Retinoschisis
Eye Proteins
Fundus Oculi
X Chromosome
Retinal Degeneration
Retinal Diseases
Genetic Diseases, X-Linked
Retinal Perforations
Retinal Detachment
Tomography, Optical Coherence
Eye Diseases, Hereditary
Fovea Centralis
Photoreceptor Cells, Vertebrate
Retina
Genetic Linkage
Macula Lutea
Pedigree
Sex Chromosome Aberrations
Intracellular retention of mutant retinoschisin is the pathological mechanism underlying X-linked retinoschisis. (1/72)
X-linked retinoschisis results in visual loss in early life with splitting within the inner retinal layers. Many missense and protein truncating mutations of the causative gene RS1 (encoding retinoschisin) have been identified but disease severity is not mutation-dependent. Retinoschisin is a soluble secretory protein predicted to have a globular conformation. Missense mutations would be expected to interfere with protein folding leading to an abnormal conformation and intracellular retention and elimination. To test this hypothesis we have expressed seven pathological RS1 mutations (L12H, C59S, G70S, R102W, G109R, R141G and R213W) in COS-7 cells and investigated their intracellular processing and transport. Using immunoblotting and confocal fluorescent immunocytochemistry we show normal secretion of WT RS1, but either reduced (C59S and R141G) or absent (L12H, G70S, R102W, G109R and R213W) secretion of mutant RS1 and intracellular retention. In addition, we show that L12H RS1 is degraded by proteasomes and in vitro transcription/translation revealed the defects in both cleavage of its signal peptide and translocation into the endoplasmic reticulum. Our results indicate the pathological basis of RS1 is intracellular retention of the majority of mutant proteins, which may explain why disease severity is not mutation-specific. Furthermore, we have shown that in vitro expression of RS1 may be a useful functional assay to investigate the pathogenicity of sequence changes within the RS1 gene. (+info)Sex ratio and proportion of affected sons in sibships with X-chromosomal recessive traits: maximum likelihood estimation in truncated multinomial distributions. (2/72)
If mothers are carriers of a recessive male sex-linked disorder, their children may include females, healthy males and affected males. The composition of the possible sibships follows a multinomial distribution. If the mothers are diagnosed as carriers independently of their offspring, then the distributions are not truncated, but if they are classified as carriers after the birth of at least one affected son, the distributions are truncated. In order to avoid ascertainment bias, the statistical analyses of the corresponding data must differ. We present procedures for estimation in both the untruncated and the truncated case. The formulae obtained are applied to family data for X-chromosomal recessive retinoschisis (RS) from the region of Satakunta in southwestern Finland. Earlier studies indicated that, among the offspring of RS carriers, the sex ratio was increased. In our model, therefore, we include both the proportion of males and the proportion of affected individuals among the males. The sex ratio was significantly increased (131.0), but the proportion of affected males was slightly lower than expected (42.5%). RS seems to be the only known genetic disorder in which the offspring of carriers of the mutation include a statistically significant surplus of males. (+info)Defective discoidin domain structure, subunit assembly, and endoplasmic reticulum processing of retinoschisin are primary mechanisms responsible for X-linked retinoschisis. (3/72)
Retinoschisin is a 24-kDa discoidin domain-containing protein that is secreted from photoreceptor and bipolar cells as a large disulfide-linked multisubunit complex. It functions as a cell adhesion protein to maintain the cellular organization and synaptic structure of the retina. Over 125 different mutations in the RS1 gene are associated with X-linked juvenile retinoschisis, the most common form of early onset macular degeneration in males. To identify molecular determinants important for retinoschisin structure and function and elucidate molecular and cellular mechanisms responsible for X-linked juvenile retinoschisis, we have analyzed the expression, protein folding, disulfide-linked subunit assembly, intracellular localization, and secretion of wild-type retinoschisin, 15 Cys-to-Ser variants and 12 disease-linked mutants. Our studies, together with molecular modeling of the discoidin domain, identify Cys residues involved in intramolecular and intermolecular disulfide bonds essential for protein folding and subunit assembly. We show that misfolding of the discoidin domain, defective disulfide-linked subunit assembly, and inability of retinoschisin to insert into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane as part of the protein secretion process are three primary mechanisms responsible for the loss in the function of retinoschisin as a cell adhesion protein and the pathogenesis of X-linked juvenile retinoschisis. (+info)Clinical features of X linked juvenile retinoschisis associated with new mutations in the XLRS1 gene in Italian families. (4/72)
