An organ of digestion situated in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen between the termination of the ESOPHAGUS and the beginning of the DUODENUM.
Tumors or cancer of the STOMACH.
Pathological processes involving the STOMACH.
Lining of the STOMACH, consisting of an inner EPITHELIUM, a middle LAMINA PROPRIA, and an outer MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE. The surface cells produce MUCUS that protects the stomach from attack by digestive acid and enzymes. When the epithelium invaginates into the LAMINA PROPRIA at various region of the stomach (CARDIA; GASTRIC FUNDUS; and PYLORUS), different tubular gastric glands are formed. These glands consist of cells that secrete mucus, enzymes, HYDROCHLORIC ACID, or hormones.
Ulceration of the GASTRIC MUCOSA due to contact with GASTRIC JUICE. It is often associated with HELICOBACTER PYLORI infection or consumption of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS).
The region between the sharp indentation at the lower third of the STOMACH (incisura angularis) and the junction of the PYLORUS with the DUODENUM. Pyloric antral glands contain mucus-secreting cells and gastrin-secreting endocrine cells (G CELLS).
Bursting of the STOMACH.
The superior portion of the body of the stomach above the level of the cardiac notch.
Twisting of the STOMACH that may result in gastric ISCHEMIA and GASTRIC OUTLET OBSTRUCTION. It is often associated with DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIA.
Excision of the whole (total gastrectomy) or part (subtotal gastrectomy, partial gastrectomy, gastric resection) of the stomach. (Dorland, 28th ed)
A group of organs stretching from the MOUTH to the ANUS, serving to breakdown foods, assimilate nutrients, and eliminate waste. In humans, the digestive system includes the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT and the accessory glands (LIVER; BILIARY TRACT; PANCREAS).
The liquid secretion of the stomach mucosa consisting of hydrochloric acid (GASTRIC ACID); PEPSINOGENS; INTRINSIC FACTOR; GASTRIN; MUCUS; and the bicarbonate ion (BICARBONATES). (From Best & Taylor's Physiological Basis of Medical Practice, 12th ed, p651)
The motor activity of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT.
A spiral bacterium active as a human gastric pathogen. It is a gram-negative, urease-positive, curved or slightly spiral organism initially isolated in 1982 from patients with lesions of gastritis or peptic ulcers in Western Australia. Helicobacter pylori was originally classified in the genus CAMPYLOBACTER, but RNA sequencing, cellular fatty acid profiles, growth patterns, and other taxonomic characteristics indicate that the micro-organism should be included in the genus HELICOBACTER. It has been officially transferred to Helicobacter gen. nov. (see Int J Syst Bacteriol 1989 Oct;39(4):297-405).
Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the interior of the stomach.
Hydrochloric acid present in GASTRIC JUICE.
The shortest and widest portion of the SMALL INTESTINE adjacent to the PYLORUS of the STOMACH. It is named for having the length equal to about the width of 12 fingers.
Inflammation of the GASTRIC MUCOSA, a lesion observed in a number of unrelated disorders.
A family of gastrointestinal peptide hormones that excite the secretion of GASTRIC JUICE. They may also occur in the central nervous system where they are presumed to be neurotransmitters.
Infections with organisms of the genus HELICOBACTER, particularly, in humans, HELICOBACTER PYLORI. The clinical manifestations are focused in the stomach, usually the gastric mucosa and antrum, and the upper duodenum. This infection plays a major role in the pathogenesis of type B gastritis and peptic ulcer disease.
In ruminants, the stomach is a complex, multi-chambered organ consisting of the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, which functions to soften and breakdown ingested plant material through microbial fermentation and mechanical churning before further digestion in the small intestine.
The region of the STOMACH at the junction with the DUODENUM. It is marked by the thickening of circular muscle layers forming the pyloric sphincter to control the opening and closure of the lumen.
Abnormal passage communicating with the STOMACH.
Rounded or pyramidal cells of the GASTRIC GLANDS. They secrete HYDROCHLORIC ACID and produce gastric intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein that binds VITAMIN B12.
The muscular membranous segment between the PHARYNX and the STOMACH in the UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT.
In avian anatomy, the stomach is divided into two parts, the proventriculus (a glandular region that produces digestive enzymes) and the ventriculus (also known as the gizzard, a muscular region that grinds food).
A 28-amino acid, acylated, orexigenic peptide that is a ligand for GROWTH HORMONE SECRETAGOGUE RECEPTORS. Ghrelin is widely expressed but primarily in the stomach in the adults. Ghrelin acts centrally to stimulate growth hormone secretion and food intake, and peripherally to regulate energy homeostasis. Its large precursor protein, known as appetite-regulating hormone or motilin-related peptide, contains ghrelin and obestatin.
That portion of the stomach remaining after gastric surgery, usually gastrectomy or gastroenterostomy for cancer of the stomach or peptic ulcer. It is a common site of cancer referred to as stump cancer or carcinoma of the gastric stump.
Generally refers to the digestive structures stretching from the MOUTH to ANUS, but does not include the accessory glandular organs (LIVER; BILIARY TRACT; PANCREAS).
Tumors or cancer of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT, from the MOUTH to the ANAL CANAL.
A condition in which there is a change of one adult cell type to another similar adult cell type.
A synthetic pentapeptide that has effects like gastrin when given parenterally. It stimulates the secretion of gastric acid, pepsin, and intrinsic factor, and has been used as a diagnostic aid.
A malignant epithelial tumor with a glandular organization.
The interruption or removal of any part of the vagus (10th cranial) nerve. Vagotomy may be performed for research or for therapeutic purposes.
Unstriated and unstriped muscle, one of the muscles of the internal organs, blood vessels, hair follicles, etc. Contractile elements are elongated, usually spindle-shaped cells with centrally located nuclei. Smooth muscle fibers are bound together into sheets or bundles by reticular fibers and frequently elastic nets are also abundant. (From Stedman, 25th ed)
Hormones synthesized from amino acids. They are distinguished from INTERCELLULAR SIGNALING PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS in that their actions are systemic.
The 10th cranial nerve. The vagus is a mixed nerve which contains somatic afferents (from skin in back of the ear and the external auditory meatus), visceral afferents (from the pharynx, larynx, thorax, and abdomen), parasympathetic efferents (to the thorax and abdomen), and efferents to striated muscle (of the larynx and pharynx).
That part of the STOMACH close to the opening from ESOPHAGUS into the stomach (cardiac orifice), the ESOPHAGOGASTRIC JUNCTION. The cardia is so named because of its closeness to the HEART. Cardia is characterized by the lack of acid-forming cells (GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS).
The portion of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT between the PYLORUS of the STOMACH and the ILEOCECAL VALVE of the LARGE INTESTINE. It is divisible into three portions: the DUODENUM, the JEJUNUM, and the ILEUM.
A poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma in which the nucleus is pressed to one side by a cytoplasmic droplet of mucus. It usually arises in the gastrointestinal system.
Proenzymes secreted by chief cells, mucous neck cells, and pyloric gland cells, which are converted into pepsin in the presence of gastric acid or pepsin itself. (Dorland, 28th ed) In humans there are 2 related pepsinogen systems: PEPSINOGEN A (formerly pepsinogen I or pepsinogen) and PEPSINOGEN C (formerly pepsinogen II or progastricsin). Pepsinogen B is the name of a pepsinogen from pigs.
