in preventing vaccine-strain pneumococcal pneumonia, bacteremia, ... Use of 15-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine and 20-Valent Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccine Among U.S. Adults: Updated ...
CONCLUSIONS: These data imply that CMV infection is not directly responsible for the decline in pneumococcal vaccine responses ... A pneumococcal vaccine has been recommended in the United Kingdom for those aged ,65 years since 2003 to prevent pneumococcal ... Chronic infection with cytomegalovirus (CMV) has been proposed as a contributor to poorer responses in older adults. ... METHODS: We evaluated the effect of age and CMV status on pneumococcal vaccine responses in 348 individuals aged 50-70 years. ...
Therapy for children with invasive pneumococcal infections. N. A. Halsey, P. J. Chesney, M. A. Gerber, D. S. Gromisch, S. Kohl ... Therapy for children with invasive pneumococcal infections. / Halsey, N. A.; Chesney, P. J.; Gerber, M. A. et al. In: ... Therapy for children with invasive pneumococcal infections. Pediatrics. 1997 Feb;99(2):289-299. doi: 10.1542/peds.99.2.289 ... Dive into the research topics of Therapy for children with invasive pneumococcal infections. Together they form a unique ...
invasive secondary bacterial infection (e.g. pneumococcal disease).. Table 2 Clinical signs indicating rapid progression and ... acute respiratory infection (ARI) and (iv) influenza caused by pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection.. Table 1 Case definition ... Journal of Infection in Developing Countries, 2009, 3:327-330.. *Influenza-like illness in the United States and Mexico, 2009. ... Infection and illness. Globally, most illnesses caused by the pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus were acute and self-limiting, with the ...
Pneumococcal vaccines help protect against serious illnesses like meningitis, bloodstream infections, and pneumonia. ... Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23): If they are 65 years and older or 19-64 years old and have certain health ... In addition, adults 65 years and older may discuss and decide, with their clinician, to receive a pneumococcal conjugate ...
Pneumococcal Vaccines Reduce Severe Infections in Kids With Sickle Cell Disease. After PCV7 licensure, pneumococcal infection ...
  • Streptococcus pneumoniae colonizes the upper respiratory tract of healthy individuals and is one of the most frequent causes of bacterial infection in children. (medscape.com)
  • Pneumococcal infection is an infection caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pneumococcal infections are caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, a gram-positive, catalase-negative organism commonly referred to as pneumococcus. (medscape.com)
  • Pneumococcal infections are caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae), also known as pneumococcus. (assignmentpoint.com)
  • Pneumococcal infections are caused by the gram-positive, sphere-shaped (coccal) bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococci). (assignmentpoint.com)
  • There are vaccines available to prevent Streptococcus pneumoniae infection. (assignmentpoint.com)
  • streptococcus pneumoniae causes 5% of all cases of septic arthritis and is more often responsible for polyarticular infections than other organisms. (lookfordiagnosis.com)
  • The virus-infected cells were harvested at various times after infection and analyzed for the ability to bind strains of Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae. (lu.se)
  • This statement provides guidelines for therapy of children with serious infections possibly caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Pneumococcal infections are caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), a gram-positive, facultative anaerobic bacterium. (cdc.gov)
  • Zn deficiency is associated with increased susceptibility to bacterial infections, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, the most commonly identified cause of community-acquired pneumonia. (cdc.gov)
  • KENILWORTH, N.J.--(BUSINESS WIRE)-- Merck (NYSE: MRK), known as MSD outside the United States and Canada, today announced that the European Medicines Agency's Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) has recommended the approval of VAXNEUVANCEâ„¢ (Pneumococcal 15-valent Conjugate Vaccine) for active immunization for the prevention of invasive disease and pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in individuals 18 years of age and older. (merck.com)
  • The global prevalence of pneumococcal disease, an infection caused by bacteria called Streptococcus pneumoniae , is evolving. (merck.com)
  • Pneumococcal disease is a bacterial infection caused by streptococcus pneumoniae of which there are more than 90 serotypes. (hse.ie)
