Conditions characterized by disturbances of usual sleep patterns or behaviors. Sleep disorders may be divided into three major categories: DYSSOMNIAS (i.e. disorders characterized by insomnia or hypersomnia), PARASOMNIAS (abnormal sleep behaviors), and sleep disorders secondary to medical or psychiatric disorders. (From Thorpy, Sleep Disorders Medicine, 1994, p187)
A readily reversible suspension of sensorimotor interaction with the environment, usually associated with recumbency and immobility.
Dyssomnias associated with disruption of the normal 24 hour sleep wake cycle secondary to travel (e.g., JET LAG SYNDROME), shift work, or other causes.
A stage of sleep characterized by rapid movements of the eye and low voltage fast pattern EEG. It is usually associated with dreaming.
Movements or behaviors associated with sleep, sleep stages, or partial arousals from sleep that may impair sleep maintenance. Parasomnias are generally divided into four groups: arousal disorders, sleep-wake transition disorders, parasomnias of REM sleep, and nonspecific parasomnias. (From Thorpy, Sleep Disorders Medicine, 1994, p191)
A condition characterized by recurrent episodes of daytime somnolence and lapses in consciousness (microsomnias) that may be associated with automatic behaviors and AMNESIA. CATAPLEXY; SLEEP PARALYSIS, and hypnagogic HALLUCINATIONS frequently accompany narcolepsy. The pathophysiology of this disorder includes sleep-onset rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, which normally follows stage III or IV sleep. (From Neurology 1998 Feb;50(2 Suppl 1):S2-S7)
Disorders characterized by impairment of the ability to initiate or maintain sleep. This may occur as a primary disorder or in association with another medical or psychiatric condition.
Dyssomnias (i.e., insomnias or hypersomnias) associated with dysfunction of internal sleep mechanisms or secondary to a sleep-related medical disorder (e.g., sleep apnea, post-traumatic sleep disorders, etc.). (From Thorpy, Sleep Disorders Medicine, 1994, p187)
Simultaneous and continuous monitoring of several parameters during sleep to study normal and abnormal sleep. The study includes monitoring of brain waves, to assess sleep stages, and other physiological variables such as breathing, eye movements, and blood oxygen levels which exhibit a disrupted pattern with sleep disturbances.
A disorder characterized by recurrent apneas during sleep despite persistent respiratory efforts. It is due to upper airway obstruction. The respiratory pauses may induce HYPERCAPNIA or HYPOXIA. Cardiac arrhythmias and elevation of systemic and pulmonary arterial pressures may occur. Frequent partial arousals occur throughout sleep, resulting in relative SLEEP DEPRIVATION and daytime tiredness. Associated conditions include OBESITY; ACROMEGALY; MYXEDEMA; micrognathia; MYOTONIC DYSTROPHY; adenotonsilar dystrophy; and NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASES. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p395)
Disorders characterized by multiple cessations of respirations during sleep that induce partial arousals and interfere with the maintenance of sleep. Sleep apnea syndromes are divided into central (see SLEEP APNEA, CENTRAL), obstructive (see SLEEP APNEA, OBSTRUCTIVE), and mixed central-obstructive types.
Excessive periodic leg movements during sleep that cause micro-arousals and interfere with the maintenance of sleep. This condition induces a state of relative sleep deprivation which manifests as excessive daytime hypersomnolence. The movements are characterized by repetitive contractions of the tibialis anterior muscle, extension of the toe, and intermittent flexion of the hip, knee and ankle. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p387)
Disorders characterized by hypersomnolence during normal waking hours that may impair cognitive functioning. Subtypes include primary hypersomnia disorders (e.g., IDIOPATHIC HYPERSOMNOLENCE; NARCOLEPSY; and KLEINE-LEVIN SYNDROME) and secondary hypersomnia disorders where excessive somnolence can be attributed to a known cause (e.g., drug affect, MENTAL DISORDERS, and SLEEP APNEA SYNDROME). (From J Neurol Sci 1998 Jan 8;153(2):192-202; Thorpy, Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 2nd ed, p320)
A disorder characterized by aching or burning sensations in the lower and rarely the upper extremities that occur prior to sleep or may awaken the patient from sleep.
A state in which there is an enhanced potential for sensitivity and an efficient responsiveness to external stimuli.
A parasomnia characterized by a partial arousal that occurs during stage IV of non-REM sleep. Affected individuals exhibit semipurposeful behaviors such as ambulation and are difficult to fully awaken. Children are primarily affected, with a peak age range of 4-6 years.
Disruptions of the rhythmic cycle of bodily functions or activities.
A chronobiologic disorder resulting from rapid travel across a number of time zones, characterized by insomnia or hypersomnolence, fatigue, behavioral symptoms, headaches, and gastrointestinal disturbances. (From Cooper, Sleep, 1994, pp593-8)
Periods of sleep manifested by changes in EEG activity and certain behavioral correlates; includes Stage 1: sleep onset, drowsy sleep; Stage 2: light sleep; Stages 3 and 4: delta sleep, light sleep, deep sleep, telencephalic sleep.
A biogenic amine that is found in animals and plants. In mammals, melatonin is produced by the PINEAL GLAND. Its secretion increases in darkness and decreases during exposure to light. Melatonin is implicated in the regulation of SLEEP, mood, and REPRODUCTION. Melatonin is also an effective antioxidant.
The regular recurrence, in cycles of about 24 hours, of biological processes or activities, such as sensitivity to drugs and stimuli, hormone secretion, sleeping, and feeding.
A condition characterized by transient weakness or paralysis of somatic musculature triggered by an emotional stimulus or physical exertion. Cataplexy is frequently associated with NARCOLEPSY. During a cataplectic attack, there is a marked reduction in muscle tone similar to the normal physiologic hypotonia that accompanies rapid eye movement sleep (SLEEP, REM). (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p396)
A disorder characterized by episodes of vigorous and often violent motor activity during REM sleep (SLEEP, REM). The affected individual may inflict self injury or harm others, and is difficult to awaken from this condition. Episodes are usually followed by a vivid recollection of a dream that is consistent with the aggressive behavior. This condition primarily affects adult males. (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p393)
A medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of SLEEP WAKE DISORDERS and their causes.
A sleep disorder characterized by grinding and clenching of the teeth and forceful lateral or protrusive jaw movements. Sleep bruxism may be associated with TOOTH INJURIES; TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT DISORDERS; sleep disturbances; and other conditions.
A broad category of sleep disorders characterized by either hypersomnolence or insomnia. The three major subcategories include intrinsic (i.e., arising from within the body) (SLEEP DISORDERS, INTRINSIC), extrinsic (secondary to environmental conditions or various pathologic conditions), and disturbances of circadian rhythm. (From Thorpy, Sleep Disorders Medicine, 1994, p187)
Psychiatric illness or diseases manifested by breakdowns in the adaptational process expressed primarily as abnormalities of thought, feeling, and behavior producing either distress or impairment of function.
Cortical vigilance or readiness of tone, presumed to be in response to sensory stimulation via the reticular activating system.
A major affective disorder marked by severe mood swings (manic or major depressive episodes) and a tendency to remission and recurrence.
Rough, noisy breathing during sleep, due to vibration of the uvula and soft palate.
Recording of electric currents developed in the brain by means of electrodes applied to the scalp, to the surface of the brain, or placed within the substance of the brain.
A psychological test consisting of nine geometric designs on cards. The subject is asked to redraw them from memory after each one is presented individually.
The measurement and recording of MOTOR ACTIVITY to assess rest/activity cycles.
Treatment of disease by exposure to light, especially by variously concentrated light rays or specific wavelengths.
Predetermined sets of questions used to collect data - clinical data, social status, occupational group, etc. The term is often applied to a self-completed survey instrument.
A sleep disorder of central nervous system origin characterized by prolonged nocturnal sleep and periods of daytime drowsiness. Affected individuals experience difficulty with awakening in the morning and may have associated sleep drunkenness, automatic behaviors, and memory disturbances. This condition differs from narcolepsy in that daytime sleep periods are longer, there is no association with CATAPLEXY, and the multiple sleep latency onset test does not record sleep-onset rapid eye movement sleep. (From Chokroverty, Sleep Disorders Medicine, 1994, pp319-20; Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998 Apr:52(2):125-129)
Sleep disorders characterized by impaired arousal from the deeper stages of sleep (generally stage III or IV sleep).
A disorder characterized by incomplete arousals from sleep associated with behavior suggesting extreme fright. This condition primarily affects children and young adults and the individual generally has no recall of the event. Episodes tend to occur during stage III or IV. SOMNAMBULISM is frequently associated with this condition. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p391)
Levels within a diagnostic group which are established by various measurement criteria applied to the seriousness of a patient's disorder.
Persistent and disabling ANXIETY.
Those disorders that have a disturbance in mood as their predominant feature.
Drugs used to induce drowsiness or sleep or to reduce psychological excitement or anxiety.
The presence of co-existing or additional diseases with reference to an initial diagnosis or with reference to the index condition that is the subject of study. Comorbidity may affect the ability of affected individuals to function and also their survival; it may be used as a prognostic indicator for length of hospital stay, cost factors, and outcome or survival.
Frequent URINATION at night that interrupts sleep. It is often associated with outflow obstruction, DIABETES MELLITUS, or bladder inflammation (CYSTITIS).
The state of being deprived of sleep under experimental conditions, due to life events, or from a wide variety of pathophysiologic causes such as medication effect, chronic illness, psychiatric illness, or sleep disorder.
Recording of the average amplitude of the resting potential arising between the cornea and the retina in light and dark adaptation as the eyes turn a standard distance to the right and the left. The increase in potential with light adaptation is used to evaluate the condition of the retinal pigment epithelium.
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
The state of weariness following a period of exertion, mental or physical, characterized by a decreased capacity for work and reduced efficiency to respond to stimuli.
A series of thoughts, images, or emotions occurring during sleep which are dissociated from the usual stream of consciousness of the waking state.
A common condition characterized by transient partial or total paralysis of skeletal muscles and areflexia that occurs upon awakening from sleep or less often while falling asleep. Stimuli such as touch or sound may terminate the episode, which usually has a duration of seconds to minutes. This condition may occur in normal subjects or be associated with NARCOLEPSY; CATAPLEXY; and hypnagogic HALLUCINATIONS. The pathophysiology of this condition is closely related to the normal hypotonia that occur during REM sleep. (From Adv Neurol 1995;67:245-271)
A rare condition characterized by recurrent hypersomnias associated with hyperphagia, occurring primarily in males in the second to third decade of life. Clinical features include mental confusion, excessive sleep requirements (approximately 18 hours per day), restlessness, and in some cases hallucinations. Episodes have a duration of days to weeks, and may recur several times per year. This condition may resolve spontaneously over several years. (From Adams, et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p569)
A disorder characterized by grinding and clenching of the teeth.
Categorical classification of MENTAL DISORDERS based on criteria sets with defining features. It is produced by the American Psychiatric Association. (DSM-IV, page xxii)
An affective disorder manifested by either a dysphoric mood or loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. The mood disturbance is prominent and relatively persistent.
An abnormally disproportionate increase in the sensation of loudness in response to auditory stimuli of normal volume. COCHLEAR DISEASES; VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE DISEASES; FACIAL NERVE DISEASES; STAPES SURGERY; and other disorders may be associated with this condition.
A technique of respiratory therapy, in either spontaneously breathing or mechanically ventilated patients, in which airway pressure is maintained above atmospheric pressure throughout the respiratory cycle by pressurization of the ventilatory circuit. (On-Line Medical Dictionary [Internet]. Newcastle upon Tyne(UK): The University Dept. of Medical Oncology: The CancerWEB Project; c1997-2003 [cited 2003 Apr 17]. Available from: http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/)
Acquired or learned responses which are regularly manifested.
G-protein-coupled NEUROPEPTIDE RECEPTORS that have specificity for OREXINS and play a role in appetite control, and sleep-wake cycles. Two principle receptor types exist, each having a specificity for OREXIN A and OREXIN B peptide subtypes.
Studies in which the presence or absence of disease or other health-related variables are determined in each member of the study population or in a representative sample at one particular time. This contrasts with LONGITUDINAL STUDIES which are followed over a period of time.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
Marked depression appearing in the involution period and characterized by hallucinations, delusions, paranoia, and agitation.
A barbiturate that is used as a sedative. Secobarbital is reported to have no anti-anxiety activity.
Depressive states usually of moderate intensity in contrast with major depression present in neurotic and psychotic disorders.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Peptides released by NEURONS as intercellular messengers. Many neuropeptides are also hormones released by non-neuronal cells.
A behavior disorder originating in childhood in which the essential features are signs of developmentally inappropriate inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Although most individuals have symptoms of both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity, one or the other pattern may be predominant. The disorder is more frequent in males than females. Onset is in childhood. Symptoms often attenuate during late adolescence although a minority experience the full complement of symptoms into mid-adulthood. (From DSM-V)
Technique for measuring air pressure and the rate of airflow in the nasal cavity during respiration.
Hospital units in which care is provided the hemodialysis patient. This includes hemodialysis centers in hospitals.
Moving a retruded mandible forward to a normal position. It is commonly performed for malocclusion and retrognathia. (From Jablonski's Dictionary of Dentistry, 1992)
A serotonin uptake inhibitor that is used as an antidepressive agent. It has been shown to be effective in patients with major depressive disorders and other subsets of depressive disorders. It is generally more useful in depressive disorders associated with insomnia and anxiety. This drug does not aggravate psychotic symptoms in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorders. (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1994, p309)
Cell surface receptors that bind specific neuropeptides with high affinity and trigger intracellular changes influencing the behavior of cells. Many neuropeptides are also hormones outside of the nervous system.
A histamine H1 receptor antagonist that is effective in the treatment of chronic urticaria, dermatitis, and histamine-mediated pruritus. Unlike its major metabolite CETIRIZINE, it does cause drowsiness. It is also effective as an antiemetic, for relief of anxiety and tension, and as a sedative.
The branch of psychology concerned with psychological methods of recognizing and treating behavior disorders.
A condition associated with multiple episodes of sleep apnea which are distinguished from obstructive sleep apnea (SLEEP APNEA, OBSTRUCTIVE) by the complete cessation of efforts to breathe. This disorder is associated with dysfunction of central nervous system centers that regulate respiration.
Recording of the changes in electric potential of muscle by means of surface or needle electrodes.
A generic concept reflecting concern with the modification and enhancement of life attributes, e.g., physical, political, moral and social environment; the overall condition of a human life.
Standardized procedures utilizing rating scales or interview schedules carried out by health personnel for evaluating the degree of mental illness.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
Disturbances in mental processes related to learning, thinking, reasoning, and judgment.
A statistical technique that isolates and assesses the contributions of categorical independent variables to variation in the mean of a continuous dependent variable.
Surgical removal of a tonsil or tonsils. (Dorland, 28th ed)
A class of traumatic stress disorders with symptoms that last more than one month. There are various forms of post-traumatic stress disorder, depending on the time of onset and the duration of these stress symptoms. In the acute form, the duration of the symptoms is between 1 to 3 months. In the chronic form, symptoms last more than 3 months. With delayed onset, symptoms develop more than 6 months after the traumatic event.
A loosely defined group of drugs that tend to increase behavioral alertness, agitation, or excitation. They work by a variety of mechanisms, but usually not by direct excitation of neurons. The many drugs that have such actions as side effects to their main therapeutic use are not included here.
Involuntary discharge of URINE after expected age of completed development of urinary control. This can happen during the daytime (DIURNAL ENURESIS) while one is awake or during sleep (NOCTURNAL ENURESIS). Enuresis can be in children or in adults (as persistent primary enuresis and secondary adult-onset enuresis).
A progressive, degenerative neurologic disease characterized by a TREMOR that is maximal at rest, retropulsion (i.e. a tendency to fall backwards), rigidity, stooped posture, slowness of voluntary movements, and a masklike facial expression. Pathologic features include loss of melanin containing neurons in the substantia nigra and other pigmented nuclei of the brainstem. LEWY BODIES are present in the substantia nigra and locus coeruleus but may also be found in a related condition (LEWY BODY DISEASE, DIFFUSE) characterized by dementia in combination with varying degrees of parkinsonism. (Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p1059, pp1067-75)
A disorder beginning in childhood. It is marked by the presence of markedly abnormal or impaired development in social interaction and communication and a markedly restricted repertoire of activity and interest. Manifestations of the disorder vary greatly depending on the developmental level and chronological age of the individual. (DSM-V)
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, persistent obsessions or compulsions. Obsessions are the intrusive ideas, thoughts, or images that are experienced as senseless or repugnant. Compulsions are repetitive and seemingly purposeful behavior which the individual generally recognizes as senseless and from which the individual does not derive pleasure although it may provide a release from tension.
Bicyclic bridged compounds that contain a nitrogen which has three bonds. The nomenclature indicates the number of atoms in each path around the rings, such as [2.2.2] for three equal length paths. Some members are TROPANES and BETA LACTAMS.
The part of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM that is contained within the skull (CRANIUM). Arising from the NEURAL TUBE, the embryonic brain is comprised of three major parts including PROSENCEPHALON (the forebrain); MESENCEPHALON (the midbrain); and RHOMBENCEPHALON (the hindbrain). The developed brain consists of CEREBRUM; CEREBELLUM; and other structures in the BRAIN STEM.
Severe distortions in the development of many basic psychological functions that are not normal for any stage in development. These distortions are manifested in sustained social impairment, speech abnormalities, and peculiar motor movements.
Disorders related to substance abuse.
Anxiety disorders in which the essential feature is persistent and irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation that the individual feels compelled to avoid. The individual recognizes the fear as excessive or unreasonable.
Disorders in which there is a loss of ego boundaries or a gross impairment in reality testing with delusions or prominent hallucinations. (From DSM-IV, 1994)
The effect of environmental or physiological factors on the driver and driving ability. Included are driving fatigue, and the effect of drugs, disease, and physical disabilities on driving.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
An indicator of body density as determined by the relationship of BODY WEIGHT to BODY HEIGHT. BMI=weight (kg)/height squared (m2). BMI correlates with body fat (ADIPOSE TISSUE). Their relationship varies with age and gender. For adults, BMI falls into these categories: below 18.5 (underweight); 18.5-24.9 (normal); 25.0-29.9 (overweight); 30.0 and above (obese). (National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Physiological or psychological effects of periods of work which may be fixed or flexible such as flexitime, work shifts, and rotating shifts.
Feeling or emotion of dread, apprehension, and impending disaster but not disabling as with ANXIETY DISORDERS.
Maleness or femaleness as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from SEX CHARACTERISTICS, anatomical or physiological manifestations of sex, and from SEX DISTRIBUTION, the number of males and females in given circumstances.
Tests designed to assess neurological function associated with certain behaviors. They are used in diagnosing brain dysfunction or damage and central nervous system disorders or injury.
Biological mechanism that controls CIRCADIAN RHYTHM. Circadian clocks exist in the simplest form in cyanobacteria and as more complex systems in fungi, plants, and animals. In humans the system includes photoresponsive RETINAL GANGLION CELLS and the SUPRACHIASMATIC NUCLEUS that acts as the central oscillator.
A melatonin receptor subtype primarily found expressed in the BRAIN and RETINA.
Brain waves seen on EEG characterized by a high amplitude and a frequency of 4 Hz and below. They are considered the "deep sleep waves" observed during sleep in dreamless states, infancy, and in some brain disorders.
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
A systematic collection of factual data pertaining to health and disease in a human population within a given geographic area.
The symptom of PAIN in the cranial region. It may be an isolated benign occurrence or manifestation of a wide variety of HEADACHE DISORDERS.
The number of males and females in a given population. The distribution may refer to how many men or women or what proportion of either in the group. The population is usually patients with a specific disease but the concept is not restricted to humans and is not restricted to medicine.
The frequency of different ages or age groups in a given population. The distribution may refer to either how many or what proportion of the group. The population is usually patients with a specific disease but the concept is not restricted to humans and is not restricted to medicine.
A repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated. These behaviors include aggressive conduct that causes or threatens physical harm to other people or animals, nonaggressive conduct that causes property loss or damage, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violations of rules. The onset is before age 18. (From DSM-IV, 1994)
Compounds which contain the methyl radical substituted with two benzene rings. Permitted are any substituents, but ring fusion to any of the benzene rings is not allowed.
A method of mechanical ventilation in which pressure is maintained to increase the volume of gas remaining in the lungs at the end of expiration, thus reducing the shunting of blood through the lungs and improving gas exchange.
A group of two-ring heterocyclic compounds consisting of a benzene ring fused to a diazepine ring.
Stress wherein emotional factors predominate.
The term "United States" in a medical context often refers to the country where a patient or study participant resides, and is not a medical term per se, but relevant for epidemiological studies, healthcare policies, and understanding differences in disease prevalence, treatment patterns, and health outcomes across various geographic locations.
A transient absence of spontaneous respiration.
Diseases which have one or more of the following characteristics: they are permanent, leave residual disability, are caused by nonreversible pathological alteration, require special training of the patient for rehabilitation, or may be expected to require a long period of supervision, observation, or care. (Dictionary of Health Services Management, 2d ed)
Agents that alleviate ANXIETY, tension, and ANXIETY DISORDERS, promote sedation, and have a calming effect without affecting clarity of consciousness or neurologic conditions. ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS are commonly used in the symptomatic treatment of anxiety but are not included here.
A subspecialty of internal medicine concerned with the study of the RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. It is especially concerned with diagnosis and treatment of diseases and defects of the lungs and bronchial tree.
Studies in which variables relating to an individual or group of individuals are assessed over a period of time.
Disorders characterized by recurrent TICS that may interfere with speech and other activities. Tics are sudden, rapid, nonrhythmic, stereotyped motor movements or vocalizations which may be exacerbated by stress and are generally attenuated during absorbing activities. Tic disorders are distinguished from conditions which feature other types of abnormal movements that may accompany another another condition. (From DSM-IV, 1994)
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
The physiological mechanisms that govern the rhythmic occurrence of certain biochemical, physiological, and behavioral phenomena.
The use of electronic equipment to observe or record physiologic processes while the patient undergoes normal daily activities.
Acquiring information from a patient on past medical conditions and treatments.
Transmembrane proteins that form the beta subunits of the HLA-DQ antigens.
The statistical reproducibility of measurements (often in a clinical context), including the testing of instrumentation or techniques to obtain reproducible results. The concept includes reproducibility of physiological measurements, which may be used to develop rules to assess probability or prognosis, or response to a stimulus; reproducibility of occurrence of a condition; and reproducibility of experimental results.
Proteins and peptides that are involved in SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION within the cell. Included here are peptides and proteins that regulate the activity of TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS and cellular processes in response to signals from CELL SURFACE RECEPTORS. Intracellular signaling peptide and proteins may be part of an enzymatic signaling cascade or act through binding to and modifying the action of other signaling factors.
Statistical models which describe the relationship between a qualitative dependent variable (that is, one which can take only certain discrete values, such as the presence or absence of a disease) and an independent variable. A common application is in epidemiology for estimating an individual's risk (probability of a disease) as a function of a given risk factor.
A nonspecific symptom of hearing disorder characterized by the sensation of buzzing, ringing, clicking, pulsations, and other noises in the ear. Objective tinnitus refers to noises generated from within the ear or adjacent structures that can be heard by other individuals. The term subjective tinnitus is used when the sound is audible only to the affected individual. Tinnitus may occur as a manifestation of COCHLEAR DISEASES; VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR NERVE DISEASES; INTRACRANIAL HYPERTENSION; CRANIOCEREBRAL TRAUMA; and other conditions.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
A class of statistical methods applicable to a large set of probability distributions used to test for correlation, location, independence, etc. In most nonparametric statistical tests, the original scores or observations are replaced by another variable containing less information. An important class of nonparametric tests employs the ordinal properties of the data. Another class of tests uses information about whether an observation is above or below some fixed value such as the median, and a third class is based on the frequency of the occurrence of runs in the data. (From McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed, p1284; Corsini, Concise Encyclopedia of Psychology, 1987, p764-5)
The range or frequency distribution of a measurement in a population (of organisms, organs or things) that has not been selected for the presence of disease or abnormality.
An ovoid densely packed collection of small cells of the anterior hypothalamus lying close to the midline in a shallow impression of the OPTIC CHIASM.
A family of G-protein-coupled receptors that are specific for and mediate the effects of MELATONIN. Activation of melatonin receptors has been associated with decreased intracellular CYCLIC AMP and increased hydrolysis of PHOSPHOINOSITIDES.
A personality disorder marked by a pattern of instability of interpersonal relationships, self-image, and affects, and marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts. (DSM-IV)
Disorders having the presence of physical symptoms that suggest a general medical condition but that are not fully explained by a another medical condition, by the direct effects of a substance, or by another mental disorder. The symptoms must cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning. In contrast to FACTITIOUS DISORDERS and MALINGERING, the physical symptoms are not under voluntary control. (APA, DSM-V)
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
A disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of paroxysmal brain dysfunction due to a sudden, disorderly, and excessive neuronal discharge. Epilepsy classification systems are generally based upon: (1) clinical features of the seizure episodes (e.g., motor seizure), (2) etiology (e.g., post-traumatic), (3) anatomic site of seizure origin (e.g., frontal lobe seizure), (4) tendency to spread to other structures in the brain, and (5) temporal patterns (e.g., nocturnal epilepsy). (From Adams et al., Principles of Neurology, 6th ed, p313)
A status with BODY WEIGHT that is grossly above the acceptable or desirable weight, usually due to accumulation of excess FATS in the body. The standards may vary with age, sex, genetic or cultural background. In the BODY MASS INDEX, a BMI greater than 30.0 kg/m2 is considered obese, and a BMI greater than 40.0 kg/m2 is considered morbidly obese (MORBID OBESITY).
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Brazil" is not a medical term or concept, it is a country located in South America, known officially as the Federative Republic of Brazil. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or science, I'd be happy to help answer those!
The time period of daily exposure that an organism receives from daylight or artificial light. It is believed that photoperiodic responses may affect the control of energy balance and thermoregulation.
A distribution in which a variable is distributed like the sum of the squares of any given independent random variable, each of which has a normal distribution with mean of zero and variance of one. The chi-square test is a statistical test based on comparison of a test statistic to a chi-square distribution. The oldest of these tests are used to detect whether two or more population distributions differ from one another.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Italy" is not a medical term or concept, it's a country located in Southern Europe. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I'd be happy to help with those!
The ratio of two odds. The exposure-odds ratio for case control data is the ratio of the odds in favor of exposure among cases to the odds in favor of exposure among noncases. The disease-odds ratio for a cohort or cross section is the ratio of the odds in favor of disease among the exposed to the odds in favor of disease among the unexposed. The prevalence-odds ratio refers to an odds ratio derived cross-sectionally from studies of prevalent cases.
Accidents on streets, roads, and highways involving drivers, passengers, pedestrians, or vehicles. Traffic accidents refer to AUTOMOBILES (passenger cars, buses, and trucks), BICYCLING, and MOTORCYCLES but not OFF-ROAD MOTOR VEHICLES; RAILROADS nor snowmobiles.
The qualitative or quantitative estimation of the likelihood of adverse effects that may result from exposure to specified health hazards or from the absence of beneficial influences. (Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 1988)
Disorders characterized by proliferation of lymphoid tissue, general or unspecified.
Syndromes which feature DYSKINESIAS as a cardinal manifestation of the disease process. Included in this category are degenerative, hereditary, post-infectious, medication-induced, post-inflammatory, and post-traumatic conditions.
Acute and chronic (see also BRAIN INJURIES, CHRONIC) injuries to the brain, including the cerebral hemispheres, CEREBELLUM, and BRAIN STEM. Clinical manifestations depend on the nature of injury. Diffuse trauma to the brain is frequently associated with DIFFUSE AXONAL INJURY or COMA, POST-TRAUMATIC. Localized injuries may be associated with NEUROBEHAVIORAL MANIFESTATIONS; HEMIPARESIS, or other focal neurologic deficits.
The level of health of the individual, group, or population as subjectively assessed by the individual or by more objective measures.
The physical activity of a human or an animal as a behavioral phenomenon.
A method of studying a drug or procedure in which both the subjects and investigators are kept unaware of who is actually getting which specific treatment.
Neurotic reactions to unusual, severe, or overwhelming military stress.
Disorders related to or resulting from abuse or mis-use of alcohol.
Includes two similar disorders: oppositional defiant disorder and CONDUCT DISORDERS. Symptoms occurring in children with these disorders include: defiance of authority figures, angry outbursts, and other antisocial behaviors.
Therapy for the insufficient cleansing of the BLOOD by the kidneys based on dialysis and including hemodialysis, PERITONEAL DIALYSIS, and HEMODIAFILTRATION.
The gradual irreversible changes in structure and function of an organism that occur as a result of the passage of time.
Procedures for finding the mathematical function which best describes the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. In linear regression (see LINEAR MODELS) the relationship is constrained to be a straight line and LEAST-SQUARES ANALYSIS is used to determine the best fit. In logistic regression (see LOGISTIC MODELS) the dependent variable is qualitative rather than continuously variable and LIKELIHOOD FUNCTIONS are used to find the best relationship. In multiple regression, the dependent variable is considered to depend on more than a single independent variable.
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
Acquired or developmental conditions marked by an impaired ability to comprehend or generate spoken forms of language.
In screening and diagnostic tests, the probability that a person with a positive test is a true positive (i.e., has the disease), is referred to as the predictive value of a positive test; whereas, the predictive value of a negative test is the probability that the person with a negative test does not have the disease. Predictive value is related to the sensitivity and specificity of the test.