AIMS: To describe the clinical phenotype of X linked juvenile retinoschisis in eight Italian families with six different mutations in the XLRS1 gene. METHODS: Complete ophthalmic examinations, electroretinography and A and B-scan standardised echography were performed in 18 affected males. The coding sequences of the XLRS1 gene were amplified by polymerase chain reaction and directly sequenced on an automated sequencer. RESULTS: Six different XLRS1 mutations were identified; two of these mutations Ile81Asn and the Trp122Cys, have not been previously described. The affected males showed an electronegative response to the standard white scotopic stimulus and a prolonged implicit time of the 30 Hz flicker. In the families with Trp112Cys and Trp122Cys mutations we observed a more severe retinoschisis (RS) clinical picture compared with the other genotypes. CONCLUSION: The severe RS phenotypes associated with Trp112Cys and to Trp122Cys mutations suggest that these mutations determine a notable alteration in the function of the retinoschisin protein. (+info)Congenital retinoschisis: successful collapse with photocoagulation. (5/72)
We report a case of progressive congenital retinoschis is where the schisis cavity collapsed following argon laser photocoagulation. Despite reports to the contrary, we feel that in the absence of significant vitreous or inner layer traction, photocoagulation applied as light burns in the schisis cavity may be beneficial in collapsing the cavity. Whether or not this collapse of the schisis cavity reduces the risk of rhegmatogenous retinal detachment is unclear. (+info)A missense mutation in the mouse Col2a1 gene causes spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita, hearing loss, and retinoschisis. (6/72)
A missense mutation in the mouse Col2a1 gene has been discovered, resulting in a mouse phenotype with similarities to human spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia (SED) congenita. In addition, SED patients have been identified with a similar molecular mutation in human COL2A1. This mouse model offers a useful tool for molecular and biological studies of bone development and pathology. INTRODUCTION: A new mouse autosomal recessive mutation has been discovered and named spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita (gene symbol sedc). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Homozygous sedc mice can be identified at birth by their small size and shortened trunk. Adults have shortened noses, dysplastic vertebrae, femora, and tibias, plus retinoschisis and hearing loss. The mutation was mapped to Chr15, and Col2a1 was identified as a candidate gene. RESULTS: Sequence analyses revealed that the affected gene is Col2a1, which has a missense mutation at exon 48 causing an amino acid change of arginine to cysteine at position 1417. Two human patients with spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia (SED) congenita have been reported with the same amino acid substitution at position 789 in the human COL2A1 gene. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, sedc/sedc mice provide a valuable model of human SED congenita with molecular and phenotypic homology. Further biochemical analyses, molecular modeling, and cell culture studies using sedc/sedc mice could provide insight into mechanisms of skeletal development dependent on Col2a1 and its role in fibril formation and cartilage template organization. (+info)Multifocal electroretinograms in X-linked retinoschisis. (7/72)
PURPOSE: To study local retinal cone function in patients with X-linked retinoschisis (XLRS) by multifocal ERGs (mfERGs). METHODS: mfERGs were recorded from seven eyes of seven patients with XLRS (mean age +/- SD, 22.1 +/- 3.2 years; range, 18 to 25 years). Five eyes had microcystic changes in the macula and two eyes had nonspecific macular degeneration. Two eyes had peripheral retinoschisis, and some of the stimuli fell on this area. The stimulus array consisted of 103 hexagons and the total recording time was set at approximately 4 minutes. The amplitudes and implicit times of both focal and summed responses for the first- and second-order kernels were analyzed. RESULTS: The amplitudes of the first-order