  • Over the years streptococcus pneumoniae has become resistant to many medications making the treatment of pneumococcal infections much more difficult. (hse.ie)
  • If you have asthma, you should get the pneumococcal vaccine to protect yourself against pneumococcal pneumonia. (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal vaccine may be given at the same time as other vaccines. (cdc.gov)
  • We assessed the impact of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (23vPPV) in pregnancy against infant ALRI in this setting. (bvsalud.org)
  • The best way to prevent the infection is with a vaccine. (aultcare.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccine is a shot that helps protect against some of the many types of pneumococcal bacteria. (aultcare.com)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13). (aultcare.com)
  • This vaccine protects against 13 types of pneumococcal bacteria that commonly cause severe illness in children. (aultcare.com)
  • Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23). (aultcare.com)
  • This vaccine protects against 23 types of pneumococcal bacteria. (aultcare.com)
  • At least 90% of the strains that cause invasive disease are present in the 23-valent pneumococcal vaccine. (lookfordiagnosis.com)
  • Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23): If they are 65 years and older or 19-64 years old and have certain health conditions or smoke cigarettes. (cdc.gov)
  • In addition, adults 65 years and older may discuss and decide, with their clinician, to receive a pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13). (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are relatively new type of vaccine that has been shown to be highly effective at preventing disease and in stopping people from acquiring the bacteria in their noses and throats. (cdc.gov)
  • The manuscript we are discussing here talks about how surveillance for pneumococcal infections in Israel found that the new vaccine program was preventing a lot of disease, but they also detected an increase in one of the strains that the vaccine doesn't cover-- serotype 12F. (cdc.gov)
  • The authors of this report were able to look at how the amount of invasive disease changed after a new pneumococcal conjugate vaccine program began in Israel. (cdc.gov)
  • The authors found that rates of pneumococcal disease did drop after the new vaccine program began. (cdc.gov)
  • Before 2021, ACIP recommended 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) alone (up to 2 doses), or both a single dose of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) in combination with 1-3 doses of PPSV23 in series (PCV13 followed by PPSV23), for use in U.S. adults depending on age and underlying risk for pneumococcal disease. (cdc.gov)
  • In addition, ACIP recommends use of either a single dose of PCV20 or ≥1 dose of PPSV23 for adults who have started their pneumococcal vaccine series with PCV13 but have not received all recommended PPSV23 doses. (cdc.gov)
  • During 2018-2019, approximately 60%-75% of all IPD in adults was caused by the 24 pneumococcal serotypes that were included in the formulations of commercially available polysaccharide conjugate vaccine (PCV) or pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV) vaccines (i.e. (cdc.gov)
  • The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine protects against 13 forms of pneumococcal bacterial infection. (chicagotribune.com)
  • A different vaccine, PPSV23 (brand name Pneumovax), protects against 23 types of the bacteria and is intended for all adults 65 years or older and children two years or older at higher risk of pneumococcal bacterial infection. (chicagotribune.com)
  • A meningitis vaccine is only recommended for children 2 months to 10 years old identified as having an increased risk of meningitis infection. (chicagotribune.com)
  • Also, people with diabetes should get the pneumococcal vaccine, which protects against some serious infections. (kidshealth.org)
  • Of particular interest to parents is a study published in Arch Pediatr Adolesc= Medicine, Oct 1995, 149:1113, in which children at high risk for otitis media (ear infections) showed 32% fewer cases during t= he flu season when they received the flu vaccine. (faqs.org)
  • 20 Note that influenza vaccine protects against influenza only, and not agains= t other respiratory infections. (faqs.org)
  • Candidates among children include si= milar groups to those for pneumococcal vaccine: sickle cell, chronic renal and metabolic disease, diabetes, chronic pulmona= ry disease, long-term aspirin therapy, and significant cardiac disease (Catalana). (faqs.org)
  • The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) and the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) protect against pneumococcal infections. (kidshealth.org)
