Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
Hyperandrogenism
Hirsutism
Ovary
Metformin
Anovulation
Clomiphene
Polycystic Kidney Diseases
Insulin Resistance
Testosterone
Androgens
17-alpha-Hydroxyprogesterone
Androstenedione
Polycystic Kidney, Autosomal Dominant
Luteinizing Hormone
Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate
Ovulation Induction
Cyproterone Acetate
Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin
Acne Vulgaris
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
Anti-Mullerian Hormone
Insulin
Body Mass Index
Obesity
Menstrual Cycle
Case-Control Studies
Pregnancy
Electrocoagulation
Glucose Tolerance Test
Hyperinsulinism
Ethinyl Estradiol
Hormones
Ovarian Follicle
Metabolic Syndrome X
Gonadotropins
Diathermy
Pregnancy Rate
Menstruation
Steroid 17-alpha-Hydroxylase
Virilism
Dehydroepiandrosterone
Follicle Stimulating Hormone, Human
TRPP Cation Channels
Polycystic Kidney, Autosomal Recessive
Gonadal Steroid Hormones
Live Birth
Menstruation-Inducing Agents
Theca Cells
Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome
Estradiol
Fertilization in Vitro
Acanthosis Nigricans
Reproductive Techniques, Assisted
Adrenarche
Follicular Fluid
Steroids
Thiazolidinediones
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
Testosterone Propionate
Infertility
Follistatin
Electroacupuncture
Glucose Intolerance
Receptors, FSH
Phenotype
Waist-Hip Ratio
Biological Markers
Risk Factors
Prevalence
Overweight
Progesterone
Diabetes, Gestational
Glucose Metabolism Disorders
Prospective Studies
Genotype
Adiponectin
Thinness
Endocrine System Diseases
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (U.S.)
Cysts
Follicular Phase
Contraceptives, Oral, Combined
Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide
Chorionic Gonadotropin
Pregnancy Outcome
Inhibins
Granulosa Cells
Cohort Studies
Gene Frequency
Body Constitution
Cross-Sectional Studies
Abdominal Fat
Down Syndrome
Glucose Clamp Technique
Hormones, Ectopic
Polymorphism, Genetic
Treatment Outcome
Genetic Predisposition to Disease
Lipids
The treatment of insulin resistance does not improve adrenal cytochrome P450c17alpha enzyme dysregulation in polycystic ovary syndrome. (1/1493)
OBJECTIVE: To determine whether metformin. when given to non-diabetic women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), results in a reduction of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia while body weight is maintained. Also we aimed to see whether the reduction in insulin levels attenuates the activity of adrenal P450c17alpha enzyme in patients with PCOS. DESIGN: We investigated the 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione responses to ACTH, insulin responses to an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and glucose disposal rate in an insulin tolerance test before and after metformin therapy (500 mg, orally, twice daily, for 12 weeks). METHODS: The presence of hyperinsulinemia in 15 women with PCOS was demonstrated by an OGTT and results were compared with those of 10 healthy women. Insulin sensitivity was measured by the rate of endogenous glucose disposal after i.v. bolus injection of insulin. 17-OHP and androstenedione responses to ACTH were measured in all the women with PCOS and the normal women. RESULTS: Women with PCOS were hyperinsulinemic (102.0+/-13.0 (S.E.M.) VS 46.2+/-4.4 pmol/l) and hyperandrogenemic (free testosterone 15.3+/-1.7 vs 7.9+/-0.6 nmol/l; androstenedione 11.8+/-0.8 vs 8.2+/-0.6 nmol/l) and more hirsute (modified Ferriman-Gallwey score, 17.7+/-1.6 vs 3.0+/-0.3) than healthy women. In addition, women with PCOS had higher 17-OHP and androstenedione responses to ACTH when compared with healthy women. Metformin therapy resulted in some improvement in insulin sensitivity and reduced the basal and post-glucose load insulin levels. But 17-OHP and androstenedione responses to ACTH were unaltered in response to metformin. CONCLUSIONS: PCOS is characterized by hyperactivity of the adrenal P450c17alpha enzyme and insulin resistance. It seems that there is no direct relationship between insulin resistance and adrenal P450c17alpha enzyme dysregulation. (+info)No association between the -308 polymorphism in the tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) promoter region and polycystic ovaries. (2/1493)
The tumour necrosis factor (TNF)2 allele appears to be linked with increased insulin resistance and obesity, conditions often found in overweight patients with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). The significance of TNFalpha polymorphism in relation to the clinical and biochemical parameters associated with PCOS was investigated in 122 well-characterized patients with polycystic ovaries (PCO). Of these, 84 had an abnormal menstrual cycle and were classified as having PCOS, while the remaining 38 had a normal menstrual cycle and were classified as having PCO. There were a further 28 individuals without PCO (non-PCO) and 108 individuals whose PCO status was undetermined (reference population). The promoter region of the TNFalpha gene was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and the presence or absence of the polymorphism at -308 was determined by single-strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) analysis. The less common TNF allele (TNF2) was found as TNF1/2 or TNF2/2 in 11/38 (29%) of PCO subjects, 25/84 (30%) of PCOS subjects, 7/28 (25%) of non-PCO subjects, and 45/108 (42%) of the reference population. There was no significant difference in the incidence of the TNF2 allele between the groups. The relationship of TNF genotype to clinical and biochemical parameters was examined. In both the PCO group and the PCOS group, the presence of the TNF2 allele was significantly associated with lower glucose values obtained from the glucose tolerance testing (P<0.05). The TNF genotype was not significantly associated with any clinical or biochemical parameter measured in the PCO, PCOS or non-PCOS groups. Thus, the TNFalpha -308 polymorphism does not appear to strongly influence genetic susceptibility to polycystic ovaries. (+info)The mechanism of action of epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor alpha on aromatase activity in granulosa cells from polycystic ovaries. (3/1493)
We investigated aromatization and the mechanism of action of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor alpha (TGFalpha) on oestradiol biosynthesis in freshly prepared granulosa cells from polycystic ovaries. Freshly prepared granulosa cells from polycystic ovaries incubated for only 3 h under basal conditions secreted significantly (P< 0.001) greater amounts of oestradiol-17beta than that of granulosa cells from normal ovaries. 8-Bromo-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (8-Br-cAMP), but not follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) or luteinizing hormone (LH), further enhanced this activity. Both EGF and TGFalpha inhibited gonadotrophinor 8-Br-cAMP-stimulated, but not basal, oestradiol production. LH receptor (LHR) binding, estimated by immunolabelling the bound LH, was significantly (P< 0.001) reduced in granulosa cells from polycystic ovaries when compared with cells from normal ovaries. EGF or TGFalpha significantly reduced the binding in cultured cells from all patient groups (P< 0.05). More interestingly, a further increase of the inhibitory effect was seen in granulosa cells from polycystic ovaries (P < 0.001). In conclusion, granulosa cells from polycystic ovaries contain high levels of basal aromatase activity in vitro, which is probably inherited from the in-vivo condition. EGF and TGFalpha suppress oestradiol synthesis at a step beyond the production of cAMP and also LHR binding with more effect in granulosa cells from polycystic ovaries. (+info)Retrieval, maturation, and fertilization of immature oocytes obtained from unstimulated patients with polycystic ovary syndrome. (4/1493)
PURPOSE: Our purpose was to determine whether immature oocytes could be retrieved under local anesthesia, whether these oocytes would mature and fertilize in vitro, and whether adequate endometrium development could be obtained after hormonal supplementation. METHODS: Ovum pick-up was performed under local anesthesia. Immature oocytes were cultured and inseminated. To prepare the endometrium, estradiolvalerate was administered in combination with micronized progesterone. RESULTS: Immature oocytes were obtained in all cases. Fifty-six percent (n = 30) of the oocytes developed into metaphase II (MII) after 48 hr of culture, and another 20% reached the MII stage by 72 hr. Normal fertilization was observed in only 10% of oocytes inseminated. No embryonic development occurred, and therefore embryo transfer was not performed in any of the patients. Endometrial microbiopsy was performed in all subjects and endometrial development was considered sufficient in eight patients. CONCLUSIONS: We collected immature oocytes from patients with polycystic ovary syndrome without general anesthesia. In vitro maturation of these oocytes seemed adequate but fertilization rates were poor. Sufficient endometrial quality was obtained after hormonal substitution. (+info)Insulin in obstetrics: a main parameter in the management of pregnancy. (5/1493)
Insulin plays a central role in human pregnancy. Maternal insulin sensitivity decreases with advancing gestation in order to provide glucose and possibly other nutrients for feto-placental growth and energy needs. Moreover, alterations of insulin metabolism are clearly involved in the development of gestational diabetes. In recent years, hyperinsulinaemia has been also proposed as a possible pathogenic factor in the development of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia; furthermore it has also been postulated that there is an involvement of insulin sensitivity in fetal growth restriction. These intriguing data have stimulated our interest in summarizing the physiopathological mechanisms by which the pancreatic hormone could be involved in obstetrics. (+info)The contributions of oestrogen and growth factors to increased adrenal androgen secretion in polycystic ovary syndrome. (6/1493)
Adrenal hyperandrogenism is prevalent in many women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), although the expression of this enhanced secretion may be heterogeneous. Since no single factor acts in isolation, this study was performed to assess the influence of oestradiol (total and unbound), insulin, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I, IGF-II and the binding proteins IGFBP-I, and IGFBP-3, on basal and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) stimulated adrenal androgen secretion in 25 women with PCOS and 10 matched ovulatory controls. Women with PCOS exhibited elevations of all androgens as well as unbound oestradiol, insulin and non-IGFBP-1 bound IGF-I. Positive correlations were noted between oestrogen and basal and ACTH stimulated delta 5 adrenal androgens. Serum IGF-I was only correlated with basal dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEA-S), while insulin exhibited a strong correlation with the delta 4 pathway and androstenedione formation in particular. This correlation was also confirmed by dividing the PCOS group into those women with and without hyperinsulinaemia. The activity of 17,20 lyase favouring androstenedione was increased in the hyperinsulinaemic women. By multivariate analyses, body mass index did not influence these findings. Although there are inherent difficulties in making major conclusions based on correlative analyses, it is suggested that oestrogen may have a greater influence on enhancing delta 5 adrenal androgen secretion, and insulin a greater effect on the delta 4 pathway. In turn, the relative importance of these influences may contribute to the heterogeneous nature of adrenal hyperandrogenism in PCOS. (+info)Oocyte quality and treatment outcome in intracytoplasmic sperm injection cycles of polycystic ovarian syndrome patients. (7/1493)
Patients with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) have higher miscarriage rates. It is postulated that this is caused by a lower rate of mature oocytes, and a lower quality of embryos. Retrospectively we analysed 51 intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) cycles of 31 PCOS patients. These data were compared to age-matched controls (105 cycles) during the same period. All patients of both groups received gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists prior to gonadotrophin treatment. The rate of metaphase II oocytes (MII) was not different. However, the mean absolute number of normally fertilized oocytes was significantly higher in PCOS patients (5.00 versus 3.56, P < 0.01), due to a higher number of oocytes retrieved. More embryos were transferred by cycle in the PCOS group (2.69 versus 2.17, P < 0.05), with a higher cumulative embryo score. The overall and multiple pregnancy rate showed no differences and the clinical abortion rate was lower (21 versus 41.67%, P < 0.05) in the controls. Our findings demonstrate that negative factors unconnected to oocyte morphology must be present in PCOS patients. It is possible that only cytoplasmic, not nuclear, maturity is influenced in these patients. (+info)The pattern of changes in ovarian stromal and uterine artery blood flow velocities during in vitro fertilization treatment and its relationship with outcome of the cycle. (8/1493)
OBJECTIVES: To assess the effect of short-term (2-3 weeks) pituitary suppression and controlled ovarian stimulation on ovarian and uterine artery Doppler measurements during the in vitro fertilization (IVF) treatment cycle and to compare the pattern of these changes between conception and non-conception cycles as well as between patients with normal and those with polycystic ovaries. DESIGN: Prospective observational study of women undergoing IVF treatment. SUBJECTS: Women using the long-treatment buserelin protocol who did not have uterine fibroids, ovarian cysts or endometrioma. METHODS: Serial transvaginal color and pulsed Doppler measurements of ovarian stromal and uterine artery blood flow velocity were carried out in the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, on the day of pituitary suppression and on the day of administration of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). The main outcome measures were the ovarian stromal and uterine artery blood flow peak systolic velocity (PSV) and pulsatility index (PI). RESULTS: A total of 105 patients were recruited but six patients were excluded from the analysis because they had only one stage of the measurements performed. There was a significant decline in mean ovarian stromal artery PSV after 2-3 weeks of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist therapy but no effect on ovarian stromal artery PI. The mean uterine artery PSV or PI did not change significantly after 2-3 weeks of GnRH agonist therapy. There was a significantly higher mean ovarian stromal artery PSV in conception cycles compared to non-conception cycles in the early follicular phase and on the day of pituitary suppression, but not on the day of hCG administration. There were no differences between conception and non-conception cycles in the mean uterine artery PSV or PI. Women with polycystic ovaries had a higher mean ovarian artery PSV on all the three occasions of measurement. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that assessment of ovarian blood flow before commencement of gonadotropin stimulation may play a role in assessing cycles likely to result in pregnancy. (+info)Polycyctic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is a complex endocrine-metabolic disorder characterized by the presence of hyperandrogenism (excess male hormones), ovulatory dysfunction, and polycystic ovaries. The Rotterdam criteria are commonly used for diagnosis, which require at least two of the following three features:
1. Oligo- or anovulation (irregular menstrual cycles)
2. Clinical and/or biochemical signs of hyperandrogenism (e.g., hirsutism, acne, or high levels of androgens in the blood)
3. Polycystic ovaries on ultrasound examination (presence of 12 or more follicles measuring 2-9 mm in diameter, or increased ovarian volume >10 mL)
The exact cause of PCOS remains unclear, but it is believed to involve a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Insulin resistance and obesity are common findings in women with PCOS, which can contribute to the development of metabolic complications such as type 2 diabetes, dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular disease.
Management of PCOS typically involves a multidisciplinary approach that includes lifestyle modifications (diet, exercise, weight loss), medications to regulate menstrual cycles and reduce hyperandrogenism (e.g., oral contraceptives, metformin, anti-androgens), and fertility treatments if desired. Regular monitoring of metabolic parameters and long-term follow-up are essential for optimal management and prevention of complications.
Hyperandrogenism is a medical condition characterized by excessive levels of androgens (male sex hormones) in the body. This can lead to various symptoms such as hirsutism (excessive hair growth), acne, irregular menstrual periods, and infertility in women. It can be caused by conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and tumors in the ovaries or adrenal glands. Proper diagnosis and management of hyperandrogenism is important to prevent complications and improve quality of life.