Intensive care management of stroke patients. (1/1847)

Two hundred eighty patients were admitted to an intensive care stroke unit over a one-year period. Subsequent investigation indicated that only 199 of these patients actually had cerebral ischemic or hemorrhagic lesions, 10 had other cerebrovascular lesions, and the remaining 71 patients had unrelated diseases, predominantly seizures. Detailed analysis of 103 stroke patients revealed an overall incidence of 59% hypertension, and 72% had hypertensive, ischemic or valvular heart disease. Fifty percent of the patients had various cardiac arrhythmias, some of which were responsible for the acute cerebrovascular lesion. Fourteen patients died during the acute phase, 11 from apparently irreversible cerebral selling, mainly due to cerebral hemorrhage. Secondary complications such as pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, pressure sores and urinary infection were almost nonexistent, but beneficial effects on the primary cerebral lesions were more difficult to demonstrate.  (+info)

Recognizing problem sleepiness in your patients. National Center on Sleep Disorders Research Working Group. (2/1847)

Normal sleep is required for optimal functioning. Normal wakefulness should be effortless and free of unintended sleep episodes. Problem sleepiness is common and occurs when the quantity of sleep is inadequate because of primary sleep disorders, other medical conditions or lifestyle factors. Medications and substances that disturb sleep, such as caffeine and nicotine, or those that have sedating side effects, may also cause problem sleepiness. This condition can lead to impairment in attention, performance problems at work and school, and potentially dangerous situations when the patient is driving or undertaking other safety-sensitive tasks. However, problem sleepiness is generally correctable when it is recognized. Asking a patient and his or her bed partner about the likelihood of drowsiness or of falling asleep during specific activities, as well as questions that uncover factors contributing to the sleepiness, helps the physician to recognize the disorder. Accurate diagnosis of specific sleep disorders may require evaluation by a specialist. The primary care physician is in an ideal position to identify signs and symptoms of problem sleepiness and initiate appropriate care of the patient, including educating the patient about the dangers of functioning while impaired by sleepiness.  (+info)

Health needs of preschool children. (3/1847)

An epidemiological study of disease in a geographically identified population of 250 children is reported. 22% had not seen their general practitioner (GP) at all in the past year, while 20% had seen him four times or more. The vast majority of these visits were because of an infective illness; and developmental and behavioural problems were rarely presented to GPs. 53% of children had not been to hospital since birth, but 11% had been at least four times. Respiratory infections and middle ear disease were the commonest illness reported, and nearly 3% had an infected or discharging ear at the time of examination. 15% of 3 year olds had speech and language problems. 18% of children over 2 years were thought by the examiners to have a behavioural problem, half being assessed as mild, the remainder as moderate or severe.  (+info)

Quality of life four years after acute myocardial infarction: short form 36 scores compared with a normal population. (4/1847)

OBJECTIVES: To assess the impact of myocardial infarction on quality of life in four year survivors compared to data from "community norms", and to determine factors associated with a poor quality of life. DESIGN: Cohort study based on the Nottingham heart attack register. SETTING: Two district general hospitals serving a defined urban/rural population. SUBJECTS: All patients admitted with acute myocardial infarction during 1992 and alive at a median of four years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Short form 36 (SF 36) domain and overall scores. RESULTS: Of 900 patients with an acute myocardial infarction in 1992, there were 476 patients alive and capable of responding to a questionnaire in 1997. The response rate was 424 (89. 1%). Compared to age and sex adjusted normative data, patients aged under 65 years exhibited impairment in all eight domains, the largest differences being in physical functioning (mean difference 20 points), role physical (mean difference 23 points), and general health (mean difference 19 points). In patients over 65 years mean domain scores were similar to community norms. Multiple regression analysis revealed that impaired quality of life was closely associated with inability to return to work through ill health, a need for coronary revascularisation, the use of anxiolytics, hypnotics or inhalers, the need for two or more angina drugs, a frequency of chest pain one or more times per week, and a Rose dyspnoea score of >/= 2. CONCLUSIONS: The SF 36 provides valuable additional information for the practising clinician. Compared to community norms the greatest impact on quality of life is seen in patients of working age. Impaired quality of life was reported by patients unfit for work, those with angina and dyspnoea, patients with coexistent lung disease, and those with anxiety and sleep disturbances. Improving quality of life after myocardial infarction remains a challenge for physicians.  (+info)

A 50-Hz electromagnetic field impairs sleep. (5/1847)

In view of reports of health problems induced by low frequency (50-60 Hz) electromagnetic fields (EMF), we carried out a study in 18 healthy subjects, comparing sleep with and without exposure to a 50 Hz/1 mu Tesla electrical field. We found that the EMF condition was associated with reduced: total sleep time (TST), sleep efficiency, stages 3 + 4 slow wave sleep (SWS), and slow wave activity (SWA). Circulating melatonin, growth hormone, prolactin, testosterone or cortisol were not affected. The results suggest that commonly occurring low frequency electromagnetic fields may interfere with sleep.  (+info)

Influence of clinical and demographic variables on quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease. (6/1847)

OBJECTIVES: To identify the clinical and demographic factors that are associated with a poor quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease. METHODS: 233 of a total of 245 patients identified in a community based study in a Norwegian county participated in the study. Quality of life was measured by the Nottingham Health Profile (NHP). The results were compared with those in 100 healthy elderly people. Clinical and demographic variables were determined during a semistructured interview and by clinical examination by a neurologist. Multiple regression analyses were used to determine which variables were associated with higher distress scores. RESULTS: Patients with Parkinson's disease had higher distress scores than the healthy elderly people for all the NHP dimensions. The variables that most strongly predicted a high total NHP score were depressive symptoms, self reported insomnia, and a low degree of independence, measured by the Schwab and England scale. Severity of parkinsonism contributed, but to a lesser extent. Nearly half the patients with Parkinson's disease reported lack of energy, compared with a fifth of the control group. Severity of depressive symptoms and a higher score on the UPDRS motor subscale only partly accounted for this finding. Only 30% of the variation in NHP energy score was explained by the predictive variables identified in this study. CONCLUSIONS: Parkinson's disease has a substantial impact on health related quality of life. Depressive symptoms and sleep disorders correlated strongly with high distress scores. Patients with Parkinson's disease should be examined for both conditions, which require treatment. Low energy was commonly reported and may be a separate entity of Parkinson's disease.  (+info)

Clinical services for sleep disorders. (7/1847)

Children's sleep disorders are common and often harmful to development and well being. The clinical services available to affected children and their families need to be improved. At present, professional interest and expertise in sleep disorders medicine is severely limited by the paucity of appropriate teaching and training. The work of a mainly tertiary sleep disorders clinic was reviewed, which showed that accurate diagnosis of a wide range of sleep disorders is possible, and that treatment needs can be specified. Although families appreciated such assessment, the outcome was unsatisfactory in many cases, often because treatment recommendations were not implemented by referrers. Reasons for this appear to include poor communication between referrers and families, and unavailability of treatment resources. A three tier system of service provision is proposed to improve this situation, which rests essentially on better professional training in the sleep disorders field.  (+info)

Sleep problems in the elderly. (8/1847)

Refreshing sleep requires both sufficient total sleep time as well as sleep that is in synchrony with the individual's circadian rhythm. Problems with sleep organization in elderly patients typically include difficulty falling asleep, less time spent in the deeper stages of sleep, early-morning awakening and less total sleep time. Poor sleep habits such as irregular sleep-wake times and daytime napping may contribute to insomnia. Caffeine, alcohol and some medications can also interfere with sleep. Primary sleep disorders are more common in the elderly than in younger persons. Restless legs syndrome and periodic limb movement disorder can disrupt sleep and may respond to low doses of antiparkinsonian agents as well as other drugs. Sleep apnea can lead to excessive daytime sleepiness. Evaluation of sleep problems in the elderly includes careful screening for poor sleep habits and other factors that may be contributing to the sleep problem. Formal sleep studies may be needed when a primary sleep disorder is suspected or marked daytime dysfunction is noted. Therapy with a benzodiazepine receptor agonist may be indicated after careful evaluation.  (+info)

Sleep disorders are a group of conditions that affect the ability to sleep well on a regular basis. They can include problems with falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early in the morning. These disorders can be caused by various factors such as stress, anxiety, depression, medical conditions, or substance abuse.

The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) recognizes over 80 distinct sleep disorders, which are categorized into the following major groups:

1. Insomnia - difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
2. Sleep-related breathing disorders - abnormal breathing during sleep such as obstructive sleep apnea.
3. Central disorders of hypersomnolence - excessive daytime sleepiness, including narcolepsy.
4. Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders - disruption of the internal body clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle.
5. Parasomnias - abnormal behaviors during sleep such as sleepwalking or night terrors.
6. Sleep-related movement disorders - repetitive movements during sleep such as restless legs syndrome.
7. Isolated symptoms and normal variants - brief and occasional symptoms that do not warrant a specific diagnosis.

Sleep disorders can have significant impacts on an individual's quality of life, productivity, and overall health. If you suspect that you may have a sleep disorder, it is recommended to consult with a healthcare professional or a sleep specialist for proper evaluation and treatment.

Sleep is a complex physiological process characterized by altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, reduced voluntary muscle activity, and decreased interaction with the environment. It's typically associated with specific stages that can be identified through electroencephalography (EEG) patterns. These stages include rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, associated with dreaming, and non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, which is further divided into three stages.

Sleep serves a variety of functions, including restoration and strengthening of the immune system, support for growth and development in children and adolescents, consolidation of memory, learning, and emotional regulation. The lack of sufficient sleep or poor quality sleep can lead to significant health problems, such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and even cognitive decline.

The American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) defines sleep as "a period of daily recurring natural rest during which consciousness is suspended and metabolic processes are reduced." However, it's important to note that the exact mechanisms and purposes of sleep are still being researched and debated among scientists.

A Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder (CRSD) is a condition in which a person's sleep-wake cycle is out of sync with the typical 24-hour day. This means that their internal "body clock" that regulates sleep and wakefulness does not align with the external environment, leading to difficulties sleeping, staying awake, or functioning at appropriate times.

CRSDs can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetic predisposition, environmental influences, and medical conditions. Some common types of CRSDs include Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS), Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome (ASPS), Non-24-Hour Sleep-Wake Rhythm Disorder, and Shift Work Disorder.

Symptoms of CRSDs may include difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep at the desired time, excessive sleepiness during the day, difficulty concentrating or functioning at work or school, and mood disturbances. Treatment for CRSDs may involve lifestyle changes, such as adjusting sleep schedules or exposure to light at certain times of day, as well as medications or other therapies.

REM sleep, or Rapid Eye Movement sleep, is a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, low muscle tone, and active brain activity. It is one of the two main types of sleep along with non-REM sleep and is marked by vivid dreaming, increased brain metabolism, and altered brain wave patterns. REM sleep is often referred to as "paradoxical sleep" because of the seemingly contradictory nature of its characteristics - an active brain in a state of relaxation. It is thought to play a role in memory consolidation, learning, and mood regulation. A typical night's sleep cycle includes several episodes of REM sleep, with each episode becoming longer as the night progresses.

Parasomnias are a category of sleep disorders that involve unwanted physical events or experiences that occur while falling asleep, sleeping, or waking up. These behaviors can include abnormal movements, talk, emotions, perceptions, or dreams. Parasomnias can be caused by various factors such as stress, alcohol, certain medications, or underlying medical conditions. Some examples of parasomnias are sleepwalking, night terrors, sleep talking, and REM sleep behavior disorder. These disorders can disrupt sleep and cause distress to the individual and their bed partner.

Narcolepsy is a chronic neurological disorder that affects the control of sleep and wakefulness. It's characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), where people experience sudden, uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep during the day. These "sleep attacks" can occur at any time - while working, talking, eating, or even driving.

In addition to EDS, narcolepsy often includes cataplexy, a condition that causes loss of muscle tone, leading to weakness and sometimes collapse, often triggered by strong emotions like laughter or surprise. Other common symptoms are sleep paralysis (a temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up), vivid hallucinations during the transitions between sleep and wakefulness, and fragmented nighttime sleep.

The exact cause of narcolepsy is not fully understood, but it's believed to involve genetic and environmental factors, as well as problems with certain neurotransmitters in the brain, such as hypocretin/orexin, which regulate sleep-wake cycles. Narcolepsy can significantly impact a person's quality of life, making it essential to seek medical attention for proper diagnosis and management.

Sleep initiation and maintenance disorders are a category of sleep disorders that involve difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep throughout the night. This category includes:

1. Insomnia disorder: A persistent difficulty in initiating or maintaining sleep, or early morning awakening, despite adequate opportunity and circumstances for sleep, which causes clinically significant distress or impairment.
2. Narcolepsy: A chronic neurological disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy (sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions), hypnagogic hallucinations (vivid, dream-like experiences that occur while falling asleep) and sleep paralysis (temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up).
3. Breathing-related sleep disorders: A group of disorders that involve abnormal breathing patterns during sleep, such as obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea, which can lead to difficulty initiating and maintaining sleep.
4. Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders: A group of disorders that involve a misalignment between the individual's internal circadian rhythm and the external environment, leading to difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep at desired times.
5. Parasomnias: A group of disorders that involve abnormal behaviors or experiences during sleep, such as sleepwalking, night terrors, and REM sleep behavior disorder, which can disrupt sleep initiation and maintenance.

These disorders can have significant impacts on an individual's quality of life, daytime functioning, and overall health, and should be evaluated and managed by a healthcare professional with expertise in sleep medicine.

Sleep disorders, intrinsic, refer to a group of sleep disorders that are caused by underlying medical conditions within an individual's body. These disorders originate from internal physiological or psychological factors and can significantly impact the quality, duration, and timing of sleep. The most common types of intrinsic sleep disorders include insomnia, sleep-related breathing disorders (such as sleep apnea), central hypersomnias (like narcolepsy), circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders, and parasomnias (including nightmares and sleepwalking).

Intrinsic sleep disorders can lead to various negative consequences, such as excessive daytime sleepiness, impaired cognitive function, reduced quality of life, and increased risk of accidents or injuries. Proper diagnosis and management of these disorders typically involve addressing the underlying medical condition and implementing appropriate treatment strategies, which may include lifestyle modifications, pharmacological interventions, or medical devices.