Epithelial cells that line the basal half of the GASTRIC GLANDS. Chief cells synthesize and export an inactive enzyme PEPSINOGEN which is converted into the highly proteolytic enzyme PEPSIN in the acid environment of the STOMACH.
The insertion of a tube into the stomach, intestines, or other portion of the gastrointestinal tract to allow for the passage of food products, etc.
Properties and processes of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM as a whole or of any of its parts.
Mucins that are found on the surface of the gastric epithelium. They play a role in protecting the epithelial layer from mechanical and chemical damage.
The area covering the terminal portion of ESOPHAGUS and the beginning of STOMACH at the cardiac orifice.
Concretions of swallowed hair, fruit or vegetable fibers, or similar substances found in the alimentary canal.
A strong corrosive acid that is commonly used as a laboratory reagent. It is formed by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water. GASTRIC ACID is the hydrochloric acid component of GASTRIC JUICE.
An alkaloid, originally from Atropa belladonna, but found in other plants, mainly SOLANACEAE. Hyoscyamine is the 3(S)-endo isomer of atropine.
Pathological processes in the ESOPHAGUS.
New abnormal growth of tissue. Malignant neoplasms show a greater degree of anaplasia and have the properties of invasion and metastasis, compared to benign neoplasms.
A nitrosoguanidine derivative with potent mutagenic and carcinogenic properties.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the gastrointestinal tract.
Gastric analysis for determination of free acid or total acid.
A histamine H2 receptor antagonist that is used as an anti-ulcer agent.
A gel-forming mucin that is predominantly associated with the gastric epithelium.
An amine derived by enzymatic decarboxylation of HISTIDINE. It is a powerful stimulant of gastric secretion, a constrictor of bronchial smooth muscle, a vasodilator, and also a centrally acting neurotransmitter.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Tumors or cancer of the ESOPHAGUS.
The section of the alimentary canal from the STOMACH to the ANAL CANAL. It includes the LARGE INTESTINE and SMALL INTESTINE.
The normality of a solution with respect to HYDROGEN ions; H+. It is related to acidity measurements in most cases by pH = log 1/2[1/(H+)], where (H+) is the hydrogen ion concentration in gram equivalents per liter of solution. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
Tumors or cancer of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
The segment of LARGE INTESTINE between the CECUM and the RECTUM. It includes the ASCENDING COLON; the TRANSVERSE COLON; the DESCENDING COLON; and the SIGMOID COLON.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of urea and water to carbon dioxide and ammonia. EC 3.5.1.5.
GASTRITIS with HYPERTROPHY of the GASTRIC MUCOSA. It is characterized by giant gastric folds, diminished acid secretion, excessive MUCUS secretion, and HYPOPROTEINEMIA. Symptoms include VOMITING; DIARRHEA; and WEIGHT LOSS.
A histamine congener, it competitively inhibits HISTAMINE binding to HISTAMINE H2 RECEPTORS. Cimetidine has a range of pharmacological actions. It inhibits GASTRIC ACID secretion, as well as PEPSIN and GASTRIN output.
Discrete abnormal tissue masses that protrude into the lumen of the DIGESTIVE TRACT or the RESPIRATORY TRACT. Polyps can be spheroidal, hemispheroidal, or irregular mound-shaped structures attached to the MUCOUS MEMBRANE of the lumen wall either by a stalk, pedunculus, or by a broad base.
Endocrine cells which secrete GASTRIN, a peptide that induces GASTRIC ACID secretion. They are found predominantly in the GASTRIC GLANDS of PYLORIC ANTRUM in the STOMACH, but can also be found in the DUODENUM, nervous and other tissues.
Medical procedure involving the emptying of contents in the stomach through the use of a tube inserted through the nose or mouth. It is performed to remove poisons or relieve pressure due to intestinal blockages or during surgery.
A lack of HYDROCHLORIC ACID in GASTRIC JUICE despite stimulation of gastric secretion.
A subtype of enteroendocrine cells found in the gastrointestinal MUCOSA, particularly in the glands of PYLORIC ANTRUM; DUODENUM; and ILEUM. These cells secrete mainly SEROTONIN and some neuropeptides. Their secretory granules stain readily with silver (argentaffin stain).
Characteristic restricted to a particular organ of the body, such as a cell type, metabolic response or expression of a particular protein or antigen.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
The middle portion of the SMALL INTESTINE, between DUODENUM and ILEUM. It represents about 2/5 of the remaining portion of the small intestine below duodenum.
GASTRITIS with atrophy of the GASTRIC MUCOSA, the GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS, and the mucosal glands leading to ACHLORHYDRIA. Atrophic gastritis usually progresses from chronic gastritis.
Artiodactyla is an order of mammals characterized by an even number of digits (two or four) on each foot, hooves as terminal appendages, and a specialized stomach for fermentative digestion, which includes taxonomic families such as Suidae, Cervidae, Bovidae, and Camelidae among others.
A mass of histologically normal tissue present in an abnormal location.
Neuroendocrine cells in the glands of the GASTRIC MUCOSA. They produce HISTAMINE and peptides such as CHROMOGRANINS. ECL cells respond to GASTRIN by releasing histamine which acts as a paracrine stimulator of the release of HYDROCHLORIC ACID from the GASTRIC PARIETAL CELLS.
Formed from pig pepsinogen by cleavage of one peptide bond. The enzyme is a single polypeptide chain and is inhibited by methyl 2-diaazoacetamidohexanoate. It cleaves peptides preferentially at the carbonyl linkages of phenylalanine or leucine and acts as the principal digestive enzyme of gastric juice.
A species of HELICOBACTER that colonizes in the STOMACH of laboratory MICE; CATS; and DOGS. It is associated with lymphoid follicular hyperplasia and mild GASTRITIS in CATS.
The hindering of output from the STOMACH into the SMALL INTESTINE. This obstruction may be of mechanical or functional origin such as EDEMA from PEPTIC ULCER; NEOPLASMS; FOREIGN BODIES; or AGING.
This is one of 2 related pepsinogen systems in humans and is also known as pepsinogen. (The other is PEPSINOGEN C.) This includes isozymogens Pg1-Pg5 (pepsinogens 1-5, group I or products of PGA1-PGA5 genes). This is the main pepsinogen found in urine.
Diseases in any segment of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT from ESOPHAGUS to RECTUM.
Retrograde bile flow. Reflux of bile can be from the duodenum to the stomach (DUODENOGASTRIC REFLUX); to the esophagus (GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX); or to the PANCREAS.
Drugs that selectively bind to but do not activate histamine H2 receptors, thereby blocking the actions of histamine. Their clinically most important action is the inhibition of acid secretion in the treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers. Smooth muscle may also be affected. Some drugs in this class have strong effects in the central nervous system, but these actions are not well understood.
Measurement of the pressure or tension of liquids or gases with a manometer.
A pattern of gastrointestinal muscle contraction and depolarizing myoelectric activity that moves from the stomach to the ILEOCECAL VALVE at regular frequency during the interdigestive period. The complex and its accompanying motor activity periodically cleanse the bowel of interdigestive secretion and debris in preparation for the next meal.
A common name used for the genus Cavia. The most common species is Cavia porcellus which is the domesticated guinea pig used for pets and biomedical research.