Hirsutism is a medical condition characterized by excessive hair growth in women in areas where hair growth is typically androgen-dependent, such as the face, chest, lower abdomen, and inner thighs. This hair growth is often thick, dark, and coarse, resembling male-pattern hair growth. Hirsutism can be caused by various factors, including hormonal imbalances, certain medications, and genetic conditions. It's essential to consult a healthcare professional if you experience excessive or unwanted hair growth to determine the underlying cause and develop an appropriate treatment plan.
An ovary is a part of the female reproductive system in which ova or eggs are produced through the process of oogenesis. They are a pair of solid, almond-shaped structures located one on each side of the uterus within the pelvic cavity. Each ovary measures about 3 to 5 centimeters in length and weighs around 14 grams.
The ovaries have two main functions: endocrine (hormonal) function and reproductive function. They produce and release eggs (ovulation) responsible for potential fertilization and development of an embryo/fetus during pregnancy. Additionally, they are essential in the production of female sex hormones, primarily estrogen and progesterone, which regulate menstrual cycles, sexual development, and reproduction.
During each menstrual cycle, a mature egg is released from one of the ovaries into the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by sperm. If not fertilized, the egg, along with the uterine lining, will be shed, leading to menstruation.
Oligomenorrhea is a medical term used to describe infrequent menstrual periods, where the cycle length is more than 35 days but less than 68 days. It's considered a menstrual disorder and can affect people of reproductive age. The causes of oligomenorrhea are varied, including hormonal imbalances, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), thyroid disorders, excessive exercise, significant weight loss or gain, and stress. In some cases, it may not cause any other symptoms, but in others, it can be associated with infertility, hirsutism (excessive hair growth), acne, or obesity. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may include lifestyle modifications, hormonal medications, or surgery in rare cases.
Metformin is a type of biguanide antihyperglycemic agent used primarily in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. It works by decreasing glucose production in the liver, reducing glucose absorption in the gut, and increasing insulin sensitivity in muscle and fat tissue. By lowering both basal and postprandial plasma glucose levels, metformin helps to control blood sugar levels and improve glycemic control. It is also used off-label for various other indications such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and gestational diabetes. Common side effects include diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal discomfort. Lactic acidosis is a rare but serious side effect that requires immediate medical attention.
Anovulation is a medical condition in which there is a failure to ovulate, or release a mature egg from the ovaries, during a menstrual cycle. This can occur due to various reasons such as hormonal imbalances, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), premature ovarian failure, excessive exercise, stress, low body weight, or certain medications. Anovulation is common in women with irregular menstrual cycles and can cause infertility if left untreated. In some cases, anovulation may be treated with medication to stimulate ovulation.
Clomiphene is a medication that is primarily used to treat infertility in women. It is an ovulatory stimulant, which means that it works by stimulating the development and release of mature eggs from the ovaries (a process known as ovulation). Clomiphene is a selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM), which means that it binds to estrogen receptors in the body and blocks the effects of estrogen in certain tissues, while enhancing the effects of estrogen in others.
In the ovary, clomiphene works by blocking the negative feedback effect of estrogen on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, which results in an increase in the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These hormones stimulate the growth and development of ovarian follicles, which contain eggs. As the follicles grow and mature, they produce increasing amounts of estrogen, which eventually triggers a surge in LH that leads to ovulation.
Clomiphene is typically taken orally for 5 days, starting on the 3rd, 4th, or 5th day of the menstrual cycle. The dosage may be adjusted based on the patient's response to treatment. Common side effects of clomiphene include hot flashes, mood changes, breast tenderness, and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS), which is a potentially serious complication characterized by the enlargement of the ovaries and the accumulation of fluid in the abdomen.
It's important to note that clomiphene may not be suitable for everyone, and its use should be carefully monitored by a healthcare provider. Women with certain medical conditions, such as liver disease, thyroid disorders, or uterine fibroids, may not be able to take clomiphene. Additionally, women who become pregnant while taking clomiphene have an increased risk of multiple pregnancies (e.g., twins or triplets), which can pose additional risks to both the mother and the fetuses.
Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) is a genetic disorder characterized by the growth of multiple cysts in the kidneys. These cysts are fluid-filled sacs that can vary in size and can multiply, leading to enlarged kidneys. The increased size and number of cysts can result in reduced kidney function, high blood pressure, and eventually kidney failure.
There are two main types of PKD: Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD) and Autosomal Recessive Polycystic Kidney Disease (ARPKD). ADPKD is the most common form, affecting approximately 1 in every 500 people. It typically develops in adulthood. On the other hand, ARPKD is a rarer form, affecting about 1 in every 20,000 children, and it often presents in infancy or early childhood.
In addition to kidney problems, PKD can also affect other organs, such as the liver and the heart. It's important to note that while there is no cure for PKD, various treatments can help manage symptoms and slow down the progression of the disease.
Insulin resistance is a condition in which the body's cells become less responsive to insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels. In response to this decreased sensitivity, the pancreas produces more insulin to help glucose enter the cells. However, over time, the pancreas may not be able to keep up with the increased demand for insulin, leading to high levels of glucose in the blood and potentially resulting in type 2 diabetes, prediabetes, or other health issues such as metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Insulin resistance is often associated with obesity, physical inactivity, and genetic factors.
Testosterone is a steroid hormone that belongs to androsten class of hormones. It is primarily secreted by the Leydig cells in the testes of males and, to a lesser extent, by the ovaries and adrenal glands in females. Testosterone is the main male sex hormone and anabolic steroid. It plays a key role in the development of masculine characteristics, such as body hair and muscle mass, and contributes to bone density, fat distribution, red cell production, and sex drive. In females, testosterone contributes to sexual desire and bone health. Testosterone is synthesized from cholesterol and its production is regulated by luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
Androgens are a class of hormones that are primarily responsible for the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics and reproductive function. Testosterone is the most well-known androgen, but other androgens include dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, and dihydrotestosterone (DHT).
Androgens are produced primarily by the testes in men and the ovaries in women, although small amounts are also produced by the adrenal glands in both sexes. They play a critical role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, such as the growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.
In addition to their role in sexual development and function, androgens also have important effects on bone density, mood, and cognitive function. Abnormal levels of androgens can contribute to a variety of medical conditions, including infertility, erectile dysfunction, acne, hirsutism (excessive hair growth), and prostate cancer.
Female infertility is a condition characterized by the inability to conceive after 12 months or more of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse or the inability to carry a pregnancy to a live birth. The causes of female infertility can be multifactorial and may include issues with ovulation, damage to the fallopian tubes or uterus, endometriosis, hormonal imbalances, age-related factors, and other medical conditions.
Some common causes of female infertility include:
1. Ovulation disorders: Conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), thyroid disorders, premature ovarian failure, and hyperprolactinemia can affect ovulation and lead to infertility.
2. Damage to the fallopian tubes: Pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis, or previous surgeries can cause scarring and blockages in the fallopian tubes, preventing the egg and sperm from meeting.
3. Uterine abnormalities: Structural issues with the uterus, such as fibroids, polyps, or congenital defects, can interfere with implantation and pregnancy.
4. Age-related factors: As women age, their fertility declines due to a decrease in the number and quality of eggs.
5. Other medical conditions: Certain medical conditions, such as diabetes, celiac disease, and autoimmune disorders, can contribute to infertility.
In some cases, female infertility can be treated with medications, surgery, or assisted reproductive technologies (ART) like in vitro fertilization (IVF). A thorough evaluation by a healthcare professional is necessary to determine the underlying cause and develop an appropriate treatment plan.
Female fertility agents are medications or treatments that are used to enhance or restore female fertility. They can work in various ways such as stimulating ovulation, improving the quality of eggs, facilitating the implantation of a fertilized egg in the uterus, or addressing issues related to the reproductive system.
Some examples of female fertility agents include:
1. Clomiphene citrate (Clomid, Serophene): This medication stimulates ovulation by causing the pituitary gland to release more follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
2. Gonadotropins: These are hormonal medications that contain FSH and LH, which stimulate the ovaries to produce mature eggs. Examples include human menopausal gonadotropin (hMG) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
3. Letrozole (Femara): This medication is an aromatase inhibitor that can be used off-label to stimulate ovulation in women who do not respond to clomiphene citrate.
4. Metformin (Glucophage): This medication is primarily used to treat type 2 diabetes, but it can also improve fertility in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) by regulating insulin levels and promoting ovulation.
5. Bromocriptine (Parlodel): This medication is used to treat infertility caused by hyperprolactinemia, a condition characterized by high levels of prolactin in the blood.
6. Assisted reproductive technologies (ART): These include procedures such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), and gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT). They involve manipulating eggs and sperm outside the body to facilitate fertilization and implantation.
It is important to consult with a healthcare provider or reproductive endocrinologist to determine the most appropriate fertility agent for individual needs, as these medications can have side effects and potential risks.
A syndrome, in medical terms, is a set of symptoms that collectively indicate or characterize a disease, disorder, or underlying pathological process. It's essentially a collection of signs and/or symptoms that frequently occur together and can suggest a particular cause or condition, even though the exact physiological mechanisms might not be fully understood.
For example, Down syndrome is characterized by specific physical features, cognitive delays, and other developmental issues resulting from an extra copy of chromosome 21. Similarly, metabolic syndromes like diabetes mellitus type 2 involve a group of risk factors such as obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels that collectively increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes.
It's important to note that a syndrome is not a specific diagnosis; rather, it's a pattern of symptoms that can help guide further diagnostic evaluation and management.
17-α-Hydroxyprogesterone is a naturally occurring hormone produced by the adrenal glands and, in smaller amounts, by the ovaries and testes. It is an intermediate in the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, including cortisol, aldosterone, and sex hormones such as testosterone and estrogen.
In a medical context, 17-α-Hydroxyprogesterone may also refer to a synthetic form of this hormone that is used in the treatment of certain medical conditions. For example, a medication called 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate (17-OHP) is used to reduce the risk of preterm birth in women who have previously given birth prematurely. It works by suppressing uterine contractions and promoting fetal lung maturity.
It's important to note that 17-alpha-Hydroxyprogesterone should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider, as it can have side effects and may interact with other medications.
Androstenedione is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes. It is a precursor to both male and female sex hormones, including testosterone and estrogen. In the adrenal glands, it is produced from cholesterol through a series of biochemical reactions involving several enzymes. Androstenedione can also be converted into other steroid hormones, such as dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and estrone.
In the body, androstenedione plays an important role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial hair and a deep voice in men, and breast development and menstrual cycles in women. It also contributes to bone density, muscle mass, and overall physical strength.
Androstenedione is available as a dietary supplement and has been marketed as a way to boost athletic performance and increase muscle mass. However, its effectiveness for these purposes is not supported by scientific evidence, and it may have harmful side effects when taken in high doses or for extended periods of time. Additionally, the use of androstenedione as a dietary supplement is banned by many sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee and the National Collegiate Athletic Association.
Menstruation disturbances, also known as menstrual disorders, refer to any irregularities or abnormalities in a woman's menstrual cycle. These disturbances can manifest in various ways, including:
1. Amenorrhea: The absence of menstrual periods for three consecutive cycles or more in women of reproductive age.
2. Oligomenorrhea: Infrequent or light menstrual periods that occur at intervals greater than 35 days.
3. Dysmenorrhea: Painful menstruation, often accompanied by cramping, pelvic pain, and other symptoms that can interfere with daily activities.
4. Menorrhagia: Heavy or prolonged menstrual periods that last longer than seven days or result in excessive blood loss, leading to anemia or other health complications.
5. Polymenorrhea: Abnormally frequent menstrual periods that occur at intervals of 21 days or less.
6. Metrorrhagia: Irregular and unpredictable vaginal bleeding between expected menstrual periods, which can be caused by various factors such as hormonal imbalances, infections, or structural abnormalities.
Menstruation disturbances can have significant impacts on a woman's quality of life, fertility, and overall health. They may result from various underlying conditions, including hormonal imbalances, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), thyroid disorders, uterine fibroids, endometriosis, or sexually transmitted infections. Proper diagnosis and treatment of the underlying cause are essential for managing menstruation disturbances effectively.
Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease (ADPKD) is a genetic disorder characterized by the growth of multiple cysts in the kidneys. These cysts are fluid-filled sacs that can vary in size and can multiply, leading to enlarged kidneys. The increased size and number of cysts can eventually result in reduced kidney function, high blood pressure, and potentially kidney failure.
ADPKD is an autosomal dominant disorder, meaning it only requires one copy of the altered gene (from either the mother or father) to have the disease. Each child of an affected individual has a 50% chance of inheriting the mutated gene. The two genes most commonly associated with ADPKD are PKD1 and PKD2, located on chromosomes 16 and 4, respectively.
Symptoms can vary widely among individuals with ADPKD, but they often include high blood pressure, back or side pain, headaches, increased abdominal size due to enlarged kidneys, blood in the urine, and kidney failure. Other complications may include cysts in the liver, pancreas, and/or brain (berries aneurysms).
Early diagnosis and management of ADPKD can help slow down disease progression and improve quality of life. Treatment typically includes controlling high blood pressure, managing pain, monitoring kidney function, and addressing complications as they arise. In some cases, dialysis or a kidney transplant may be necessary if kidney failure occurs.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) is a glycoprotein hormone, which is primarily produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In women, a surge of LH triggers ovulation, the release of an egg from the ovaries during the menstrual cycle. During pregnancy, LH stimulates the corpus luteum to produce progesterone. In men, LH stimulates the testes to produce testosterone. It plays a crucial role in sexual development, reproduction, and maintaining the reproductive system.
Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) is a steroid hormone that is produced by the adrenal glands. It is a modified form of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), which is converted to DHEA-S in the body for storage and later conversion back to DHEA or other steroid hormones, such as testosterone and estrogen. DHEA-S is often measured in the blood as a marker of adrenal function. It is also available as a dietary supplement, although its effectiveness for any medical purpose is not well established.
Ovulation induction is a medical procedure that involves the stimulation of ovulation (the release of an egg from the ovaries) in women who have difficulties conceiving due to ovulatory disorders. This is typically achieved through the use of medications such as clomiphene citrate or gonadotropins, which promote the development and maturation of follicles in the ovaries containing eggs. The process is closely monitored through regular ultrasounds and hormone tests to ensure appropriate response and minimize the risk of complications like multiple pregnancies. Ovulation induction may be used as a standalone treatment or in conjunction with other assisted reproductive technologies (ART), such as intrauterine insemination (IUI) or in vitro fertilization (IVF).
Cyproterone acetate is a synthetic steroid hormone with anti-androgen and progestogenic properties. It works by blocking the action of androgens (male sex hormones) in the body, which helps to reduce symptoms associated with excessive androgen production such as severe acne or hirsutism (excessive hair growth).