kernel were markedly reduced in the central retina in all eyes. A large variation was observed in the amplitudes outside the fovea. The amplitudes of the focal cone ERGs at the peripheral retinoschisis did not differ from those recorded from adjacent retinal loci without the retinoschisis. The implicit times of the first-order kernel were significantly delayed, and the amplitudes of the second-order kernels were more affected than the first-order kernels across the whole field in all XLRS eyes. CONCLUSIONS: The cone-mediated retinal responses were more impaired in the central than peripheral retina in eyes with XLRS. Delayed implicit times of the first-order kernel and reduced second-order kernel across the whole testing field in all XLRS eyes suggest that there is widespread cone-system dysfunction in XLRS. (+info)RS-1 Gene Delivery to an Adult Rs1h Knockout Mouse Model Restores ERG b-Wave with Reversal of the Electronegative Waveform of X-Linked Retinoschisis. (8/72)
PURPOSE: To create and evaluate a mouse model of human X-linked juvenile retinoschisis (XLRS) and then investigate whether supplementing with the retinoschisin protein by gene delivery can reverse the abnormal "electronegative" electroretinogram (ERG) retinal response. METHODS: An X-linked retinoschisis mouse (Rs1h-KO) model was created by substituting a neomycin resistance cassette for exon 1 and 1.6 kb of intron 1 of Rs1h, the murine orthologue of the human RS-1 gene. RS protein was evaluated by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis with a polyclonal RS N-terminus antibody. Retinal function was evaluated by conventional, full-field flash ERG recordings. RS protein supplementation therapy was evaluated by gene transfer with an AAV(2/2)-CMV-Rs1h vector containing C57BL/6J Rs1h cDNA under the regulation of a CMV promoter, and ERG functional analysis was performed. RESULTS: No RS protein was detected by Western blot analysis or immunohistochemistry in the Rs1h-KO mouse. Dark-adapted ERG responses showed an electronegative configuration, with b-wave reduction in both Rs1h(-/Y) and Rs1h-/- mice, typical of XLRS in humans. Histologic examination of Rs1h-KO mice showed disorganization of multiple retinal layers, including duplication and mislocalization of ganglion cells, laminar dissection through the inner plexiform layer, disorganization of the outer plexiform layer, loss of regularity of the outer nuclear layer, and shortening of the inner/outer segments with mislocalization of photoreceptor nuclei into this layer. After intraocular administration of AAV(2/2)-CMV-Rs1h, immunohistochemistry showed retinoschisin expression in all retinal layers of Rs1h(-/Y) mice, and ERG recordings showed reversal of the electronegative waveform and restoration of the normal positive b-wave. CONCLUSIONS: The RS-KO mouse mimics structural features of human X-linked juvenile retinoschisis with dissection through, and disorganization of, multiple retinal layers. The Rs1h-KO functional deficit results in an electronegative ERG waveform that is characteristic of human retinoschisis disease and that implicates a synaptic transmission deficit in the absence of retinoschisin protein. Replacement therapy by supplementing normal Rs1h protein in the adult Rs1h-KO mouse restored the normal ERG configuration. This indicates that gene therapy is a viable strategy of therapeutic intervention even in the postdevelopmental adult stage of XLRS disease. (+info)Retinoschisis is a medical term that refers to a specific eye condition where there is a separation (schisis) of the retinal layers, particularly the neurosensory retina. This condition often affects the peripheral retina and can be classified as congenital or acquired. Congenital retinoschisis is usually present at birth or develops during early childhood, while acquired retinoschisis occurs later in life due to various reasons such as trauma, inflammation, or degenerative changes.
In retinoschisis, the inner layers of the retina split apart, creating a cavity filled with fluid. This separation can lead to visual symptoms like blurred vision, shadows, or blind spots in the affected area of the visual field. However, it is important to note that many cases of retinoschisis do not cause significant visual impairment and may only require monitoring by an eye care professional.
Retinoschisis can be diagnosed through a comprehensive eye examination, including a dilated fundus exam, which allows the eye care professional to examine the retina thoroughly. In some cases, additional diagnostic tests like optical coherence tomography (OCT) or fluorescein angiography may be used to confirm the diagnosis and assess the extent of the condition.