Vomiting of blood that is either fresh bright red, or older "coffee-ground" in character. It generally indicates bleeding of the UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT.
Congenital structural abnormalities of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
Ulcer that occurs in the regions of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT which come into contact with GASTRIC JUICE containing PEPSIN and GASTRIC ACID. It occurs when there are defects in the MUCOSA barrier. The common forms of peptic ulcers are associated with HELICOBACTER PYLORI and the consumption of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS).
Passage of food (sometimes in the form of a test meal) through the gastrointestinal tract as measured in minutes or hours. The rate of passage through the intestine is an indicator of small bowel function.
A process leading to shortening and/or development of tension in muscle tissue. Muscle contraction occurs by a sliding filament mechanism whereby actin filaments slide inward among the myosin filaments.
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
Lining of the INTESTINES, consisting of an inner EPITHELIUM, a middle LAMINA PROPRIA, and an outer MUSCULARIS MUCOSAE. In the SMALL INTESTINE, the mucosa is characterized by a series of folds and abundance of absorptive cells (ENTEROCYTES) with MICROVILLI.
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).
The distal and narrowest portion of the SMALL INTESTINE, between the JEJUNUM and the ILEOCECAL VALVE of the LARGE INTESTINE.
STOMACH herniation located at or near the diaphragmatic opening for the ESOPHAGUS, the esophageal hiatus.
Bleeding in any segment of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT from ESOPHAGUS to RECTUM.
A nodular organ in the ABDOMEN that contains a mixture of ENDOCRINE GLANDS and EXOCRINE GLANDS. The small endocrine portion consists of the ISLETS OF LANGERHANS secreting a number of hormones into the blood stream. The large exocrine portion (EXOCRINE PANCREAS) is a compound acinar gland that secretes several digestive enzymes into the pancreatic ductal system that empties into the DUODENUM.
High molecular weight mucoproteins that protect the surface of EPITHELIAL CELLS by providing a barrier to particulate matter and microorganisms. Membrane-anchored mucins may have additional roles concerned with protein interactions at the cell surface.
Pathological processes that tend eventually to become malignant. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
Any substances taken in by the body that provide nourishment.
A plastic operation on the esophagus. (Dorland, 28th ed)
A genus of gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacteria that has been isolated from the intestinal tract of mammals, including humans. It has been associated with PEPTIC ULCER.
Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the digestive tract.
Regular course of eating and drinking adopted by a person or animal.
A high-molecular-weight polymeric elastomer derived from the milk juice (LATEX) of HEVEA brasiliensis and other trees and plants. It is a substance that can be stretched at room temperature to at least twice its original length and after releasing the stress, retract rapidly, and recover its original dimensions fully.
A variety of surgical reconstructive procedures devised to restore gastrointestinal continuity, The two major classes of reconstruction are the Billroth I (gastroduodenostomy) and Billroth II (gastrojejunostomy) procedures.
A compound used as an x-ray contrast medium that occurs in nature as the mineral barite. It is also used in various manufacturing applications and mixed into heavy concrete to serve as a radiation shield.
Various agents with different action mechanisms used to treat or ameliorate PEPTIC ULCER or irritation of the gastrointestinal tract. This has included ANTIBIOTICS to treat HELICOBACTER INFECTIONS; HISTAMINE H2 ANTAGONISTS to reduce GASTRIC ACID secretion; and ANTACIDS for symptomatic relief.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
A peptide, of about 33 amino acids, secreted by the upper INTESTINAL MUCOSA and also found in the central nervous system. It causes gallbladder contraction, release of pancreatic exocrine (or digestive) enzymes, and affects other gastrointestinal functions. Cholecystokinin may be the mediator of satiety.
Retrograde flow of duodenal contents (BILE ACIDS; PANCREATIC JUICE) into the STOMACH.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A strain of albino rat used widely for experimental purposes because of its calmness and ease of handling. It was developed by the Sprague-Dawley Animal Company.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
The consumption of edible substances.
A megaloblastic anemia occurring in children but more commonly in later life, characterized by histamine-fast achlorhydria, in which the laboratory and clinical manifestations are based on malabsorption of vitamin B 12 due to a failure of the gastric mucosa to secrete adequate and potent intrinsic factor. (Dorland, 27th ed)
Removal and pathologic examination of specimens in the form of small pieces of tissue from the living body.
Two or more abnormal growths of tissue occurring simultaneously and presumed to be of separate origin. The neoplasms may be histologically the same or different, and may be found in the same or different sites.
An inflatable device implanted in the stomach as an adjunct to therapy of morbid obesity. Specific types include the silicone Garren-Edwards Gastric Bubble (GEGB), approved by the FDA in 1985, and the Ballobes Balloon.
A type of stress exerted uniformly in all directions. Its measure is the force exerted per unit area. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 6th ed)
The segment of GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT that includes the ESOPHAGUS; the STOMACH; and the DUODENUM.
Uptake of substances through the lining of the INTESTINES.
A 14-amino acid peptide named for its ability to inhibit pituitary GROWTH HORMONE release, also called somatotropin release-inhibiting factor. It is expressed in the central and peripheral nervous systems, the gut, and other organs. SRIF can also inhibit the release of THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE; PROLACTIN; INSULIN; and GLUCAGON besides acting as a neurotransmitter and neuromodulator. In a number of species including humans, there is an additional form of somatostatin, SRIF-28 with a 14-amino acid extension at the N-terminal.
## I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Japan" is not a medical term or concept. It is a country located in Asia, known as Nihon-koku or Nippon-koku in Japanese, and is renowned for its unique culture, advanced technology, and rich history. If you have any questions related to medical topics, I would be happy to help answer them!
L-Tryptophyl-L-methionyl-L-aspartyl-L-phenylalaninamide. The C-terminal tetrapeptide of gastrin. It is the smallest peptide fragment of gastrin which has the same physiological and pharmacological activity as gastrin.
Bethanechol compounds are parasympathomimetic agents that directly stimulate muscarinic receptors, primarily used to treat urinary retention and nonobstructive bladder dysfunction by increasing bladder contractility and decreasing post-void residual volume.
Cells found throughout the lining of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT that contain and secrete regulatory PEPTIDE HORMONES and/or BIOGENIC AMINES.
Impaired digestion, especially after eating.
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
The relationship between the dose of an administered drug and the response of the organism to the drug.
A pathological condition characterized by the presence of a number of GASTRIC DIVERTICULA in the STOMACH.
Transmembrane proteins that recognize and bind GHRELIN, a potent stimulator of GROWTH HORMONE secretion and food intake in mammals. Ghrelin receptors are found in the pituitary and HYPOTHALAMUS. They belong to the family of G-PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS.