Cyproterone acetate is used in the treatment of conditions such as prostate cancer, where it can help to slow the growth of cancer cells by reducing the levels of androgens in the body. It is also used in the treatment of sexual deviations, such as pedophilia or exhibitionism, as it can reduce sexual desire.
In addition, cyproterone acetate is sometimes used in combination with estrogen in hormone replacement therapy for transgender women to suppress the production of testosterone and promote feminization.
It's important to note that cyproterone acetate can have significant side effects and its use should be under the close supervision of a healthcare professional.
Sex Hormone-Binding Globulin (SHBG) is a protein produced mainly in the liver that plays a crucial role in regulating the active forms of the sex hormones, testosterone and estradiol, in the body. SHBG binds to these hormones in the bloodstream, creating a reservoir of bound hormones. Only the unbound (or "free") fraction of testosterone and estradiol is considered biologically active and can easily enter cells to exert its effects.
By binding to sex hormones, SHBG helps control their availability and transport in the body. Factors such as age, sex, infection with certain viruses (like hepatitis or HIV), liver disease, obesity, and various medications can influence SHBG levels and, consequently, impact the amount of free testosterone and estradiol in circulation.
SHBG is an essential factor in maintaining hormonal balance and has implications for several physiological processes, including sexual development, reproduction, bone health, muscle mass, and overall well-being. Abnormal SHBG levels can contribute to various medical conditions, such as hypogonadism (low testosterone levels), polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and certain types of cancer.
Acne vulgaris is a common skin condition characterized by the formation of various types of blemishes on the skin, such as blackheads, whiteheads, papules, pustules, and cysts or nodules. These lesions typically appear on areas of the body that have a high concentration of sebaceous glands, including the face, neck, chest, back, and shoulders.
Acne vulgaris occurs when hair follicles become clogged with dead skin cells and excess oil (sebum) produced by the sebaceous glands. This blockage provides an ideal environment for bacteria, particularly Propionibacterium acnes, to multiply, leading to inflammation and infection. The severity of acne vulgaris can range from mild with only a few scattered comedones (blackheads or whiteheads) to severe cystic acne, which can cause significant scarring and emotional distress.
The exact causes of acne vulgaris are not fully understood, but several factors contribute to its development, including:
1. Hormonal changes during puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, or due to conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
2. Genetic predisposition
3. Use of certain medications, such as corticosteroids and lithium
4. Excessive production of sebum due to overactive sebaceous glands
5. Accumulation of dead skin cells that clog pores
6. Bacterial infection (particularly Propionibacterium acnes)
7. Inflammation caused by the body's immune response to bacterial infection and clogged pores
Treatment for acne vulgaris depends on its severity and can include over-the-counter or prescription topical treatments, oral medications, chemical peels, light therapies, or even hormonal therapies in some cases. It is essential to seek professional medical advice from a dermatologist or healthcare provider to determine the most appropriate treatment plan for individual needs.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted and released by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, it promotes the growth and development of ovarian follicles in the ovary, which ultimately leads to the maturation and release of an egg (ovulation). In males, FSH stimulates the testes to produce sperm. It works in conjunction with luteinizing hormone (LH) to regulate reproductive processes. The secretion of FSH is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and its release is influenced by the levels of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), estrogen, inhibin, and androgens.
Anti-Mullerian Hormone (AMH) is a glycoprotein hormone that belongs to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) family. It is primarily produced by the granulosa cells of developing follicles in the ovaries of females. AMH plays an essential role in female reproductive physiology, as it inhibits the recruitment and further development of primordial follicles, thereby regulating the size of the primordial follicle pool and the onset of puberty.
AMH levels are often used as a biomarker for ovarian reserve assessment in women. High AMH levels indicate a larger ovarian reserve, while low levels suggest a decreased reserve, which may be associated with reduced fertility or an earlier onset of menopause. Additionally, measuring AMH levels can help predict the response to ovarian stimulation during assisted reproductive technologies (ART) such as in vitro fertilization (IVF).
Hypoglycemic agents are a class of medications that are used to lower blood glucose levels in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. These medications work by increasing insulin sensitivity, stimulating insulin release from the pancreas, or inhibiting glucose production in the liver. Examples of hypoglycemic agents include sulfonylureas, meglitinides, biguanides, thiazolidinediones, DPP-4 inhibitors, SGLT2 inhibitors, and GLP-1 receptor agonists. It's important to note that the term "hypoglycemic" refers to a condition of abnormally low blood glucose levels, but in this context, the term is used to describe agents that are used to treat high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) associated with diabetes.
Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells of the pancreatic islets, primarily in response to elevated levels of glucose in the circulating blood. It plays a crucial role in regulating blood glucose levels and facilitating the uptake and utilization of glucose by peripheral tissues, such as muscle and adipose tissue, for energy production and storage. Insulin also inhibits glucose production in the liver and promotes the storage of excess glucose as glycogen or triglycerides.
Deficiency in insulin secretion or action leads to impaired glucose regulation and can result in conditions such as diabetes mellitus, characterized by chronic hyperglycemia and associated complications. Exogenous insulin is used as a replacement therapy in individuals with diabetes to help manage their blood glucose levels and prevent long-term complications.
Ovulation is the medical term for the release of a mature egg from an ovary during a woman's menstrual cycle. The released egg travels through the fallopian tube where it may be fertilized by sperm if sexual intercourse has occurred recently. If the egg is not fertilized, it will break down and leave the body along with the uterine lining during menstruation. Ovulation typically occurs around day 14 of a 28-day menstrual cycle, but the timing can vary widely from woman to woman and even from cycle to cycle in the same woman.
During ovulation, there are several physical changes that may occur in a woman's body, such as an increase in basal body temperature, changes in cervical mucus, and mild cramping or discomfort on one side of the lower abdomen (known as mittelschmerz). These symptoms can be used to help predict ovulation and improve the chances of conception.
It's worth noting that some medical conditions, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) or premature ovarian failure, may affect ovulation and make it difficult for a woman to become pregnant. In these cases, medical intervention may be necessary to help promote ovulation and increase the chances of conception.
Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure used to assess whether a person has a healthy weight for their height. It's calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters. Here is the medical definition:
Body Mass Index (BMI) = weight(kg) / [height(m)]^2
According to the World Health Organization, BMI categories are defined as follows:
* Less than 18.5: Underweight
* 18.5-24.9: Normal or healthy weight
* 25.0-29.9: Overweight
* 30.0 and above: Obese
It is important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying weight issues in populations, it does have limitations when applied to individuals. For example, it may not accurately reflect body fat distribution or muscle mass, which can affect health risks associated with excess weight. Therefore, BMI should be used as one of several factors when evaluating an individual's health status and risk for chronic diseases.
Obesity is a complex disease characterized by an excess accumulation of body fat to the extent that it negatively impacts health. It's typically defined using Body Mass Index (BMI), a measure calculated from a person's weight and height. A BMI of 30 or higher is indicative of obesity. However, it's important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying obesity in populations, it does not directly measure body fat and may not accurately reflect health status in individuals. Other factors such as waist circumference, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and blood sugar levels should also be considered when assessing health risks associated with weight.
The menstrual cycle is a series of natural changes that occur in the female reproductive system over an approximate 28-day interval, marking the body's preparation for potential pregnancy. It involves the interplay of hormones that regulate the growth and disintegration of the uterine lining (endometrium) and the release of an egg (ovulation) from the ovaries.
The menstrual cycle can be divided into three main phases:
1. Menstrual phase: The cycle begins with the onset of menstruation, where the thickened uterine lining is shed through the vagina, lasting typically for 3-7 days. This shedding occurs due to a decrease in estrogen and progesterone levels, which are hormones essential for maintaining the endometrium during the previous cycle.
2. Follicular phase: After menstruation, the follicular phase commences with the pituitary gland releasing follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). FSH stimulates the growth of several ovarian follicles, each containing an immature egg. One dominant follicle usually becomes selected to mature and release an egg during ovulation. Estrogen levels rise as the dominant follicle grows, causing the endometrium to thicken in preparation for a potential pregnancy.
3. Luteal phase: Following ovulation, the ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and estrogen to further support the endometrial thickening. If fertilization does not occur within approximately 24 hours after ovulation, the corpus luteum will degenerate, leading to a decline in hormone levels. This drop triggers the onset of menstruation, initiating a new menstrual cycle.
Understanding the menstrual cycle is crucial for monitoring reproductive health and planning or preventing pregnancies. Variations in cycle length and symptoms are common among women, but persistent irregularities may indicate underlying medical conditions requiring further evaluation by a healthcare professional.
A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.
Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.
Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.
Amenorrhea is a medical condition characterized by the absence or cessation of menstrual periods in women of reproductive age. It can be categorized as primary amenorrhea, when a woman who has not yet had her first period at the expected age (usually around 16 years old), or secondary amenorrhea, when a woman who has previously had regular periods stops getting them for six months or more.
There are various causes of amenorrhea, including hormonal imbalances, pregnancy, breastfeeding, menopause, extreme weight loss or gain, eating disorders, intense exercise, stress, chronic illness, tumors, and certain medications or medical treatments. In some cases, amenorrhea may indicate an underlying medical condition that requires further evaluation and treatment.
Amenorrhea can have significant impacts on a woman's health and quality of life, including infertility, bone loss, and emotional distress. Therefore, it is essential to consult with a healthcare provider if you experience amenorrhea or missed periods to determine the underlying cause and develop an appropriate treatment plan.
Blood glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as the main source of energy for the body's cells. It is carried to each cell through the bloodstream and is absorbed into the cells with the help of insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas.
The normal range for blood glucose levels in humans is typically between 70 and 130 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) when fasting, and less than 180 mg/dL after meals. Levels that are consistently higher than this may indicate diabetes or other metabolic disorders.
Blood glucose levels can be measured through a variety of methods, including fingerstick blood tests, continuous glucose monitoring systems, and laboratory tests. Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels is important for people with diabetes to help manage their condition and prevent complications.
Electrocoagulation is a medical procedure that uses heat generated from an electrical current to cause coagulation (clotting) of tissue. This procedure is often used to treat a variety of medical conditions, such as:
* Gastrointestinal bleeding: Electrocoagulation can be used to control bleeding in the stomach or intestines by applying an electrical current to the affected blood vessels, causing them to shrink and clot.
* Skin lesions: Electrocoagulation can be used to remove benign or malignant skin lesions, such as warts, moles, or skin tags, by applying an electrical current to the growth, which causes it to dehydrate and eventually fall off.
* Vascular malformations: Electrocoagulation can be used to treat vascular malformations (abnormal blood vessels) by applying an electrical current to the affected area, causing the abnormal vessels to shrink and clot.
The procedure is typically performed using a specialized device that delivers an electrical current through a needle or probe. The intensity and duration of the electrical current can be adjusted to achieve the desired effect. Electrocoagulation may be used alone or in combination with other treatments, such as surgery or medication.
It's important to note that electrocoagulation is not without risks, including burns, infection, and scarring. It should only be performed by a qualified medical professional who has experience with the procedure.
A Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT) is a medical test used to diagnose prediabetes, type 2 diabetes, and gestational diabetes. It measures how well your body is able to process glucose, which is a type of sugar.
During the test, you will be asked to fast (not eat or drink anything except water) for at least eight hours before the test. Then, a healthcare professional will take a blood sample to measure your fasting blood sugar level. After that, you will be given a sugary drink containing a specific amount of glucose. Your blood sugar levels will be measured again after two hours and sometimes also after one hour.
The results of the test will indicate how well your body is able to process the glucose and whether you have normal, impaired, or diabetic glucose tolerance. If your blood sugar levels are higher than normal but not high enough to be diagnosed with diabetes, you may have prediabetes, which means that you are at increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes in the future.
It is important to note that a Glucose Tolerance Test should be performed under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as high blood sugar levels can be dangerous if not properly managed.
Hyperinsulinism is a medical condition characterized by an excess production and release of insulin from the pancreas. Insulin is a hormone that helps regulate blood sugar levels by allowing cells in the body to take in sugar (glucose) for energy or storage. In hyperinsulinism, the increased insulin levels can cause low blood sugar (hypoglycemia), which can lead to symptoms such as sweating, shaking, confusion, and in severe cases, seizures or loss of consciousness.
There are several types of hyperinsulinism, including congenital forms that are present at birth and acquired forms that develop later in life. Congenital hyperinsulinism is often caused by genetic mutations that affect the way insulin is produced or released from the pancreas. Acquired hyperinsulinism can be caused by factors such as certain medications, hormonal disorders, or tumors of the pancreas.
Treatment for hyperinsulinism depends on the underlying cause and severity of the condition. Treatment options may include dietary changes, medication to reduce insulin secretion, or surgery to remove part or all of the pancreas.
Ethinyl estradiol is a synthetic form of the hormone estrogen that is often used in various forms of hormonal contraception, such as birth control pills. It works by preventing ovulation and thickening cervical mucus to make it more difficult for sperm to reach the egg. Ethinyl estradiol may also be used in combination with other hormones to treat menopausal symptoms or hormonal disorders.
It is important to note that while ethinyl estradiol can be an effective form of hormonal therapy, it can also carry risks and side effects, such as an increased risk of blood clots, stroke, and breast cancer. As with any medication, it should only be used under the guidance and supervision of a healthcare provider.
Hormones are defined as chemical messengers that are produced by endocrine glands or specialized cells and are transported through the bloodstream to tissues and organs, where they elicit specific responses. They play crucial roles in regulating various physiological processes such as growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and mood. Examples of hormones include insulin, estrogen, testosterone, adrenaline, and thyroxine.
An ovarian follicle is a fluid-filled sac in the ovary that contains an immature egg or ovum (oocyte). It's a part of the female reproductive system and plays a crucial role in the process of ovulation.
Ovarian follicles start developing in the ovaries during fetal development, but only a small number of them will mature and release an egg during a woman's reproductive years. The maturation process is stimulated by hormones like follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
There are different types of ovarian follicles, including primordial, primary, secondary, and tertiary or Graafian follicles. The Graafian follicle is the mature follicle that ruptures during ovulation to release the egg into the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by sperm.
It's important to note that abnormal growth or development of ovarian follicles can lead to conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and ovarian cancer.