Treatment for retinoschisis depends on the severity and location of the separation. Mild cases may not require any treatment, while more severe cases may need surgical intervention to prevent complications such as retinal detachment or bleeding in the eye. Regular follow-up appointments with an eye care professional are essential to monitor the condition and ensure appropriate management.
Eye proteins, also known as ocular proteins, are specific proteins that are found within the eye and play crucial roles in maintaining proper eye function and health. These proteins can be found in various parts of the eye, including the cornea, iris, lens, retina, and other structures. They perform a wide range of functions, such as:
1. Structural support: Proteins like collagen and elastin provide strength and flexibility to the eye's tissues, enabling them to maintain their shape and withstand mechanical stress.
2. Light absorption and transmission: Proteins like opsins and crystallins are involved in capturing and transmitting light signals within the eye, which is essential for vision.
3. Protection against damage: Some eye proteins, such as antioxidant enzymes and heat shock proteins, help protect the eye from oxidative stress, UV radiation, and other environmental factors that can cause damage.
4. Regulation of eye growth and development: Various growth factors and signaling molecules, which are protein-based, contribute to the proper growth, differentiation, and maintenance of eye tissues during embryonic development and throughout adulthood.
5. Immune defense: Proteins involved in the immune response, such as complement components and immunoglobulins, help protect the eye from infection and inflammation.
6. Maintenance of transparency: Crystallin proteins in the lens maintain its transparency, allowing light to pass through unobstructed for clear vision.
7. Neuroprotection: Certain eye proteins, like brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), support the survival and function of neurons within the retina, helping to preserve vision.
Dysfunction or damage to these eye proteins can contribute to various eye disorders and diseases, such as cataracts, age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, and others.
Electroretinography (ERG) is a medical test used to evaluate the functioning of the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. The test measures the electrical responses of the retina to light stimulation.
During the procedure, a special contact lens or electrode is placed on the surface of the eye to record the electrical activity generated by the retina's light-sensitive cells (rods and cones) and other cells in the retina. The test typically involves presenting different levels of flashes of light to the eye while the electrical responses are recorded.
The resulting ERG waveform provides information about the overall health and function of the retina, including the condition of the photoreceptors, the integrity of the inner retinal layers, and the health of the retinal ganglion cells. This test is often used to diagnose and monitor various retinal disorders, such as retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy.
"Fundus Oculi" is a medical term that refers to the back part of the interior of the eye, including the optic disc, macula, fovea, retinal vasculature, and peripheral retina. It is the area where light is focused and then transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve, forming visual images. Examinations of the fundus oculi are crucial for detecting various eye conditions such as diabetic retinopathy, macular degeneration, glaucoma, and other retinal diseases. The examination is typically performed using an ophthalmoscope or a specialized camera called a retinal camera.
The X chromosome is one of the two types of sex-determining chromosomes in humans (the other being the Y chromosome). It's one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes that make up a person's genetic material. Females typically have two copies of the X chromosome (XX), while males usually have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
The X chromosome contains hundreds of genes that are responsible for the production of various proteins, many of which are essential for normal bodily functions. Some of the critical roles of the X chromosome include:
1. Sex Determination: The presence or absence of the Y chromosome determines whether an individual is male or female. If there is no Y chromosome, the individual will typically develop as a female.
2. Genetic Disorders: Since females have two copies of the X chromosome, they are less likely to be affected by X-linked genetic disorders than males. Males, having only one X chromosome, will express any recessive X-linked traits they inherit.
3. Dosage Compensation: To compensate for the difference in gene dosage between males and females, a process called X-inactivation occurs during female embryonic development. One of the two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated in each cell, resulting in a single functional copy per cell.
The X chromosome plays a crucial role in human genetics and development, contributing to various traits and characteristics, including sex determination and dosage compensation.
Retinal degeneration is a broad term that refers to the progressive loss of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina, which are responsible for converting light into electrical signals that are sent to the brain. This process can lead to vision loss or blindness. There are many different types of retinal degeneration, including age-related macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, and Stargardt's disease, among others. These conditions can have varying causes, such as genetic mutations, environmental factors, or a combination of both. Treatment options vary depending on the specific type and progression of the condition.