Systemic infection with Alaria americana (Trematoda). (1/4891)

Alaria americana is a trematode, the adult of which is found in mammalian carnivores. The first case of disseminated human infection by the mesocercarial stage of this worm occurred in a 24-year-old man. The infection possibly was acquired by the eating of inadequately cooked frogs, which are intermediate hosts of the worm. The diagnosis was made during life by lung biopsy and confirmed at autopsy. The mesocercariae were present in the stomach wall, lymph nodes, liver, myocardium, pancreas and surrounding adipose tissue, spleen, kidney, lungs, brain and spinal cord. There was no host reaction to the parasites. Granulomas were present in the stomach wall, lymph nodes and liver, but the worms were not identified in them. Hypersensitivity vasculitis and a bleeding diathesis due to disseminated intravascular coagulation and a circulating anticoagulant caused his death 8 days after the onset of his illness.  (+info)

Endemic tropical sprue in Rhodesia. (2/4891)

The existence of tropical sprue in Africa is controversial. In this paper we present 31 cases seen in Rhodesia over a 15 month period. They have the clinical features, small intestinal morphology, malabsorption pattern, and treatment response of tropical sprue. Other causes of malabsorption, and primary malnutrition, have been excluded. The severity of the clinical state and intestinal malabsorption distinguish these patients from those we have described with tropical enteropathy. The previous work on tropical sprue in Africa is reviewed and it is apparent that, when it has been adequately looked for, it has been found. It is clear that the question of tropical sprue in Africa must be re-examined and that it existence may have hitherto been concealed by the assumption that primary malnutrition is responsible for the high prevalence of deficiency states.  (+info)

Central autonomic activation by intracisternal TRH analogue excites gastric splanchnic afferent neurons. (3/4891)

Intracisternal (ic) injection of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) or its stable analogue RX 77368 influences gastric function via stimulation of vagal muscarinic pathways. In rats, the increase in gastric mucosal blood flow evoked by a low ic dose of RX 77368 occurs via release of calcitonin gene-related peptide from capsaicin-sensitive afferent neurons, most probably of spinal origin. In this study, the effect of low ic doses of RX 77368 on afferent impulse activity in splanchnic single fibers was investigated. The cisterna magna of overnight-fasted, urethan-anesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats was acutely cannulated, and fine splanchnic nerve twigs containing at least one fiber responsive to mechanical probing of the stomach were isolated at a site immediately distal to the left suprarenal ganglion. Unit mechanoreceptive fields were encountered in all portions of the stomach, both superficially and in deeper layers. Splanchnic afferent unit impulse activity was recorded continuously during basal conditions and in response to consecutive ic injections of saline and RX 77368 (15-30 min later; 1.5 or 3 ng). Basal discharge rates ranged from 0 to 154 impulses/min (median = 10.2 impulses/min). A majority of splanchnic single units with ongoing activity increased their mean discharge rate by >/=20% after ic injection of RX 77368 at either 1.5 ng (6/10 units; median increase 63%) or 3 ng (19/24 units; median increase 175%). Five units lacking impulse activity in the 5-min before ic RX 77368 (3 ng) were also excited, with the onset of discharge occurring within 1.0-5.0 min postinjection. In units excited by ic RX 77368, peak discharge occurred 15.6 +/- 1.3 min after injection and was followed by a decline to stable activity levels +info)

Conformation-dependent inhibition of gastric H+,K+-ATPase by SCH 28080 demonstrated by mutagenesis of glutamic acid 820. (4/4891)