Metabolic syndrome, also known as Syndrome X, is a cluster of conditions that increase the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes. It is not a single disease but a group of risk factors that often co-occur. According to the American Heart Association and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, a person has metabolic syndrome if they have any three of the following five conditions:
1. Abdominal obesity (waist circumference of 40 inches or more in men, and 35 inches or more in women)
2. Triglyceride level of 150 milligrams per deciliter of blood (mg/dL) or greater
3. HDL cholesterol level of less than 40 mg/dL in men or less than 50 mg/dL in women
4. Systolic blood pressure of 130 millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or greater, or diastolic blood pressure of 85 mmHg or greater
5. Fasting glucose level of 100 mg/dL or greater
Metabolic syndrome is thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and lifestyle factors, such as physical inactivity and a diet high in refined carbohydrates and unhealthy fats. Treatment typically involves making lifestyle changes, such as eating a healthy diet, getting regular exercise, and losing weight if necessary. In some cases, medication may also be needed to manage individual components of the syndrome, such as high blood pressure or high cholesterol.
Gonadotropins are hormones that stimulate the gonads (sex glands) to produce sex steroids and gametes (sex cells). In humans, there are two main types of gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland.
FSH plays a crucial role in the development and maturation of ovarian follicles in females and sperm production in males. LH triggers ovulation in females, causing the release of a mature egg from the ovary, and stimulates testosterone production in males.
Gonadotropins are often used in medical treatments to stimulate the gonads, such as in infertility therapies where FSH and LH are administered to induce ovulation or increase sperm production.
Diathermy is a medical term that refers to the use of high-frequency electrical currents to heat body tissues. The term "diathermy" comes from the Greek words "dia," meaning "through," and "therme," meaning "heat." There are several types of diathermy, including shortwave, microwave, and ultrasound diathermy.
Shortwave diathermy uses electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 10 MHz and 27 MHz to generate heat in deep tissues. This type of diathermy is often used to treat muscle or joint pain, increase blood flow, or promote healing after surgery or injury.
Microwave diathermy uses high-frequency electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 915 MHz and 2450 MHz to generate heat in superficial tissues. This type of diathermy is often used to treat skin conditions such as dermatitis or psoriasis.
Ultrasound diathermy uses high-frequency sound waves with frequencies above 1 MHz to generate heat in soft tissues. This type of diathermy is often used to treat muscle or tendon injuries, promote healing, or relieve pain.
Diathermy should be administered by a trained healthcare professional, as there are potential risks and complications associated with its use, including burns, discomfort, or damage to implanted medical devices such as pacemakers.
The pregnancy rate is a measure used in reproductive medicine to determine the frequency or efficiency of conception following certain treatments, interventions, or under specific conditions. It is typically defined as the number of pregnancies per 100 women exposed to the condition being studied over a specified period of time. A pregnancy is confirmed when a woman has a positive result on a pregnancy test or through the detection of a gestational sac on an ultrasound exam.
In clinical trials and research, the pregnancy rate helps healthcare professionals evaluate the effectiveness of various fertility treatments such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), intrauterine insemination (IUI), or ovulation induction medications. The pregnancy rate can also be used to assess the impact of lifestyle factors, environmental exposures, or medical conditions on fertility and conception.
It is important to note that pregnancy rates may vary depending on several factors, including age, the cause of infertility, the type and quality of treatment provided, and individual patient characteristics. Therefore, comparing pregnancy rates between different studies should be done cautiously, considering these potential confounding variables.
Menstruation is the regular, cyclical shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium) in women and female individuals of reproductive age, accompanied by the discharge of blood and other materials from the vagina. It typically occurs every 21 to 35 days and lasts for approximately 2-7 days. This process is a part of the menstrual cycle, which is under the control of hormonal fluctuations involving follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estrogen, and progesterone.
The menstrual cycle can be divided into three main phases:
1. Menstruation phase: The beginning of the cycle is marked by the start of menstrual bleeding, which signals the breakdown and shedding of the endometrium due to the absence of pregnancy and low levels of estrogen and progesterone. This phase typically lasts for 2-7 days.
2. Proliferative phase: After menstruation, under the influence of rising estrogen levels, the endometrium starts to thicken and regenerate. The uterine lining becomes rich in blood vessels and glands, preparing for a potential pregnancy. This phase lasts from day 5 until around day 14 of an average 28-day cycle.
3. Secretory phase: Following ovulation (release of an egg from the ovaries), which usually occurs around day 14, increased levels of progesterone cause further thickening and maturation of the endometrium. The glands in the lining produce nutrients to support a fertilized egg. If pregnancy does not occur, both estrogen and progesterone levels will drop, leading to menstruation and the start of a new cycle.
Understanding menstruation is essential for monitoring reproductive health, identifying potential issues such as irregular periods or menstrual disorders, and planning family planning strategies.
Steroid 17-alpha-hydroxylase, also known as CYP17A1, is a cytochrome P450 enzyme that plays a crucial role in steroid hormone biosynthesis. It is located in the endoplasmic reticulum of cells in the adrenal glands and gonads. This enzyme catalyzes the 17-alpha-hydroxylation and subsequent lyase cleavage of pregnenolone and progesterone, converting them into dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and androstenedione, respectively. These steroid intermediates are essential for the biosynthesis of both glucocorticoids and sex steroids, including cortisol, aldosterone, estrogens, and testosterone.
Defects in the CYP17A1 gene can lead to several disorders, such as congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 17-alpha-hydroxylase deficiency, which is characterized by decreased production of cortisol and sex steroids and increased mineralocorticoid levels. This condition results in sexual infantilism, electrolyte imbalances, and hypertension.
Virilism is a condition that results from excessive exposure to androgens (male hormones) such as testosterone. It can occur in both males and females, but it is more noticeable in women and children. In females, virilism can cause various masculinizing features like excess body hair, deepened voice, enlarged clitoris, and irregular menstrual cycles. In children, it can lead to premature puberty and growth abnormalities. Virilism is often caused by conditions that involve the adrenal glands or ovaries, including tumors, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and certain medications.
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands. It serves as a precursor to other hormones, including androgens such as testosterone and estrogens such as estradiol. DHEA levels typically peak during early adulthood and then gradually decline with age.
DHEA has been studied for its potential effects on various health conditions, including aging, cognitive function, sexual dysfunction, and certain chronic diseases. However, the evidence supporting its use for these purposes is generally limited and inconclusive. As with any supplement or medication, it's important to consult with a healthcare provider before taking DHEA to ensure safety and effectiveness.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is a glycoprotein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. In humans, FSH plays a crucial role in the reproductive system. Specifically, in females, it stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles in the ovary and the production of estrogen. In males, FSH promotes the formation of sperm within the testes' seminiferous tubules. The human FSH is a heterodimer, consisting of two noncovalently associated subunits: α (alpha) and β (beta). The alpha subunit is common to several pituitary hormones, including thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). In contrast, the beta subunit is unique to FSH and determines its biological specificity. The regulation of FSH secretion is primarily controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, involving complex feedback mechanisms with gonadal steroid hormones and inhibins.
Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channels are a type of ion channel that play a crucial role in various physiological processes, including sensory perception, cellular signaling, and regulation of intracellular calcium levels. TRPP cation channels, also known as TRPP subfamily or polycystin channels, are a specific subgroup within the TRP channel family.
TRPP channels consist of two members: TRPP1 (also known as PKD1 or polycystin-1) and TRPP2 (also known as PKD2 or polycystin-2). These channels form heterodimers, meaning they are composed of two different subunits that come together to create a functional channel.
TRPP channels are primarily located in the primary cilium, a hair-like structure protruding from the cell surface, and in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), an intracellular organelle involved in protein folding and calcium storage. They function as mechano- and chemosensors, responding to various stimuli such as mechanical forces, changes in temperature, pH, or chemical ligands.
TRPP channels are particularly important in the context of renal physiology and pathophysiology. Mutations in TRPP1 and TRPP2 have been linked to autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD), a genetic disorder characterized by the formation of fluid-filled cysts in the kidneys, leading to progressive loss of renal function.
In summary, TRPP cation channels are a subfamily of TRP channels formed by the heterodimerization of TRPP1 and TRPP2 subunits. They play essential roles in sensory perception, cellular signaling, and calcium homeostasis, with particular significance in renal physiology and pathophysiology.
Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the abnormal development and growth of numerous fluid-filled cysts in both kidneys. "Autosomal recessive" indicates that an individual must inherit two copies of the mutated gene, one from each parent, to develop the condition.
The disease primarily affects the renal tubules, which are the tiny structures inside the kidneys responsible for concentrating urine and reabsorbing essential substances back into the bloodstream. In ARPKD, these tubules become dilated and form cysts, leading to progressive kidney enlargement, scarring, and decreased function.
ARPKD is typically diagnosed in infancy or early childhood, and its severity can vary widely among affected individuals. Some may experience mild kidney impairment, while others may develop end-stage renal disease (ESRD) requiring dialysis or a kidney transplant. Additionally, ARPKD often affects the liver, causing congenital hepatic fibrosis and potentially leading to complications such as portal hypertension and liver failure.
The condition is caused by mutations in the PKHD1 gene, which provides instructions for producing a large protein called fibrocystin or polyductin. This protein plays crucial roles in maintaining the structure and function of renal tubules and bile ducts in the liver. When the PKHD1 gene is mutated, it results in the production of an abnormal or nonfunctional fibrocystin/polyductin protein, ultimately leading to the development of cysts and other associated symptoms.
Gonadal steroid hormones, also known as gonadal sex steroids, are hormones that are produced and released by the gonads (i.e., ovaries in women and testes in men). These hormones play a critical role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics, reproductive function, and overall health.
The three main classes of gonadal steroid hormones are:
1. Androgens: These are male sex hormones that are primarily produced by the testes but also produced in smaller amounts by the ovaries and adrenal glands. The most well-known androgen is testosterone, which plays a key role in the development of male secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair, deepening of the voice, and increased muscle mass.
2. Estrogens: These are female sex hormones that are primarily produced by the ovaries but also produced in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands. The most well-known estrogen is estradiol, which plays a key role in the development of female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and the menstrual cycle.
3. Progestogens: These are hormones that are produced by the ovaries during the second half of the menstrual cycle and play a key role in preparing the uterus for pregnancy. The most well-known progestogen is progesterone, which also plays a role in maintaining pregnancy and regulating the menstrual cycle.
Gonadal steroid hormones can have significant effects on various physiological processes, including bone density, cognitive function, mood, and sexual behavior. Disorders of gonadal steroid hormone production or action can lead to a range of health problems, including infertility, osteoporosis, and sexual dysfunction.
A live birth is the complete expulsion or extraction from its mother of a product of human conception, irrespective of the duration of the pregnancy, that, after such separation, breathes or shows any other evidence of life - such as beating of the heart, pulsation of the umbilical cord, or definite movement of voluntary muscles - whether or not the umbilical cord has been cut or the placenta is attached.
This definition is used by the World Health Organization (WHO) and most national statistical agencies to distinguish live births from stillbirths. It's important to note that in some medical contexts, a different definition of live birth may be used.
Menstruation-inducing agents, also known as menstrual induction agents or abortifacients, are medications or substances that stimulate or induce menstruation and can potentially lead to the termination of an early pregnancy. These agents work by causing the uterus to contract and expel its lining (endometrium), which is shed during menstruation.
Common menstruation-inducing agents include:
1. Hormonal medications: Combination oral contraceptives, containing both estrogen and progestin, can be used to induce menstruation by causing the uterus to shed its lining after a planned break from taking the medication. This is often used in birth control methods like the "birth control pill pack."
2. Prostaglandins: These are naturally occurring hormone-like substances that can cause the uterus to contract. Synthetic prostaglandin analogs, such as misoprostol (Cytotec), can be used to induce menstruation or early pregnancy termination.
3. Mifepristone: This is a synthetic steroid hormone that blocks progesterone receptors in the body. When used in combination with prostaglandins, it can cause the uterus to contract and expel its lining, leading to an abortion or inducing menstruation.
It's important to note that using menstruation-inducing agents without medical supervision or for purposes other than their intended use may pose health risks and should be avoided. Always consult a healthcare professional before using any medication for this purpose.
Theca cells are specialized cells that are part of the follicle where the egg matures in the ovary. They are located in the outer layer of the follicle and play an important role in producing hormones necessary for the growth and development of the follicle and the egg within it. Specifically, they produce androgens, such as testosterone, which are then converted into estrogens by another type of cells in the follicle called granulosa cells. These hormones help to thicken the lining of the uterus in preparation for a possible pregnancy. In some cases, theca cells can become overactive and produce too much testosterone, leading to conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
Ovarian Hyperstimulation Syndrome (OHSS) is a medical condition characterized by the enlargement of the ovaries and the accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity, which can occur as a complication of fertility treatments that involve the use of medications to stimulate ovulation.
In OHSS, the ovaries become swollen and may contain multiple follicles (small sacs containing eggs) that have developed in response to the hormonal stimulation. This can lead to the release of large amounts of vasoactive substances, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which can cause increased blood flow to the ovaries and fluid leakage from the blood vessels into the abdominal cavity.
Mild cases of OHSS may cause symptoms such as bloating, abdominal pain or discomfort, nausea, and diarrhea. More severe cases can lead to more serious complications, including blood clots, kidney failure, and respiratory distress. In extreme cases, hospitalization may be necessary to manage the symptoms of OHSS and prevent further complications.
OHSS is typically managed by monitoring the patient's symptoms and providing supportive care, such as fluid replacement and pain management. In severe cases, medication or surgery may be necessary to drain excess fluid from the abdominal cavity. Preventive measures, such as adjusting the dosage of fertility medications or canceling treatment cycles, may also be taken to reduce the risk of OHSS in high-risk patients.
Estradiol is a type of estrogen, which is a female sex hormone. It is the most potent and dominant form of estrogen in humans. Estradiol plays a crucial role in the development and maintenance of secondary sexual characteristics in women, such as breast development and regulation of the menstrual cycle. It also helps maintain bone density, protect the lining of the uterus, and is involved in cognition and mood regulation.
Estradiol is produced primarily by the ovaries, but it can also be synthesized in smaller amounts by the adrenal glands and fat cells. In men, estradiol is produced from testosterone through a process called aromatization. Abnormal levels of estradiol can contribute to various health issues, such as hormonal imbalances, infertility, osteoporosis, and certain types of cancer.
Fertilization in vitro, also known as in-vitro fertilization (IVF), is a medical procedure where an egg (oocyte) and sperm are combined in a laboratory dish to facilitate fertilization. The fertilized egg (embryo) is then transferred to a uterus with the hope of establishing a successful pregnancy. This procedure is often used when other assisted reproductive technologies have been unsuccessful or are not applicable, such as in cases of blocked fallopian tubes, severe male factor infertility, and unexplained infertility. The process involves ovarian stimulation, egg retrieval, fertilization, embryo culture, and embryo transfer. In some cases, additional techniques such as intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) or preimplantation genetic testing (PGT) may be used to increase the chances of success.