Polysomnography (PSG) is a comprehensive sleep study that monitors various body functions during sleep, including brain activity, eye movement, muscle tone, heart rate, respirations, and oxygen levels. It is typically conducted in a sleep laboratory under the supervision of a trained technologist. The data collected during PSG is used to diagnose and manage various sleep disorders such as sleep-related breathing disorders (e.g., sleep apnea), movement disorders (e.g., periodic limb movement disorder), parasomnias, and narcolepsy.

The study usually involves the attachment of electrodes to different parts of the body, such as the scalp, face, chest, and legs, to record electrical signals from the brain, eye movements, muscle activity, and heartbeats. Additionally, sensors may be placed on or near the nose and mouth to measure airflow, and a belt may be worn around the chest and abdomen to monitor breathing efforts. Oxygen levels are also monitored through a sensor attached to the finger or ear.

Polysomnography is often recommended when a sleep disorder is suspected based on symptoms or medical history, and other diagnostic tests have been inconclusive. The results of the study can help guide treatment decisions and improve overall sleep health.

Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) is a sleep-related breathing disorder that occurs when the upper airway becomes partially or completely blocked during sleep, leading to pauses in breathing or shallow breaths. These episodes, known as apneas or hypopneas, can last for 10 seconds or longer and may occur multiple times throughout the night, disrupting normal sleep patterns and causing oxygen levels in the blood to drop.

The obstruction in OSA is typically caused by the relaxation of the muscles in the back of the throat during sleep, which allows the soft tissues to collapse and block the airway. This can result in snoring, choking, gasping for air, or awakening from sleep with a start.

Contributing factors to OSA may include obesity, large neck circumference, enlarged tonsils or adenoids, alcohol consumption, smoking, and use of sedatives or muscle relaxants. Untreated OSA can lead to serious health consequences such as high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, diabetes, and cognitive impairment. Treatment options for OSA include lifestyle changes, oral appliances, positive airway pressure therapy, and surgery.

Sleep apnea syndromes refer to a group of disorders characterized by abnormal breathing patterns during sleep. These patterns can result in repeated pauses in breathing (apneas) or shallow breaths (hypopneas), causing interruptions in sleep and decreased oxygen supply to the body. There are three main types of sleep apnea syndromes:

1. Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA): This is the most common form, caused by the collapse or obstruction of the upper airway during sleep, often due to relaxation of the muscles in the throat and tongue.

2. Central Sleep Apnea (CSA): This type is less common and results from the brain's failure to send proper signals to the breathing muscles. It can be associated with conditions such as heart failure, stroke, or certain medications.

3. Complex/Mixed Sleep Apnea: In some cases, a person may experience both obstructive and central sleep apnea symptoms, known as complex or mixed sleep apnea.

Symptoms of sleep apnea syndromes can include loud snoring, excessive daytime sleepiness, fatigue, morning headaches, difficulty concentrating, and mood changes. Diagnosis typically involves a sleep study (polysomnography) to monitor breathing patterns, heart rate, brain activity, and other physiological factors during sleep. Treatment options may include lifestyle modifications, oral appliances, positive airway pressure therapy, or even surgery in severe cases.

Nocturnal Myoclonus Syndrome, also known as Periodic Limb Movement Disorder (PLMD), is a condition characterized by recurring involuntary jerking movements of the limbs during sleep, particularly the legs. These movements typically occur every 20-40 seconds and can last for an hour or more throughout the night. They often disrupt normal sleep patterns, causing insomnia or excessive daytime sleepiness.

The movements are usually jerky, rapid, and rhythmic, involving extension of the big toe and flexion of the ankle, knee, or hip. In some cases, these movements can be so forceful that they cause the person to wake up, although often individuals with this condition may not be aware of their nighttime leg movements.

Nocturnal Myoclonus Syndrome is different from another common sleep disorder called Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS), as RLS primarily causes discomfort or an irresistible urge to move the legs while awake and still, whereas Nocturnal Myoclonus Syndrome involves involuntary movements during sleep. However, up to 80% of people with RLS also have PLMD.

The exact cause of Nocturnal Myoclonus Syndrome is not fully understood, but it may be associated with abnormalities in the brain's regulation of muscle activity during sleep. Certain medications, neurological conditions, and iron deficiency anemia have been linked to an increased risk of developing this disorder. Treatment options include medication, lifestyle changes, and addressing any underlying medical conditions that may contribute to the development or worsening of symptoms.

Disorders of excessive somnolence (DES) are a group of medical conditions characterized by an increased tendency to fall asleep or experience excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS), despite having adequate opportunity and circumstances for sleep. These disorders are typically classified as central disorders of hypersomnolence according to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD-3).

The most common DES is narcolepsy, a chronic neurological disorder caused by the brain's inability to regulate sleep-wake cycles normally. Other DES include idiopathic hypersomnia, Kleine-Levin syndrome, and recurrent hypersomnia. These disorders can significantly impact an individual's daily functioning, quality of life, and overall health.

Narcolepsy is further divided into two types: narcolepsy type 1 (NT1) and narcolepsy type 2 (NT2). NT1 is characterized by the presence of cataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle tone triggered by strong emotions, while NT2 does not include cataplexy. Both types of narcolepsy involve excessive daytime sleepiness, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic/hypnopompic hallucinations, and fragmented nighttime sleep.

Idiopathic hypersomnia is a DES without the presence of REM-related symptoms like cataplexy or sleep paralysis. Individuals with idiopathic hypersomnia experience excessive daytime sleepiness and prolonged nighttime sleep, often lasting 10 to 14 hours, but do not feel refreshed upon waking.

Kleine-Levin syndrome is a rare DES characterized by recurrent episodes of excessive sleepiness, often accompanied by cognitive impairment, altered perception, hyperphagia (excessive eating), and hypersexuality during the episodes. These episodes can last days to weeks and typically occur multiple times per year.

Recurrent hypersomnia is another rare DES with recurring episodes of excessive sleepiness lasting for several days, followed by a period of normal or reduced sleepiness. The episodes are not as predictable or consistent as those seen in Kleine-Levin syndrome.

Treatment for DES typically involves pharmacological interventions to manage symptoms and improve daytime alertness. Modafinil, armodafinil, and traditional stimulants like amphetamine salts are commonly used to treat excessive daytime sleepiness. Additionally, antidepressants may be prescribed to manage REM-related symptoms like cataplexy or sleep paralysis. Non-pharmacological interventions, such as scheduled napping and good sleep hygiene practices, can also help improve symptoms.

Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS) is a neurological disorder characterized by an irresistible urge to move one's body to stop uncomfortable or odd sensations. It most commonly affects the legs. The condition worsens during periods of rest, particularly when lying or sitting.

The symptoms typically include:

1. An uncontrollable need or urge to move the legs to relieve uncomfortable sensations such as crawling, creeping, tingling, pulling, or painful feelings.
2. Symptoms begin or intensify during rest or inactivity.
3. Symptoms are partially or totally relieved by movement, such as walking or stretching, at least as long as the activity continues.
4. Symptoms are worse in the evening or night, often leading to disturbed sleep.

The exact cause of RLS is unknown, but it may be related to abnormalities in the brain's dopamine pathways that control muscle movements. It can also be associated with certain medical conditions like iron deficiency, kidney disease, diabetes, and pregnancy. Treatment often involves addressing any underlying conditions and using medications to manage symptoms.

Wakefulness is a state of consciousness in which an individual is alert and aware of their surroundings. It is characterized by the ability to perceive, process, and respond to stimuli in a purposeful manner. In a medical context, wakefulness is often assessed using measures such as the electroencephalogram (EEG) to evaluate brain activity patterns associated with consciousness.

Wakefulness is regulated by several interconnected neural networks that promote arousal and attention. These networks include the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), which consists of a group of neurons located in the brainstem that project to the thalamus and cerebral cortex, as well as other regions involved in regulating arousal and attention, such as the basal forebrain and hypothalamus.

Disorders of wakefulness can result from various underlying conditions, including neurological disorders, sleep disorders, medication side effects, or other medical conditions that affect brain function. Examples of such disorders include narcolepsy, insomnia, hypersomnia, and various forms of encephalopathy or brain injury.

Somnambulism is defined as a parasomnia, which is a type of sleep disorder, that involves walking or performing other complex behaviors while asleep. It's more commonly known as sleepwalking. During a sleepwalking episode, a person will have their eyes open and may appear to be awake and aware of their surroundings, but they are actually in a state of low consciousness.

Sleepwalking can range from simply sitting up in bed and looking around, to walking around the house, dressing or undressing, or even leaving the house. Episodes usually occur during deep non-REM sleep early in the night and can last from several minutes to an hour.

Although it is more common in children, especially those between the ages of 3 and 7, somnambulism can also affect adults. Factors that may contribute to sleepwalking include stress, fatigue, fever, certain medications, alcohol consumption, and underlying medical or psychiatric conditions such as sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or dissociative states.

Most of the time, somnambulism is not a cause for concern and does not require treatment. However, if sleepwalking leads to potential harm or injury, or if it frequently disrupts sleep, medical advice should be sought to address any underlying conditions and ensure safety measures are in place during sleep.

Chronobiology disorders are a group of conditions that involve disruptions in the body's internal biological clock, which regulates various physiological processes such as sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, and metabolism. These disorders can result in a variety of symptoms, including difficulty sleeping, changes in mood and energy levels, and problems with cognitive function.

Some common examples of chronobiology disorders include:

1. Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome (DSPS): This condition is characterized by a persistent delay in the timing of sleep, so that an individual's preferred bedtime is significantly later than what is considered normal. As a result, they may have difficulty falling asleep and waking up at socially acceptable times.
2. Advanced Sleep Phase Syndrome (ASPS): In this condition, individuals experience an earlier-than-normal timing of sleep, so that they become sleepy and wake up several hours earlier than most people.
3. Non-24-Hour Sleep-Wake Rhythm Disorder: This disorder is characterized by a persistent mismatch between the individual's internal biological clock and the 24-hour day, resulting in irregular sleep-wake patterns that can vary from day to day.
4. Irregular Sleep-Wake Rhythm Disorder: In this condition, individuals experience a lack of consistent sleep-wake patterns, with multiple periods of sleep and wakefulness throughout the 24-hour day.
5. Shift Work Sleep Disorder: This disorder is caused by the disruption of normal sleep-wake patterns due to working irregular hours, such as night shifts or rotating schedules.
6. Jet Lag Disorder: This condition occurs when an individual travels across time zones and experiences a temporary mismatch between their internal biological clock and the new local time.

Treatment for chronobiology disorders may include lifestyle changes, such as adjusting sleep schedules and exposure to light, as well as medications that can help regulate sleep-wake cycles. In some cases, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) may also be helpful in managing these conditions.

Jet Lag Syndrome, also known as Desynchronosis, is a temporary sleep disorder that causes disruption of the body's circadian rhythms (internal biological clock) due to rapid travel across different time zones. The symptoms may include difficulty sleeping or staying asleep, daytime fatigue, decreased alertness, reduced cognitive performance, digestive issues, and general malaise. These symptoms typically resolve within a few days as the body adjusts to the new time zone. Preventative measures and treatments can include gradually adjusting sleep schedules prior to travel, maintaining hydration, exposure to natural light in the destination time zone, and in some cases, melatonin supplements may be recommended.

Sleep stages are distinct patterns of brain activity that occur during sleep, as measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG). They are part of the sleep cycle and are used to describe the different types of sleep that humans go through during a normal night's rest. The sleep cycle includes several repeating stages:

1. Stage 1 (N1): This is the lightest stage of sleep, where you transition from wakefulness to sleep. During this stage, muscle activity and brain waves begin to slow down.
2. Stage 2 (N2): In this stage, your heart rate slows, body temperature decreases, and eye movements stop. Brain wave activity becomes slower, with occasional bursts of electrical activity called sleep spindles.
3. Stage 3 (N3): Also known as deep non-REM sleep, this stage is characterized by slow delta waves. It is during this stage that the body undergoes restorative processes such as tissue repair, growth, and immune function enhancement.
4. REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep: This is the stage where dreaming typically occurs. Your eyes move rapidly beneath closed eyelids, heart rate and respiration become irregular, and brain wave activity increases to levels similar to wakefulness. REM sleep is important for memory consolidation and learning.

The sleep cycle progresses through these stages multiple times during the night, with REM sleep periods becoming longer towards morning. Understanding sleep stages is crucial in diagnosing and treating various sleep disorders.

Melatonin is a hormone that is produced by the pineal gland in the brain. It helps regulate sleep-wake cycles and is often referred to as the "hormone of darkness" because its production is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. Melatonin plays a key role in synchronizing the circadian rhythm, the body's internal clock that regulates various biological processes over a 24-hour period.

Melatonin is primarily released at night, and its levels in the blood can rise and fall in response to changes in light and darkness in an individual's environment. Supplementing with melatonin has been found to be helpful in treating sleep disorders such as insomnia, jet lag, and delayed sleep phase syndrome. It may also have other benefits, including antioxidant properties and potential uses in the treatment of certain neurological conditions.

It is important to note that while melatonin supplements are available over-the-counter in many countries, they should still be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as their use can have potential side effects and interactions with other medications.

A circadian rhythm is a roughly 24-hour biological cycle that regulates various physiological and behavioral processes in living organisms. It is driven by the body's internal clock, which is primarily located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus in the brain.

The circadian rhythm controls many aspects of human physiology, including sleep-wake cycles, hormone secretion, body temperature, and metabolism. It helps to synchronize these processes with the external environment, particularly the day-night cycle caused by the rotation of the Earth.

Disruptions to the circadian rhythm can have negative effects on health, leading to conditions such as insomnia, sleep disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, and even increased risk of chronic diseases like cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Factors that can disrupt the circadian rhythm include shift work, jet lag, irregular sleep schedules, and exposure to artificial light at night.

Cataplexy is a medical condition characterized by sudden and temporary loss of muscle tone or strength, typically triggered by strong emotions such as laughter, anger, or surprise. This can result in symptoms ranging from a slight slackening of the muscles to complete collapse. Cataplexy is often associated with narcolepsy, which is a neurological disorder that affects sleep-wake cycles. It's important to note that cataplexy is different from syncope (fainting), as it specifically involves muscle weakness rather than loss of consciousness.

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder (RBD) is a parasomnia, which is a disorder that involves undesirable experiences or abnormal behaviors during sleep. Specifically, RBD is a type of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep parasomnia where the muscle atonia (lack of muscle tone) that normally occurs during REM sleep is absent or incomplete, allowing for the emergence of motor behaviors and vivid dreaming. These dreams can be quite intense and may result in the individual physically acting out their dreams, leading to potential harm for themselves or their bed partner. RBD can occur in isolation or as a symptom of another neurological condition.

Sleep medicine is a medical specialty or subspecialty devoted to the diagnosis and therapy of sleep disturbances and disorders. Sleep-related problems such as snoring, sleep apnea, insomnia, narcolepsy, restless legs syndrome, parasomnias, circadian rhythm disorders, and unusual behaviors during sleep are among the conditions that sleep medicine physicians diagnose and treat.

Sleep medicine specialists often work in multidisciplinary teams that include other healthcare professionals such as neurologists, psychiatrists, psychologists, pulmonologists, otolaryngologists, and dentists to provide comprehensive care for patients with sleep disorders. They use various diagnostic tools, including polysomnography (sleep studies), actigraphy, and multiple sleep latency tests, to evaluate patients' sleep patterns and diagnose their conditions accurately. Based on the diagnosis, they develop individualized treatment plans that may include lifestyle modifications, pharmacological interventions, medical devices, or surgery.

To become a sleep medicine specialist, physicians typically complete a residency in a related field such as neurology, pulmonology, psychiatry, or internal medicine and then pursue additional training and certification in sleep medicine. The American Board of Medical Specialties recognizes sleep medicine as a subspecialty, and the American Board of Sleep Medicine offers certification to qualified physicians who pass a rigorous examination.

Sleep bruxism is a sleep-related movement disorder characterized by the involuntary clenching or grinding of teeth and jaw muscle activity during sleep, which can lead to tooth wear, jaw pain, headaches, and other oral health issues. It is typically considered a parasomnia, which is a type of abnormal behavior that occurs during sleep. The exact causes of sleep bruxism are not fully understood, but it may be associated with stress, certain medications, alcohol and drug use, and other factors. Treatment options can include stress management techniques, dental guards to protect the teeth, and in some cases, medication.

Dyssomnias are a category of sleep disorders that involve problems with the amount, quality, or timing of sleep. They can be broken down into several subcategories, including:

1. Insomnia: This is characterized by difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep, despite adequate opportunity and circumstances to do so. It can result in distress, impairment in social, occupational, or other areas of functioning, and/or feelings of dissatisfaction with sleep.
2. Hypersomnias: These are disorders that involve excessive sleepiness during the day, even after having adequate opportunity for sleep. Narcolepsy is an example of a hypersomnia.
3. Sleep-related breathing disorders: These include conditions such as obstructive sleep apnea, in which breathing is repeatedly interrupted during sleep, leading to poor sleep quality and excessive daytime sleepiness.
4. Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders: These involve disruptions to the body's internal clock, which can result in difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep at desired times. Jet lag and shift work disorder are examples of circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders.
5. Parasomnias: These are disruptive sleep-related events that occur during various stages of sleep, such as sleepwalking, night terrors, and REM sleep behavior disorder.

Dyssomnias can have significant impacts on a person's quality of life, and it is important to seek medical evaluation if you are experiencing symptoms. Treatment may involve lifestyle changes, medication, or other interventions depending on the specific type of dyssomnia.

A mental disorder is a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. It's associated with distress and/or impaired functioning in social, occupational, or other important areas of life, often leading to a decrease in quality of life. These disorders are typically persistent and can be severe and disabling. They may be related to factors such as genetics, early childhood experiences, or trauma. Examples include depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and personality disorders. It's important to note that a diagnosis should be made by a qualified mental health professional.

In a medical or physiological context, "arousal" refers to the state of being awake and responsive to stimuli. It involves the activation of the nervous system, particularly the autonomic nervous system, which prepares the body for action. Arousal levels can vary from low (such as during sleep) to high (such as during states of excitement or stress). In clinical settings, changes in arousal may be assessed to help diagnose conditions such as coma, brain injury, or sleep disorders. It is also used in the context of sexual response, where it refers to the level of physical and mental awareness and readiness for sexual activity.

Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a mental health condition that causes extreme mood swings that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression). When you become depressed, you may feel sad or hopeless and lose interest or pleasure in most activities. When your mood shifts to mania or hypomania (a less severe form of mania), you may feel euphoric, full of energy, or unusually irritable. These mood swings can significantly affect your job, school, relationships, and overall quality of life.

Bipolar disorder is typically characterized by the presence of one or more manic or hypomanic episodes, often accompanied by depressive episodes. The episodes may be separated by periods of normal mood, but in some cases, a person may experience rapid cycling between mania and depression.

There are several types of bipolar disorder, including:

* Bipolar I Disorder: This type is characterized by the occurrence of at least one manic episode, which may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes.
* Bipolar II Disorder: This type involves the presence of at least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode, but no manic episodes.
* Cyclothymic Disorder: This type is characterized by numerous periods of hypomania and depression that are not severe enough to meet the criteria for a full manic or depressive episode.
* Other Specified and Unspecified Bipolar and Related Disorders: These categories include bipolar disorders that do not fit the criteria for any of the other types.

The exact cause of bipolar disorder is unknown, but it appears to be related to a combination of genetic, environmental, and neurochemical factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, psychotherapy, and lifestyle changes to help manage symptoms and prevent relapses.

Snoring is defined as the vibration of respiratory structures and the resulting sound, due to obstructed air movement during breathing while sleeping. It occurs when the tissues at the back of the throat relax and narrow during sleep, partially blocking the airway. The airflow causes these tissues to vibrate, leading to the snoring sound. Snoring can be a sign of various conditions such as obstructive sleep apnea or other respiratory disorders. It can also be influenced by factors such as alcohol consumption, obesity, and sleeping position.

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a medical procedure that records electrical activity in the brain. It uses small, metal discs called electrodes, which are attached to the scalp with paste or a specialized cap. These electrodes detect tiny electrical charges that result from the activity of brain cells, and the EEG machine then amplifies and records these signals.

EEG is used to diagnose various conditions related to the brain, such as seizures, sleep disorders, head injuries, infections, and degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's or Parkinson's. It can also be used during surgery to monitor brain activity and ensure that surgical procedures do not interfere with vital functions.

EEG is a safe and non-invasive procedure that typically takes about 30 minutes to an hour to complete, although longer recordings may be necessary in some cases. Patients are usually asked to relax and remain still during the test, as movement can affect the quality of the recording.

The Bender-Gestalt Test is a neuropsychological assessment tool used to evaluate an individual's visual-motor perception, perceptual-motor integration, and cognitive flexibility. It consists of a series of 9 geometric forms that the test taker is asked to reproduce as accurately as possible on paper, while following specific instructions given by the examiner. The test results are then compared to normative data based on age and other demographic factors to assess any potential neurological impairments or developmental delays. It is commonly used in clinical settings such as hospitals, schools, and mental health facilities to help diagnose various conditions including learning disabilities, brain injuries, and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Actigraphy is a non-invasive method used to estimate sleep-wake patterns and physical activity levels over extended periods, typically ranging from several days to weeks. It involves the use of a small device called an actigraph, which is usually worn on the wrist like a watch.

The actigraph contains an accelerometer that detects movement and records the intensity and duration of motion. This data is then analyzed using specialized software to provide information about sleep and wake times, as well as patterns of physical activity.

Actigraphy can be useful in assessing various sleep disorders, such as insomnia, circadian rhythm disorders, and sleep-related breathing disorders. It can also help evaluate the effectiveness of treatments for these conditions. However, it is important to note that actigraphy is not a substitute for a formal sleep study (polysomnography) and should be used in conjunction with other assessment tools and clinical evaluations.