  • This replaced PCV 7 (Prevenar 7) the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine introduced into the routine childhood immunisation programme in September 2008. (hse.ie)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines reduce the rates of nasopharyngeal colonisation by vaccine serotypes, thus decreasing the potential for transmission from vaccinated to unvaccinated persons. (hse.ie)
  • Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine is the only currently available preventive measure. (nationalacademies.org)
  • Children previously vaccinated with any pneumococcal vaccine or participants in previous studies with the VCN7-T vaccine candidate. (who.int)
  • Pneumococcal immune complexes (IC) containing antibodies to species-specific C-polysaccharide, to mixtures of type-specific capsular polysaccharides or to a protein antigen, pneumolysin, were studied in the sera of 449 children with lower respiratory tract infection. (nih.gov)
  • Impact of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccination in pregnancy against infant acute lower respiratory infections in the Northern Territory of Australia. (bvsalud.org)
  • Two types of pneumococcal vaccines (conjugate and polysaccharide) are available in the US. (nfid.org)
  • Pneumococcal pneumonia represents 15%-50% of all episodes of community-acquired pneumonia, 30-50% of all cases of acute otitis media, and a significant proportion of bloodstream infections and bacterial meningitis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Infection can result in pneumonia, infection of the blood (bacteremia/sepsis), middle-ear infection (otitis media), or bacterial meningitis. (assignmentpoint.com)
  • Infections may occur in the tissues covering the brain and spinal cord (meningitis) or, less often, in heart valves (endocarditis), bones, joints, or the abdominal cavity. (assignmentpoint.com)
  • This includes pneumonia, infection in the blood, and meningitis (infection of the tissues covering the brain and spinal cord). (aultcare.com)
  • In young children, pneumococcal infection often causes ear infections, which can lead to hearing loss, or rarely more serious complications, such as meningitis. (aultcare.com)
  • Pneumococcal vaccines help protect against serious illnesses like meningitis, bloodstream infections, and pneumonia. (cdc.gov)
  • The main diseases pneumococcus causes are mild infections, like ear and sinus infections, but pneumococcus can also cause severe illnesses like pneumonia and meningitis. (cdc.gov)
  • In the US, pneumococcal pneumonia, meningitis, and bloodstream infections (sepsis) kill tens of thousands each year, including thousands of adults age 65 years and older. (nfid.org)
  • Pneumococcal meningitis can be deadly. (nfid.org)
  • People who survive pneumococcal meningitis can suffer from devastating health problems like hearing loss, seizures, blindness, and paralysis. (nfid.org)
  • Meningitis is a potentially life-threatening infection of the brain and spinal cord caused by several different types of bacteria. (wmich.edu)
  • and meningitis (infection of the coverings of the brain and spinal cord), as well as non-invasive pneumonia (when pneumococcal disease is confined to the lungs). (merck.com)
  • They can lead to serious infections like pneumonia , blood infections, and bacterial meningitis . (kidshealth.org)
  • 26 , 32 Although pneumococcal pneumonia does not result in permanent lung damage, complications from bacteremia and meningitis are common and can damage other organ systems. (nationalacademies.org)
  • First let me tell you a little about pneumococcal conjugate vaccines and pneumococcal disease. (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are now used in infant vaccination programs in most countries around the world. (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are very specific for preventing certain strains. (cdc.gov)
  • In 2021, two new pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs), a 15-valent and a 20-valent PCV (PCV15 and PCV20), were licensed for use in U.S. adults aged ≥18 years by the Food and Drug Administration. (cdc.gov)
  • Young children are routinely vaccinated against these infections, and vaccination is also recommended for all people 65 years of age and older and all people at high risk. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Talk to your healthcare professional about pneumococcal vaccination. (nfid.org)
  • Second moment: hospital surveillance, for the entire pediatric population in the Cienfuegos province, of invasive pneumococcal diseases (IPD), pneumococcal pneumonia and acute otitis media (AOM) from the year after the vaccination campaign ended. (who.int)
  • and the prevention and treatment of pneumococcal disease. (pharmiweb.com)