Ovarian diseases refer to a range of conditions that affect the function and health of the ovaries, which are the female reproductive organs responsible for producing eggs (oocytes) and female hormones estrogen and progesterone. These diseases can be categorized into functional disorders, infectious and inflammatory diseases, neoplastic diseases, and other conditions that impact ovarian function. Here's a brief overview of some common ovarian diseases:
1. Functional Disorders: These are conditions where the ovaries experience hormonal imbalances or abnormal functioning, leading to issues such as:
* Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): A condition characterized by hormonal imbalances that can cause irregular periods, cysts in the ovaries, and symptoms like acne, weight gain, and infertility.
* Functional Cysts: Fluid-filled sacs that develop within the ovary, usually as a result of normal ovulation (follicular or corpus luteum cysts). They're typically harmless and resolve on their own within a few weeks or months.
2. Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases: These conditions are caused by infections or inflammation affecting the ovaries, such as:
* Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID): An infection that spreads to the reproductive organs, including the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and uterus. It's often caused by sexually transmitted bacteria like Chlamydia trachomatis or Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
* Tuberculosis (TB): A bacterial infection that can spread to the ovaries and cause inflammation, abscesses, or scarring.
3. Neoplastic Diseases: These are conditions where abnormal growths or tumors develop in the ovaries, which can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Examples include:
* Ovarian Cysts: While some cysts are functional and harmless, others can be neoplastic. Benign tumors like fibromas, dermoids, or cystadenomas can grow significantly larger and cause symptoms like pain or bloating. Malignant tumors include epithelial ovarian cancer, germ cell tumors, and sex cord-stromal tumors.
4. Other Conditions: Various other conditions can affect the ovaries, such as:
* Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): A hormonal disorder that causes enlarged ovaries with small cysts. It's associated with irregular periods, infertility, and increased risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease.
* Premature Ovarian Failure (POF): Also known as primary ovarian insufficiency, it occurs when the ovaries stop functioning before age 40, leading to menstrual irregularities, infertility, and early onset of menopause.
It's essential to consult a healthcare professional if you experience any symptoms related to your reproductive system or suspect an issue with your ovaries. Early detection and treatment can significantly improve the prognosis for many conditions affecting the ovaries.
Acanthosis nigricans is a medical condition characterized by the darkening and thickening of the skin in certain areas of the body. These areas typically include the back of the neck, armpits, groin, and skin folds. The skin becomes velvety to touch, and may have a "dirty" appearance.
The condition is often associated with insulin resistance, which can be a sign of type 2 diabetes or prediabetes. It can also be linked to obesity, hormonal imbalances, certain medications, and some rare genetic syndromes.
In addition to the changes in skin color and texture, people with acanthosis nigricans may also experience itching, odor, or discomfort in the affected areas. Treatment typically involves addressing the underlying cause of the condition, such as managing diabetes or losing weight. Topical treatments may also be used to improve the appearance of the skin.
Assisted reproductive techniques (ART) are medical procedures that involve the handling of human sperm and ova to establish a pregnancy. These techniques are used when other methods of achieving pregnancy have failed or are not available. Examples of ART include in vitro fertilization (IVF), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), and zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT). These procedures may be used to treat infertility, prevent genetic disorders, or to help same-sex couples or single people have children. It is important to note that the use of ART can involve significant physical, emotional, and financial costs, and it may not always result in a successful pregnancy.
Adrenarche is a phase of development in which the adrenal glands begin to produce androgens, specifically DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) and its sulfate form DHEAS. This process usually begins between the ages of 6-8 in children, although it can vary. The androgens produced during adrenarche contribute to the development of secondary sexual characteristics such as pubic and underarm hair, but do not play a significant role in the growth spurt or reproductive function. It is important to note that adrenarche is separate from puberty, which is initiated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland and involves the release of gonadotropins that stimulate the gonads to produce sex steroids.
Follicular fluid is the fluid that accumulates within the follicle (a small sac or cyst) in the ovary where an egg matures. This fluid contains various chemicals, hormones, and proteins that support the growth and development of the egg cell. It also contains metabolic waste products and other substances from the granulosa cells (the cells that surround the egg cell within the follicle). Follicular fluid is often analyzed in fertility treatments and studies as it can provide valuable information about the health and viability of the egg cell.
Steroids, also known as corticosteroids, are a type of hormone that the adrenal gland produces in your body. They have many functions, such as controlling the balance of salt and water in your body and helping to reduce inflammation. Steroids can also be synthetically produced and used as medications to treat a variety of conditions, including allergies, asthma, skin conditions, and autoimmune disorders.
Steroid medications are available in various forms, such as oral pills, injections, creams, and inhalers. They work by mimicking the effects of natural hormones produced by your body, reducing inflammation and suppressing the immune system's response to prevent or reduce symptoms. However, long-term use of steroids can have significant side effects, including weight gain, high blood pressure, osteoporosis, and increased risk of infections.
It is important to note that anabolic steroids are a different class of drugs that are sometimes abused for their muscle-building properties. These steroids are synthetic versions of the male hormone testosterone and can have serious health consequences when taken in large doses or without medical supervision.
Thiazolidinediones are a class of medications used to treat type 2 diabetes. They work by increasing the body's sensitivity to insulin, which helps to control blood sugar levels. These drugs bind to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), specifically PPAR-gamma, and modulate gene expression related to glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism.
Examples of thiazolidinediones include pioglitazone and rosiglitazone. Common side effects of these medications include weight gain, fluid retention, and an increased risk of bone fractures. They have also been associated with an increased risk of heart failure and bladder cancer, which has led to restrictions or withdrawal of some thiazolidinediones in various countries.
It is important to note that thiazolidinediones should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider and in conjunction with lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise.
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH), also known as Luteinizing Hormone-Releasing Hormone (LHRH), is a hormonal peptide consisting of 10 amino acids. It is produced and released by the hypothalamus, an area in the brain that links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
GnRH plays a crucial role in regulating reproduction and sexual development through its control of two gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These gonadotropins, in turn, stimulate the gonads (ovaries or testes) to produce sex steroids and eggs or sperm.
GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary gland by binding to its specific receptors, leading to the release of FSH and LH. The hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis is under negative feedback control, meaning that when sex steroid levels are high, they inhibit the release of GnRH, which subsequently decreases FSH and LH secretion.
GnRH agonists and antagonists have clinical applications in various medical conditions, such as infertility treatments, precocious puberty, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, prostate cancer, and hormone-responsive breast cancer.
Testosterone Propionate is a synthetic form of testosterone, an androgenic hormone naturally produced in the human body. The propionate ester is attached to the testosterone molecule to regulate its release into the bloodstream after injection. This results in a slower release and longer duration of action compared to unesterified testosterone.
Testosterone Propionate is primarily used in medical treatments for conditions associated with low testosterone levels, such as hypogonadism or delayed puberty in males. It helps to stimulate the development of male sexual characteristics, maintain bone density, and support red blood cell production.
It's important to note that Testosterone Propionate is available only through a prescription and its use should be under the supervision of a healthcare professional due to potential side effects and interactions with other medications or health conditions.
Infertility is a reproductive health disorder defined as the failure to achieve a clinical pregnancy after 12 months or more of regular, unprotected sexual intercourse or due to an impairment of a person's capacity to reproduce either as an individual or with their partner. It can be caused by various factors in both men and women, including hormonal imbalances, structural abnormalities, genetic issues, infections, age, lifestyle factors, and others. Infertility can have significant emotional and psychological impacts on individuals and couples experiencing it, and medical intervention may be necessary to help them conceive.
Follistatin is a glycoprotein that is naturally produced in various tissues, including the ovaries, pituitary gland, and skeletal muscle. It plays an essential role in regulating the activity of members of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily, particularly the bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and activins.
Follistatin binds to these signaling molecules with high affinity, preventing them from interacting with their receptors and thereby inhibiting their downstream signaling pathways. By doing so, follistatin helps regulate processes such as follicle stimulation in the ovaries, neurogenesis, muscle growth, and inflammation.
Increased levels of follistatin have been associated with muscle hypertrophy, while its deficiency can lead to impaired fertility and developmental abnormalities.
Electroacupuncture is a form of acupuncture where a small electric current is passed between pairs of acupuncture needles. This technique is used to stimulate the acupoints more strongly and consistently than with manual acupuncture. The intensity of the electrical impulses can be adjusted depending on the patient's comfort level and the desired therapeutic effect. Electroacupuncture is often used to treat conditions such as chronic pain, muscle spasms, and paralysis. It may also be used in the treatment of addiction, weight loss, and stroke rehabilitation.
Glucose intolerance is a condition in which the body has difficulty processing and using glucose, or blood sugar, effectively. This results in higher than normal levels of glucose in the blood after eating, particularly after meals that are high in carbohydrates. Glucose intolerance can be an early sign of developing diabetes, specifically type 2 diabetes, and it may also indicate other metabolic disorders such as prediabetes or insulin resistance.
In a healthy individual, the pancreas produces insulin to help regulate blood sugar levels by facilitating glucose uptake in muscles, fat tissue, and the liver. When someone has glucose intolerance, their body may not produce enough insulin, or their cells may have become less responsive to insulin (insulin resistance), leading to impaired glucose metabolism.
Glucose intolerance can be diagnosed through various tests, including the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) test. Treatment for glucose intolerance often involves lifestyle modifications such as weight loss, increased physical activity, and a balanced diet with reduced sugar and refined carbohydrate intake. In some cases, medication may be prescribed to help manage blood sugar levels more effectively.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) receptors are specialized protein structures found on the surface of specific cells in the body. They play a crucial role in the endocrine system, particularly in the regulation of reproduction and development.
FSH receptors are primarily located on the granulosa cells that surround and support the developing eggs (oocytes) within the ovarian follicles in females. In males, these receptors can be found on the Sertoli cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
When FSH, a glycoprotein hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, binds to its specific receptor, it triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to various physiological responses. In females, FSH receptor activation stimulates follicle growth, estrogen production, and oocyte maturation. In males, FSH receptor signaling supports spermatogenesis, the process of sperm cell development within the testes.
In summary, FSH receptors are essential components in the hormonal regulation of reproduction and development, mediating the actions of follicle-stimulating hormone on target cells in both females and males.
A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.
Waist-hip ratio (WHR) is a measurement of the proportion of fat distribution around the waist and hips. It's calculated by dividing the circumference of the waist by the circumference of the hips. A higher waist-hip ratio indicates an increased risk for obesity-related health conditions, such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Generally, a healthy WHR is considered to be less than 0.9 for men and less than 0.8 for women.
A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.
In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:
1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.
It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.
Medical Definition:
"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.
Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.
Medically, 'overweight' is a term used to describe a person whose body weight is greater than what is considered healthy for their height. This excess weight often comes from fat, muscle, bone, or water accumulation. The most commonly used measure to define overweight is the Body Mass Index (BMI), which is calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters. A BMI of 25.0 to 29.9 is considered overweight, while a BMI of 30.0 or higher is considered obese. However, it's important to note that BMI doesn't directly measure body fat and may not accurately reflect health status for all individuals, such as athletes with high muscle mass.
Progesterone is a steroid hormone that is primarily produced in the ovaries during the menstrual cycle and in pregnancy. It plays an essential role in preparing the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg and maintaining the early stages of pregnancy. Progesterone works to thicken the lining of the uterus, creating a nurturing environment for the developing embryo.
During the menstrual cycle, progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, a temporary structure formed in the ovary after an egg has been released from a follicle during ovulation. If pregnancy does not occur, the levels of progesterone will decrease, leading to the shedding of the uterine lining and menstruation.
In addition to its reproductive functions, progesterone also has various other effects on the body, such as helping to regulate the immune system, supporting bone health, and potentially influencing mood and cognition. Progesterone can be administered medically in the form of oral pills, intramuscular injections, or vaginal suppositories for various purposes, including hormone replacement therapy, contraception, and managing certain gynecological conditions.
Gestational diabetes is a type of diabetes that occurs during pregnancy. It is characterized by an increase in blood sugar levels that begins or is first recognized during pregnancy. The condition usually develops around the 24th week of gestation and is caused by the body's inability to produce enough insulin to meet the increased demands of pregnancy.
Gestational diabetes typically resolves after delivery, but women who have had gestational diabetes are at an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes later in life. It is important for women with gestational diabetes to manage their blood sugar levels during pregnancy to reduce the risk of complications for both the mother and the baby.
Management of gestational diabetes may include lifestyle modifications such as dietary changes and exercise, as well as monitoring blood sugar levels and potentially using insulin or other medications to control blood sugar levels. Regular prenatal care is essential for women with gestational diabetes to ensure that their blood sugar levels are properly managed and to monitor the growth and development of the fetus.
Glucose metabolism disorders are a group of conditions that result from abnormalities in the body's ability to produce, store, or use glucose, which is a simple sugar that serves as the primary source of energy for the body's cells. These disorders can be categorized into two main types: those caused by insufficient insulin production (such as type 1 diabetes) and those caused by impaired insulin action (such as type 2 diabetes).
In healthy individuals, glucose is absorbed from food during digestion and enters the bloodstream. The pancreas responds to this increase in blood glucose levels by releasing insulin, a hormone that signals cells throughout the body to take up glucose from the bloodstream and use it for energy production or storage.
Glucose metabolism disorders can disrupt this process at various stages, leading to high blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) or low blood glucose levels (hypoglycemia). Some common examples of these disorders include:
1. Diabetes Mellitus: A group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood glucose levels due to insufficient insulin production, impaired insulin action, or both. Type 1 diabetes results from the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta-cells that produce insulin, while type 2 diabetes is caused by a combination of insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion.
2. Gestational Diabetes: A form of high blood glucose that develops during pregnancy due to hormonal changes that impair insulin action.
3. Prediabetes: A condition where blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not yet high enough to be classified as diabetes.
4. Hypoglycemia: Abnormally low blood glucose levels, which can result from certain medications, hormonal deficiencies, or other medical conditions.
5. Glycogen Storage Diseases: A group of rare inherited metabolic disorders that affect the body's ability to store and break down glycogen, a complex carbohydrate that serves as an energy reserve in muscles and the liver.
6. Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY): A group of monogenic forms of diabetes caused by mutations in specific genes involved in insulin secretion or action.
7. Glucose Galactose Malabsorption: An inherited disorder that impairs the absorption of glucose and galactose, leading to severe diarrhea, dehydration, and high blood glucose levels.
8. Fructose Intolerance: A condition where the body cannot metabolize fructose properly due to a deficiency in the enzyme aldolase B, resulting in abdominal pain, diarrhea, and high blood glucose levels.
Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.
Androgen antagonists are a class of drugs that block the action of androgens, which are hormones that contribute to male sexual development and characteristics. They work by binding to androgen receptors in cells, preventing the natural androgens from attaching and exerting their effects. This can be useful in treating conditions that are caused or worsened by androgens, such as prostate cancer, hirsutism (excessive hair growth in women), and acne. Examples of androgen antagonists include flutamide, bicalutamide, and spironolactone.