Retinal diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue located at the back of the eye. The retina is responsible for converting light into electrical signals that are sent to the brain and interpreted as visual images. Retinal diseases can cause vision loss or even blindness, depending on their severity and location in the retina.
Some common retinal diseases include:
1. Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): A progressive disease that affects the central part of the retina called the macula, causing blurred or distorted vision.
2. Diabetic retinopathy: A complication of diabetes that can damage the blood vessels in the retina, leading to vision loss.
3. Retinal detachment: A serious condition where the retina becomes separated from its underlying tissue, requiring immediate medical attention.
4. Macular edema: Swelling or thickening of the macula due to fluid accumulation, which can cause blurred vision.
5. Retinitis pigmentosa: A group of inherited eye disorders that affect the retina's ability to respond to light, causing progressive vision loss.
6. Macular hole: A small break in the macula that can cause distorted or blurry vision.
7. Retinal vein occlusion: Blockage of the retinal veins that can lead to bleeding, swelling, and potential vision loss.
Treatment for retinal diseases varies depending on the specific condition and its severity. Some treatments include medication, laser therapy, surgery, or a combination of these options. Regular eye exams are essential for early detection and treatment of retinal diseases.
X-linked genetic diseases refer to a group of disorders caused by mutations in genes located on the X chromosome. These conditions primarily affect males since they have only one X chromosome and therefore don't have a second normal copy of the gene to compensate for the mutated one. Females, who have two X chromosomes, are typically less affected because they usually have one normal copy of the gene on their other X chromosome.
Examples of X-linked genetic diseases include Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy, hemophilia A and B, color blindness, and fragile X syndrome. Symptoms and severity can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the nature of the genetic mutation involved. Treatment options depend on the particular disease but may include physical therapy, medication, or in some cases, gene therapy.
A retinal perforation is a full-thickness break or hole in the retina, which is the light-sensitive tissue that lines the inner surface of the eye. This condition can lead to a serious complication called retinal detachment, where the retina separates from the underlying tissue, potentially resulting in vision loss if not promptly treated. Retinal perforations may be caused by trauma, certain eye conditions, or invasive eye procedures. Immediate medical attention is required for retinal perforations to prevent further damage and preserve vision.
Retinal detachment is a serious eye condition that occurs when the retina, a thin layer of tissue at the back of the eye responsible for processing light and sending visual signals to the brain, pulls away from its normal position. This can lead to significant vision loss or even blindness if not promptly treated. Retinal detachment can be caused by various factors such as aging, trauma, eye disease, or an inflammatory condition. Symptoms of retinal detachment may include sudden flashes of light, floaters, a shadow in the peripheral vision, or a curtain-like covering over part of the visual field. Immediate medical attention is necessary to prevent further damage and preserve vision.
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive imaging technique that uses low-coherence light to capture high-resolution cross-sectional images of biological tissues, particularly the retina and other ocular structures. OCT works by measuring the echo time delay of light scattered back from different depths within the tissue, creating a detailed map of the tissue's structure. This technique is widely used in ophthalmology to diagnose and monitor various eye conditions such as macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and glaucoma.
Hereditary eye diseases refer to conditions that affect the eyes and are passed down from parents to their offspring through genetics. These diseases are caused by mutations or changes in an individual's DNA that are inherited from their parents. The mutations can occur in any of the genes associated with eye development, function, or health.
There are many different types of hereditary eye diseases, some of which include:
1. Retinitis Pigmentosa - a group of rare, genetic disorders that involve a breakdown and loss of cells in the retina.
2. Macular Degeneration - a progressive disease that damages the central portion of the retina, impairing vision.
3. Glaucoma - a group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, often caused by an increase in pressure inside the eye.