  • Although antibiotics are considered to be effective in the treatment of pneumococcal diseases, deaths and complications often occur despite the prompt use of effective antibiotics. (nationalacademies.org)
  • There is an association between pneumococcal pneumonia and influenza. (wikipedia.org)
  • Damage to the lining of the airways (respiratory epithelium) and upper respiratory system caused by influenza may facilitate pneumococcal entry and infection. (wikipedia.org)
  • Respiratory infections like influenza (flu) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are more serious for individuals with asthma because they can lead to pneumonia and asthma attacks. (cdc.gov)
  • During the spring of 2009, a novel influenza A (H1N1) virus of swine origin caused human infection and acute respiratory illness in Mexico. (who.int)
  • Evidence from animal models shows that T cells can provide heterosubtypic protection and are crucial for immune control of influenza virus infections. (mdpi.com)
  • PCV13 protects against 13 types of pneumococcal bacteria, which cause the most common pneumococcal (new-muh-KOK-uhl) infections in kids. (kidshealth.org)
  • Vaccines can prevent pneumococcal infections. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Can I prevent pneumococcal infection in my child? (aultcare.com)
  • It's important to prevent pneumococcal disease in adults. (nfid.org)
  • It has pneumococcal surface proteins that inhibit complement-mediated opsonization, and it secretes IgA1 protease that will destroy secretory IgA produced by the body and mediates its attachment to respiratory mucosa. (wikipedia.org)
  • In recent years serologic methods have been applied to assess pneumococcal etiology of pneumonia and other respiratory tract infections. (nih.gov)
  • The aim of this study was to evaluate the usefulness of circulating immune complexes in the diagnosis of pneumococcal lower respiratory infection in children. (nih.gov)
  • We conclude that the measurement of circulating ICs is more sensitive than other serologic methods for the diagnosis of pneumococcal lower respiratory infection. (nih.gov)
  • may damage the lining of respiratory tract and thus make it easier for pneumococcal bacteria to cause infection. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Pneumococcal infections can be a serious complication of respiratory infections and can cause death. (cdc.gov)
  • Indigenous children in Australia 's Northern Territory are densely colonised with the pneumococcus within weeks of birth antecedent to a high prevalence of acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI). (bvsalud.org)
  • Viruses are thought to facilitate bacterial infections of the respiratory tract, but the mechanisms are poorly understood. (lu.se)
  • Adenovirus (types 1, 2, 3, and 5) commonly causing respiratory tract infections increased the binding of. (lu.se)
  • Adenovirus (types 1, 2, 3, and 5) commonly causing respiratory tract infections increased the binding of adherent S. pneumoniae strains to the cells. (lu.se)
  • The increased attachment may be one mechanism by which viruses precondition the respiratory mucosa for bacterial infection. (lu.se)
  • Pneumococcus can colonize the upper respiratory tract, most commonly in young children, and is transmitted to others through contact with respiratory droplets from a person with pneumococcal colonization in the upper respiratory tract ( 1 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Since invasive pneumococcal strains adhere to, and translocate across, respiratory tract epithelial cells, adhesion is a prerequisite for establishing pneumococcal disease [ 4 ]. (ersjournals.com)
  • While often used as a synonym for pneumonia , the rubric of lower respiratory tract infection can also be applied to other types of infection including lung abscess , acute bronchitis , and emphysema . (bionity.com)
  • Lower respiratory tract infections place a considerable strain on the health budget and are generally more serious than upper respiratory infections. (bionity.com)
  • Since 1993 there has been a slight reduction in the total number of deaths from lower respiratory tract infection. (bionity.com)
  • There are a number of acute and chronic infections that can affect the lower respiratory tract, the focus of this paper is to look at the two most common infections, Bronchitis and Pneumonia, as identified by the Therapeutic guidelines. (bionity.com)
  • Antibiotics are often thought to be the first line treatment in lower respiratory tract infections however as discussed later these are not indicated in viral infections. (bionity.com)
  • A particulate matter: How environmental irritants and particulate matter increase sensitivity to bacterial respiratory tract infections. (lu.se)
  • How the diagnosis is made depends upon where the infection is. (medlineplus.gov)