Genotype, in genetics, refers to the complete heritable genetic makeup of an individual organism, including all of its genes. It is the set of instructions contained in an organism's DNA for the development and function of that organism. The genotype is the basis for an individual's inherited traits, and it can be contrasted with an individual's phenotype, which refers to the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism that result from the expression of its genes in combination with environmental influences.
It is important to note that an individual's genotype is not necessarily identical to their genetic sequence. Some genes have multiple forms called alleles, and an individual may inherit different alleles for a given gene from each parent. The combination of alleles that an individual inherits for a particular gene is known as their genotype for that gene.
Understanding an individual's genotype can provide important information about their susceptibility to certain diseases, their response to drugs and other treatments, and their risk of passing on inherited genetic disorders to their offspring.
Adiponectin is a hormone that is produced and secreted by adipose tissue, which is another name for body fat. This hormone plays an important role in regulating metabolism and energy homeostasis. It helps to regulate glucose levels, break down fatty acids, and has anti-inflammatory effects.
Adiponectin is unique because it is exclusively produced by adipose tissue, and its levels are inversely related to body fat mass. This means that lean individuals tend to have higher levels of adiponectin than obese individuals. Low levels of adiponectin have been associated with an increased risk of developing various metabolic disorders, such as insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
Overall, adiponectin is an important hormone that plays a crucial role in maintaining metabolic health, and its levels may serve as a useful biomarker for assessing metabolic risk.
"Thinness" is not a term that is typically used in medical definitions. However, it generally refers to having a lower than average body weight or low body mass index (BMI) for a person's height. In medical terms, being significantly underweight might be defined as having a BMI of less than 18.5. It's important to note that while low body weight can be a sign of health issues like malnutrition or eating disorders, being thin does not necessarily equate to being healthy. A person's overall health is determined by a variety of factors, including diet, exercise, genetics, and the presence or absence of chronic diseases.
The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs that produce, store, and secrete hormones. It plays a crucial role in regulating various functions in the body, including metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood.
Endocrine system diseases or disorders occur when there is a problem with the production or regulation of hormones. This can result from:
1. Overproduction or underproduction of hormones by the endocrine glands.
2. Impaired response of target cells to hormones.
3. Disruption in the feedback mechanisms that regulate hormone production.
Examples of endocrine system diseases include:
1. Diabetes Mellitus - a group of metabolic disorders characterized by high blood sugar levels due to insulin deficiency or resistance.
2. Hypothyroidism - underactive thyroid gland leading to slow metabolism, weight gain, fatigue, and depression.
3. Hyperthyroidism - overactive thyroid gland causing rapid heartbeat, anxiety, weight loss, and heat intolerance.
4. Cushing's Syndrome - excess cortisol production resulting in obesity, high blood pressure, and weak muscles.
5. Addison's Disease - insufficient adrenal hormone production leading to weakness, fatigue, and low blood pressure.
6. Acromegaly - overproduction of growth hormone after puberty causing enlargement of bones, organs, and soft tissues.
7. Gigantism - similar to acromegaly but occurs before puberty resulting in excessive height and body size.
8. Hypopituitarism - underactive pituitary gland leading to deficiencies in various hormones.
9. Hyperparathyroidism - overactivity of the parathyroid glands causing calcium imbalances and kidney stones.
10. Precocious Puberty - early onset of puberty due to premature activation of the pituitary gland.
Treatment for endocrine system diseases varies depending on the specific disorder and may involve medication, surgery, lifestyle changes, or a combination of these approaches.
Alopecia is a medical term that refers to the loss of hair or baldness. It can occur in various parts of the body, but it's most commonly used to describe hair loss from the scalp. Alopecia can have several causes, including genetics, hormonal changes, medical conditions, and aging.
There are different types of alopecia, such as:
* Alopecia Areata: It is a condition that causes round patches of hair loss on the scalp or other parts of the body. The immune system attacks the hair follicles, causing the hair to fall out.
* Androgenetic Alopecia: Also known as male pattern baldness or female pattern baldness, it's a genetic condition that causes gradual hair thinning and eventual hair loss, typically following a specific pattern.
* Telogen Effluvium: It is a temporary hair loss condition caused by stress, medication, pregnancy, or other factors that can cause the hair follicles to enter a resting phase, leading to shedding and thinning of the hair.
The treatment for alopecia depends on the underlying cause. In some cases, such as with telogen effluvium, hair growth may resume without any treatment. However, other forms of alopecia may require medical intervention, including topical treatments, oral medications, or even hair transplant surgery in severe cases.
A cyst is a closed sac, having a distinct membrane and division between the sac and its surrounding tissue, that contains fluid, air, or semisolid material. Cysts can occur in various parts of the body, including the skin, internal organs, and bones. They can be caused by various factors, such as infection, genetic predisposition, or blockage of a duct or gland. Some cysts may cause symptoms, such as pain or discomfort, while others may not cause any symptoms at all. Treatment for cysts depends on the type and location of the cyst, as well as whether it is causing any problems. Some cysts may go away on their own, while others may need to be drained or removed through a surgical procedure.
Hair removal is the deliberate elimination or reduction of body hair. This can be achieved through various methods, both temporary and permanent. Some common temporary methods include shaving, waxing, tweezing, and depilatory creams. Permanent methods may involve laser hair removal or electrolysis, which target the hair follicle to prevent future growth. It's important to note that some methods can have side effects or risks, so it's recommended to consult with a healthcare professional or dermatologist before starting any new hair removal regimen.
The follicular phase is a term used in reproductive endocrinology, which refers to the first part of the menstrual cycle. This phase begins on the first day of menstruation and lasts until ovulation. During this phase, several follicles in the ovaries begin to mature under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) released by the pituitary gland.
Typically, one follicle becomes dominant and continues to mature, while the others regress. The dominant follicle produces increasing amounts of estrogen, which causes the lining of the uterus to thicken in preparation for a possible pregnancy. The follicular phase can vary in length, but on average it lasts about 14 days.
It's important to note that the length and characteristics of the follicular phase can provide valuable information in diagnosing various reproductive disorders, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) or thyroid dysfunction.
Oral combined contraceptives, also known as "the pill," are a type of hormonal birth control that contain a combination of synthetic estrogen and progestin. These hormones work together to prevent ovulation (the release of an egg from the ovaries), thicken cervical mucus to make it harder for sperm to reach the egg, and thin the lining of the uterus to make it less likely for a fertilized egg to implant.
Combined oral contraceptives come in various brands and forms, such as monophasic, biphasic, and triphasic pills. Monophasic pills contain the same amount of hormones in each active pill, while biphasic and triphasic pills have varying amounts of hormones in different phases of the cycle.
It is important to note that oral combined contraceptives do not protect against sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and should be used in conjunction with condoms for safer sex practices. Additionally, there are potential risks and side effects associated with oral combined contraceptives, including an increased risk of blood clots, stroke, and heart attack, especially in women who smoke or have certain medical conditions. It is essential to consult a healthcare provider before starting any hormonal birth control method to determine if it is safe and appropriate for individual use.
Contraceptive agents are substances or medications that are used to prevent pregnancy by interfering with the normal process of conception and fertilization or the development and implantation of the fertilized egg. They can be divided into two main categories: hormonal and non-hormonal methods.
Hormonal contraceptive agents include combined oral contraceptives (COCs), progestin-only pills, patches, rings, injections, and implants. These methods work by releasing synthetic hormones that mimic the natural hormones estrogen and progesterone in a woman's body. By doing so, they prevent ovulation, thicken cervical mucus to make it harder for sperm to reach the egg, and thin the lining of the uterus to make it less likely for a fertilized egg to implant.
Non-hormonal contraceptive agents include barrier methods such as condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps, and sponges, which prevent sperm from reaching the egg by creating a physical barrier. Other non-hormonal methods include intrauterine devices (IUDs), which are inserted into the uterus to prevent pregnancy, and fertility awareness-based methods, which involve tracking ovulation and avoiding intercourse during fertile periods.
Emergency contraceptive agents, such as Plan B or ella, can also be used to prevent pregnancy after unprotected sex or contraceptive failure. These methods work by preventing or delaying ovulation, preventing fertilization, or preventing implantation of a fertilized egg.
It's important to note that while contraceptive agents are effective at preventing pregnancy, they do not protect against sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Using condoms in addition to other forms of contraception can help reduce the risk of STIs.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) is a type of genetic variation that occurs when a single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) in the DNA sequence is altered. This alteration must occur in at least 1% of the population to be considered a SNP. These variations can help explain why some people are more susceptible to certain diseases than others and can also influence how an individual responds to certain medications. SNPs can serve as biological markers, helping scientists locate genes that are associated with disease. They can also provide information about an individual's ancestry and ethnic background.
Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG) is a hormone that is produced during pregnancy. It is produced by the placenta after implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterus. The main function of hCG is to prevent the disintegration of the corpus luteum, which is a temporary endocrine structure that forms in the ovary after ovulation and produces progesterone during early pregnancy. Progesterone is essential for maintaining the lining of the uterus and supporting the pregnancy.
hCG can be detected in the blood or urine as early as 10 days after conception, and its levels continue to rise throughout the first trimester of pregnancy. In addition to its role in maintaining pregnancy, hCG is also used as a clinical marker for pregnancy and to monitor certain medical conditions such as gestational trophoblastic diseases.
Pregnancy outcome refers to the final result or status of a pregnancy, including both the health of the mother and the newborn baby. It can be categorized into various types such as:
1. Live birth: The delivery of one or more babies who show signs of life after separation from their mother.
2. Stillbirth: The delivery of a baby who has died in the womb after 20 weeks of pregnancy.
3. Miscarriage: The spontaneous loss of a pregnancy before the 20th week.
4. Abortion: The intentional termination of a pregnancy before the fetus can survive outside the uterus.
5. Ectopic pregnancy: A pregnancy that develops outside the uterus, usually in the fallopian tube, which is not viable and requires medical attention.
6. Preterm birth: The delivery of a baby before 37 weeks of gestation, which can lead to various health issues for the newborn.
7. Full-term birth: The delivery of a baby between 37 and 42 weeks of gestation.
8. Post-term pregnancy: The delivery of a baby after 42 weeks of gestation, which may increase the risk of complications for both mother and baby.
The pregnancy outcome is influenced by various factors such as maternal age, health status, lifestyle habits, genetic factors, and access to quality prenatal care.
Inhibins are a group of protein hormones that play a crucial role in regulating the function of the reproductive system, specifically by inhibiting the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in the pituitary gland. They are produced and secreted primarily by the granulosa cells in the ovaries of females and Sertoli cells in the testes of males.
Inhibins consist of two subunits, an alpha subunit, and a beta subunit, which can be further divided into two types: inhibin A and inhibin B. Inhibin A is primarily produced by the granulosa cells of developing follicles in the ovary, while inhibin B is mainly produced by the Sertoli cells in the testes.
By regulating FSH production, inhibins help control the development and maturation of ovarian follicles in females and spermatogenesis in males. Abnormal levels of inhibins have been associated with various reproductive disorders, including polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and certain types of cancer.
Granulosa cells are specialized cells that surround and enclose the developing egg cells (oocytes) in the ovaries. They play a crucial role in the growth, development, and maturation of the follicles (the fluid-filled sacs containing the oocytes) by providing essential nutrients and hormones.
Granulosa cells are responsible for producing estrogen, which supports the development of the endometrium during the menstrual cycle in preparation for a potential pregnancy. They also produce inhibin and activin, two hormones that regulate the function of the pituitary gland and its secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH).
These cells are critical for female reproductive health and fertility. Abnormalities in granulosa cell function can lead to various reproductive disorders, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), premature ovarian failure, and infertility.
A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.
Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.
Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.
Gene frequency, also known as allele frequency, is a measure in population genetics that reflects the proportion of a particular gene or allele (variant of a gene) in a given population. It is calculated as the number of copies of a specific allele divided by the total number of all alleles at that genetic locus in the population.
For example, if we consider a gene with two possible alleles, A and a, the gene frequency of allele A (denoted as p) can be calculated as follows:
p = (number of copies of allele A) / (total number of all alleles at that locus)
Similarly, the gene frequency of allele a (denoted as q) would be:
q = (number of copies of allele a) / (total number of all alleles at that locus)
Since there are only two possible alleles for this gene in this example, p + q = 1. These frequencies can help researchers understand genetic diversity and evolutionary processes within populations.
The term "body constitution" is often used in traditional systems of medicine, such as Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Ayurveda. It refers to the unique combination of physical and psychological characteristics that make up an individual's inherent nature and predisposition to certain health conditions. In TCM, for example, a person's body constitution may be classified as being predominantly hot, cold, damp, or dry, which can influence their susceptibility to certain diseases and their response to treatment. Similarly, in Ayurveda, an individual's constitution is determined by the balance of three fundamental energies or doshas: Vata, Pitta, and Kapha. Understanding a person's body constitution is thought to be essential for developing a personalized approach to healthcare that addresses their unique needs and tendencies. However, it should be noted that this concept is not widely recognized in modern Western medicine.
A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.
In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.
Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.
Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.
Abdominal fat, also known as visceral fat, is the fat that is stored in the abdominal cavity and surrounds the internal organs such as the liver, pancreas, and intestines. It is different from subcutaneous fat, which is the fat located just under the skin, and is often measured using techniques such as CT scans or MRI to assess health risks. Excess abdominal fat has been linked to an increased risk of various health conditions, including type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and stroke.
Down syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21. It is characterized by intellectual and developmental disabilities, distinctive facial features, and sometimes physical growth delays and health problems. The condition affects approximately one in every 700 babies born in the United States.
Individuals with Down syndrome have varying degrees of cognitive impairment, ranging from mild to moderate or severe. They may also have delayed development, including late walking and talking, and may require additional support and education services throughout their lives.
People with Down syndrome are at increased risk for certain health conditions, such as congenital heart defects, respiratory infections, hearing loss, vision problems, gastrointestinal issues, and thyroid disorders. However, many individuals with Down syndrome live healthy and fulfilling lives with appropriate medical care and support.
The condition is named after John Langdon Down, an English physician who first described the syndrome in 1866.
The glucose clamp technique is a method used in medical research, particularly in the study of glucose metabolism and insulin action. It's a controlled procedure that aims to maintain a steady state of plasma glucose concentration in an individual for a specific period.
In this technique, a continuous infusion of glucose is administered intravenously at a variable rate to balance the amount of glucose being removed from the circulation (for example, by insulin-stimulated uptake in muscle and fat tissue). This creates a "clamp" of stable plasma glucose concentration.