Gastric H+,K+-ATPase can be inhibited by imidazo pyridines like 2-methyl-8-[phenylmethoxy] imidazo-(1,2a) pyridine 3-acetonitrile (SCH 28080). The drug shows a high affinity for inhibition of K+-activated ATPase and for prevention of ATP phosphorylation. The inhibition by SCH 28080 can be explained by assuming that SCH 28080 binds to both the E2 and the phosphorylated intermediate (E2-P) forms of the enzyme. We observed recently that some mutants, in which glutamic acid 820 present in transmembrane domain six of the catalytic subunit had been replaced (E820Q, E820N, E820A), lost their K+-sensitivity and showed constitutive ATPase activity. This ATPase activity could be inhibited by similar SCH 28080 concentrations as the K+-activated ATPase of the wild-type enzyme. SCH 28080 also inhibited ATP phosphorylation at 21 degrees C of the mutants E820D, E820N, and E820A, although with varying efficacy and affinity. ATP-phosphorylation of mutant E820Q was not inhibited by SCH 28080; in contrast, the phosphorylation level at 21 degrees C was nearly doubled. These findings can be explained by assuming that mutation of Glu820 favors the E1 conformation in the order E820Q >E820A >E820N >wild-type = E820D. The increase in the phosphorylation level of the E820Q mutant can be explained by assuming that during the catalytic cycle the E2-P intermediate forms a complex with SCH 28080. This intermediate hydrolyzes considerably slower than E2-P and thus accumulates. The high tendency of the E820Q mutant for the E1 form is further supported by experiments showing that ATP phosphorylation of this mutant is rather insensitive towards vanadate, inorganic phosphate, and K+.  (+info)

A chimeric gastric H+,K+-ATPase inhibitable with both ouabain and SCH 28080. (5/4891)

2-Methyl-8-(phenylmethoxy)imidazo(1,2-a)pyridine-3acetonitrile+ ++ (SCH 28080) is a K+ site inhibitor specific for gastric H+,K+-ATPase and seems to be a counterpart of ouabain for Na+,K+-ATPase from the viewpoint of reaction pattern (i.e. reversible binding, K+ antagonism, and binding on the extracellular side). In this study, we constructed several chimeric molecules between H+,K+-ATPase and Na+,K+-ATPase alpha-subunits by using rabbit H+,K+-ATPase as a parental molecule. We found that the entire extracellular loop 1 segment between the first and second transmembrane segments (M1 and M2) and the luminal half of the M1 transmembrane segment of H+, K+-ATPase alpha-subunit were exchangeable with those of Na+, K+-ATPase, respectively, preserving H+,K+-ATPase activity, and that these segments are not essential for SCH 28080 binding. We found that several amino acid residues, including Glu-822, Thr-825, and Pro-829 in the M6 segment of H+,K+-ATPase alpha-subunit are involved in determining the affinity for this inhibitor. Furthermore, we found that a chimeric H+,K+-ATPase acquired ouabain sensitivity and maintained SCH 28080 sensitivity when the loop 1 segment and Cys-815 in the loop 3 segment of the H+,K+-ATPase alpha-subunit were simultaneously replaced by the corresponding segment and amino acid residue (Thr) of Na+,K+-ATPase, respectively, indicating that the binding sites of ouabain and SCH 28080 are separate. In this H+, K+-ATPase chimera, 12 amino acid residues in M1, M4, and loop 1-4 that have been suggested to be involved in ouabain binding of Na+, K+-ATPase alpha-subunit are present; however, the low ouabain sensitivity indicates the possibility that the sensitivity may be increased by additional amino acid substitutions, which shift the overall structural integrity of this chimeric H+,K+-ATPase toward that of Na+,K+-ATPase.  (+info)

Phycomycotic gastritis in buffalo calves (Bubalis bubalis). (6/4891)

Mycotic gastritis, primarily caused by Rhizopus sp. was seen in six buffalo calves (7-13 days old) at postmortem examination. The predominant lesions were numerous raised ulcers in which were hyphae of Rhizopus. In three calves, Candida organisms were also present superficially in the ulcers. Other changes in the mucosa were severe congestion, haemorrhage, thrombosis, necrosis, and infiltration by lymphocytes and neutrophils. Both Rhizopus and Candida were highly pathogenic to rabbits when inoculated intravenously. The disease could not be reproduced experimentally by feeding of Rhizopus orally to rabbits and calves.  (+info)

Experimental enteropathy in athymic and euthymic rats: synergistic role of lipopolysaccharide and indomethacin. (7/4891)

The aim of this study was to investigate the immunologic and microbiological bases of indomethacin enteropathy. Athymic nude and euthymic specific pathogen-free (SPF) rats were reared under conventional or SPF conditions. In each group, indomethacin was given intrarectally for 2 days. Indomethacin enteropathy was evaluated using a previously described ulcer index and tissue myeloperoxidase activity. Both euthymic and athymic nude rats developed intestinal ulcers to the same degree under conventional conditions but no or minimal ulcer under SPF conditions. Pretreatment of conventional rats with intragastric kanamycin sulfate, an aminoglycoside antibiotic, attenuated indomethacin enteropathy in a dose-dependent fashion. Interestingly, when lipopolysaccharide was injected intraperitoneally in kanamycin-pretreated rats, it fully restored enteropathy in these rats in a dose-dependent manner. We confirmed that kanamycin decreased the number of gram-negative bacteria and endotoxin concentration of the small intestine in a dose-dependent fashion. These results indicate that indomethacin enteropathy is bacteria dependent and does not require a T cell function. Synergy between indomethacin and bacterial lipopolysaccharide may play a major role in this enteropathy.  (+info)

Physiological changes in blood glucose do not affect gastric compliance and perception in normal subjects. (8/4891)

Marked hyperglycemia (blood glucose approximately 14 mmol/l) slows gastric emptying and affects the perception of sensations arising from the gut. Elevation of blood glucose within the physiological range also slows gastric emptying. This study aimed to determine whether physiological changes in blood glucose affect proximal gastric compliance and/or the perception of gastric distension in the fasting state. Paired studies were conducted in 10 fasting healthy volunteers. On a single day, isovolumetric and isobaric distensions of the proximal stomach were performed using an electronic barostat while the blood glucose concentration was maintained at 4 and 9 mmol/l in random order. Sensations were quantified using visual analog scales. The blood glucose concentration had no effect on the pressure-volume relationship during either isovolumetric or isobaric distensions or the perception of gastric distension. At both blood glucose concentrations, the perceptions of fullness, nausea, bloating, and abdominal discomfort, but not hunger or desire to eat, were related to intrabag volume (P +info)

In anatomical terms, the stomach is a muscular, J-shaped organ located in the upper left portion of the abdomen. It is part of the gastrointestinal tract and plays a crucial role in digestion. The stomach's primary functions include storing food, mixing it with digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid to break down proteins, and slowly emptying the partially digested food into the small intestine for further absorption of nutrients.