Phototherapy is a medical treatment that involves the use of light to manage or improve certain conditions. It can be delivered in various forms, such as natural light exposure or artificial light sources, including lasers, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), or fluorescent lamps. The wavelength and intensity of light are carefully controlled to achieve specific therapeutic effects.

Phototherapy is most commonly used for newborns with jaundice to help break down bilirubin in the skin, reducing its levels in the bloodstream. This type of phototherapy is called bilirubin lights or bili lights.

In dermatology, phototherapy can be applied to treat various skin conditions like psoriasis, eczema, vitiligo, and acne. Narrowband ultraviolet B (UVB) therapy, PUVA (psoralen plus UVA), and blue or red light therapies are some examples of dermatological phototherapies.

Phototherapy can also be used to alleviate symptoms of seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and other mood disorders by exposing patients to bright artificial light, which helps regulate their circadian rhythms and improve their mood. This form of phototherapy is called light therapy or bright light therapy.

It's essential to consult a healthcare professional before starting any phototherapy treatment, as inappropriate use can lead to adverse effects.

A questionnaire in the medical context is a standardized, systematic, and structured tool used to gather information from individuals regarding their symptoms, medical history, lifestyle, or other health-related factors. It typically consists of a series of written questions that can be either self-administered or administered by an interviewer. Questionnaires are widely used in various areas of healthcare, including clinical research, epidemiological studies, patient care, and health services evaluation to collect data that can inform diagnosis, treatment planning, and population health management. They provide a consistent and organized method for obtaining information from large groups or individual patients, helping to ensure accurate and comprehensive data collection while minimizing bias and variability in the information gathered.

Idiopathic hypersomnolence is a type of central disorder of hypersomnolence, which is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) that isn't caused by another known medical condition or lifestyle factor. "Idiopathic" means that the cause of the condition is unknown.

In idiopathic hypersomnolence, individuals experience prolonged nighttime sleep and recurrent episodes of daytime sleep that can last for several hours, causing significant impairment in their daily functioning. Despite getting adequate or even prolonged periods of sleep, they continue to feel excessive sleepiness during the day.

Other symptoms associated with idiopathic hypersomnolence may include difficulty waking up from sleep, automatic behavior (performing actions without conscious awareness), cognitive impairment, and mood changes. The exact cause of this condition remains unclear, but it is thought to involve dysfunction in the brain's sleep-wake regulation mechanisms.

Sleep arousal disorders are a category of sleep disorders that involve the partial or complete awakening from sleep, often accompanied by confusion and disorientation. These disorders are characterized by an abnormal arousal process during sleep, which can result in brief periods of wakefulness or full awakenings. The most common types of sleep arousal disorders include sleepwalking (somnambulism), sleep talking (somniloquy), and night terrors (pavor nocturnus).

In sleepwalking, the individual may get out of bed and walk around while still asleep, often with a blank stare and without any memory of the event. Sleep talking can occur in various levels of sleep and may range from simple sounds to complex conversations. Night terrors are episodes of intense fear and agitation during sleep, often accompanied by screams or cries for help, rapid heart rate, and sweating.

These disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including stress, anxiety, fever, certain medications, alcohol consumption, and underlying medical conditions such as sleep apnea or restless leg syndrome. They can also occur as a result of genetic predisposition. Sleep arousal disorders can have significant impacts on an individual's quality of life, leading to fatigue, daytime sleepiness, impaired cognitive function, and decreased overall well-being. Treatment options may include behavioral therapy, medication, or addressing any underlying medical conditions.

Night terrors, also known as sleep terrors, are a type of parasomnia characterized by extreme fear, panic, and intense feelings of dread during sleep. They are different from nightmares, which occur during the rapid eye movement (REM) stage of sleep and can be remembered upon waking. In contrast, night terrors typically happen during deep non-REM sleep (stage 3 or 4) and individuals usually have no recollection of the event upon waking.

During a night terror episode, a person may sit up in bed, scream, thrash around, and exhibit signs of intense fear. Their heart rate and breathing may increase dramatically, and they might be difficult to awaken or console. Episodes can last from several minutes to half an hour, after which the individual typically returns to sleep without fully waking up.

Night terrors are more common in children than adults, with about 1-6% of children experiencing them at some point. While they can be distressing for both the person experiencing them and their loved ones, night terrors are generally not harmful and do not typically indicate underlying psychological or medical issues. However, if night terrors occur frequently, interfere with sleep quality, or cause significant distress, it is recommended to consult a healthcare professional for further evaluation and guidance on potential treatment options.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

Anxiety disorders are a category of mental health disorders characterized by feelings of excessive and persistent worry, fear, or anxiety that interfere with daily activities. They include several different types of disorders, such as:

1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): This is characterized by chronic and exaggerated worry and tension, even when there is little or nothing to provoke it.
2. Panic Disorder: This is characterized by recurring unexpected panic attacks and fear of experiencing more panic attacks.
3. Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD): Also known as social phobia, this is characterized by excessive fear, anxiety, or avoidance of social situations due to feelings of embarrassment, self-consciousness, and concern about being judged or viewed negatively by others.
4. Phobias: These are intense, irrational fears of certain objects, places, or situations. When a person with a phobia encounters the object or situation they fear, they may experience panic attacks or other severe anxiety responses.
5. Agoraphobia: This is a fear of being in places where it may be difficult to escape or get help if one has a panic attack or other embarrassing or incapacitating symptoms.
6. Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD): This is characterized by excessive anxiety about separation from home or from people to whom the individual has a strong emotional attachment (such as a parent, sibling, or partner).
7. Selective Mutism: This is a disorder where a child becomes mute in certain situations, such as at school, but can speak normally at home or with close family members.

These disorders are treatable with a combination of medication and psychotherapy (cognitive-behavioral therapy, exposure therapy). It's important to seek professional help if you suspect that you or someone you know may have an anxiety disorder.

Mood disorders are a category of mental health disorders characterized by significant and persistent changes in mood, affect, and emotional state. These disorders can cause disturbances in normal functioning and significantly impair an individual's ability to carry out their daily activities. The two primary types of mood disorders are depressive disorders (such as major depressive disorder or persistent depressive disorder) and bipolar disorders (which include bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, and cyclothymic disorder).

Depressive disorders involve prolonged periods of low mood, sadness, hopelessness, and a lack of interest in activities. Individuals with these disorders may also experience changes in sleep patterns, appetite, energy levels, concentration, and self-esteem. In severe cases, they might have thoughts of death or suicide.

Bipolar disorders involve alternating episodes of mania (or hypomania) and depression. During a manic episode, individuals may feel extremely elated, energetic, or irritable, with racing thoughts, rapid speech, and impulsive behavior. They might engage in risky activities, have decreased sleep needs, and display poor judgment. In contrast, depressive episodes involve the same symptoms as depressive disorders.

Mood disorders can be caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Proper diagnosis and treatment, which may include psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both, are essential for managing these conditions and improving quality of life.

Hypnotics and sedatives are classes of medications that have depressant effects on the central nervous system, leading to sedation (calming or inducing sleep), reduction in anxiety, and in some cases, decreased awareness or memory. These agents work by affecting the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) in the brain, which results in inhibitory effects on neuronal activity.

Hypnotics are primarily used for the treatment of insomnia and other sleep disorders, while sedatives are often prescribed to manage anxiety or to produce a calming effect before medical procedures. Some medications can function as both hypnotics and sedatives, depending on the dosage and specific formulation. Common examples of these medications include benzodiazepines (such as diazepam and lorazepam), non-benzodiazepine hypnotics (such as zolpidem and eszopiclone), barbiturates, and certain antihistamines.

It is essential to use these medications under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can have potential side effects, such as drowsiness, dizziness, confusion, and impaired coordination. Additionally, long-term use or high doses may lead to tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms upon discontinuation.

Comorbidity is the presence of one or more additional health conditions or diseases alongside a primary illness or condition. These co-occurring health issues can have an impact on the treatment plan, prognosis, and overall healthcare management of an individual. Comorbidities often interact with each other and the primary condition, leading to more complex clinical situations and increased healthcare needs. It is essential for healthcare professionals to consider and address comorbidities to provide comprehensive care and improve patient outcomes.

Nocturia is a common symptom characterized by the need to wake up during the night one or more times to urinate. While it's normal to urinate a few times during the night, nocturia is defined as having to urinate more than twice per night, which can disrupt sleep and lead to daytime fatigue and sleepiness.

Nocturia can be caused by various factors, including underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, bladder infections, enlarged prostate, or sleep disorders like sleep apnea. It can also be a side effect of certain medications. In some cases, nocturia may be a symptom of more serious conditions, so it's important to speak with a healthcare provider if you experience frequent nighttime urination.

Sleep deprivation is a condition that occurs when an individual fails to get sufficient quality sleep or the recommended amount of sleep, typically 7-9 hours for adults. This can lead to various physical and mental health issues. It can be acute, lasting for one night or a few days, or chronic, persisting over a longer period.

The consequences of sleep deprivation include:

1. Fatigue and lack of energy
2. Difficulty concentrating or remembering things
3. Mood changes, such as irritability or depression
4. Weakened immune system
5. Increased appetite and potential weight gain
6. Higher risk of accidents due to decreased reaction time
7. Health problems like high blood pressure, diabetes, and heart disease over time

Sleep deprivation can be caused by various factors, including stress, shift work, sleep disorders like insomnia or sleep apnea, poor sleep hygiene, and certain medications. It's essential to address the underlying causes of sleep deprivation to ensure proper rest and overall well-being.

Electrooculography (EOG) is a technique for measuring the resting potential of the eye and the changes in this potential that occur with eye movements. It involves placing electrodes near the eyes to detect the small electric fields generated by the movement of the eyeball within the surrounding socket. This technique is used in research and clinical settings to study eye movements and their control, as well as in certain diagnostic applications such as assessing the function of the oculomotor system in patients with neurological disorders.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

Fatigue is a state of feeling very tired, weary, or exhausted, which can be physical, mental, or both. It is a common symptom that can be caused by various factors, including lack of sleep, poor nutrition, stress, medical conditions (such as anemia, diabetes, heart disease, or cancer), medications, and substance abuse. Fatigue can also be a symptom of depression or other mental health disorders. In medical terms, fatigue is often described as a subjective feeling of tiredness that is not proportional to recent activity levels and interferes with usual functioning. It is important to consult a healthcare professional if experiencing persistent or severe fatigue to determine the underlying cause and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

Dreams are a series of thoughts, images, and sensations occurring in a person's mind during sleep. They can be vivid or vague, positive or negative, and may involve memories, emotions, and fears. The scientific study of dreams is called oneirology. While the exact purpose and function of dreams remain a topic of debate among researchers, some theories suggest that dreaming may help with memory consolidation, problem-solving, emotional processing, and learning.

Dreams usually occur during the rapid eye movement (REM) stage of sleep, although they can also happen in non-REM stages. They are typically associated with complex brain activities, involving areas such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and the neocortex. The content of dreams can be influenced by various factors, including a person's thoughts, experiences, emotions, physical state, and environmental conditions.

It is important to note that dreaming is a natural and universal human experience, and understanding dreams can provide insights into our cognitive processes, emotional well-being, and mental health.

Sleep paralysis is a temporary inability to move or speak while falling asleep or waking up, often accompanied by frightening hallucinations. These episodes typically last a few seconds to several minutes. During sleep paralysis, a person's body is immobile and cannot perform voluntary muscle movements even though they are fully conscious and awake. This condition can be quite alarming, but it is generally harmless and does not pose any serious threat to one's health. Sleep paralysis is often associated with certain sleep disorders, such as narcolepsy, or other medical conditions, as well as stress, lack of sleep, and changes in sleep patterns.

Kleine-Levin Syndrome (KLS) is a rare and complex neurological disorder characterized by recurring episodes of excessive sleep (hypersomnia), often accompanied by cognitive impairment, altered perception, and behavioral changes. These episodes can last for days or even weeks. The exact cause of KLS remains unknown, but it's thought to involve dysfunction in the hypothalamus and/or thalamus regions of the brain. It primarily affects adolescents, with males being more commonly affected than females. Diagnosis is typically made based on clinical symptoms, as there are no specific diagnostic tests for KLS. Treatment usually involves managing individual symptoms and may include stimulant medications to help reduce excessive sleepiness during episodes.

Bruxism is the medical term for grinding or clenching your teeth. It's often an unconscious habit that can occur during the day or at night (nocturnal bruxism). Mild bruxism may not require treatment, but chronic, severe grinding can lead to jaw disorders, headaches, and damaged teeth.

There are several potential causes of bruxism, including stress, anxiety, certain medications, alcohol and drug use, and sleep disorders. Dentists often diagnose bruxism based on the visible signs of wear on your teeth, or they may ask you about symptoms you're experiencing. Treatment for bruxism can include stress management techniques, dental guards to protect your teeth during sleep, and in some cases, medication.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a publication of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) that provides diagnostic criteria for mental disorders. It is widely used by mental health professionals in the United States and around the world to diagnose and classify mental health conditions.

The DSM includes detailed descriptions of symptoms, clinical examples, and specific criteria for each disorder, which are intended to facilitate accurate diagnosis and improve communication among mental health professionals. The manual is regularly updated to reflect current research and clinical practice, with the most recent edition being the DSM-5, published in 2013.

It's important to note that while the DSM is a valuable tool for mental health professionals, it is not without controversy. Some critics argue that the manual medicalizes normal human experiences and that its categories may be too broad or overlapping. Nonetheless, it remains an essential resource for clinicians, researchers, and policymakers in the field of mental health.

A depressive disorder is a mental health condition characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest or pleasure in activities. It can also include changes in sleep, appetite, energy levels, concentration, and self-esteem, as well as thoughts of death or suicide. Depressive disorders can vary in severity and duration, with some people experiencing mild and occasional symptoms, while others may have severe and chronic symptoms that interfere with their ability to function in daily life.

There are several types of depressive disorders, including major depressive disorder (MDD), persistent depressive disorder (PDD), and postpartum depression. MDD is characterized by symptoms that interfere significantly with a person's ability to function and last for at least two weeks, while PDD involves chronic low-grade depression that lasts for two years or more. Postpartum depression occurs in women after childbirth and can range from mild to severe.

Depressive disorders are thought to be caused by a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, psychotherapy (talk therapy), and lifestyle changes.

Hyperacusis is a hearing disorder characterized by an increased sensitivity to sounds, where certain everyday noises are perceived as being excessively loud or uncomfortable, even painful. This condition can lead to avoidance behaviors and have a negative impact on a person's quality of life. It is different from normal hearing and requires medical evaluation to diagnose and manage.

Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) is a mode of non-invasive ventilation that delivers pressurized room air or oxygen to maintain airway patency and increase functional residual capacity in patients with respiratory disorders. A CPAP device, which typically includes a flow generator, tubing, and a mask, provides a constant positive pressure throughout the entire respiratory cycle, preventing the collapse of the upper airway during inspiration and expiration.

CPAP is commonly used to treat obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), a condition characterized by repetitive narrowing or closure of the upper airway during sleep, leading to intermittent hypoxia, hypercapnia, and sleep fragmentation. By delivering positive pressure, CPAP helps to stent open the airway, ensuring unobstructed breathing and reducing the frequency and severity of apneic events.

Additionally, CPAP can be used in other clinical scenarios, such as managing acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations, or postoperative respiratory insufficiency, to improve oxygenation and reduce the work of breathing. The specific pressure settings and device configurations are tailored to each patient's needs based on their underlying condition, severity of symptoms, and response to therapy.

In the context of medical terminology, a "habit" refers to a regular, repeated behavior or practice that is often performed automatically or subconsciously. Habits can be physical (such as biting nails) or mental (such as worrying). They can be harmless, beneficial (like regularly brushing your teeth), or harmful (like smoking cigarettes).

Habits are different from instincts or reflexes because they involve a learned behavior that has been repeated and reinforced over time. Breaking a habit can often be challenging due to the deeply ingrained nature of the behavior.

Orexin receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the central nervous system that play a crucial role in regulating various physiological functions, including wakefulness, energy balance, and reward processing. There are two subtypes of orexin receptors: OX1R (orexin-1 receptor) and OX2R (orexin-2 receptor). These receptors bind to the neuropeptides orexin A and orexin B, which are synthesized in a small group of neurons located in the hypothalamus. Activation of these receptors leads to increased wakefulness, appetite stimulation, and reward-seeking behavior, among other effects. Dysregulation of the orexin system has been implicated in several neurological disorders, such as narcolepsy, where a loss of orexin-producing neurons results in excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy.

A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.

In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.

Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), also simply referred to as depression, is a serious mental health condition characterized by the presence of one or more major depressive episodes. A major depressive episode is a period of at least two weeks during which an individual experiences a severely depressed mood and/or loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities, accompanied by at least four additional symptoms such as significant changes in appetite or weight, sleep disturbances, psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue or loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt, difficulty thinking, concentrating, or making decisions, and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide.

MDD can significantly impair an individual's ability to function in daily life, and it is associated with increased risks of suicide, substance abuse, and other mental health disorders. The exact cause of MDD is not fully understood, but it is believed to result from a complex interplay of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Treatment typically involves a combination of psychotherapy (such as cognitive-behavioral therapy) and medication (such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors or tricyclic antidepressants).

Secobarbital is a barbiturate medication that is primarily used for the treatment of short-term insomnia and as a preoperative sedative. It works by depressing the central nervous system, producing a calming effect and helping to induce sleep. Secobarbital has a rapid onset of action and a relatively short duration of effect.

It is available in various forms, including capsules and injectable solutions, and is typically prescribed for use on an as-needed basis rather than as a regular medication. Secobarbital can be habit-forming and carries a risk of dependence and withdrawal, so it should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider.

It's important to note that Secobarbital is not commonly prescribed in modern medical practice due to its high potential for abuse and the availability of safer and more effective sleep aids.

Depression is a mood disorder that is characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities. It can also cause significant changes in sleep, appetite, energy level, concentration, and behavior. Depression can interfere with daily life and normal functioning, and it can increase the risk of suicide and other mental health disorders. The exact cause of depression is not known, but it is believed to be related to a combination of genetic, biological, environmental, and psychological factors. There are several types of depression, including major depressive disorder, persistent depressive disorder, postpartum depression, and seasonal affective disorder. Treatment for depression typically involves a combination of medication and psychotherapy.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules that are used by neurons to communicate with each other and with other cells in the body. They are produced in the cell body of a neuron, processed from larger precursor proteins, and then transported to the nerve terminal where they are stored in secretory vesicles. When the neuron is stimulated, the vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents into the extracellular space.

Neuropeptides can act as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, depending on their target receptors and the duration of their effects. They play important roles in a variety of physiological processes, including pain perception, appetite regulation, stress response, and social behavior. Some neuropeptides also have hormonal functions, such as oxytocin and vasopressin, which are produced in the hypothalamus and released into the bloodstream to regulate reproductive and cardiovascular function, respectively.

There are hundreds of different neuropeptides that have been identified in the nervous system, and many of them have multiple functions and interact with other signaling molecules to modulate neural activity. Dysregulation of neuropeptide systems has been implicated in various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as chronic pain, addiction, depression, and anxiety.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) with hyperactivity is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects both children and adults. The condition is characterized by symptoms including:

1. Difficulty paying attention or staying focused on a single task
2. Impulsivity, or acting without thinking
3. Hyperactivity, or excessive fidgeting, restlessness, or talking

In order to be diagnosed with ADHD with hyperactivity, an individual must exhibit these symptoms to a degree that is developmentally inappropriate and interferes with their daily functioning. Additionally, the symptoms must have been present for at least six months and be present in multiple settings (e.g., at home, school, work).

It's important to note that ADHD can manifest differently in different people, and some individuals may experience predominantly inattentive or impulsive symptoms rather than hyperactive ones. However, when the hyperactive component is prominent, it is referred to as ADHD with hyperactivity.

Effective treatments for ADHD with hyperactivity include a combination of medication (such as stimulants) and behavioral therapy. With appropriate treatment, individuals with ADHD can learn to manage their symptoms and lead successful, fulfilling lives.

Rhinomanometry is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures the pressure and flow of air through the nasal passages. It is used to assess the nasal airway resistance and function, and can help diagnose and monitor conditions such as nasal congestion, deviated septum, sinusitis, and other disorders that affect nasal breathing.

During the procedure, a small catheter or mask is placed over the nose, and the patient is asked to breathe normally while the pressure and airflow are measured. The data is then analyzed to determine any abnormalities in nasal function, such as increased resistance or asymmetry between the two sides of the nose.

Rhinomanometry can be performed using either anterior or posterior methods, depending on whether the measurement is taken at the entrance or exit of the nasal passages. The results of the test can help guide treatment decisions and assess the effectiveness of therapies such as medications or surgery.

Hemodialysis units in a hospital setting are specialized departments or facilities that provide hemodialysis treatment to patients with kidney failure. Hemodialysis is a process of purifying the blood of waste products and excess fluids using a machine (hemodialysis machine) and a semi-permeable membrane (dialyzer). The procedure typically involves accessing the patient's bloodstream through a surgically created vascular access, such as a fistula or graft, and passing the blood through the dialyzer to remove waste products and excess fluids.

Hospital hemodialysis units are staffed by trained healthcare professionals, including nephrologists (kidney specialists), nurses, technicians, and support personnel. These units provide inpatient and outpatient services for patients who require hemodialysis due to acute or chronic kidney failure, as well as those who need dialysis while hospitalized for other medical conditions.

Hospital hemodialysis units may offer various types of hemodialysis treatments, including conventional hemodialysis, high-flux hemodialysis, hemofiltration, and hemodiafiltration. They also provide education and support to patients and their families regarding dialysis treatment options, lifestyle modifications, and long-term management of kidney disease.

Mandibular advancement is a treatment approach used in dentistry and sleep medicine, which involves the surgical or non-surgical forward movement of the mandible (lower jaw) to address certain medical conditions. The most common use of mandibular advancement is in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), where the tongue and soft tissues at the back of the throat can collapse into the airway during sleep, causing obstruction and breathing difficulties.