The rate of glucose infusion is adjusted according to frequent measurements of blood glucose levels, typically every 5 to 10 minutes, to keep the glucose level constant. The glucose clamp technique allows researchers to study how different factors, such as various doses of insulin or other drugs, affect glucose metabolism under standardized conditions.
There are two primary types of glucose clamps: the hyperglycemic clamp and the euglycemic clamp. The former aims to raise and maintain plasma glucose at a higher-than-normal level, while the latter maintains plasma glucose at a normal, euglycemic level.
Ectopic hormone production refers to the situation when a hormone is produced in an unusual location or by a type of cell that does not typically produce it. This can occur due to various reasons such as genetic mutations, cancer, or other medical conditions. The ectopic hormone production can lead to hormonal imbalances and related symptoms, as the regulation of hormones in the body becomes disrupted.
For example, in some cases of lung cancer, the tumor cells may produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which is typically produced by the pituitary gland. This ectopic ACTH production can result in Cushing's syndrome, a condition characterized by symptoms such as weight gain, muscle weakness, and high blood pressure.
It's important to note that ectopic hormone production is relatively rare and usually occurs in the context of specific medical conditions. If you suspect that you or someone else may have ectopic hormone production, it's important to seek medical attention from a healthcare professional who can provide appropriate evaluation and treatment.
Genetic polymorphism refers to the occurrence of multiple forms (called alleles) of a particular gene within a population. These variations in the DNA sequence do not generally affect the function or survival of the organism, but they can contribute to differences in traits among individuals. Genetic polymorphisms can be caused by single nucleotide changes (SNPs), insertions or deletions of DNA segments, or other types of genetic rearrangements. They are important for understanding genetic diversity and evolution, as well as for identifying genetic factors that may contribute to disease susceptibility in humans.
Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.
Genetic predisposition to disease refers to an increased susceptibility or vulnerability to develop a particular illness or condition due to inheriting specific genetic variations or mutations from one's parents. These genetic factors can make it more likely for an individual to develop a certain disease, but it does not guarantee that the person will definitely get the disease. Environmental factors, lifestyle choices, and interactions between genes also play crucial roles in determining if a genetically predisposed person will actually develop the disease. It is essential to understand that having a genetic predisposition only implies a higher risk, not an inevitable outcome.
Lipids are a broad group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents. They include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. Lipids serve many important functions in the body, including energy storage, acting as structural components of cell membranes, and serving as signaling molecules. High levels of certain lipids, particularly cholesterol and triglycerides, in the blood are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.
The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.
It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Infertility in polycystic ovary syndrome
Ketoconazole
Heavy menstrual bleeding
Women's reproductive health in the United States
Human body
Side effects of bicalutamide
Ethinylestradiol
Leonid Poretsky
HAIR-AN syndrome
Bicalutamide
Type 2 diabetes
Antiandrogen
Estrogen-dependent condition
Combined oral contraceptive pill
Duru Shah
Pelvic pain
Metformin
Oligoamenorrhea
Eating disorder
Obesity and fertility
Side effects of cyproterone acetate
Follicle-stimulating hormone
1D-chiro-Inositol
Ricardo Azziz
Harnaam Kaur
Inositol
Flutamide
Cyproterone acetate
Pattern hair loss
Medical uses of bicalutamide
Polycystic ovary syndrome - Wikipedia
PCOS | Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | MedlinePlus
Polycystic ovary syndrome: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Symptoms and Treatment | Live Science
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) (for Teens) - Children's Health System - Alabama
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) and Fatty Liver Disease
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Symptoms, Causes, and Treatment
PCOS (Polycystic Ovary Syndrome): Symptoms & Treatment
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) - Our Bodies Ourselves Today
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) Imaging: Practice Essentials, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Ultrasonography
POLYCYSTIC OVARY SYNDROME | Her Campus
Classification of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
Psychiatric complications in women with polycystic ovary syndrome most often linked to menstrual irregularities | ScienceDaily
Sex hormone-binding globulin expression in the endometria of women with polycystic ovary syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) - multilingual fact… | Jean Hailes
PCOS Treatment - Polycystic Ovary Syndrome - Southern California Fertility Southern California Fertility
Gonadotrophins to induce ovulation in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) | Cochrane
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) - Overview - HSE.ie
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): what it means for your long-term health - patient information leaflet | RCOG
Know everything about Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
PRIME PubMed | Increased plasma thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor levels in young obese women with polycystic ovary...
Nutrients | Free Full-Text | Polycystic Ovary Syndrome in Insulin-Resistant Adolescents with Obesity: The Role of Nutrition...
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Treatment Center in Manhattan
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) & Fertility - IVF Australia
Image: Acanthosis Nigricans in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome - MSD Manual Consumer Version
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) - Gynecology and Obstetrics - Merck Manuals Professional Edition
Frontiers | Associations between omega-3 fatty acids and insulin resistance and body composition in women with polycystic ovary...
Evidence for the Independent Segregation of Insulin Resistance and Familial Polycystic Ovary Syndrome | Clinical Science |...
A variety of studies about gynecological complaints; polycystic ovary syndrome, PMS, estrogen withdrawal, menopause. - Alan V....
PCOS99
- Polycystic ovary syndrome, or polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), is the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age. (wikipedia.org)
- p. 141) Polycystic ovaries: PCOS is a complicated disorder characterized by high androgen levels, irregular menstruation, and/or small cysts on one or both ovaries. (wikipedia.org)
- Women with PCOS have higher risk of multiple diseases including Infertility, type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM-2), cardiovascular risk, metabolic syndrome, obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, depression, obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), endometrial cancer, and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease/nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NAFLD/NASH). (wikipedia.org)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a condition in which a woman has increased levels of male hormones (androgens). (medlineplus.gov)
- PCOS is linked to changes in hormone levels that make it harder for the ovaries to release fully-grown (mature) eggs. (medlineplus.gov)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) happens when a woman's ovaries or adrenal glands produce more male hormones than normal. (medlineplus.gov)
- PCOS causes cysts (fluid-filled sacs) to grow on the ovaries. (medlineplus.gov)
- Women with PCOS are at higher risk of diabetes, metabolic syndrome, heart disease, and high blood pressure. (medlineplus.gov)
- What Are the Symptoms of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)? (medlineplus.gov)
- How Do Health Care Providers Diagnose Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)? (medlineplus.gov)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common hormonal disorder in women of child-bearing age, and is one of the leading causes of infertility in women, according to the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists . (livescience.com)
- But the symptoms linked with PCOS extend beyond the ovaries to many different aspects of a woman's physical and emotional health. (livescience.com)
- There is probably more than one cause, Menke said, adding that for some woman PCOS may start in the ovaries, while for others it may be the fat tissue. (livescience.com)
- Some PCOS patients' ovaries appear normal, and other women with cysts (fluid-filled sacs) on their ovaries may not have PCOS. (livescience.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is primarily thought of as a reproductive system disorder. (healthline.com)
- Polycystic (pronounced: pol-ee-SISS-tik) ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common health problem that can affect teen girls and young women. (kidshealth.org)
- What Problems Can Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) Cause? (kidshealth.org)
- The effects of PCOS on the ovaries can make a girl stop ovulating. (kidshealth.org)
- How Is Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) Diagnosed? (kidshealth.org)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a condition that affects a woman's hormone levels. (healthline.com)
- PCOS affects a woman's ovaries, the reproductive organs that produce estrogen and progesterone - hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle. (healthline.com)
- PCOS is a "syndrome," or group of symptoms that affects the ovaries and ovulation. (healthline.com)
- In PCOS, many small, fluid-filled sacs grow inside the ovaries. (healthline.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects up to almost 27 percent of women during their childbearing years ( 4 ). (healthline.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common condition that affects your hormones. (clevelandclinic.org)
- A typical ovary compared to an ovary in a person with PCOS. (clevelandclinic.org)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal imbalance that occurs when your ovaries (the organ that produces and releases eggs) create excess hormones. (clevelandclinic.org)
- If you have PCOS, your ovaries produce unusually high levels of hormones called androgens . (clevelandclinic.org)
- However, despite the name 'polycystic,' you don't need to have cysts on your ovaries to have PCOS. (clevelandclinic.org)
- What are the signs of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)? (clevelandclinic.org)
- Many people with PCOS have ovaries that appear larger or with many follicles (egg sac cysts) on ultrasound. (clevelandclinic.org)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a problem with hormones that happens during the reproductive years. (mayoclinic.org)
- With PCOS , many small sacs of fluid develop along the outer edge of the ovary. (mayoclinic.org)
- In polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), enlarged ovaries with thickened sclerotic capsules and an abnormally high number of follicles are present. (medscape.com)
- They state that the diagnosis of PCOS is based on the presence of at least 2 of the following 3 criteria: chronic anovulation, hyperandrogenism (clinical or biological), and polycystic ovaries. (medscape.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome , or PCOS, is a very common endocrine (meaning hormone-related) disorder for reproductive-aged people with ovaries. (ourbodiesourselves.org)
- You can have PCOS and not have cysts on your ovaries, and you can have cysts on your ovaries and not have PCOS. (ourbodiesourselves.org)
- Although there is no cure for PCOS (even if you have surgery to remove your ovaries), there is a lot you can do to manage any symptoms that bother you. (ourbodiesourselves.org)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), a hormone imbalance that causes infertility, obesity, and excessive facial hair in women, can also lead to severe mental health issues including anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. (sciencedaily.com)
- To evaluate the protein and messenger RNA expression of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in endometria from women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). (nih.gov)
- An imbalance of hormones causes PCOS, or polycystic ovary syndrome, and it can result in a range of uncomfortable symptoms. (socalfertility.com)
- Because polycystic ovary syndrome can be difficult to spot without professional support, the doctors at our Southern California fertility clinic recommend women receive an evaluation by a fertility specialist as soon as they suspect they have PCOS. (socalfertility.com)
- Ovulation induction with follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is a second-line treatment in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) who do not ovulate or conceive on clomiphene citrate. (cochrane.org)
- To compare the effectiveness and safety of gonadotrophins as a second-line treatment for ovulation induction in women with clomiphene citrate-resistant polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and women who do not ovulate or conceive after clomiphene citrate. (cochrane.org)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects how a woman's ovaries work. (hse.ie)
- In polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), these sacs are often unable to release an egg. (hse.ie)
- This information is for you if you want to know more about polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). (rcog.org.uk)
- Polycystic Ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common condition in which a hormone imbalance causes irregular periods, increased hair and acne and may affect fertility. (rcog.org.uk)
- Having polycystic ovaries does not necessarily mean that you have PCOS. (rcog.org.uk)
- Women with PCOS have symptoms as well as polycystic ovaries. (rcog.org.uk)
- Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS), also known as Polycystic Ovarian Disease(PCOD)Or Stein Levinthal Syndrome is a condition of Androgen excess and Chronic Anovulation- that means Women with PCOS produce higher-than-normal amounts of male hormones known as Androgens. (risingkashmir.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects up to almost 27 percent of women during their childbearing years .It involves cysts in the ovaries,high levels of male hormones,and irregular periods. (risingkashmir.com)
- It is not known exactly what causes PCOS.Scientists believe that high levels of male hormones prevent the ovaries from producing hormones and making eggs normally.But genes, insulin resistance,and inflammation have all been linked to excess androgen production. (risingkashmir.com)
- To evaluate carotid intima-media thickness and thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor levels in young women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and age-matched healthy controls, and to investigate their relationship with each other and with clinical, metabolic, and hormonal parameters. (unboundmedicine.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common hormonal disorder among women of reproductive age. (patientsmedical.com)
- The main features of PCOS are irregular menstrual periods, multiple cysts on the ovaries and high levels of androgens (male hormones) in the body. (patientsmedical.com)
- The symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) can vary from person to person. (patientsmedical.com)
- Infertility: PCOS is a common cause of infertility, because the ovaries may not release eggs regularly. (patientsmedical.com)
- The signs of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) can include both physical symptoms and laboratory test results. (patientsmedical.com)
- Ovarian cysts: PCOS is characterized by the presence of multiple small cysts on the ovaries, as seen on an ultrasound. (patientsmedical.com)
- PCOS is usually defined as a clinical syndrome, not by the presence of ovarian cysts. (merckmanuals.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is strongly associated with abdominal obesity and insulin resistance and effective approaches to nutrition (e.g., omega-3 fatty acids intake) might improve the cardiometabolic risk profile. (frontiersin.org)
- Characterized by a series of manifestations of hyperandrogenemia, persistent anovulation, and ovarian polycystic changes ( 1 ), polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most common endocrine-metabolic disorders that affects 5 to 10% of women of reproductive age ( 2 ). (frontiersin.org)
- Excessive insulin level is not only a potential cause of hyperandrogenemia but also one of the high-risk factors leading to metabolic syndromes among those with PCOS ( 6 ). (frontiersin.org)
- 36 women suffering from Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS), and fitting the mental picture of the homoeopathic remedy Pulsatilla, were given Pulsatilla 6C, 4 hourly throughout the day for 2 weeks after the end of menstruation, and this was repeated for 4 consecutive cycles. (hpathy.com)
- Patients treated with anticonvulsant mood stabilizers have a higher incidence of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). (frontiersin.org)
- Menstrual disorder, amenorrhea, weight gain, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), and so on caused by mood stabilizers will have a certain impact on patient's lives. (frontiersin.org)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a medical condition with important consequences for women's well-being and reproductive outcomes. (lu.se)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common hormonal condition affecting women in their reproductive years. (yourfertility.org.au)
- PCOS is mainly due to a hormonal imbalance rather than a disease of the ovaries. (yourfertility.org.au)