  • ISPPD is a biennial international symposium, which is the leading event for those interested in pneumococci and pneumococcal diseases, bringing together professionals in the field to raise global awareness and improve standards of diagnosis, prevention and treatment. (pharmiweb.com)
  • In particular, the absence of a functional spleen, through congenital asplenia, surgical removal of the spleen, or sickle-cell disease predisposes one to a more severe course of infection (overwhelming post-splenectomy infection) and prevention measures are indicated. (wikipedia.org)
  • citation needed] People with a compromised immune system, such as those living with HIV, are also at higher risk of pneumococcal disease. (wikipedia.org)
  • Clinical signs and symptoms and physical examination findings alone cannot distinguish S pneumoniae disease from infections caused by other pathogens. (medscape.com)
  • This is because the flu may increase your risk of getting pneumococcal disease. (aultcare.com)
  • When you add up all these infections, pneumococcal disease is a leading cause of infections and deaths around the world, especially in infants and the elderly. (cdc.gov)
  • Cynthia Whitney] The surveillance system in Israel was set up by working with all the hospitals in the country--26 of them--to get them to report every time a patient was treated there who had invasive pneumococcal disease. (cdc.gov)
  • After PCV7 licensure, pneumococcal infection rates in children aged 5+ with sickle cell disease significantly decreased. (medindia.net)
  • Certain persons with pneumococcal colonization might develop invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) ( 2 ). (cdc.gov)
  • In adults, pneumococcal pneumonia is the most common type of pneumococcal disease, and pneumococcus is the most common bacterial cause of pneumonia that results in hospitalization ( 3 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal disease is serious and can be deadly. (nfid.org)
  • Getting pneumococcal vaccines as recommended reduces your chance of contracting and dying from pneumococcal disease. (nfid.org)
  • Are You at Risk for Pneumococcal Disease? (nfid.org)
  • Fifth disease is a common infection in children aged 4 to 10. (uniprix.com)
  • More than just a lung infection, pneumococcal disease comes in many forms. (chicagotribune.com)
  • More than half of middle ear infections are the result of pneumococcus bacteria, while severe forms of the disease can cause permanent hearing loss. (chicagotribune.com)
  • Hepatitis B is a viral infection of the liver that can result in chronic liver disease and liver cancer in about 10 percent of cases. (wmich.edu)
  • While healthy adults can suffer from pneumococcal disease, patient populations particularly vulnerable to infection include older adults such as those 65 years of age and older, people with HIV, and those with certain chronic health conditions. (merck.com)
  • Acute bronchitis can be defined as acute bacterial or viral infection of the larger airways in healthy patients with no history of recurrent disease. (bionity.com)
  • The pneumococcal vaccines contain only a small piece of the germ and so cannot cause pneumococcal disease. (kidshealth.org)
  • What is pneumococcal disease? (hse.ie)
  • What are the symptoms of pneumococcal disease? (hse.ie)
  • Who is most at risk of pneumococcal disease? (hse.ie)
  • Pneumococcal disease can lead to significant morbidity and mortality, particularly amongst the very young, the very old, those with impaired immunity and those with anatomic or functional asplenia. (hse.ie)
  • How is pneumococcal disease transmitted? (hse.ie)
  • The decrease in this age group can largely be attributed to a 98% decline in Invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD) due to serotypes covered by PCV7 between 2008 and 2016. (hse.ie)
  • Pneumococcal disease is a very serious disease. (hse.ie)
  • Pneumococcal disease has long been recognized as an important risk factor for the elderly. (nationalacademies.org)
  • These vaccines protect against the most common serotypes that cause infection. (assignmentpoint.com)
  • The authors did this by analyzing information from case reports over time and by doing tests on the particular pneumococci causing these infections to see what serotypes they were. (cdc.gov)
  • At least 100 pneumococcal serotypes were documented as of 2020 ( 5 - 7 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal pneumonia is the most common form of community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly, accounting for up to 60 percent of cases 14 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 52 and for up to 20 percent of nosocomial pneumonias. (nationalacademies.org)
  • It can also cause a wide variety of other infections including sinusitis, osteomyelitis, bronchitis and otitis media. (hse.ie)