Mandibular advancement devices (MADs) are often used in non-surgical treatments. These custom-made oral appliances look similar to mouthguards or sports guards and are worn during sleep. They work by holding the lower jaw in a slightly forward position, which helps to keep the airway open and prevents the tongue and soft tissues from collapsing into it.

Surgical mandibular advancement is another option for patients with severe OSA who cannot tolerate or do not respond well to MADs or other treatments like continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). In this procedure, the jaw is surgically moved forward and stabilized in that position using plates, screws, or wires. This creates more space in the airway and reduces the risk of obstruction during sleep.

In summary, mandibular advancement refers to the movement of the lower jaw forward, either through non-surgical means like MADs or surgical interventions, with the primary goal of treating obstructive sleep apnea by maintaining a patent airway during sleep.

Trazodone is an antidepressant medication that belongs to the class of drugs called serotonin antagonist and reuptake inhibitors (SARIs). It works by increasing the levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain, which helps to improve mood and reduce symptoms of depression.

Trazodone is primarily used to treat major depressive disorder, but it may also be prescribed for anxiety, insomnia, and other conditions. The medication comes in various forms, including tablets and an extended-release formulation, and is typically taken orally one to three times a day. Common side effects of trazodone include dizziness, dry mouth, and sedation.

It's important to note that trazodone can interact with other medications and substances, so it's essential to inform your healthcare provider about all the drugs you are taking before starting treatment. Additionally, trazodone may increase the risk of suicidal thoughts or behavior in some people, particularly during the initial stages of treatment, so close monitoring is necessary.

Neuropeptide receptors are a type of cell surface receptor that bind to neuropeptides, which are small signaling molecules made up of short chains of amino acids. These receptors play an important role in the nervous system by mediating the effects of neuropeptides on various physiological processes, including neurotransmission, pain perception, and hormone release.

Neuropeptide receptors are typically composed of seven transmembrane domains and are classified into several families based on their structure and function. Some examples of neuropeptide receptor families include the opioid receptors, somatostatin receptors, and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) receptors.

When a neuropeptide binds to its specific receptor, it activates a signaling pathway within the cell that leads to various cellular responses. These responses can include changes in gene expression, ion channel activity, and enzyme function. Overall, the activation of neuropeptide receptors helps to regulate many important functions in the body, including mood, appetite, and pain sensation.

Hydroxyzine is an antihistamine medication that is primarily used to treat symptoms of allergies such as itching, hives, and swelling. It works by blocking the effects of histamine, a substance in the body that causes allergic reactions. In addition to its antihistaminic properties, hydroxyzine also has sedative and anxiety-reducing effects, which make it useful in treating anxiety disorders, symptoms of alcohol withdrawal, and as a sleep aid. It is available in both oral and injectable forms and is usually taken orally in the form of tablets, capsules, or syrup. As with any medication, hydroxyzine should be used under the supervision of a healthcare provider, and its use may be subject to certain precautions and contraindications depending on the individual's medical history and current health status.

Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on the diagnosis, assessment, treatment, and prevention of mental health disorders. It is a practice-based profession and involves the application of psychological research and evidence-based interventions to help individuals, families, and groups overcome challenges and improve their overall well-being.

Clinical psychologists are trained to work with people across the lifespan, from young children to older adults, and they may specialize in working with specific populations or presenting problems. They use a variety of assessment tools, including interviews, observations, and psychological tests, to help understand their clients' needs and develop individualized treatment plans.

Treatment approaches used by clinical psychologists may include cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), psychodynamic therapy, family therapy, and other evidence-based practices. Clinical psychologists may work in a variety of settings, including hospitals, mental health clinics, private practice, universities, and research institutions.

In addition to direct clinical work, clinical psychologists may also be involved in teaching, supervision, program development, and policy advocacy related to mental health. To become a licensed clinical psychologist, individuals must typically complete a doctoral degree in psychology, a one-year internship, and several years of post-doctoral supervised experience. They must also pass a state licensing exam and meet other requirements set by their state's regulatory board.

Central sleep apnea (CSA) is a type of sleep-disordered breathing characterized by repeated cessations in breathing during sleep due to the brain's failure to transmit signals to the respiratory muscles that control breathing. Unlike obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), which results from airway obstruction, CSA occurs when the brain fails to send the necessary signals to the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to initiate or maintain respiratory efforts during sleep.

Central sleep apneas are usually associated with decreased oxygen saturation levels and can lead to frequent arousals from sleep, causing excessive daytime sleepiness, fatigue, and impaired cognitive function. CSA is often related to underlying medical conditions such as heart failure, stroke, or brainstem injury, and it may also be caused by the use of certain medications, including opioids.

There are several types of central sleep apnea, including:

1. Primary Central Sleep Apnea: This type occurs without any underlying medical condition or medication use.
2. Cheyne-Stokes Breathing: A pattern of central sleep apnea commonly seen in individuals with heart failure or stroke. It is characterized by a crescendo-decrescendo pattern of breathing, with periods of hyperventilation followed by hypoventilation and apnea.
3. High-Altitude Periodic Breathing: This type occurs at high altitudes due to the reduced oxygen levels and is usually reversible upon returning to lower altitudes.
4. Complex or Mixed Sleep Apnea: A combination of both central and obstructive sleep apneas, often observed in patients with OSA who are treated with continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) therapy. In some cases, the central component may resolve over time with continued CPAP use.

Diagnosis of CSA typically involves a sleep study (polysomnography), which monitors various physiological parameters during sleep, such as brain waves, eye movements, muscle activity, heart rate, and breathing patterns. Treatment options for central sleep apnea depend on the underlying cause and may include medications, adjustments in medication dosages, or the use of devices that assist with breathing, such as adaptive servo-ventilation (ASV) or bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP) therapy.

Electromyography (EMG) is a medical diagnostic procedure that measures the electrical activity of skeletal muscles during contraction and at rest. It involves inserting a thin needle electrode into the muscle to record the electrical signals generated by the muscle fibers. These signals are then displayed on an oscilloscope and may be heard through a speaker.

EMG can help diagnose various neuromuscular disorders, such as muscle weakness, numbness, or pain, and can distinguish between muscle and nerve disorders. It is often used in conjunction with other diagnostic tests, such as nerve conduction studies, to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the nervous system.

EMG is typically performed by a neurologist or a physiatrist, and the procedure may cause some discomfort or pain, although this is usually minimal. The results of an EMG can help guide treatment decisions and monitor the progression of neuromuscular conditions over time.

Quality of Life (QOL) is a broad, multidimensional concept that usually includes an individual's physical health, psychological state, level of independence, social relationships, personal beliefs, and their relationship to salient features of their environment. It reflects the impact of disease and treatment on a patient's overall well-being and ability to function in daily life.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines QOL as "an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns." It is a subjective concept, meaning it can vary greatly from person to person.

In healthcare, QOL is often used as an outcome measure in clinical trials and other research studies to assess the impact of interventions or treatments on overall patient well-being.

Psychiatric Status Rating Scales are standardized assessment tools used by mental health professionals to evaluate and rate the severity of a person's psychiatric symptoms and functioning. These scales provide a systematic and structured approach to measuring various aspects of an individual's mental health, such as mood, anxiety, psychosis, behavior, and cognitive abilities.

The purpose of using Psychiatric Status Rating Scales is to:

1. Assess the severity and improvement of psychiatric symptoms over time.
2. Aid in diagnostic decision-making and treatment planning.
3. Monitor treatment response and adjust interventions accordingly.
4. Facilitate communication among mental health professionals about a patient's status.
5. Provide an objective basis for research and epidemiological studies.

Examples of Psychiatric Status Rating Scales include:

1. Clinical Global Impression (CGI): A brief, subjective rating scale that measures overall illness severity, treatment response, and improvement.
2. Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS): A comprehensive scale used to assess the symptoms of psychosis, including positive, negative, and general psychopathology domains.
3. Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD) or Montgomery-Ã…sberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS): Scales used to evaluate the severity of depressive symptoms.
4. Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS): A scale used to assess the severity of manic or hypomanic symptoms.
5. Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) or Symptom Checklist-90 Revised (SCL-90-R): Scales that measure a broad range of psychiatric symptoms and psychopathology.
6. Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF): A scale used to rate an individual's overall psychological, social, and occupational functioning on a hypothetical continuum of mental health-illness.

It is important to note that Psychiatric Status Rating Scales should be administered by trained mental health professionals to ensure accurate and reliable results.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

Cognitive disorders are a category of mental health disorders that primarily affect cognitive abilities including learning, memory, perception, and problem-solving. These disorders can be caused by various factors such as brain injury, degenerative diseases, infection, substance abuse, or developmental disabilities. Examples of cognitive disorders include dementia, amnesia, delirium, and intellectual disability. It's important to note that the specific definition and diagnostic criteria for cognitive disorders may vary depending on the medical source or classification system being used.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to compare the means of two or more groups and determine whether there are any significant differences between them. It is a way to analyze the variance in a dataset to determine whether the variability between groups is greater than the variability within groups, which can indicate that the groups are significantly different from one another.

ANOVA is based on the concept of partitioning the total variance in a dataset into two components: variance due to differences between group means (also known as "between-group variance") and variance due to differences within each group (also known as "within-group variance"). By comparing these two sources of variance, ANOVA can help researchers determine whether any observed differences between groups are statistically significant, or whether they could have occurred by chance.

ANOVA is a widely used technique in many areas of research, including biology, psychology, engineering, and business. It is often used to compare the means of two or more experimental groups, such as a treatment group and a control group, to determine whether the treatment had a significant effect. ANOVA can also be used to compare the means of different populations or subgroups within a population, to identify any differences that may exist between them.

A tonsillectomy is a surgical procedure in which the tonsils, two masses of lymphoid tissue located on both sides of the back of the throat, are removed. This procedure is typically performed to treat recurrent or severe cases of tonsillitis (inflammation of the tonsils), sleep-disordered breathing such as obstructive sleep apnea, and other conditions where the tonsils are causing problems or complications. The surgery can be done under general anesthesia, and there are various methods for removing the tonsils, including traditional scalpel excision, electrocautery, and laser surgery. After a tonsillectomy, patients may experience pain, swelling, and difficulty swallowing, but these symptoms typically improve within 1-2 weeks post-surgery.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a psychiatric condition that can occur in people who have experienced or witnessed a traumatic event such as a natural disaster, serious accident, war combat, rape, or violent personal assault. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition (DSM-5), PTSD is characterized by the following symptoms, which must last for more than one month:

1. Intrusion symptoms: These include distressing memories, nightmares, flashbacks, or intense psychological distress or reactivity to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event.
2. Avoidance symptoms: Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event, including thoughts, feelings, conversations, activities, places, or people.
3. Negative alterations in cognitions and mood: This includes negative beliefs about oneself, others, or the world; distorted blame of self or others for causing the trauma; persistent negative emotional state; decreased interest in significant activities; and feelings of detachment or estrangement from others.
4. Alterations in arousal and reactivity: This includes irritable behavior and angry outbursts, reckless or self-destructive behavior, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, problems with concentration, and sleep disturbance.
5. Duration of symptoms: The symptoms must last for more than one month.
6. Functional significance: The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

It is essential to note that PTSD can occur at any age and can be accompanied by various physical and mental health problems, such as depression, substance abuse, memory problems, and other difficulties in cognition. Appropriate treatment, which may include psychotherapy, medication, or a combination of both, can significantly improve the symptoms and overall quality of life for individuals with PTSD.

Central nervous system (CNS) stimulants are a class of drugs that increase alertness, attention, energy, and/or mood by directly acting on the brain. They can be prescribed to treat medical conditions such as narcolepsy, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and depression that has not responded to other treatments.

Examples of CNS stimulants include amphetamine (Adderall), methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), and modafinil (Provigil). These medications work by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and norepinephrine, in the brain.

In addition to their therapeutic uses, CNS stimulants are also sometimes misused for non-medical reasons, such as to enhance cognitive performance or to get high. However, it's important to note that misusing these drugs can lead to serious health consequences, including addiction, cardiovascular problems, and mental health issues.

Enuresis is a medical term that refers to the involuntary or unconscious release of urine, especially at night during sleep, in children who are at least 5 years old. It's commonly known as bedwetting. Enuresis can be classified into two types: primary and secondary. Primary enuresis occurs when a child has never achieved consistent dryness during sleep, while secondary enuresis happens when a child starts wetting the bed again after having been dry for at least six months.

Enuresis can have various causes, including developmental delays, small bladder capacity, urinary tract infections, constipation, sleep disorders, and emotional stress. In some cases, it may also be associated with genetic factors. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause and may include behavioral interventions, bladder training, alarm systems, medication, or a combination of these approaches.

Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects movement. It is characterized by the death of dopamine-producing cells in the brain, specifically in an area called the substantia nigra. The loss of these cells leads to a decrease in dopamine levels, which results in the motor symptoms associated with Parkinson's disease. These symptoms can include tremors at rest, stiffness or rigidity of the limbs and trunk, bradykinesia (slowness of movement), and postural instability (impaired balance and coordination). In addition to these motor symptoms, non-motor symptoms such as cognitive impairment, depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances are also common in people with Parkinson's disease. The exact cause of Parkinson's disease is unknown, but it is thought to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. There is currently no cure for Parkinson's disease, but medications and therapies can help manage the symptoms and improve quality of life.

Autistic Disorder, also known as Autism or Classic Autism, is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects communication and behavior. It is characterized by:

1. Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, including:
* Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity;
* Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction;
* Deficits in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships.
2. Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities, as manifested by at least two of the following:
* Stereotyped or repetitive motor movements, use of objects, or speech;
* Insistence on sameness, inflexible adherence to routines, or ritualized patterns of verbal or nonverbal behavior;
* Highly restricted, fixated interests that are abnormal in intensity or focus;
* Hyper- or hyporeactivity to sensory input or unusual interest in sensory aspects of the environment.
3. Symptoms must be present in the early developmental period (but may not become fully manifest until social demands exceed limited capacities) and limit or impair everyday functioning.
4. Symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a schizophrenia spectrum disorder or other psychotic disorders.

Autistic Disorder is part of the autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), which also include Asperger's Syndrome and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS). The current diagnostic term for this category of conditions, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), is Autism Spectrum Disorder.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a mental health disorder characterized by the presence of obsessions and compulsions. Obsessions are recurrent and persistent thoughts, urges, or images that are intrusive, unwanted, and often distressing. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts that an individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession or according to rigid rules, and which are aimed at preventing or reducing anxiety or distress, or preventing some dreaded event or situation. These obsessions and/or compulsions cause significant distress, take up a lot of time (an hour or more a day), and interfere with the individual's daily life, including social activities, relationships, and work or school performance. OCD is considered a type of anxiety disorder and can also co-occur with other mental health conditions.

Azabicyclo compounds are a type of organic compound that contain at least one nitrogen atom (azacycle) and two rings fused together (bicyclic). The nitrogen atom can be part of either a saturated or unsaturated ring, and the rings themselves can be composed of carbon atoms only or contain other heteroatoms such as oxygen or sulfur.

The term "azabicyclo" is often followed by a set of three numbers that specify the number of atoms in each of the three rings involved in the fusion. For example, azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane is a compound with two fused rings containing 3 and 2 carbon atoms, respectively, and one nitrogen atom forming the third ring of 1 carbon atom.

These compounds have a wide range of applications in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and materials science due to their unique structures and properties. In particular, azabicyclo compounds are often used as building blocks for the synthesis of complex natural products and bioactive molecules.

The brain is the central organ of the nervous system, responsible for receiving and processing sensory information, regulating vital functions, and controlling behavior, movement, and cognition. It is divided into several distinct regions, each with specific functions:

1. Cerebrum: The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, learning, memory, language, and perception. It is divided into two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite side of the body.
2. Cerebellum: Located at the back of the brain, it is responsible for coordinating muscle movements, maintaining balance, and fine-tuning motor skills.
3. Brainstem: Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord, controlling vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. It also serves as a relay center for sensory information and motor commands between the brain and the rest of the body.
4. Diencephalon: A region that includes the thalamus (a major sensory relay station) and hypothalamus (regulates hormones, temperature, hunger, thirst, and sleep).
5. Limbic system: A group of structures involved in emotional processing, memory formation, and motivation, including the hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus.

The brain is composed of billions of interconnected neurons that communicate through electrical and chemical signals. It is protected by the skull and surrounded by three layers of membranes called meninges, as well as cerebrospinal fluid that provides cushioning and nutrients.

Pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) are a group of conditions that affect the development and functioning of the brain, leading to delays in many areas of development. The American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) has replaced the term "pervasive developmental disorders" with "autism spectrum disorder" and "other neurodevelopmental disorders."

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts, as well as restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. The symptoms of ASD can range from mild to severe, and the condition affects approximately 1 in 54 children in the United States.

Other neurodevelopmental disorders that were previously classified as PDDs include:

1. Intellectual disability (ID): a condition characterized by significant limitations in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills. This disorder used to be referred to as "mental retardation."
2. Communication disorders: these are disorders that affect an individual's ability to communicate, including language disorders, speech sound disorders, and stuttering.
3. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
4. Specific learning disorder: a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects an individual's ability to learn and use specific academic skills, such as reading, writing, or mathematics.
5. Motor disorders: these are disorders that affect an individual's movement and coordination, including developmental coordination disorder, stereotypic movement disorder, and tic disorders.

The medical definition of 'Child Development Disorders, Pervasive' has been replaced with more specific diagnoses in the DSM-5 to better reflect the diverse nature of these conditions and improve diagnostic accuracy and treatment planning.

Substance-related disorders, as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), refer to a group of conditions caused by the use of substances such as alcohol, drugs, or medicines. These disorders are characterized by a problematic pattern of using a substance that leads to clinically significant impairment or distress. They can be divided into two main categories: substance use disorders and substance-induced disorders. Substance use disorders involve a pattern of compulsive use despite negative consequences, while substance-induced disorders include conditions such as intoxication, withdrawal, and substance/medication-induced mental disorders. The specific diagnosis depends on the type of substance involved, the patterns of use, and the presence or absence of physiological dependence.

A phobic disorder is a type of anxiety disorder characterized by an excessive and irrational fear or avoidance of specific objects, situations, or activities. This fear can cause significant distress and interfere with a person's daily life. Phobic disorders are typically classified into three main categories: specific phobias (such as fear of heights, spiders, or needles), social phobia (or social anxiety disorder), and agoraphobia (fear of open spaces or situations where escape might be difficult).

People with phobic disorders often recognize that their fear is excessive or unreasonable, but they are unable to control it. When exposed to the feared object or situation, they may experience symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, and difficulty breathing. These symptoms can be so distressing that individuals with phobic disorders go to great lengths to avoid the feared situation, which can have a significant impact on their quality of life.

Treatment for phobic disorders typically involves cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which helps individuals identify and challenge their irrational thoughts and fears, as well as exposure therapy, which gradually exposes them to the feared object or situation in a safe and controlled environment. In some cases, medication may also be recommended to help manage symptoms of anxiety.

Psychotic disorders are a group of severe mental health conditions characterized by distorted perceptions, thoughts, and emotions that lead to an inability to recognize reality. The two most common symptoms of psychotic disorders are hallucinations and delusions. Hallucinations are when a person sees, hears, or feels things that aren't there, while delusions are fixed, false beliefs that are not based on reality.

Other symptoms may include disorganized speech, disorganized behavior, catatonic behavior, and negative symptoms such as apathy and lack of emotional expression. Schizophrenia is the most well-known psychotic disorder, but other types include schizoaffective disorder, delusional disorder, brief psychotic disorder, shared psychotic disorder, and substance-induced psychotic disorder.

Psychotic disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including genetics, brain chemistry imbalances, trauma, and substance abuse. Treatment typically involves a combination of medication, therapy, and support services to help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

The medical definition of 'Automobile Driving' is the act of operating a motor vehicle, typically a car, on public roads or highways. This requires a set of cognitive, physical, and sensory skills to safely control the vehicle, navigate through traffic, and respond to various situations that may arise while driving.

Cognitive skills include attention, memory, decision-making, problem-solving, and judgment. Physical abilities encompass fine motor coordination, reaction time, strength, and flexibility. Sensory functions such as vision, hearing, and touch are also essential for safe driving.

Various medical conditions or medications can impair these skills and affect a person's ability to drive safely. Therefore, it is crucial for individuals to consult with their healthcare providers about any potential risks associated with driving and follow any recommended restrictions or guidelines.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure used to assess whether a person has a healthy weight for their height. It's calculated by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by the square of their height in meters. Here is the medical definition:

Body Mass Index (BMI) = weight(kg) / [height(m)]^2

According to the World Health Organization, BMI categories are defined as follows:

* Less than 18.5: Underweight
* 18.5-24.9: Normal or healthy weight
* 25.0-29.9: Overweight
* 30.0 and above: Obese

It is important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying weight issues in populations, it does have limitations when applied to individuals. For example, it may not accurately reflect body fat distribution or muscle mass, which can affect health risks associated with excess weight. Therefore, BMI should be used as one of several factors when evaluating an individual's health status and risk for chronic diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Work Schedule Tolerance" is not a recognized term in the medical field. It may be a term used in occupational health or human resources to refer to an employee's ability to adapt to different work schedules, such as night shifts, rotating shifts, or irregular hours. However, it is not a medical diagnosis or condition. If you have any concerns about your work schedule and how it affects your health, I would recommend speaking with a healthcare provider or occupational health professional.

Anxiety: A feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, typically about an imminent event or something with an uncertain outcome. In a medical context, anxiety refers to a mental health disorder characterized by feelings of excessive and persistent worry, fear, or panic that interfere with daily activities. It can also be a symptom of other medical conditions, such as heart disease, diabetes, or substance abuse disorders. Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and phobias.