- If the hormone levels associated with PCOS can be reduced or controlled, the ovaries can often function normally. (yourfertility.org.au)
- PCOS is called a syndrome which means it is characterised by a range of symptoms, which differ widely between individuals. (yourfertility.org.au)
- If there are 20 or more follicles (fluid filled sacs) on either ovary, this indicates PCOS. (yourfertility.org.au)
- Objective Systematic evaluation of the application of probiotics in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). (researchsquare.com)
- Because data on Brazilian women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) are still scarce, a nation-wide collaborative study was designed to determine the prevalence of metabolic and reproductive abnormalities and the presence of anxiety and depression in Brazilian women with PCOS. (bmj.com)
- Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), a hormonal condition which affects how the ovaries work, is thought to affect 20% of women worldwide . (bristolpost.co.uk)
- I have polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and Im trying to get pregnant. (babymed.com)
- How much Metformin is necessary to treat polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) during pregnancy? (babymed.com)
- Both polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and autoimmune thyroiditis (AT) are reported to be common endocrinopathies. (viamedica.pl)
- Background: Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS) is a common female reproductive disorder with multiple manifestations. (monash.edu)
- If you've been diagnosed with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) , you are far from alone. (fertilitysanantonio.com)
- Diagnosing PCOS - A doctor may diagnose PCOS if you have two of the following symptoms, including irregular periods, elevated levels of androgens (a specific hormone) and multiple cysts on one or both ovaries. (fertilitysanantonio.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a highly heritable, common endocrine disorder characterized by hyperandrogenism, irregular menses, and polycystic ovaries. (northwestern.edu)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) in adolescent girls is usually related to hepato-visceral fat excess and insulin resistance, and associates with comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes. (bmj.com)
- A family member, friend, co-worker, or neighbor: You probably know someone with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). (medlineplus.gov)
- Like the name sounds, PCOS is a disorder that is associated with multiple small cysts on the ovaries. (medlineplus.gov)
- Women with PCOS also have an increased risk for sleep apnea, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes, obesity, heart disease and high blood pressure, and endometrial cancer. (medlineplus.gov)
- Pcos, short for polycystic ovarian syndrome, is a common condition related to hormones in which the ovaries don't always release an egg at the end of the menstrual cycle (the start of a period to the start of the next one). (answersfanatic.com)
- Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (Pcos) Atau Sindrom Ovarium Polikistik Adalah Kondisi Hormonal Yang Bisa Dialami Perempuan Usia Subur. (answersfanatic.com)
- Polycystic ovarian syndrome (pcos), recently referred also as hyperandrogenic anovulation, is a chronic anovulation syndrome associated with androgen excess. (answersfanatic.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (or PCOS) is a common condition in which the female ovaries produce above-average levels of the male sex hormone testosterone. (obgyn.ky)
- A key feature of PCOS is an irregular menstrual cycle, which is caused by irregular ovulation (i.e., the release of an egg from the ovary). (obgyn.ky)
- However, there are also a number of complications from PCOS that can lead to much more serious problems, including metabolic syndrome, heart problems and even endometrial cancer. (obgyn.ky)
- The main features of PCOS include irregular or absent menstrual periods, excess androgen levels, and polycystic ovaries. (forbestimesonly.com)
- 2. Inflammatory PCOS: This type of PCOS is characterized by inflammation in the ovaries, which can lead to pain and other symptoms. (forbestimesonly.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a hormonal disorder that can affect women of childbearing age. (forbestimesonly.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is commonly observed in women of reproductive age. (ui.ac.id)
- Despite a large number of studies, the pathogenesis of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) still remains unexplained. (bvsalud.org)
- This data will allow for analysis of the selected steroid hormones and related binding protein that can be used to assist in disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases, such as Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS), androgen deficiency, certain cancers, and hormone imbalances. (cdc.gov)
Insulin resistance5
- The primary characteristics of this syndrome include: hyperandrogenism, anovulation, insulin resistance, and neuroendocrine disruption. (wikipedia.org)
- Metabolic syndrome: This appears as a tendency towards central obesity and other symptoms associated with insulin resistance, including low energy levels and food cravings. (wikipedia.org)
- Evidence suggests that the underlying disorder of polycystic ovary disease is insulin resistance, with the elevated insulin levels stimulating excess ovarian androgen production. (medscape.com)
- Metabolic Syndrome Metabolic syndrome is characterized by a large waist circumference (due to excess abdominal fat), hypertension, abnormal fasting plasma glucose or insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia. (merckmanuals.com)
- In many women with polycystic ovary syndrome, the body's cells resist the effects of insulin (called insulin resistance or sometimes prediabetes). (msdmanuals.com)
Sacs8
- Small follicle cysts (fluid-filled sacs with immature eggs) may be visible on your ovaries on ultrasound due to lack of ovulation ( anovulation ). (clevelandclinic.org)
- Irregular ovulation can also cause small, fluid-filled sacs to develop on your ovaries. (clevelandclinic.org)
- Many small sacs of fluid develop on the ovaries. (mayoclinic.org)
- The name "poly" (many) "cystic" (having sacs or pockets) "ovary" (those lil' egg and hormone storage spots on either side of the uterus) syndrome is a little misleading. (ourbodiesourselves.org)
- The disorder is typically characterized by an excess production of the hormone testosterone, irregular ovulation, and cysts, or fluid-filled sacs, in the ovaries. (sciencedaily.com)
- This syndrome gets its name from the many fluid-filled sacs (cysts) that often develop in the ovaries, causing them to enlarge. (msdmanuals.com)
- and cysts (fluid-filled sacs) on one or both ovaries. (medlineplus.gov)
- small, fluid filled sacs grow inside the ovaries. (obgyn.ky)
Follicles6
- Ovaries might get enlarged and comprise follicles surrounding the eggs. (wikipedia.org)
- This disease is related to the number of follicles per ovary each month growing from the average range of 6-8 to double, triple or more[citation needed]. (wikipedia.org)
- Many follicles containing immature eggs may develop around the edge of the ovary. (mayoclinic.org)
- They note that ultrasonography now allows diagnosis of PCOM in patients with at least 25 small follicles (2-9 mm) in the whole ovary, and ovarian size of 10 ml is the threshold between normal and increased ovary size. (medscape.com)
- Polycystic ovaries have twice the number of follicles than healthy ovaries do. (hse.ie)
- Polycystic ovaries are slightly larger than normal ovaries and have twice the number of follicles (fluid-filled spaces within the ovary that release the eggs when you ovulate). (rcog.org.uk)
Obesity4
- Therefore, it is still wise to check the basal serum T, DHEAS, 17-HP and prolactin (PRL) levels, as well as the urinary-free cortisol level, when obesity is recent and some Cushing syndrome stigmata are present. (health.am)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome is characterized by irregular or no menstrual periods and often obesity or symptoms caused by high levels of male hormones (androgens), such as excess body hair and acne. (msdmanuals.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome picture polcystic ovary syndrome is a condition in women characterized by irregular or no menstrual periods, acne, obesity, and excess hair growth. (answersfanatic.com)
- This syndrome presents with symptoms such as amenorrhea, hirsutism, and obesity. (ui.ac.id)
Ovarian cysts1
- Polycystic ovary syndrome is a clinical syndrome typically characterized by anovulation or oligo-ovulation, signs of androgen excess (eg, hirsutism, acne), and multiple ovarian cysts in the ovaries. (merckmanuals.com)
Symptoms of Polycystic Ovary Sy1
- If you are experiencing symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome, we're here to help. (socalfertility.com)
20231
- Recommendations From the 2023 International Evidence-based Guideline for the Assessment and Management of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. (medscape.com)
Irregular4
- It involves cysts in the ovaries, high levels of male hormones, and irregular periods. (healthline.com)
- High androgen levels prevent your ovaries from releasing eggs, which causes irregular menstrual cycles. (clevelandclinic.org)
- You're having irregular periods, or bleeding between periods (a sign that your ovaries aren't working as expected). (ourbodiesourselves.org)
- It is characterized by the presence of multiple cysts on the ovaries, as well as a range of other symptoms such as irregular menstrual periods, excess androgen (male hormone) levels, and difficulty getting pregnant. (patientsmedical.com)
Anovulation1
- This syndrome involves anovulation or ovulatory dysfunction and androgen excess of unclear etiology. (merckmanuals.com)
Women15
- However, not all women with the condition will have ovaries with this appearance. (medlineplus.gov)
- The condition affects about 5 million American women of reproductive ages, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and is named for the multiple cysts lining the outer edge of the ovaries. (livescience.com)
- Although a multiplicity of clinical presentations exists for polycystic ovary disease , in 1935, Stein and Leventhal reported the classic symptomatology in a group of women who had amenorrhea, infertility, hirsutism, and enlarged polycystic ovaries. (medscape.com)
- As was discovered over time, women may have polycystic ovaries, yet their cases may not conform to all of the original criteria for this condition. (medscape.com)
- There may be little or no difference in live birth, incidence of multiple pregnancy, clinical pregnancy rate, or miscarriage rate between urinary-derived gonadotrophins and recombinant follicle stimulating hormone in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. (cochrane.org)
- Testosterone is a hormone that is produced in small amounts by the ovaries in all women. (rcog.org.uk)
- Yakir M, Kreitler S, Brzezinski A, Vithoulkas G, Oberbaum M, Bentwich Z. Effects of homeopathic treatment in women with premenstrual syndrome: a pilot study. (hpathy.com)
- Clomiphene is superior to metformin in achieving live birth in infertile women with the polycystic ovary syndrome, although multiple birth is a complication. (babymed.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome affects about 5 to 10% of women. (msdmanuals.com)
- If women who have polycystic ovary syndrome and are overweight or obese become pregnant, their risk of complications during pregnancy is increased. (msdmanuals.com)
- Most women with polycystic ovary syndrome produce excess male sex hormones (androgens). (answersfanatic.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome is a condition present in approximately 5 to 10 percent of women of childbearing age. (answersfanatic.com)
- For women of childbearing age, simple unilateral oophorectomy via laparoscopy or laparotomy is adequate, provided that the contralateral ovary appears grossly normal. (medscape.com)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (pcosco) is a hormonal disorder that affects women of reproductive age. (forbestimesonly.com)
- Polycystic ovarian syndrome (Pcosco) is a hormonal disorder that affects women of reproductive age. (forbestimesonly.com)
Androgens8
- But when her ovaries produce excessive amounts of androgens, this may cause a woman to have unwanted hair growth on her face and body, known as hirsutism. (livescience.com)
- In girls, the ovaries make the hormones estrogen and progesterone , and also androgens , such as testosterone. (kidshealth.org)
- Polycystic ovary syndrome is caused by an imbalance of androgens. (healthline.com)
- The ovaries also produce a small amount of male hormones called androgens. (healthline.com)
- An increase in insulin levels causes your ovaries to make and release male hormones (androgens). (clevelandclinic.org)
- The ovaries also produce a small amount of male hormones called Androgens.The ovaries release eggs to be fertilized by a man's sperm.The release of an egg each month is called Ovulation. (risingkashmir.com)
- Abnormal levels of androgens and other sex hormones prevent normal release of egg cells from the ovaries and thus form cysts. (answersfanatic.com)
- Trousseau syndrome, vascular, thromboembolism, pleural effusion, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, malignant lymphadenopathy, malignancy, paraneoplastic hypercoagulability, lemierre syndrome: Abnormal levels of androgens and other sex hormones prevent normal release of egg cells from the ovaries and thus form cysts. (answersfanatic.com)
Infertility2
- Polycystic ovary syndrome is the most common cause of infertility in the United States. (msdmanuals.com)
- Adiyanti, SS & Immanuel, S 2020, Infertility due to polycystic ovary syndrome . (ui.ac.id)
Small cysts on the ovaries1
- PCOD (Poly Cystic Ovarian Disease) can make it harder for a woman to become pregnant as menstrual cycles and ovulation are often disrupted by the small cysts on the ovaries associated with the disease. (babymed.com)
Release eggs1
- The ovaries release eggs to be fertilized by a man's sperm. (healthline.com)
Healthy ovaries2
- Polycystic ovaries are bigger than healthy ovaries. (hse.ie)
- Follicle cysts of the ovary are the most common cystic structures found in healthy ovaries. (medscape.com)
Grow on the ovaries1
- It can grow on the ovaries, behind the uterus, on the bowels, or on the bladder. (cdc.gov)
Sign that your ovaries1
- This could be a sign that your ovaries are not producing an egg each month. (hse.ie)
Adolescent girls1
- In adolescent girls, large, multicystic ovaries are a common finding. (medscape.com)
Disorder3
- The syndrome is named after cysts which form on the ovaries of some people with this condition, though this is not a universal symptom, and not the underlying cause of the disorder. (wikipedia.org)
- In people with polycystic ovary syndrome, skin in the armpits, on the nape of the neck, and in skinfolds may become dark and thick (a disorder called acanthosis nigricans). (msdmanuals.com)
- These symptoms may seem unrelated at first glance but could be the telltale signs of a hormonal disorder called Polycystic Ovary Syndrome or pcosco for short. (forbestimesonly.com)
Follicle stimula2
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH),which are produced in the pituitary gland,control ovulation.FSH stimulates the ovary to produce a follicle - a sac that contains an egg - and then LH triggers the ovary to release a mature egg. (risingkashmir.com)
- Impairment of feedback between the hypothalamus-pituitary axis and ovary increases the secretion of estrogen, decreasing the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). (ui.ac.id)
Imbalance1
- It causes a hormonal imbalance that interferes with the growth and release of eggs from the ovaries. (fertilitysanantonio.com)
Hormones3
- Research also suggests that the body might make too much insulin, signaling the ovaries to release extra male hormones. (kidshealth.org)
- They believe that high levels of male hormones prevent the ovaries from producing hormones and making eggs normally. (healthline.com)
- Extra insulin triggers the ovaries to produce more male hormones. (healthline.com)
Ultrasound3
- Your provider may also perform or order an ultrasound of your pelvis to look at your ovaries. (medlineplus.gov)
- Your doctor might order a pelvic ultrasound (a safe, painless test that uses sound waves to make images of the pelvis) to check your ovaries for cysts or other problems. (kidshealth.org)
- A vaginal ultrasound takes a picture of the ovaries. (yourfertility.org.au)
Fertility2
- Contact us to learn more about how our San Antonio fertility doctor diagnoses and treats polycystic ovary syndrome. (fertilitysanantonio.com)
- Certain Conditions That Are Present At Birth, Such As Turner Syndrome And Androgen Insensitivity, Typically Cause Menstrual And Fertility Problems. (answersfanatic.com)
Systematic review and meta-analysis1
- Metformin and combined oral contraceptive pills in the management of polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. (medscape.com)
Endocrine1
- It's the most common endocrine condition in people with ovaries, affecting about 5 to 10% (some say even more). (ourbodiesourselves.org)
Hormone2
- Imbalanced hormone levels can cause changes in a girl's entire body, not just her ovaries. (kidshealth.org)
- 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) is a steroid hormone that is primarily produced in the adrenal glands, as well as in ovaries, testes, and placenta. (cdc.gov)
Clomiphene citrate1
- Gonadotrophins resulted in more clinical pregnancies, but also in more miscarriages than clomiphene citrate, while there were no cases of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. (cochrane.org)
Congenital1
- Measurements of DHEAS provides information about the adrenal gland function and can help with the diagnosis of congenital adrenal hyperplasia and polycystic ovary syndrome. (cdc.gov)
Adrenal1
- Estradiol is produced primarily in the ovary (follicle, corpus luteum), but small quantities are also formed in the testes and in the adrenal cortex, as well as in fat cells. (cdc.gov)
Stein-Leventha1
- Therefore, Stein-Leventhal syndrome became a subgroup of a more encompassing disease called polycystic ovary disease. (medscape.com)
Treatment1
- Contact us for more information about treatment for polycystic ovary syndrome. (socalfertility.com)