  • Resistance of invasive pneumococcal strains to penicillin, cefotaxime, and ceftriaxone has increased over the past few years. (elsevierpure.com)
  • 10 , 52 Pneumococcal bacteremia, which is more easily proven than pneumococcal pneumonia, occurs in up to one-quarter of cases of pneumococcal pneumonia. (nationalacademies.org)
  • Population-based studies have shown that the elderly sustain the highest pneumococcal bacteremia rates of any population group-50 per 100,000 persons over the age of 65, 36 , 37 which is more than three times greater than the rates for younger persons. (nationalacademies.org)
  • Death rates from pneumococcal bacteremia range from 20 to 80 percent, increasing with age and complications. (nationalacademies.org)
  • Concern about the rising prevalence of resistant pneumococcal strains is increasing, but the clinical relevance is uncertain. (lookfordiagnosis.com)
  • Adenovirus infection did not change the adherence of cells of poorly adhering strains of S. pneumoniae or H. influenzae. (lu.se)
  • In addition, they did special DNA fingerprinting of the pneumococcal serotype 12F strains to see if the strains were related to each other genetically or to other serotype 12F strains around the globe. (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal infection is caused by the pneumococcus bacteria. (aultcare.com)
  • Pneumococcal bloodstream infections can be deadly. (nfid.org)
  • This study suggests that E-cigarette vapour has the potential to increase susceptibility to pneumococcal infection. (ersjournals.com)
  • T here appears to be a direct relationship between increasing age and susceptibility to infections, although the documentation is weak for many specific infectious diseases. (nationalacademies.org)
  • These virulence factors contribute to some of the clinical manifestations during infection with S. pneumoniae. (wikipedia.org)
  • The purpose of this illustration is to represent the anatomical systems of the body attacked by S. Pneumoniae, a bacteria which causes various diseases and infections, especially in young children of developing countries in Asia, Africa and the Middle East. (fairmanstudios.com)
  • The increase in adherence of S. pneumoniae could be inhibited by the DNA synthesis inhibitor cytosine arabinofuranoside, which is known to block the late phase of the adenovirus infection. (lu.se)
  • This suggested that adenovirus infection upregulated receptors for S. pneumoniae. (lu.se)
  • Only about 300 cases of pneumococcal arthritis have been reported in the literature since 1888 and less than 10% of these affect the wrist . (lookfordiagnosis.com)
  • Invasive penicillin-resistant pneumococcal infections: a prevalence and historical cohort study. (cdc.gov)
  • AbstractNowadays, fungal infections affect millions of people across the world.Candida auris, a new emergent yeast, is a worrisome pathogen because it associates with a high rate of incidence and prevalence, including in the nosocomial environment. (medworm.com)
  • When you follow the immunization schedule to protect your child and watch out for symptoms of other common infections, you generally don't need to worry about childhood diseases. (uniprix.com)
  • The costs of pneumococcal diseases are great because the elderly require hospitalization and the illnesses often cause complications. (nationalacademies.org)
  • Further reductions in morbidity and mortality from pneumococcal diseases require that preventive measures be used. (nationalacademies.org)
  • This report compiles and summarizes all published recommendations from CDC's Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) for use of pneumococcal vaccines in adults aged ≥19 years in the United States. (cdc.gov)
  • An estimated 150,000 US adults are hospitalized with pneumococcal pneumonia each year. (nfid.org)
  • This report summarizes surveillance findings from NYCDOH's data for 1995, which indicate that the highest case rates were among children aged less than 4 years and that, among adults aged 20-44 years with PNSP infections, 71.4% also were infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). (cdc.gov)
  • Children younger than 2 years old, adults over 65, and people with some medical conditions are at high risk for serious pneumococcal infections. (kidshealth.org)
  • Certain infections are important risk factors for the elderly because the illnesses they cause reduced quality of life during the infection and are at times fatal. (nationalacademies.org)
  • citation needed] The risk of pneumococcal infection is much increased in persons with impaired IgG synthesis, impaired phagocytosis, or defective clearance of pneumococci. (wikipedia.org)