"Sex factors" is a term used in medicine and epidemiology to refer to the differences in disease incidence, prevalence, or response to treatment that are observed between males and females. These differences can be attributed to biological differences such as genetics, hormones, and anatomy, as well as social and cultural factors related to gender.

For example, some conditions such as autoimmune diseases, depression, and osteoporosis are more common in women, while others such as cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer are more prevalent in men. Additionally, sex differences have been observed in the effectiveness and side effects of various medications and treatments.

It is important to consider sex factors in medical research and clinical practice to ensure that patients receive appropriate and effective care.

Neuropsychological tests are a type of psychological assessment that measures cognitive functions, such as attention, memory, language, problem-solving, and perception. These tests are used to help diagnose and understand the cognitive impact of neurological conditions, including dementia, traumatic brain injury, stroke, Parkinson's disease, and other disorders that affect the brain.

The tests are typically administered by a trained neuropsychologist and can take several hours to complete. They may involve paper-and-pencil tasks, computerized tasks, or interactive activities. The results of the tests are compared to normative data to help identify any areas of cognitive weakness or strength.

Neuropsychological testing can provide valuable information for treatment planning, rehabilitation, and assessing response to treatment. It can also be used in research to better understand the neural basis of cognition and the impact of neurological conditions on cognitive function.

Circadian clocks are biological systems found in living organisms that regulate the daily rhythmic activities and functions with a period of approximately 24 hours. These internal timekeeping mechanisms control various physiological processes, such as sleep-wake cycles, hormone secretion, body temperature, and metabolism, aligning them with the external environment's light-dark cycle.

The circadian clock consists of two major components: the central or master clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus in mammals, and peripheral clocks present in nearly every cell throughout the body. The molecular mechanisms underlying these clocks involve interconnected transcriptional-translational feedback loops of several clock genes and their protein products. These genetic components generate rhythmic oscillations that drive the expression of clock-controlled genes (CCGs), which in turn regulate numerous downstream targets responsible for coordinating daily physiological and behavioral rhythms.

Circadian clocks can be synchronized or entrained to external environmental cues, mainly by light exposure. This allows organisms to adapt their internal timekeeping to the changing day-night cycles and maintain proper synchronization with the environment. Desynchronization between the internal circadian system and external environmental factors can lead to various health issues, including sleep disorders, mood disturbances, cognitive impairment, metabolic dysregulation, and increased susceptibility to diseases.

A melatonin receptor is a type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that binds to the hormone melatonin, which is primarily involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles. There are two main subtypes of melatonin receptors, MT1 and MT2, which are encoded by the genes MTNR1A and MTNR1B, respectively.

MT2 receptor, also known as Mel1b or MTNR1B, is a subtype of melatonin receptor that is widely expressed in various tissues, including the retina, brain, heart, and gastrointestinal tract. MT2 receptors are involved in several physiological functions, such as circadian rhythm regulation, sleep onset and duration, and neuroprotection.

MT2 receptor activation has been shown to promote sleep onset and consolidation, reduce anxiety and depressive-like behaviors, and improve cognitive function. Additionally, MT2 receptors have been implicated in the regulation of glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, and energy homeostasis, suggesting a potential role in the treatment of metabolic disorders such as diabetes.

Overall, melatonin receptors, particularly the MT2 subtype, are important targets for developing therapies for sleep disorders, neuropsychiatric conditions, and metabolic diseases.

A "delta rhythm" is a term used in electroencephalography (EEG) to describe a pattern of brain waves that are typically seen in the delta frequency range (0.5-4 Hz) and are maximal over the posterior regions of the head. This rhythm is often observed during deep sleep stages, specifically stage 3 and stage 4 of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep.

Delta waves are characterized by their high amplitude and slow frequency, making them easily distinguishable from other brain wave patterns. The presence of a robust delta rhythm during sleep is thought to reflect the restorative processes that occur during this stage of sleep, including memory consolidation and physical restoration.

However, it's important to note that abnormal delta rhythms can also be observed in certain neurological conditions, such as epilepsy or encephalopathy, where they may indicate underlying brain dysfunction or injury. In these cases, the presence of delta rhythm may have different clinical implications and require further evaluation by a medical professional.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

Health surveys are research studies that collect data from a sample population to describe the current health status, health behaviors, and healthcare utilization of a particular group or community. These surveys may include questions about various aspects of health such as physical health, mental health, chronic conditions, lifestyle habits, access to healthcare services, and demographic information. The data collected from health surveys can be used to monitor trends in health over time, identify disparities in health outcomes, develop and evaluate public health programs and policies, and inform resource allocation decisions. Examples of national health surveys include the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) and the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS).

A headache is defined as pain or discomfort in the head, scalp, or neck. It can be a symptom of various underlying conditions such as stress, sinus congestion, migraine, or more serious issues like meningitis or concussion. Headaches can vary in intensity, ranging from mild to severe, and may be accompanied by other symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, or sensitivity to light and sound. There are over 150 different types of headaches, including tension headaches, cluster headaches, and sinus headaches, each with their own specific characteristics and causes.

"Sex distribution" is a term used to describe the number of males and females in a study population or sample. It can be presented as a simple count, a percentage, or a ratio. This information is often used in research to identify any differences in health outcomes, disease prevalence, or response to treatment between males and females. Additionally, understanding sex distribution can help researchers ensure that their studies are representative of the general population and can inform the design of future studies.

"Age distribution" is a term used to describe the number of individuals within a population or sample that fall into different age categories. It is often presented in the form of a graph, table, or chart, and can provide important information about the demographic structure of a population.

The age distribution of a population can be influenced by a variety of factors, including birth rates, mortality rates, migration patterns, and aging. Public health officials and researchers use age distribution data to inform policies and programs related to healthcare, social services, and other areas that affect the well-being of populations.

For example, an age distribution graph might show a larger number of individuals in the younger age categories, indicating a population with a high birth rate. Alternatively, it might show a larger number of individuals in the older age categories, indicating a population with a high life expectancy or an aging population. Understanding the age distribution of a population can help policymakers plan for future needs and allocate resources more effectively.

Conduct Disorder is a mental health disorder that typically begins in childhood or adolescence and is characterized by a repetitive pattern of behavior that violates the rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms and rules. The behaviors fall into four main categories: aggression to people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violation of rules.

The specific symptoms of Conduct Disorder can vary widely among individuals, but they generally include:

1. Aggression to people and animals: This may include physical fights, bullying, threatening others, cruelty to animals, and use of weapons.
2. Destruction of property: This may include deliberate destruction of others' property, arson, and vandalism.
3. Deceitfulness or theft: This may include lying, shoplifting, stealing, and breaking into homes, buildings, or cars.
4. Serious violation of rules: This may include running away from home, truancy, staying out late without permission, and frequent violations of school rules.

Conduct Disorder can have serious consequences for individuals who suffer from it, including academic failure, substance abuse, depression, anxiety, and difficulties in interpersonal relationships. It is important to note that Conduct Disorder should be diagnosed by a qualified mental health professional based on a comprehensive evaluation.

Benzhydryl compounds are organic chemical compounds that contain the benzhydryl group, which is a functional group consisting of a diphenylmethane moiety. The benzhydryl group can be represented by the formula Ph2CH, where Ph represents the phenyl group (C6H5).

Benzhydryl compounds are characterized by their unique structure, which consists of two aromatic rings attached to a central carbon atom. This structure gives benzhydryl compounds unique chemical and physical properties, such as stability, rigidity, and high lipophilicity.

Benzhydryl compounds have various applications in organic synthesis, pharmaceuticals, and materials science. For example, they are used as building blocks in the synthesis of complex natural products, drugs, and functional materials. They also serve as useful intermediates in the preparation of other chemical compounds.

Some examples of benzhydryl compounds include diphenylmethane, benzphetamine, and diphenhydramine. These compounds have been widely used in medicine as stimulants, appetite suppressants, and antihistamines. However, some benzhydryl compounds have also been associated with potential health risks, such as liver toxicity and carcinogenicity, and their use should be carefully monitored and regulated.

Positive-pressure respiration is a type of mechanical ventilation where positive pressure is applied to the airway and lungs, causing them to expand and inflate. This can be used to support or replace spontaneous breathing in patients who are unable to breathe effectively on their own due to conditions such as respiratory failure, neuromuscular disorders, or sedation for surgery.

During positive-pressure ventilation, a mechanical ventilator delivers breaths to the patient through an endotracheal tube or a tracheostomy tube. The ventilator is set to deliver a specific volume or pressure of air with each breath, and the patient's breathing is synchronized with the ventilator to ensure proper delivery of the breaths.

Positive-pressure ventilation can help improve oxygenation and remove carbon dioxide from the lungs, but it can also have potential complications such as barotrauma (injury to lung tissue due to excessive pressure), volutrauma (injury due to overdistention of the lungs), hemodynamic compromise (decreased blood pressure and cardiac output), and ventilator-associated pneumonia. Therefore, careful monitoring and adjustment of ventilator settings are essential to minimize these risks and provide safe and effective respiratory support.

Benzodiazepines are a class of psychoactive drugs that have been widely used for their sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. They act by enhancing the inhibitory effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.

Benzodiazepines are commonly prescribed for the treatment of anxiety disorders, insomnia, seizures, and muscle spasms. They can also be used as premedication before medical procedures to produce sedation, amnesia, and anxiolysis. Some examples of benzodiazepines include diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), clonazepam (Klonopin), lorazepam (Ativan), and temazepam (Restoril).

While benzodiazepines are effective in treating various medical conditions, they can also cause physical dependence and withdrawal symptoms. Long-term use of benzodiazepines can lead to tolerance, meaning that higher doses are needed to achieve the same effect. Abrupt discontinuation of benzodiazepines can result in severe withdrawal symptoms, including seizures, hallucinations, and anxiety. Therefore, it is important to taper off benzodiazepines gradually under medical supervision.

Benzodiazepines are classified as Schedule IV controlled substances in the United States due to their potential for abuse and dependence. It is essential to use them only as directed by a healthcare provider and to be aware of their potential risks and benefits.

Psychological stress is the response of an individual's mind and body to challenging or demanding situations. It can be defined as a state of emotional and physical tension resulting from adversity, demand, or change. This response can involve a variety of symptoms, including emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physiological components.

Emotional responses may include feelings of anxiety, fear, anger, sadness, or frustration. Cognitive responses might involve difficulty concentrating, racing thoughts, or negative thinking patterns. Behaviorally, psychological stress can lead to changes in appetite, sleep patterns, social interactions, and substance use. Physiologically, the body's "fight-or-flight" response is activated, leading to increased heart rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and other symptoms.

Psychological stress can be caused by a wide range of factors, including work or school demands, financial problems, relationship issues, traumatic events, chronic illness, and major life changes. It's important to note that what causes stress in one person may not cause stress in another, as individual perceptions and coping mechanisms play a significant role.

Chronic psychological stress can have negative effects on both mental and physical health, increasing the risk of conditions such as anxiety disorders, depression, heart disease, diabetes, and autoimmune diseases. Therefore, it's essential to identify sources of stress and develop effective coping strategies to manage and reduce its impact.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "United States" is a geopolitical entity, specifically the name of the country consisting of 50 states, and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it. If you have any questions related to health, medicine, or biology, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

Apnea is a medical condition defined as the cessation of breathing for 10 seconds or more. It can occur during sleep (sleep apnea) or while awake (wakeful apnea). There are different types of sleep apnea, including obstructive sleep apnea, central sleep apnea, and complex sleep apnea syndrome. Obstructive sleep apnea occurs when the airway becomes blocked during sleep, while central sleep apnea occurs when the brain fails to signal the muscles to breathe. Complex sleep apnea syndrome, also known as treatment-emergent central sleep apnea, is a combination of obstructive and central sleep apneas. Sleep apnea can lead to various complications, such as fatigue, difficulty concentrating, high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke.

A chronic disease is a long-term medical condition that often progresses slowly over a period of years and requires ongoing management and care. These diseases are typically not fully curable, but symptoms can be managed to improve quality of life. Common chronic diseases include heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease). They are often associated with advanced age, although they can also affect children and younger adults. Chronic diseases can have significant impacts on individuals' physical, emotional, and social well-being, as well as on healthcare systems and society at large.

Anti-anxiety agents, also known as anxiolytics, are a class of medications used to manage symptoms of anxiety disorders. These drugs work by reducing the abnormal excitement in the brain and promoting relaxation and calmness. They include several types of medications such as benzodiazepines, azapirone, antihistamines, and beta-blockers.

Benzodiazepines are the most commonly prescribed anti-anxiety agents. They work by enhancing the inhibitory effects of a neurotransmitter called gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain, which results in sedative, hypnotic, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, and muscle relaxant properties. Examples of benzodiazepines include diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan), and clonazepam (Klonopin).

Azapirones are a newer class of anti-anxiety agents that act on serotonin receptors in the brain. Buspirone (Buspar) is an example of this type of medication, which has fewer side effects and less potential for abuse compared to benzodiazepines.

Antihistamines are medications that are primarily used to treat allergies but can also have anti-anxiety effects due to their sedative properties. Examples include hydroxyzine (Vistaril, Atarax) and diphenhydramine (Benadryl).

Beta-blockers are mainly used to treat high blood pressure and heart conditions but can also help manage symptoms of anxiety such as rapid heartbeat, tremors, and sweating. Propranolol (Inderal) is an example of a beta-blocker used for this purpose.

It's important to note that anti-anxiety agents should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can have side effects and potential for dependence or addiction. Additionally, these medications are often used in combination with psychotherapy and lifestyle modifications to manage anxiety disorders effectively.

Pulmonary medicine is a medical specialty that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of diseases and conditions affecting the respiratory system, including the lungs, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. Pulmonologists are specialists who treat a wide range of respiratory disorders such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia, lung cancer, sleep-disordered breathing, tuberculosis, and interstitial lung diseases. They use various diagnostic techniques including chest X-rays, CT scans, pulmonary function tests, bronchoscopy, and sleep studies to evaluate and manage respiratory disorders. Pulmonologists also provide care for patients who require long-term mechanical ventilation or oxygen therapy.

Longitudinal studies are a type of research design where data is collected from the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time, often years or even decades. These studies are used to establish patterns of changes and events over time, and can help researchers identify causal relationships between variables. They are particularly useful in fields such as epidemiology, psychology, and sociology, where the focus is on understanding developmental trends and the long-term effects of various factors on health and behavior.

In medical research, longitudinal studies can be used to track the progression of diseases over time, identify risk factors for certain conditions, and evaluate the effectiveness of treatments or interventions. For example, a longitudinal study might follow a group of individuals over several decades to assess their exposure to certain environmental factors and their subsequent development of chronic diseases such as cancer or heart disease. By comparing data collected at multiple time points, researchers can identify trends and correlations that may not be apparent in shorter-term studies.

Longitudinal studies have several advantages over other research designs, including their ability to establish temporal relationships between variables, track changes over time, and reduce the impact of confounding factors. However, they also have some limitations, such as the potential for attrition (loss of participants over time), which can introduce bias and affect the validity of the results. Additionally, longitudinal studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, requiring significant resources and a long-term commitment from both researchers and study participants.

Tic disorders are a group of conditions characterized by the presence of repetitive, involuntary movements or sounds, known as tics. These movements or sounds can vary in complexity and severity, and they may be worsened by stress or strong emotions.

There are several different types of tic disorders, including:

1. Tourette's disorder: This is a neurological condition characterized by the presence of both motor (movement-related) and vocal tics that have been present for at least one year. The tics may wax and wane in severity over time, but they do not disappear for more than three consecutive months.
2. Persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic disorder: This type of tic disorder is characterized by the presence of either motor or vocal tics (but not both), which have been present for at least one year. The tics may wax and wane in severity over time, but they do not disappear for more than three consecutive months.
3. Provisional tic disorder: This type of tic disorder is characterized by the presence of motor or vocal tics (or both) that have been present for less than one year. The tics may wax and wane in severity over time, but they do not disappear for more than three consecutive months.
4. Tic disorder not otherwise specified: This category is used to describe tic disorders that do not meet the criteria for any of the other types of tic disorders.

Tic disorders are thought to be caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors, and they often co-occur with other conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Treatment for tic disorders may include behavioral therapy, medication, or a combination of both.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

"Biological clocks" refer to the internal time-keeping systems in living organisms that regulate the timing of various physiological processes and behaviors according to a daily (circadian) rhythm. These rhythms are driven by genetic mechanisms and can be influenced by environmental factors such as light and temperature.

In humans, biological clocks help regulate functions such as sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, body temperature, and metabolism. Disruptions to these internal timekeeping systems have been linked to various health problems, including sleep disorders, mood disorders, and cognitive impairment.

Ambulatory monitoring is a medical practice that involves the continuous or intermittent recording of physiological parameters in a patient who is mobile and able to perform their usual activities while outside of a hospital or clinical setting. This type of monitoring allows healthcare professionals to evaluate a patient's condition over an extended period, typically 24 hours or more, in their natural environment.

Ambulatory monitoring can be used to diagnose and manage various medical conditions such as hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, sleep disorders, and mobility issues. Common methods of ambulatory monitoring include:

1. Holter monitoring: A small, portable device that records the electrical activity of the heart for 24-48 hours or more.
2. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM): A device that measures blood pressure at regular intervals throughout the day and night.
3. Event monitors: Devices that record heart rhythms only when symptoms occur or when activated by the patient.
4. Actigraphy: A non-invasive method of monitoring sleep-wake patterns, physical activity, and circadian rhythms using a wristwatch-like device.
5. Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM): A device that measures blood sugar levels continuously throughout the day and night.

Overall, ambulatory monitoring provides valuable information about a patient's physiological status in their natural environment, allowing healthcare professionals to make informed decisions regarding diagnosis, treatment, and management of medical conditions.

Medical history taking is the process of obtaining and documenting a patient's health information through a series of questions and observations. It is a critical component of the medical assessment and helps healthcare providers understand the patient's current health status, past medical conditions, medications, allergies, lifestyle habits, and family medical history.

The information gathered during medical history taking is used to make informed decisions about diagnosis, treatment, and management plans for the patient's care. The process typically includes asking open-ended questions, actively listening to the patient's responses, clarifying any uncertainties, and documenting the findings in a clear and concise manner.

Medical history taking can be conducted in various settings, including hospitals, clinics, or virtual consultations, and may be performed by physicians, nurses, or other healthcare professionals. It is essential to ensure that medical history taking is conducted in a private and confidential setting to protect the patient's privacy and maintain trust in the provider-patient relationship.

HLA-DQ beta-chains are a type of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecule found on the surface of cells in the human body. The HLAs are a group of proteins that play an important role in the immune system by helping the body recognize and respond to foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria.

The HLA-DQ beta-chains are part of the HLA-DQ complex, which is a heterodimer made up of two polypeptide chains: an alpha chain (HLA-DQ alpha) and a beta chain (HLA-DQ beta). These chains are encoded by genes located on chromosome 6 in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region.

The HLA-DQ complex is involved in presenting peptides to CD4+ T cells, which are a type of white blood cell that plays a central role in the immune response. The peptides presented by the HLA-DQ complex are derived from proteins that have been processed within the cell, and they are used to help the CD4+ T cells recognize and respond to infected or abnormal cells.

Variations in the genes that encode the HLA-DQ beta-chains can affect an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases, including autoimmune disorders and infectious diseases.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

Intracellular signaling peptides and proteins are molecules that play a crucial role in transmitting signals within cells, which ultimately lead to changes in cell behavior or function. These signals can originate from outside the cell (extracellular) or within the cell itself. Intracellular signaling molecules include various types of peptides and proteins, such as:

1. G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs): These are seven-transmembrane domain receptors that bind to extracellular signaling molecules like hormones, neurotransmitters, or chemokines. Upon activation, they initiate a cascade of intracellular signals through G proteins and secondary messengers.
2. Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs): These are transmembrane receptors that bind to growth factors, cytokines, or hormones. Activation of RTKs leads to autophosphorylation of specific tyrosine residues, creating binding sites for intracellular signaling proteins such as adapter proteins, phosphatases, and enzymes like Ras, PI3K, and Src family kinases.
3. Second messenger systems: Intracellular second messengers are small molecules that amplify and propagate signals within the cell. Examples include cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), diacylglycerol (DAG), inositol triphosphate (IP3), calcium ions (Ca2+), and nitric oxide (NO). These second messengers activate or inhibit various downstream effectors, leading to changes in cellular responses.
4. Signal transduction cascades: Intracellular signaling proteins often form complex networks of interacting molecules that relay signals from the plasma membrane to the nucleus. These cascades involve kinases (protein kinases A, B, C, etc.), phosphatases, and adapter proteins, which ultimately regulate gene expression, cell cycle progression, metabolism, and other cellular processes.
5. Ubiquitination and proteasome degradation: Intracellular signaling pathways can also control protein stability by modulating ubiquitin-proteasome degradation. E3 ubiquitin ligases recognize specific substrates and conjugate them with ubiquitin molecules, targeting them for proteasomal degradation. This process regulates the abundance of key signaling proteins and contributes to signal termination or amplification.

In summary, intracellular signaling pathways involve a complex network of interacting proteins that relay signals from the plasma membrane to various cellular compartments, ultimately regulating gene expression, metabolism, and other cellular processes. Dysregulation of these pathways can contribute to disease development and progression, making them attractive targets for therapeutic intervention.

Logistic models, specifically logistic regression models, are a type of statistical analysis used in medical and epidemiological research to identify the relationship between the risk of a certain health outcome or disease (dependent variable) and one or more independent variables, such as demographic factors, exposure variables, or other clinical measurements.

In contrast to linear regression models, logistic regression models are used when the dependent variable is binary or dichotomous in nature, meaning it can only take on two values, such as "disease present" or "disease absent." The model uses a logistic function to estimate the probability of the outcome based on the independent variables.

Logistic regression models are useful for identifying risk factors and estimating the strength of associations between exposures and health outcomes, adjusting for potential confounders, and predicting the probability of an outcome given certain values of the independent variables. They can also be used to develop clinical prediction rules or scores that can aid in decision-making and patient care.