4. Cataracts - clouding of the lens inside the eye, which can lead to blurry vision and blindness.
5. Keratoconus - a progressive eye disease that causes the cornea to thin and bulge outward into a cone shape.
6. Color Blindness - a condition where an individual has difficulty distinguishing between certain colors.
7. Optic Neuropathy - damage to the optic nerve, which can result in vision loss.
The symptoms and severity of hereditary eye diseases can vary widely depending on the specific condition and the individual's genetic makeup. Some conditions may be present at birth or develop in early childhood, while others may not appear until later in life. Treatment options for these conditions may include medication, surgery, or lifestyle changes, and are often most effective when started early.
A Vitreous Hemorrhage is a medical condition where there is bleeding into the vitreous cavity of the eye. The vitreous cavity is the space in the eye that is filled with a clear, gel-like substance called the vitreous humor. This substance helps to maintain the shape of the eye and transmit light to the retina.
When a vitreous hemorrhage occurs, blood cells from the bleeding mix with the vitreous humor, causing it to become cloudy or hazy. As a result, vision can become significantly impaired, ranging from mildly blurry to complete loss of vision depending on the severity of the bleed.
Vitreous hemorrhages can occur due to various reasons such as trauma, retinal tears or detachments, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, and other eye conditions that affect the blood vessels in the eye. Treatment for vitreous hemorrhage depends on the underlying cause and may include observation, laser surgery, or vitrectomy (a surgical procedure to remove the vitreous humor and stop the bleeding).
X-linked genes are those genes that are located on the X chromosome. In humans, females have two copies of the X chromosome (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY). This means that males have only one copy of each X-linked gene, whereas females have two copies.
X-linked genes are important in medical genetics because they can cause different patterns of inheritance and disease expression between males and females. For example, if a mutation occurs in an X-linked gene, it is more likely to affect males than females because males only have one copy of the gene. This means that even a single mutated copy of the gene can cause the disease in males, while females may be carriers of the mutation and not show any symptoms due to their second normal copy of the gene.
X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males than females because they only have one X chromosome. Examples of X-linked recessive disorders include Duchenne muscular dystrophy, hemophilia, and color blindness. In contrast, X-linked dominant disorders can affect both males and females, but females may have milder symptoms due to their second normal copy of the gene. Examples of X-linked dominant disorders include Rett syndrome and incontinentia pigmenti.
The fovea centralis, also known as the macula lutea, is a small pit or depression located in the center of the retina, an light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. It is responsible for sharp, detailed vision (central vision) and color perception. The fovea contains only cones, the photoreceptor cells that are responsible for color vision and high visual acuity. It has a higher concentration of cones than any other area in the retina, allowing it to provide the greatest detail and color discrimination. The center of the fovea is called the foveola, which contains the highest density of cones and is avascular, meaning it lacks blood vessels to avoid interfering with the light passing through to the photoreceptor cells.
Photoreceptor cells in vertebrates are specialized types of neurons located in the retina of the eye that are responsible for converting light stimuli into electrical signals. These cells are primarily responsible for the initial process of vision and have two main types: rods and cones.
Rods are more numerous and are responsible for low-light vision or scotopic vision, enabling us to see in dimly lit conditions. They do not contribute to color vision but provide information about the shape and movement of objects.
Cones, on the other hand, are less numerous and are responsible for color vision and high-acuity vision or photopic vision. There are three types of cones, each sensitive to different wavelengths of light: short (S), medium (M), and long (L) wavelengths, which correspond to blue, green, and red, respectively. The combination of signals from these three types of cones allows us to perceive a wide range of colors.
Both rods and cones contain photopigments that consist of a protein called opsin and a light-sensitive chromophore called retinal. When light hits the photopigment, it triggers a series of chemical reactions that ultimately lead to the generation of an electrical signal that is transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. This process enables us to see and perceive our visual world.
The retina is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of tissue in the eye of many vertebrates and some cephalopods. It receives light that has been focused by the cornea and lens, converts it into neural signals, and sends these to the brain via the optic nerve. The retina contains several types of photoreceptor cells including rods (which handle vision in low light) and cones (which are active in bright light and are capable of color vision).
In medical terms, any pathological changes or diseases affecting the retinal structure and function can lead to visual impairment or blindness. Examples include age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment, and retinitis pigmentosa among others.