The stomach is divided into several regions, including the cardia (the area nearest the esophagus), the fundus (the upper portion on the left side), the body (the main central part), and the pylorus (the narrowed region leading to the small intestine). The inner lining of the stomach, called the mucosa, is protected by a layer of mucus that prevents the digestive juices from damaging the stomach tissue itself.

In medical contexts, various conditions can affect the stomach, such as gastritis (inflammation of the stomach lining), peptic ulcers (sores in the stomach or duodenum), gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and stomach cancer. Symptoms related to the stomach may include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, heartburn, and difficulty swallowing.

Stomach neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the stomach that can be benign or malignant. They include a wide range of conditions such as:

1. Gastric adenomas: These are benign tumors that develop from glandular cells in the stomach lining.
2. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs): These are rare tumors that can be found in the stomach and other parts of the digestive tract. They originate from the stem cells in the wall of the digestive tract.
3. Leiomyomas: These are benign tumors that develop from smooth muscle cells in the stomach wall.
4. Lipomas: These are benign tumors that develop from fat cells in the stomach wall.
5. Neuroendocrine tumors (NETs): These are tumors that develop from the neuroendocrine cells in the stomach lining. They can be benign or malignant.
6. Gastric carcinomas: These are malignant tumors that develop from the glandular cells in the stomach lining. They are the most common type of stomach neoplasm and include adenocarcinomas, signet ring cell carcinomas, and others.
7. Lymphomas: These are malignant tumors that develop from the immune cells in the stomach wall.

Stomach neoplasms can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and difficulty swallowing. The diagnosis of stomach neoplasms usually involves a combination of imaging tests, endoscopy, and biopsy. Treatment options depend on the type and stage of the neoplasm and may include surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or targeted therapy.

Stomach diseases refer to a range of conditions that affect the stomach, a muscular sac located in the upper part of the abdomen and is responsible for storing and digesting food. These diseases can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, heartburn, indigestion, loss of appetite, and bloating. Some common stomach diseases include:

1. Gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach lining that can cause pain, irritation, and ulcers.
2. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): A condition where stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing heartburn and damage to the esophageal lining.
3. Peptic ulcers: Open sores that develop on the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by bacterial infections or long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
4. Stomach cancer: Abnormal growth of cancerous cells in the stomach, which can spread to other parts of the body if left untreated.
5. Gastroparesis: A condition where the stomach muscles are weakened or paralyzed, leading to difficulty digesting food and emptying the stomach.
6. Functional dyspepsia: A chronic disorder characterized by symptoms such as pain, bloating, and fullness in the upper abdomen, without any identifiable cause.
7. Eosinophilic esophagitis: A condition where eosinophils, a type of white blood cell, accumulate in the esophagus, causing inflammation and difficulty swallowing.
8. Stomal stenosis: Narrowing of the opening between the stomach and small intestine, often caused by scar tissue or surgical complications.
9. Hiatal hernia: A condition where a portion of the stomach protrudes through the diaphragm into the chest cavity, causing symptoms such as heartburn and difficulty swallowing.

These are just a few examples of stomach diseases, and there are many other conditions that can affect the stomach. Proper diagnosis and treatment are essential for managing these conditions and preventing complications.

Gastric mucosa refers to the innermost lining of the stomach, which is in contact with the gastric lumen. It is a specialized mucous membrane that consists of epithelial cells, lamina propria, and a thin layer of smooth muscle. The surface epithelium is primarily made up of mucus-secreting cells (goblet cells) and parietal cells, which secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor, and chief cells, which produce pepsinogen.

The gastric mucosa has several important functions, including protection against self-digestion by the stomach's own digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid. The mucus layer secreted by the epithelial cells forms a physical barrier that prevents the acidic contents of the stomach from damaging the underlying tissues. Additionally, the bicarbonate ions secreted by the surface epithelial cells help neutralize the acidity in the immediate vicinity of the mucosa.

The gastric mucosa is also responsible for the initial digestion of food through the action of hydrochloric acid and pepsin, an enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides. The intrinsic factor secreted by parietal cells plays a crucial role in the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine.

The gastric mucosa is constantly exposed to potential damage from various factors, including acid, pepsin, and other digestive enzymes, as well as mechanical stress due to muscle contractions during digestion. To maintain its integrity, the gastric mucosa has a remarkable capacity for self-repair and regeneration. However, chronic exposure to noxious stimuli or certain medical conditions can lead to inflammation, erosions, ulcers, or even cancer of the gastric mucosa.

A stomach ulcer, also known as a gastric ulcer, is a sore that forms in the lining of the stomach. It's caused by a breakdown in the mucous layer that protects the stomach from digestive juices, allowing acid to come into contact with the stomach lining and cause an ulcer. The most common causes are bacterial infection (usually by Helicobacter pylori) and long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Stomach ulcers may cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, heartburn, and nausea. If left untreated, they can lead to more serious complications like internal bleeding, perforation, or obstruction.

The pyloric antrum is the distal part of the stomach, which is the last portion that precedes the pylorus and the beginning of the duodenum. It is a thickened, muscular area responsible for grinding and mixing food with gastric juices during digestion. The pyloric antrum also helps regulate the passage of chyme (partially digested food) into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter, which controls the opening and closing of the pylorus. This region is crucial in the gastrointestinal tract's motor functions and overall digestive process.