Tinnitus is the perception of ringing or other sounds in the ears or head when no external sound is present. It can be described as a sensation of hearing sound even when no actual noise is present. The sounds perceived can vary widely, from a whistling, buzzing, hissing, swooshing, to a pulsating sound, and can be soft or loud.

Tinnitus is not a disease itself but a symptom that can result from a wide range of underlying causes, such as hearing loss, exposure to loud noises, ear infections, earwax blockage, head or neck injuries, circulatory system disorders, certain medications, and age-related hearing loss.

Tinnitus can be temporary or chronic, and it may affect one or both ears. While tinnitus is not usually a sign of a serious medical condition, it can significantly impact quality of life and interfere with daily activities, sleep, and concentration.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Nonparametric statistics is a branch of statistics that does not rely on assumptions about the distribution of variables in the population from which the sample is drawn. In contrast to parametric methods, nonparametric techniques make fewer assumptions about the data and are therefore more flexible in their application. Nonparametric tests are often used when the data do not meet the assumptions required for parametric tests, such as normality or equal variances.

Nonparametric statistical methods include tests such as the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (also known as the Mann-Whitney U test) for comparing two independent groups, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for comparing two related groups, and the Kruskal-Wallis test for comparing more than two independent groups. These tests use the ranks of the data rather than the actual values to make comparisons, which allows them to be used with ordinal or continuous data that do not meet the assumptions of parametric tests.

Overall, nonparametric statistics provide a useful set of tools for analyzing data in situations where the assumptions of parametric methods are not met, and can help researchers draw valid conclusions from their data even when the data are not normally distributed or have other characteristics that violate the assumptions of parametric tests.

Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.

The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.

It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is a small region located in the hypothalamus of the brain, just above the optic chiasm where the optic nerves from each eye cross. It is considered to be the primary circadian pacemaker in mammals, responsible for generating and maintaining the body's internal circadian rhythm, which is a roughly 24-hour cycle that regulates various physiological processes such as sleep-wake cycles, hormone release, and metabolism.

The SCN receives direct input from retinal ganglion cells, which are sensitive to light and dark signals. This information helps the SCN synchronize the internal circadian rhythm with the external environment, allowing it to adjust to changes in day length and other environmental cues. The SCN then sends signals to other parts of the brain and body to regulate various functions according to the time of day.

Disruption of the SCN's function can lead to a variety of circadian rhythm disorders, such as jet lag, shift work disorder, and advanced or delayed sleep phase syndrome.

Melatonin receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that bind to the hormone melatonin in animals. These receptors play a crucial role in regulating various physiological functions, including sleep-wake cycles, circadian rhythms, and seasonal reproduction.

There are two main types of melatonin receptors: MT1 (also known as Mel1a) and MT2 (Mel1b). Both receptor subtypes are widely expressed in the central nervous system, retina, and peripheral tissues. The activation of these receptors by melatonin leads to a range of downstream signaling events that ultimately result in changes in gene expression, cellular responses, and physiological processes.

MT1 receptors are involved in regulating sleep onset and promoting non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. They have also been implicated in the regulation of mood, anxiety, and cognitive function. MT2 receptors play a role in regulating circadian rhythms and the timing of sleep-wake cycles. They are also involved in the regulation of pupillary light reflex, body temperature, and blood pressure.

Dysregulation of melatonin receptor signaling has been implicated in various sleep disorders, mood disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, understanding the function and regulation of melatonin receptors is an important area of research for developing novel therapeutic strategies for these conditions.

Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a mental health disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, affect, and mood, as well as marked impulsivity that begins by early adulthood and is present in various contexts.

Individuals with BPD often experience intense and fluctuating emotions, ranging from profound sadness, anxiety, and anger to feelings of happiness or calm. They may have difficulty managing these emotions, leading to impulsive behavior, self-harm, or suicidal ideation.

People with BPD also tend to have an unstable sense of self, which can lead to rapid changes in their goals, values, and career choices. They often struggle with feelings of emptiness and boredom, and may engage in risky behaviors such as substance abuse, reckless driving, or binge eating to alleviate these feelings.

Interpersonal relationships are often strained due to the individual's fear of abandonment, intense emotional reactions, and difficulty regulating their emotions. They may experience idealization and devaluation of others, leading to rapid shifts in how they view and treat people close to them.

Diagnosis of BPD is typically made by a mental health professional using criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), which is published by the American Psychiatric Association. Treatment for BPD may include psychotherapy, medication, and support groups to help individuals manage their symptoms and improve their quality of life.

Somatoform disorders are a group of psychological disorders characterized by the presence of physical symptoms that cannot be fully explained by a medical condition or substance abuse. These symptoms cause significant distress and impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. The individual's belief about the symptoms is not consistent with the medical evaluation and often leads to excessive or repeated medical evaluations.

Examples of somatoform disorders include:

1. Somatization disorder: characterized by multiple physical symptoms that cannot be explained medically, affecting several parts of the body.
2. Conversion disorder: characterized by the presence of one or more neurological symptoms (such as blindness, paralysis, or difficulty swallowing) that cannot be explained medically and appear to have a psychological origin.
3. Pain disorder: characterized by chronic pain that is not fully explained by a medical condition.
4. Hypochondriasis: characterized by an excessive preoccupation with having a serious illness, despite reassurance from medical professionals.
5. Body dysmorphic disorder: characterized by the obsessive idea that some aspect of one's own body part or appearance is severely flawed and warrants exceptional measures to hide or fix it.

It's important to note that these disorders are not caused by intentional deceit or malingering, but rather reflect a genuine belief in the presence of physical symptoms and distress related to them.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, unprovoked seizures. These seizures are caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain, which can result in a wide range of symptoms, including convulsions, loss of consciousness, and altered sensations or behaviors. Epilepsy can have many different causes, including genetic factors, brain injury, infection, or stroke. In some cases, the cause may be unknown.

There are many different types of seizures that can occur in people with epilepsy, and the specific type of seizure will depend on the location and extent of the abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Some people may experience only one type of seizure, while others may have several different types. Seizures can vary in frequency, from a few per year to dozens or even hundreds per day.

Epilepsy is typically diagnosed based on the patient's history of recurrent seizures and the results of an electroencephalogram (EEG), which measures the electrical activity in the brain. Imaging tests such as MRI or CT scans may also be used to help identify any structural abnormalities in the brain that may be contributing to the seizures.

While there is no cure for epilepsy, it can often be effectively managed with medication. In some cases, surgery may be recommended to remove the area of the brain responsible for the seizures. With proper treatment and management, many people with epilepsy are able to lead normal, productive lives.

Obesity is a complex disease characterized by an excess accumulation of body fat to the extent that it negatively impacts health. It's typically defined using Body Mass Index (BMI), a measure calculated from a person's weight and height. A BMI of 30 or higher is indicative of obesity. However, it's important to note that while BMI can be a useful tool for identifying obesity in populations, it does not directly measure body fat and may not accurately reflect health status in individuals. Other factors such as waist circumference, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and blood sugar levels should also be considered when assessing health risks associated with weight.

I apologize, but "Brazil" is not a medical term or condition. It is the largest country in both South America and Latin America by land area and population. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health concerns, please provide more information and I will do my best to help.

Photoperiod is a term used in chronobiology, which is the study of biological rhythms and their synchronization with environmental cycles. In medicine, photoperiod specifically refers to the duration of light and darkness in a 24-hour period, which can significantly impact various physiological processes in living organisms, including humans.

In human medicine, photoperiod is often considered in relation to circadian rhythms, which are internal biological clocks that regulate several functions such as sleep-wake cycles, hormone secretion, and metabolism. The length of the photoperiod can influence these rhythms and contribute to the development or management of certain medical conditions, like mood disorders, sleep disturbances, and metabolic disorders.

For instance, exposure to natural daylight or artificial light sources with specific intensities and wavelengths during particular times of the day can help regulate circadian rhythms and improve overall health. Conversely, disruptions in the photoperiod due to factors like shift work, jet lag, or artificial lighting can lead to desynchronization of circadian rhythms and related health issues.

The Chi-square distribution is a continuous probability distribution that is often used in statistical hypothesis testing. It is the distribution of a sum of squares of k independent standard normal random variables. The resulting quantity follows a chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom, denoted as χ²(k).

The probability density function (pdf) of the Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom is given by:

f(x; k) = (1/ (2^(k/2) * Γ(k/2))) \* x^((k/2)-1) \* e^(-x/2), for x > 0 and 0, otherwise.

Where Γ(k/2) is the gamma function evaluated at k/2. The mean and variance of a Chi-square distribution with k degrees of freedom are k and 2k, respectively.

The Chi-square distribution has various applications in statistical inference, including testing goodness-of-fit, homogeneity of variances, and independence in contingency tables.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Italy" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located in Southern Europe. If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

The odds ratio (OR) is a statistical measure used in epidemiology and research to estimate the association between an exposure and an outcome. It represents the odds that an event will occur in one group versus the odds that it will occur in another group, assuming that all other factors are held constant.

In medical research, the odds ratio is often used to quantify the strength of the relationship between a risk factor (exposure) and a disease outcome. An OR of 1 indicates no association between the exposure and the outcome, while an OR greater than 1 suggests that there is a positive association between the two. Conversely, an OR less than 1 implies a negative association.

It's important to note that the odds ratio is not the same as the relative risk (RR), which compares the incidence rates of an outcome in two groups. While the OR can approximate the RR when the outcome is rare, they are not interchangeable and can lead to different conclusions about the association between an exposure and an outcome.

Traffic accidents are incidents that occur when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, a pedestrian, an animal, or a stationary object, resulting in damage or injury. These accidents can be caused by various factors such as driver error, distracted driving, drunk driving, speeding, reckless driving, poor road conditions, and adverse weather conditions. Traffic accidents can range from minor fender benders to severe crashes that result in serious injuries or fatalities. They are a significant public health concern and cause a substantial burden on healthcare systems, emergency services, and society as a whole.

Risk assessment in the medical context refers to the process of identifying, evaluating, and prioritizing risks to patients, healthcare workers, or the community related to healthcare delivery. It involves determining the likelihood and potential impact of adverse events or hazards, such as infectious diseases, medication errors, or medical devices failures, and implementing measures to mitigate or manage those risks. The goal of risk assessment is to promote safe and high-quality care by identifying areas for improvement and taking action to minimize harm.

Lymphoproliferative disorders (LPDs) are a group of diseases characterized by the excessive proliferation of lymphoid cells, which are crucial components of the immune system. These disorders can arise from both B-cells and T-cells, leading to various clinical manifestations ranging from benign to malignant conditions.

LPDs can be broadly classified into reactive and neoplastic categories:

1. Reactive Lymphoproliferative Disorders: These are typically triggered by infections, autoimmune diseases, or immunodeficiency states. They involve an exaggerated response of the immune system leading to the excessive proliferation of lymphoid cells. Examples include:
* Infectious mononucleosis (IM) caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
* Lymph node enlargement due to various infections or autoimmune disorders
* Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder (PTLD), which occurs in the context of immunosuppression following organ transplantation
2. Neoplastic Lymphoproliferative Disorders: These are malignant conditions characterized by uncontrolled growth and accumulation of abnormal lymphoid cells, leading to the formation of tumors. They can be further classified into Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Examples include:
* Hodgkin lymphoma (HL): Classical HL and nodular lymphocyte-predominant HL
* Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL): Various subtypes, such as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, and Burkitt lymphoma

It is important to note that the distinction between reactive and neoplastic LPDs can sometimes be challenging, requiring careful clinical, histopathological, immunophenotypic, and molecular evaluations. Proper diagnosis and classification of LPDs are crucial for determining appropriate treatment strategies and predicting patient outcomes.

Movement disorders are a group of neurological conditions that affect the control and coordination of voluntary movements. These disorders can result from damage to or dysfunction of the cerebellum, basal ganglia, or other parts of the brain that regulate movement. Symptoms may include tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia (slowness of movement), akathisia (restlessness and inability to remain still), dystonia (sustained muscle contractions leading to abnormal postures), chorea (rapid, unpredictable movements), tics, and gait disturbances. Examples of movement disorders include Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Tourette syndrome, and dystonic disorders.

A brain injury is defined as damage to the brain that occurs following an external force or trauma, such as a blow to the head, a fall, or a motor vehicle accident. Brain injuries can also result from internal conditions, such as lack of oxygen or a stroke. There are two main types of brain injuries: traumatic and acquired.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is caused by an external force that results in the brain moving within the skull or the skull being fractured. Mild TBIs may result in temporary symptoms such as headaches, confusion, and memory loss, while severe TBIs can cause long-term complications, including physical, cognitive, and emotional impairments.

Acquired brain injury (ABI) is any injury to the brain that occurs after birth and is not hereditary, congenital, or degenerative. ABIs are often caused by medical conditions such as strokes, tumors, anoxia (lack of oxygen), or infections.

Both TBIs and ABIs can range from mild to severe and may result in a variety of physical, cognitive, and emotional symptoms that can impact a person's ability to perform daily activities and function independently. Treatment for brain injuries typically involves a multidisciplinary approach, including medical management, rehabilitation, and supportive care.

Health status is a term used to describe the overall condition of an individual's health, including physical, mental, and social well-being. It is often assessed through various measures such as medical history, physical examination, laboratory tests, and self-reported health assessments. Health status can be used to identify health disparities, track changes in population health over time, and evaluate the effectiveness of healthcare interventions.

"Motor activity" is a general term used in the field of medicine and neuroscience to refer to any kind of physical movement or action that is generated by the body's motor system. The motor system includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and muscles that work together to produce movements such as walking, talking, reaching for an object, or even subtle actions like moving your eyes.

Motor activity can be voluntary, meaning it is initiated intentionally by the individual, or involuntary, meaning it is triggered automatically by the nervous system without conscious control. Examples of voluntary motor activity include deliberately lifting your arm or kicking a ball, while examples of involuntary motor activity include heartbeat, digestion, and reflex actions like jerking your hand away from a hot stove.

Abnormalities in motor activity can be a sign of neurological or muscular disorders, such as Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, or multiple sclerosis. Assessment of motor activity is often used in the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions.

The double-blind method is a study design commonly used in research, including clinical trials, to minimize bias and ensure the objectivity of results. In this approach, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group the participants are assigned to, whether it be the experimental group or the control group. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or placebo, thus reducing the potential for bias in the evaluation of outcomes. The assignment of participants to groups is typically done by a third party not involved in the study, and the codes are only revealed after all data have been collected and analyzed.

Combat disorders are a category of mental health conditions that can occur in military personnel as a result of their experiences during combat. These disorders can include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder, and adjustment disorders, among others. Combat disorders may be caused by exposure to traumatic events, such as experiencing or witnessing combat, the threat of death or serious injury, or the loss of fellow soldiers. Symptoms can include flashbacks, nightmares, avoidance of reminders of the trauma, difficulty sleeping, irritability, and feelings of detachment or numbness. Treatment for combat disorders typically involves a combination of medication and therapy.

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), alcohol-related disorders are a category of mental disorders defined by a problematic pattern of alcohol use that leads to clinically significant impairment or distress. The disorders include:

1. Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD): A chronic relapsing brain disorder characterized by an impaired ability to stop or control alcohol use despite adverse social, occupational, or health consequences. AUD can be mild, moderate, or severe, and recovery is possible regardless of severity. The symptoms include problems controlling intake of alcohol, continued use despite problems resulting from drinking, development of a tolerance, drinking that leads to risky situations, or withdrawal symptoms when not drinking.
2. Alcohol Intoxication: A state of acute impairment in mental and motor function caused by the recent consumption of alcohol. The symptoms include slurred speech, unsteady gait, nystagmus, impaired attention or memory, stupor, or coma. In severe cases, it can lead to respiratory depression, hypothermia, or even death.
3. Alcohol Withdrawal: A syndrome that occurs when alcohol use is heavily reduced or stopped after prolonged and heavy use. The symptoms include autonomic hyperactivity, increased hand tremor, insomnia, nausea or vomiting, transient visual, tactile, or auditory hallucinations or illusions, psychomotor agitation, anxiety, and grand mal seizures.
4. Other Alcohol-Induced Disorders: These include alcohol-induced sleep disorder, alcohol-induced sexual dysfunction, and alcohol-induced major neurocognitive disorder.

It is important to note that alcohol use disorders are complex conditions that can be influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, environment, and personal behavior. If you or someone you know is struggling with alcohol use, it is recommended to seek professional help.

Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders (ADDBDs) are a group of childhood-onset disorders characterized by persistent patterns of behavior that are difficult for the individual to control. These disorders include Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), and Conduct Disorder (CD).

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with daily functioning. These symptoms must be present for at least six months and occur in multiple settings, such as school, home, and social situations.

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) is characterized by a pattern of negative, hostile, and defiant behavior towards authority figures, which includes arguing with adults, losing temper, actively defying rules, and deliberately annoying others. These symptoms must be present for at least six months and occur more frequently than in other children of the same age and developmental level.

Conduct Disorder (CD) is characterized by a repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior that violates the rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms and rules. These behaviors include aggression towards people and animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, and serious violation of rules.

It's important to note that these disorders can co-occur with other mental health conditions, such as mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and learning disabilities. Proper diagnosis and treatment are essential for managing the symptoms and improving the individual's quality of life.

Renal dialysis is a medical procedure that is used to artificially remove waste products, toxins, and excess fluids from the blood when the kidneys are no longer able to perform these functions effectively. This process is also known as hemodialysis.

During renal dialysis, the patient's blood is circulated through a special machine called a dialyzer or an artificial kidney, which contains a semi-permeable membrane that filters out waste products and excess fluids from the blood. The cleaned blood is then returned to the patient's body.

Renal dialysis is typically recommended for patients with advanced kidney disease or kidney failure, such as those with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). It is a life-sustaining treatment that helps to maintain the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the body, prevent the buildup of waste products and toxins, and control blood pressure.

There are two main types of renal dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. Hemodialysis is the most common type and involves using a dialyzer to filter the blood outside the body. Peritoneal dialysis, on the other hand, involves placing a catheter in the abdomen and using the lining of the abdomen (peritoneum) as a natural filter to remove waste products and excess fluids from the body.

Overall, renal dialysis is an essential treatment option for patients with kidney failure, helping them to maintain their quality of life and prolong their survival.

Aging is a complex, progressive and inevitable process of bodily changes over time, characterized by the accumulation of cellular damage and degenerative changes that eventually lead to increased vulnerability to disease and death. It involves various biological, genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors that contribute to the decline in physical and mental functions. The medical field studies aging through the discipline of gerontology, which aims to understand the underlying mechanisms of aging and develop interventions to promote healthy aging and extend the human healthspan.

Regression analysis is a statistical technique used in medicine, as well as in other fields, to examine the relationship between one or more independent variables (predictors) and a dependent variable (outcome). It allows for the estimation of the average change in the outcome variable associated with a one-unit change in an independent variable, while controlling for the effects of other independent variables. This technique is often used to identify risk factors for diseases or to evaluate the effectiveness of medical interventions. In medical research, regression analysis can be used to adjust for potential confounding variables and to quantify the relationship between exposures and health outcomes. It can also be used in predictive modeling to estimate the probability of a particular outcome based on multiple predictors.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Speech disorders refer to a group of conditions in which a person has difficulty producing or articulating sounds, words, or sentences in a way that is understandable to others. These disorders can be caused by various factors such as developmental delays, neurological conditions, hearing loss, structural abnormalities, or emotional issues.

Speech disorders may include difficulties with:

* Articulation: the ability to produce sounds correctly and clearly.
* Phonology: the sound system of language, including the rules that govern how sounds are combined and used in words.
* Fluency: the smoothness and flow of speech, including issues such as stuttering or cluttering.
* Voice: the quality, pitch, and volume of the spoken voice.
* Resonance: the way sound is produced and carried through the vocal tract, which can affect the clarity and quality of speech.

Speech disorders can impact a person's ability to communicate effectively, leading to difficulties in social situations, academic performance, and even employment opportunities. Speech-language pathologists are trained to evaluate and treat speech disorders using various evidence-based techniques and interventions.

The Predictive Value of Tests, specifically the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), are measures used in diagnostic tests to determine the probability that a positive or negative test result is correct.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the proportion of patients with a positive test result who actually have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true positives divided by the total number of positive results (true positives + false positives). A higher PPV indicates that a positive test result is more likely to be a true positive, and therefore the disease is more likely to be present.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the proportion of patients with a negative test result who do not have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true negatives divided by the total number of negative results (true negatives + false negatives). A higher NPV indicates that a negative test result is more likely to be a true negative, and therefore the disease is less likely to be present.

The predictive value of tests depends on the prevalence of the disease in the population being tested, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the test. A test with high sensitivity and specificity will generally have higher predictive values than a test with low sensitivity and specificity. However, even a highly sensitive and specific test can have low predictive values if the prevalence of the disease is low in the population being tested.