  • Current pneumococcal vaccines use the pneumococcal capsular polysaccharides as antigens to generate serotype-specific antibodies, which facilitate serotype-specific clearance of pneumococci through opsonophagocytosis ( 4 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Since oxidative stress in airway cells increases platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFR) expression, and PAFR is co-opted by pneumococci to adhere to host cells, we hypothesised that E-cigarette vapour increases pneumococcal adhesion to airway cells. (ersjournals.com)
  • Viral and bacterial infections that result in acute bronchitis may lead to chronic bronchitis if people have repeated bouts with infectious agents. (medicinenet.com)
  • Osteomyelitis Osteomyelitis is a bone infection usually caused by bacteria, mycobacteria, or fungi. (merckmanuals.com)
  • Pneumococcal polyarticular septic arthritis in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis . (lookfordiagnosis.com)
  • We report a case of pneumococcal septic arthritis involving five joints in a patient with known rheumatoid arthritis . (lookfordiagnosis.com)
  • People with a weakened immune system are most at risk of catching a pneumococcal infection. (assignmentpoint.com)
  • 18 , 47 , 55 Factors that may contribute to the predisposition of the elderly to infections include impaired immune function, 47 , 55 anatomic and functional changes, 8 and degree of exposure to infections. (nationalacademies.org)
  • Pneumonia occurs if the organisms are inhaled into the lungs and not cleared (again, viral infection, or smoking-induced ciliary paralysis might be contributing factors). (wikipedia.org)
  • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is a viral infection that progressively destroys certain white blood cells and is treated with antiretroviral medications. (msdmanuals.com)
  • A mumps viral infection can damage the cochlea (inner ear) and cause hearing loss or complete deafness in one or both ears. (chicagotribune.com)
  • COVID-19 is a viral infection that spreads mainly through close contact from person to person, including between people who are physically near each other (within about 6 feet). (wmich.edu)
  • Hepatitis A is a viral infection of the liver. (wmich.edu)
  • 6] Most often it is caused by viral infection and hence antibiotic therapy is not indicated in immunocompetent individuals. (bionity.com)
  • Also, older people, even if healthy, tend to have more severe symptoms and complications when they get a pneumococcal infection. (msdmanuals.com)
  • However, most serious infections are caused by only a few types. (msdmanuals.com)
  • These infections are highly contagious and may lead to serious, even life-threatening complications. (wmich.edu)
  • Ear infections affect approximately one out of every 10 children infected with measles or rubella (aka "German" measles) and can leave them with permanent hearing loss. (chicagotribune.com)
  • Pneumococcal densities were transformed using restricted cubic splines, and for ease of interpretation their effects on the risk of subsequent ARI are not listed in table but represented in Figure 3 (p-value for pneumococcal density is 0.031). (cdc.gov)
  • Pneumococcal densities were transformed using restricted cubic splines, and for ease of interpretation their effects on the risk of subsequent ARI are not listed in table but represented in Appendix Figure 1 X (p-value for pneumococcal density is 0.02). (cdc.gov)
  • The most common risk factor for HUS is an E. coli bacterial infection. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Babies whose mothers become infected during pregnancy may be born with hearing loss, and children who contract it directly are at greater risk of ear infections that could result in hearing damage. (chicagotribune.com)
  • Epidemiological studies suggest that inhalation of toxins increases the risk of airway bacterial infection. (ersjournals.com)
  • The environment of an elderly individual can also influence his or her exposure to infections, with long-term care facilities 28 and hospitals 47 bringing greater risk than living at home. (nationalacademies.org)
  • The World Health Organization estimates that in 2005 pneumococcal infections were responsible for the death of 1.6 million children worldwide. (wikipedia.org)
  • As antibiotics efficacy is under real threat, the World Health Organization warns that "one day no antibiotics may be left to treat common bacterial infections. (pasteur.fr)
  • HUS is most common in children and is often the result of an E. coli infection. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • These vaccines prevent infections in children who get them, and help stop the infections from spreading to others. (kidshealth.org)
  • The consultation resulted in developing an interim guidance and algorithm for clinical management of pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection in health-care settings. (who.int)
  • Candida albicans is one of the most formidable fungal species, causing infection in humans. (pasteur.fr)