Genetic linkage is the phenomenon where two or more genetic loci (locations on a chromosome) tend to be inherited together because they are close to each other on the same chromosome. This occurs during the process of sexual reproduction, where homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through a process called crossing over.
The closer two loci are to each other on a chromosome, the lower the probability that they will be separated by a crossover event. As a result, they are more likely to be inherited together and are said to be linked. The degree of linkage between two loci can be measured by their recombination frequency, which is the percentage of meiotic events in which a crossover occurs between them.
Linkage analysis is an important tool in genetic research, as it allows researchers to identify and map genes that are associated with specific traits or diseases. By analyzing patterns of linkage between markers (identifiable DNA sequences) and phenotypes (observable traits), researchers can infer the location of genes that contribute to those traits or diseases on chromosomes.
The macula lutea, often simply referred to as the macula or fovea centralis, is a part of the eye that is responsible for central vision and color perception. It's located in the center of the retina, the light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye. The macula contains a high concentration of pigments called xanthophylls, which give it a yellowish color and protect the photoreceptor cells in this area from damage by blue light.
The central part of the macula is called the fovea, which is a small depression that contains only cones, the photoreceptor cells responsible for color vision and high visual acuity. The fovea is surrounded by the parafovea and the perifovea, which contain both cones and rods, the photoreceptor cells responsible for low-light vision and peripheral vision.
Damage to the macula can result in a loss of central vision and color perception, a condition known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which is a leading cause of blindness in older adults. Other conditions that can affect the macula include macular edema, macular holes, and macular pucker.
I must clarify that the term "pedigree" is not typically used in medical definitions. Instead, it is often employed in genetics and breeding, where it refers to the recorded ancestry of an individual or a family, tracing the inheritance of specific traits or diseases. In human genetics, a pedigree can help illustrate the pattern of genetic inheritance in families over multiple generations. However, it is not a medical term with a specific clinical definition.
Sex chromosome aberrations refer to structural and numerical abnormalities in the sex chromosomes, which are typically represented as X and Y chromosomes in humans. These aberrations can result in variations in the number of sex chromosomes, such as Klinefelter syndrome (47,XXY), Turner syndrome (45,X), and Jacobs/XYY syndrome (47,XYY). They can also include structural changes, such as deletions, duplications, or translocations of sex chromosome material.
Sex chromosome aberrations may lead to a range of phenotypic effects, including differences in physical characteristics, cognitive development, fertility, and susceptibility to certain health conditions. The manifestation and severity of these impacts can vary widely depending on the specific type and extent of the aberration, as well as individual genetic factors and environmental influences.
It is important to note that while sex chromosome aberrations may pose challenges and require medical management, they do not inherently define or limit a person's potential, identity, or worth. Comprehensive care, support, and education can help individuals with sex chromosome aberrations lead fulfilling lives and reach their full potential.
Heterozygote detection is a method used in genetics to identify individuals who carry one normal and one mutated copy of a gene. These individuals are known as heterozygotes and they do not typically show symptoms of the genetic disorder associated with the mutation, but they can pass the mutated gene on to their offspring, who may then be affected.
Heterozygote detection is often used in genetic counseling and screening programs for recessive disorders such as cystic fibrosis or sickle cell anemia. By identifying heterozygotes, individuals can be informed of their carrier status and the potential risks to their offspring. This information can help them make informed decisions about family planning and reproductive options.
Various methods can be used for heterozygote detection, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based tests, DNA sequencing, and genetic linkage analysis. The choice of method depends on the specific gene or mutation being tested, as well as the availability and cost of the testing technology.
An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work containing articles on various topics, usually arranged in alphabetical order. In the context of medicine, a medical encyclopedia is a collection of articles that provide information about a wide range of medical topics, including diseases and conditions, treatments, tests, procedures, and anatomy and physiology. Medical encyclopedias may be published in print or electronic formats and are often used as a starting point for researching medical topics. They can provide reliable and accurate information on medical subjects, making them useful resources for healthcare professionals, students, and patients alike. Some well-known examples of medical encyclopedias include the Merck Manual and the Stedman's Medical Dictionary.