A stomach rupture, also known as gastrointestinal perforation, is a serious and potentially life-threatening condition that occurs when there is a hole or tear in the lining of the stomach. This can allow the contents of the stomach to leak into the abdominal cavity, causing inflammation and infection (peritonitis).

Stomach rupture can be caused by several factors, including trauma, severe gastritis or ulcers, tumors, or certain medical procedures. Symptoms may include sudden and severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, fever, and decreased bowel sounds. If left untreated, stomach rupture can lead to sepsis, organ failure, and even death. Treatment typically involves surgery to repair the perforation and antibiotics to treat any resulting infection.

The gastric fundus is the upper, rounded portion of the stomach that lies above the level of the cardiac orifice and extends up to the left dome-shaped part of the diaphragm. It is the part of the stomach where food and liquids are first stored after entering through the esophagus. The gastric fundus contains parietal cells, which secrete hydrochloric acid, and chief cells, which produce pepsinogen, a precursor to the digestive enzyme pepsin. It is also the site where the hormone ghrelin is produced, which stimulates appetite.

Stomach volvulus is a medical condition that involves the twisting or rotation of the stomach around its axis, leading to obstruction of the inflow and outflow of the stomach. This can result in strangulation of the blood supply to the stomach wall, potentially causing ischemia, necrosis, and perforation if not promptly treated. It is a surgical emergency that requires immediate medical attention. The condition can be congenital or acquired, with the acquired form being more common and often associated with underlying conditions such as gastric distention, laxity of gastrocolic ligaments, or previous abdominal surgery.

A Gastrectomy is a surgical procedure involving the removal of all or part of the stomach. This procedure can be total (complete resection of the stomach), partial (removal of a portion of the stomach), or sleeve (removal of a portion of the stomach to create a narrow sleeve-shaped pouch).

Gastrectomies are typically performed to treat conditions such as gastric cancer, benign tumors, severe peptic ulcers, and in some cases, for weight loss in individuals with morbid obesity. The type of gastrectomy performed depends on the patient's medical condition and the extent of the disease.

Following a gastrectomy, patients may require adjustments to their diet and lifestyle, as well as potential supplementation of vitamins and minerals that would normally be absorbed in the stomach. In some cases, further reconstructive surgery might be necessary to reestablish gastrointestinal continuity.

The digestive system is a complex group of organs and glands that process food. It converts the food we eat into nutrients, which the body uses for energy, growth, and cell repair. The digestive system also eliminates waste from the body. It is made up of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and other organs that help the body break down and absorb food.

The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Other organs that are part of the digestive system include the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands.

The process of digestion begins in the mouth, where food is chewed and mixed with saliva. The food then travels down the esophagus and into the stomach, where it is broken down further by stomach acids. The digested food then moves into the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. The remaining waste material passes into the large intestine, where it is stored until it is eliminated through the anus.

The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder play important roles in the digestive process as well. The liver produces bile, a substance that helps break down fats in the small intestine. The pancreas produces enzymes that help digest proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The gallbladder stores bile until it is needed in the small intestine.

Overall, the digestive system is responsible for breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste. It plays a critical role in maintaining our health and well-being.

Gastric juice is a digestive fluid that is produced in the stomach. It is composed of several enzymes, including pepsin, which helps to break down proteins, and gastric amylase, which begins the digestion of carbohydrates. Gastric juice also contains hydrochloric acid, which creates a low pH environment in the stomach that is necessary for the activation of pepsin and the digestion of food. Additionally, gastric juice contains mucus, which helps to protect the lining of the stomach from the damaging effects of the hydrochloric acid. The production of gastric juice is controlled by hormones and the autonomic nervous system.

Gastrointestinal motility refers to the coordinated muscular contractions and relaxations that propel food, digestive enzymes, and waste products through the gastrointestinal tract. This process involves the movement of food from the mouth through the esophagus into the stomach, where it is mixed with digestive enzymes and acids to break down food particles.

The contents are then emptied into the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed, and the remaining waste products are moved into the large intestine for further absorption of water and electrolytes and eventual elimination through the rectum and anus.

Gastrointestinal motility is controlled by a complex interplay between the autonomic nervous system, hormones, and local reflexes. Abnormalities in gastrointestinal motility can lead to various symptoms such as bloating, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or constipation.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a gram-negative, microaerophilic bacterium that colonizes the stomach of approximately 50% of the global population. It is closely associated with gastritis and peptic ulcer disease, and is implicated in the pathogenesis of gastric adenocarcinoma and mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma. H. pylori infection is usually acquired in childhood and can persist for life if not treated. The bacterium's spiral shape and flagella allow it to penetrate the mucus layer and adhere to the gastric epithelium, where it releases virulence factors that cause inflammation and tissue damage. Diagnosis of H. pylori infection can be made through various tests, including urea breath test, stool antigen test, or histological examination of a gastric biopsy. Treatment typically involves a combination of antibiotics and proton pump inhibitors to eradicate the bacteria and promote healing of the stomach lining.

Gastroscopy is a medical procedure that involves the insertion of a gastroscope, which is a thin, flexible tube with a camera and light on the end, through the mouth and into the digestive tract. The gastroscope allows the doctor to visually examine the lining of the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) for any abnormalities such as inflammation, ulcers, or tumors.

The procedure is usually performed under sedation to minimize discomfort, and it typically takes only a few minutes to complete. Gastroscopy can help diagnose various conditions, including gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), gastritis, stomach ulcers, and Barrett's esophagus. It can also be used to take tissue samples for biopsy or to treat certain conditions, such as bleeding or the removal of polyps.

Gastric acid, also known as stomach acid, is a digestive fluid produced in the stomach. It's primarily composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl), and sodium chloride (NaCl). The pH of gastric acid is typically between 1.5 and 3.5, making it a strong acid that helps to break down food by denaturing proteins and activating digestive enzymes.

The production of gastric acid is regulated by the enteric nervous system and several hormones. The primary function of gastric acid is to initiate protein digestion, activate pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin, and kill most ingested microorganisms. However, an excess or deficiency in gastric acid secretion can lead to various gastrointestinal disorders such as gastritis, ulcers, and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).