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Some of the conditions the sleep disorder specialist helps evaluate and treat are; insomnia, sleep apnea, restless legs ... The sleep disorder specialist scores and performs polysomnography and also assists in diagnosing and preparing a treatment plan ... A Sleep disorder specialist (SDS) is a Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT-SDS) that has successfully passed the ... Respiratory therapy Certified Respiratory Therapist American Association of Sleep Technologists National Board of Respiratory ...
"Nurses have increased risk of sleep disorders, sleep deprivation". American Academy of Sleep Medicine - Association for Sleep ... Shift work sleep disorder is also associated with falling asleep at work. Total daily sleep time is usually shortened and sleep ... Shift work sleep disorder (SWSD) is a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterized by insomnia, excessive sleepiness, or both ... These symptoms are not better explained by another sleep disorder, medical or neurologic disorder, mental disorder, medication ...
"Circadian rhythm sleep disorders: part II, advanced sleep phase disorder, delayed sleep phase disorder, free-running disorder, ... Delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD), more often known as delayed sleep phase syndrome and also as delayed sleep-wake phase ... Unless they have another sleep disorder such as sleep apnea in addition to DSPD, patients can sleep well and have a normal need ... According to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders, Revised (ICSD-R, 2001), the circadian rhythm sleep disorders ...
A sleep-related breathing disorder is a sleep disorder in which abnormalities in breathing occur during sleep that may or may ... According to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders, sleep-related breathing disorders are classified as follows: ... Sleep apnea, including the more specific disorders of obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea Central hypoventilation ... Sleep apnea is measured by the apnea-hypopnea index (AHI). An AHI is determined with a sleep study. AHI values for adults are ...
"Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders: Part II, Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder, Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder, Free-Running Disorder, ... Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder (ASPD), also known as the advanced sleep-phase type (ASPT) of circadian rhythm sleep disorder, is ... Delayed sleep phase disorder Irregular sleep-wake rhythm Non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder Dodson, Ehren R.; Zee, Phyllis C (2010 ... Sleep specialists may also conduct a polysomnography test to rule out other sleep disorders like narcolepsy. Age and family ...
... a circadian rhythm sleep disorder or a mental disorder, then caffeine-induced sleep disorder is not the cause.[citation needed ... total sleep time reduced, normal stages of sleep altered, and the quality of sleep decreased." Caffeine reduces slow-wave sleep ... Risk factors of sleep can range across many different arrays such as environmental, lifestyle, psychosocial, sleep disorders, ... Caffeine-induced sleep disorder is a psychiatric disorder that results from overconsumption of the stimulant caffeine. Caffeine ...
Other related sleep disturbances are delayed sleep phase syndrome, circadian-rhythm sleep disorder, sleep apnea, REM sleep ... Sleep is known to play an important role in the etiology and maintenance of bipolar disorder. Patients with bipolar disorder ... Bipolar disorder is known to have a high heritability. Therefore, sleep disturbances in bipolar disorder could also have a ... Sleep disturbances in bipolar disorder are also an important marker for relapse. Multiple studies found evidence that sleep ...
Delayed sleep phase disorder, advanced sleep phase disorder, non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder and irregular sleep-wake rhythm ... Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders: Part II, Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder, Delayed Sleep Phase Disorder, Free-Running Disorder, ... Circadian rhythm sleep disorders (CRSD), also known as circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders (CRSWD), are a family of sleep ... Delayed sleep phase disorder (DSPD): Individuals who have been diagnosed with delayed sleep phase disorder have sleep-wake ...
... sleep apnea, narcolepsy, periodic limb movement disorder and hypersomnia. Furthermore, circadian sleep-wake disorders can occur ... Obstructive sleep apnea is also associated with structural changes in the brain. Indirect consequences of sleep disorders after ... Therefore, it is often not clear whether the sleeping disorder is a result of pre-existing disorders. Careful assessment of ... There is no explicit treatment for sleep disorders following TBI. Several interventions for general sleep disturbance have been ...
"Circadian rhythm sleep disorders: part II, advanced sleep phase disorder, delayed sleep phase disorder, free-running disorder, ... Advanced Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder (ASWPD), Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder (DSWPD), Non-24-Hour Sleep-Wake Rhythm Disorder ( ... irregular sleep wake syndrome, Irregular Sleep Wake Cycle or Irregular Sleep Wake Schedule, and Irregular Sleep Wake Disorder ( ... An overnight sleep study is usually not needed to detect this disorder, but may be indicated if other sleep disorders, such as ...
"Sleep-Related Eating Disorder and Night Eating Syndrome: Sleep Disorders, Eating Disorders, Or both?". Sleep. 29 (7): 876-7. ... In his article "Sleep-Related Eating Disorder and Night Eating Syndrome: Sleep Disorders, Eating Disorders, Or both", Winkelman ... American Academy of Sleep Medicine (2014) International classification of sleep disorders, 3rd edn. American Academy of Sleep ... Nocturnal sleep-related eating disorder (NSRED) is a combination of a parasomnia and an eating disorder. It is a non-rapid eye ...
Ahmed, Syed M S. "REM Sleep Behavior Disorder". Retrieved 23 April 2014. (Sleep disorders, Mental disorders screening and ... Rapid eye movement sleep (REM sleep) Non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM) Stiasny-Kolster K, Mayer G, Schäfer S, Möller JC, ... Atlas Task Force of the American Sleep Disorders Association (ASDA) (2005). "The International Classification of Sleep ... "REM sleep behavior disorder in Japanese patients with Parkinson's disease: a multicenter study using the REM sleep behavior ...
... or REM behavior disorder (RBD) is a sleep disorder in which people act out their ... American Academy of Sleep Medicine (2014). International classification of sleep disorders, 3rd edn. American Academy of Sleep ... March 2013). "Treatment Outcomes in REM Sleep Behavior Disorder". Sleep Medicine (Review). 14 (3): 237-242. doi:10.1016/j.sleep ... Treatment includes regulating neurologic symptoms and treating any other sleep disorders that might interfere with sleep. Sleep ...
"Circadian rhythm sleep disorders: part II, advanced sleep phase disorder, delayed sleep phase disorder, free-running disorder, ... the parent spectrum of sleep disorders including non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder. Delayed sleep phase disorder Advanced sleep ... Advanced Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder (ASWPD), Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder (DSWPD), Non-24-Hour Sleep-Wake Rhythm Disorder ( ... Non-24-hour sleep-wake disorder (non-24 or N24SWD) is one of several chronic circadian rhythm sleep disorders (CRSDs). It is ...
Articles with short description, Short description matches Wikidata, Sleep disorders, Mental disorders screening and assessment ... The REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Single-Question Screen (RBD1Q) is a one-question screening tool for dream enactment behaviors ... The RBD1Q can be used to establish a diagnosis of REM sleep behavior disorder in Parkinson's disease and dementia with Lewy ... Participants for a case-control study were recruited from twelve centers of the International REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Study ...
Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (RBD) is a sleep disorder characterized by the loss of normal skeletal muscle atonia ... Rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder and Parkinson's disease is rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder (RBD) that is ... Jozwaik N (2017). "REM Sleep Behavior Disorder and Cognitive Impairment in Parkinson's Disease". Sleep. 40 - via oxford ... "Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder in treatment-naïve Parkinson disease patients". Sleep Medicine. 14 (10): 1035-1037. ...
"Sleep Sex - Sexsomnia Causes And Treatment , Sleep Disorder Symptoms". Sleep Disorders , all About Sleep Deprivation. Archived ... central sleep apnea, sleep-related hypoventilation, circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep ... coexisting sleep disorders sleep disruption secondary to obstructive sleep apnea sleep related epilepsy certain medications ... Parasomnia disorders are classified into the following categories: arousal disorders sleep-wake transition disorders ...
... sleep disorders; occupational, physical, recreational and speech therapy; urology and vascular. Stephen Curry (b. March 14, ...
Sleep and connected disorder David J. Nutt; Sue Wilson (2008). Sleep disorders. Oxford Psychiatry Library. Oxford: Oxford ... ISBN 978-0-12-370624-9. Anxiety disorders David J. Nutt; James C. Ballenger (2003). Anxiety disorders. Oxford: Blackwell ... Clinician's manual on anxiety disorders and comorbid depression. London: Science Press. ISBN 978-1-85873-397-5. Other disorders ... ISBN 978-0-19-923433-2. David J. Nutt; Jaime M. Monti; S. R. Pandi-Perumal; Barry L. Jacobs (2008). Serotonin and Sleep: ...
Sleep Medicine Reviews. 25: 52-73. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2015.01.009. PMID 26163057. Currie, S.R. (2008). "Sleep Disorders". In ... using sleep duration and sleep efficiency variables), perceived sleep quality (using subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, ... "Sleep measures / Instruments Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) , Center for Sleep and Circadian Science". Retrieved 2023-06 ... The component scores consist of subjective sleep quality, sleep latency (i.e., how long it takes to fall asleep), sleep ...
... is the most common Sleep-Disordered Breathing (SDB) and affects up to 11% of children born at term - it ... Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is the most common sleep-related breathing disorder and is characterized by recurrent episodes of ... Children with obstructive sleep-disordered breathing also show a faster heart rate during wakefulness and during sleep. In ... American Academy of Sleep Medicine. International classification of sleep disorders. 3rd ed. Darien, IL: American Academy of ...
Ferini-Strambi L (2011). "Sleep disorders in multiple sclerosis". Sleep Disorders. pp. 1139-1146. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52007- ... The DSM-5 recognizes one chronic pain disorder, somatic symptom disorders. The criteria include pain lasting longer than six ... sleep-disordered breathing, opioid-induced hyperalgesia, physical dependence, addiction, abuse, and overdose. Alternative ... Sleep disturbance, and insomnia due to medication and illness symptoms are often experienced by those with chronic pain. These ...
Ph.D.The Encyclopedia of Sleep and Sleep Disorders. 2nd edition. New York: Facts on File, 2001. American Sleep Disorders ... www.minddisorders.com/Br-Del/Circadian-rhythm-sleep-disorder.html#ixzz3tkBVLE9P (Sleep medicine, Sleep disorders). ... Jet lag Shift work sleep disorder Circadian rhythm Delayed sleep phase disorder Encephalitis lethargica Lethargy Morgan, M. Y ... Sleep inversion or sleep-wake inversion is a reversal of sleeping tendencies. Individuals experiencing sleep-wake inversion ...
President signs a commercial driver sleep disorder bill". Knowledge at Work. Retrieved 27 February 2014. "Sleep Disorders". ... Department of Transportation the authority to require screening and treatment of commercial truck drivers for sleep disorders, ... or treatment of individuals operating commercial motor vehicles for sleep disorders is adopted pursuant to a rulemaking ... "The development of any future regulation on establishing objective standards for sleep disorder screening, testing and ...
... , also spelled sleep apnoea, is a sleep disorder in which pauses in breathing or periods of shallow breathing during ... Whether medical cost savings occur with treatment of sleep apnea remains to be determined. Sleep disorders including sleep ... "Sleep Disordered Breathing and Mortality: Eighteen-Year Follow-up of the Wisconsin Sleep Cohort". Sleep. 31 (8): 1071-1078. PMC ... Sleep. 29 (9): 1203-1209. doi:10.1093/sleep/29.9.1203. PMID 17040008. "Sleep Apnea: Who Is At Risk for Sleep Apnea?". NHLBI: ...
... caffeine withdrawal and other caffeine-induced disorders (e.g., Anxiety and Sleep Disorders). Even in low doses, stimulants ... Stimulant use disorder is a type of substance use disorder where the use of stimulants caused clinically significant impairment ... Conversely, caffeine misuse does not qualify as an addictive disorder; thus it can not be diagnosed as a stimulant use disorder ... "Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders", Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM Library, American ...
Learn about sleep disorders, treatments, and good sleep habits. ... Getting a good sleep is vital to your health, but many ... The symptoms of sleep disorders depend on the specific disorder. Some signs that you may have a sleep disorder include that:. * ... What are sleep disorders?. Sleep disorders are conditions that disturb your normal sleep patterns. There are more than 80 ... What are the treatments for sleep disorders?. Treatments for sleep disorders depend on which disorder you have. They may ...
Read about sleep disorder symptoms, tests, and treatment, including sleep disorder medication. Learn about sleep disorder ... Sleep Disorders : Understand the various types of sleep disorders. ... clinics and getting help for sleep disorders. ... Sleep Deprivation, Sleep Disorders, and Chronic Disease. ...
Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System assesses sleep in adults ... Short sleep duration is based on age group recommended hours of sleep per day and defined as less than 7 hours for adults. ... Prevalence of short sleep among US adults, 2020. Highlights. *Crude prevalence of adults who reported short sleep duration was ... Age-adjusted prevalence of adults who reported short sleep duration varied by state in 2020, ranging from 29.3% in Colorado to ...
Inadequate or nonrestorative sleep can markedly impair a patients quality of life. ... Sleep disorders are among the most common clinical problems encountered in medicine and psychiatry. ... encoded search term (Sleep-Wake Disorders) and Sleep-Wake Disorders What to Read Next on Medscape ... Sleep-Wake Disorders Differential Diagnoses. Updated: Aug 21, 2019 * Author: Roy H Lubit, MD, PhD; Chief Editor: Ana Hategan, ...
SLQ060 - Ever told by doctor have sleep disorder?. Variable Name: SLQ060. SAS Label: Ever told by doctor have sleep disorder?. ... The sleep disorders section (variable name prefix SLQ) includes a limited number of questions on sleep habits and disorders. ... How much sleep do you get (hours)?. English Text: The next set of questions is about your sleeping habits. How much sleep {do ... Have you/Has SP} ever been told by a doctor or other health professional that {you have/s/he has} a sleep disorder?. Target: ...
Tags blood diseases, heart diseases, HLBS-PopOmics, lung diseases, public health genomics knowledge base, sleep disorders, ... and sleep disorders knowledge base in population Read More ,. Posted on March 14, 2018. by George A. Mensah, Center for ... and sleep disorders. Timely and targeted dissemination of published research findings is an important step in accelerating the ... sleep disorders - Genomics and Precision Health Blog ...
Sleep also affects your memory and ability to learn new things. At the same time, a lack of sleep is perhaps the single largest ... Use our tips to improve your sleeping habits. ... Sleep is an essential function that allows your body and brain ... Sleep problems on the NHS website. If your study situation is negatively affecting your sleep or if your sleep disorder is ... The sleep formula. There are three factors that influence our sleep:. *The amount of time spent awake since we last slept. The ...
Sleep Disorders Extrinsic Sleep Disorders Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders Arousal Disorders Sleep-Wake Transition Disorders ... wake phase disorder Advanced sleep-wake phase disorder Irregular sleep-wake rhythm disorder Non-24-h sleep-wake rhythm disorder ... Disorders of Sleep Other disorders with physical manifestation Sleep walking Sleep terror Insomnia Hypersomnia Sleep wake ... circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders, sleep-related movement disorders, parasomnias, and other sleep disorders. Each of these ...
Sleep disorders in individuals who have experienced traumatic brain injury are underdiagnosed and undertreated. ... Traumatic Brain Injury and Sleep Disorders Sleep disturbances occur with increased frequency in patients with traumatic brain ... Can Disordered Sleep Increase Stroke Risk? 0.25 CME / CE / ABIM MOC Credits Clinical Review ... news Sleep Disturbance May Predict Increased Risk of Suicidal Thoughts * 2001/viewarticle/both-too-much-and-not-enough-sleep- ...
Prognosis depends on the specific type of sleep disorder. In most cases, children outgrow sleep disorders such as nightmares ... Relatively few forms of sleep disorder represent life-threatening medical conditions. Sleep apnea is one of the few examples. ... and sleep terror disorder. Other conditions tend to be chronic. Narcolepsy, for example, is a life-long condition. ...
Get detailed information about the causes and management of the major sleep disorders in this summary for clinicians. ... sleep apnea, hypersomnias, parasomnias, and problems with circadian rhythm) are common in people with cancer. ... Disorders of the sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm sleep disorders).. *Dysfunctions associated with sleep, sleep stages, or ... Efficacy and safety of exogenous melatonin for secondary sleep disorders and sleep disorders accompanying sleep restriction: ...
Types of Sleep Disorders. Sleep disorders can range from mild to severe. One of the most common forms of sleep disorder is ... Dual Diagnosis Treatment Can Address Sleep Disorders and Addiction. If you have a sleep disorder and have found yourself ... Talking in ones sleep is not necessarily a form of sleepwalking, although it can be a symptom of the disorder. The difference ... Understanding sleep disorders and how they can affect our lives, as well as the medical treatments available, may help. It is ...
Tips for managing sleep disorders and how to get a better night of sleep. ... The first step in managing a sleep disorder is good sleep hygiene, or practicing good sleep habits. Poor sleep hygiene can lead ... The first step in managing a sleep disorder is good sleep hygiene, or practicing good sleep habits. ... It can also interact with other causes of sleep disorders. This results in poor sleep quality. ...
People with a sleep disorder that causes them to kick or cry out during their sleep may be at greater risk of developing ... The sleep disorder is called REM sleep behavior disorder. People with the disorder do not have the normal lack of muscle tone ... People with a sleep disorder that causes them to kick or cry out during their sleep may be at greater risk of developing ... People with a sleep disorder that causes them to kick or cry out during their sleep may be at greater risk of developing ...
Among the disorders associated with psoriasis, sleep disorders are common, although they are not directly assessed by most ... Thus, the specific evaluation of sleep disorders using dedicated scores is necessary, especially because such … ... factors predictive of sleep disorders in patients with psoriasis, the impact of sleep disorders on comorbidities and quality of ... Among the disorders associated with psoriasis, sleep disorders are common, although they are not directly assessed by most ...
Insomnia and sleep apnea have been shown to double the risk of early preterm birth. ... Sleep disorders among pregnant women are associated with early birth. ... The new study focuses on sleep disorders, such as sleep apnea and insomnia, that might cause significant disruption to sleep, ... The authors say that the true prevalence of these disorders remains unclear because sleep disorders in pregnant women "often go ...
Learn more from WebMD about the types and causes of various sleep problems. ... What Are Sleep Disorders?. Circadian Rhythm Disorders. Typically, people sleep at night -- thanks not only to the conventions ... Other Things that Impact Sleep. Young age. Infants may sleep up to 16 hours a day. But most wont sleep through the night ... Obstructive sleep apnea was thought to be a disorder primarily of overweight, older men. But abnormal breathing during sleep ...
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... of common sleep disorders and their association with adverse health and safety outcomes and found that sleep disorders are ... 28, 2019 Insufficient sleep and untreated sleep disorders put people at increased risk for metabolic problems, including ... of common sleep disorders and their association with adverse health and safety outcomes and found that sleep disorders are ... of common sleep disorders and their association with adverse health and safety outcomes and found that sleep disorders are ...
Interest in and treatment of sleep disturbances in youth continues to increase, but research continues to lag. ... Pediatric sleep disorders represent highly common phenomena that often interfere with daily patient and family functioning. ... Advanced Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder (ASWPD), Delayed Sleep-Wake Phase Disorder (DSWPD), Non-24-Hour Sleep-Wake Rhythm Disorder ( ... encoded search term (Pediatric Sleep Disorders) and Pediatric Sleep Disorders What to Read Next on Medscape ...
If youve ever woken from a deep sleep in a confused state and didnt remember the experience later, you may have a condition ... The researchers found that among those whod had an episode of sleep drunkenness, 70 percent also had a sleep disorder, and 37 ... panic or post-traumatic stress disorder and anxiety seemed more susceptible to the disorder, as did those with sleep apnea, a ... The prevalence of sleep drunkenness may be cause for concern, Ohayon said. The disorder could have major consequences if it ...
Prevalence and Correlates of Sleep Disorders in First-Episode Psychosis. By Brian Miller, MD, PhD, MPH ... Researchers investigated the prevalence and correlates of sleep disorders in patients with first-episode psychosis. ... Sleep and suicide: researchers performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of objective sleep markers of suicidal behaviors ... Although more than 90% of children had at least 1 caregiver-reported sleep problem, only 20% had a clinician-documented sleep ...
... will develop a new generation of electronic devices to investigate sleep modulation. ... sleep disorders remain widespread. "40 per cent of Canadians have sleep disorders, with over 3 million suffering from insomnia ... These new algorithms can recognize sleep patterns and identify sleep disorders that may not be distinguishable using ... How AI and neuromodulation could help with sleep disorders We still dont fully comprehend what actually occurs in our brains ...
Whereas past studies have shown that sleep disorders areunderdiagnosed and undertreated, new research is providing abetter ... symptoms associated with fibromyalgia andother medical disorders also are possible effects in individualswith sleep disorders. ... In addition, sleep deprivation influencessystolic and diastolic blood pressure in these patients, comparedwith patients who get ... understanding of sleep disorders. New information onpharmacogenetics and neurobiomolecular mechanisms ofsleep-wake cycles has ...
Morin CM holds a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Sleeping Disorders at Université Laval. ... Those with the condition experience broken sleep and interrupted breathing during sleep, which can lead to low blood oxygen ... Our approach was unique in that we were able to explore the effect of undiagnosed sleep apnea on COVID-19 severity in a large ... A recent study from UHN revealed that individuals at high risk for obstructive sleep apnea are more likely to be diagnosed with ...
Hypnosis in the Management of Sleep Disorders combines history and medical science to show that the use of hypnosis and ... Hypnosis in the Management of Sleep Disorders By William C. Kohler, Peter J. Kurz Copyright 2018 ... Hypnosis in the Management of Sleep Disorders combines history and medical science to show that the use of hypnosis and ... A Brief History of Recent Developments in the Treatment Of Sleep Disorders 7. The Successful Use of Hypnotic Techniques in the ...
There are steps you can take to help you overcome sleeping issues though - find out more here. ... Struggling with sleep is a common symptom of anxiety disorders. ... How to Sleep with Anxiety Disorders How to Sleep with Anxiety ... How to sleep with anxiety. While sleep typically improves once treatment for an anxiety disorder begins, there are some things ... Form good sleeping habits. Another easy method to overcome anxiety and get more sleep is to focus on developing good sleeping ...
... bolstering the theory that ADHD is a sleep disorder ... Is ADHD a sleep disorder? Stimulant drug improves symptoms. By ... This article appeared in print under the headline "Narcolepsy drug suggests ADHD is a sleep disorder" ... Could this mean ADHD is a type of sleep disorder? After all, the brain pathways involved in paying attention have also been ... And theres some evidence of similarly disrupted patterns of chemical signalling in the brains of people with sleep disorders ...
Inadequate or nonrestorative sleep can markedly impair a patients quality of life. ... Sleep disorders are among the most common clinical problems encountered in medicine and psychiatry. ... encoded search term (Sleep-Wake Disorders) and Sleep-Wake Disorders What to Read Next on Medscape ... Evaluate patients for other primary sleep disorders (eg, sleep apnea); the impact of prescribed medication; and underlying ...

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