The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine, immediately following the stomach. It is a C-shaped structure that is about 10-12 inches long and is responsible for continuing the digestion process that begins in the stomach. The duodenum receives partially digested food from the stomach through the pyloric valve and mixes it with digestive enzymes and bile produced by the pancreas and liver, respectively. These enzymes help break down proteins, fats, and carbohydrates into smaller molecules, allowing for efficient absorption in the remaining sections of the small intestine.

Gastritis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the lining of the stomach. It can be caused by various factors, including bacterial infections (such as Helicobacter pylori), regular use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), excessive alcohol consumption, and stress.

Gastritis can present with a range of symptoms, such as abdominal pain or discomfort, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and bloating. In some cases, gastritis may not cause any noticeable symptoms. Depending on the severity and duration of inflammation, gastritis can lead to complications like stomach ulcers or even stomach cancer if left untreated.

There are two main types of gastritis: acute and chronic. Acute gastritis develops suddenly and may last for a short period, while chronic gastritis persists over time, often leading to atrophy of the stomach lining. Diagnosis typically involves endoscopy and tissue biopsy to assess the extent of inflammation and rule out other potential causes of symptoms. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause but may include antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors, or lifestyle modifications.

Gastrins are a group of hormones that are produced by G cells in the stomach lining. These hormones play an essential role in regulating gastric acid secretion and motor functions of the gastrointestinal tract. The most well-known gastrin is known as "gastrin-17," which is released into the bloodstream and stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells in the stomach lining.

Gastrins are stored in secretory granules within G cells, and their release is triggered by several factors, including the presence of food in the stomach, gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP), and vagus nerve stimulation. Once released, gastrins bind to specific receptors on parietal cells, leading to an increase in intracellular calcium levels and the activation of enzymes that promote hydrochloric acid secretion.

Abnormalities in gastrin production can lead to several gastrointestinal disorders, including gastrinomas (tumors that produce excessive amounts of gastrin), which can cause severe gastric acid hypersecretion and ulcers. Conversely, a deficiency in gastrin production can result in hypochlorhydria (low stomach acid levels) and impaired digestion.

Helicobacter infections are caused by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori), which colonizes the stomach lining and is associated with various gastrointestinal diseases. The infection can lead to chronic active gastritis, peptic ulcers, gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma, and gastric cancer.

The spiral-shaped H. pylori bacteria are able to survive in the harsh acidic environment of the stomach by producing urease, an enzyme that neutralizes gastric acid in their immediate vicinity. This allows them to adhere to and colonize the epithelial lining of the stomach, where they can cause inflammation (gastritis) and disrupt the normal functioning of the stomach.

Transmission of H. pylori typically occurs through oral-oral or fecal-oral routes, and infection is more common in developing countries and in populations with lower socioeconomic status. The diagnosis of Helicobacter infections can be confirmed through various tests, including urea breath tests, stool antigen tests, or gastric biopsy with histology and culture. Treatment usually involves a combination of antibiotics and proton pump inhibitors to eradicate the bacteria and reduce stomach acidity.

A ruminant stomach is not a term that is typically used in human medicine, but it is a key feature of the digestive system in animals that are classified as ruminants. Ruminants are hoofed mammals that chew their cud, such as cattle, deer, sheep, and goats.

The ruminant stomach is actually composed of four distinct compartments: the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum. These compartments work together to break down plant material through a process of fermentation by microbes.

The rumen is the largest of the compartments and functions as a fermentation vat where plant material is broken down by microbes into simpler molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the animal. The reticulum is connected to the rumen and helps sort and move the partially digested food particles.

The omasum is a smaller compartment that absorbs water and some nutrients from the digesta before it passes into the abomasum, which is the final compartment and functions similarly to the human stomach, where digestive enzymes are secreted to further break down the food and absorb nutrients.

Therefore, a ruminant stomach refers to the complex and specialized digestive system found in animals that chew their cud, allowing them to efficiently extract nutrients from plant material.

The pylorus is the lower, narrow part of the stomach that connects to the first part of the small intestine (duodenum). It consists of the pyloric canal, which is a short muscular tube, and the pyloric sphincter, a circular muscle that controls the passage of food from the stomach into the duodenum. The pylorus regulates the entry of chyme (partially digested food) into the small intestine by adjusting the size and frequency of the muscular contractions that push the chyme through the pyloric sphincter. This process helps in further digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine.

A gastric fistula is an abnormal connection or passage between the stomach and another organ or the skin surface. This condition can occur as a result of complications from surgery, injury, infection, or certain diseases such as cancer. Symptoms may include persistent drainage from the site of the fistula, pain, malnutrition, and infection. Treatment typically involves surgical repair of the fistula and management of any underlying conditions.

Parietal cells, also known as oxyntic cells, are a type of cell found in the gastric glands of the stomach lining. They play a crucial role in digestion by releasing hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor into the stomach lumen. Hydrochloric acid is essential for breaking down food particles and creating an acidic environment that kills most bacteria, while intrinsic factor is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the small intestine. Parietal cells are stimulated by histamine, acetylcholine, and gastrin to release their secretory products.

The esophagus is the muscular tube that connects the throat (pharynx) to the stomach. It is located in the midline of the neck and chest, passing through the diaphragm to enter the abdomen and join the stomach. The main function of the esophagus is to transport food and liquids from the mouth to the stomach for digestion.

The esophagus has a few distinct parts: the upper esophageal sphincter (a ring of muscle that separates the esophagus from the throat), the middle esophagus, and the lower esophageal sphincter (another ring of muscle that separates the esophagus from the stomach). The lower esophageal sphincter relaxes to allow food and liquids to enter the stomach and then contracts to prevent stomach contents from flowing back into the esophagus.

The walls of the esophagus are made up of several layers, including mucosa (a moist tissue that lines the inside of the tube), submucosa (a layer of connective tissue), muscle (both voluntary and involuntary types), and adventitia (an outer layer of connective tissue).

Common conditions affecting the esophagus include gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), Barrett's esophagus, esophageal cancer, esophageal strictures, and eosinophilic esophagitis.

I'm happy to help! However, I believe there might be a slight misunderstanding in your question. The term "avian" refers to birds, so it doesn't directly apply to the human stomach anatomy. But if you're asking about the digestive system of birds, I can certainly provide some information on that.

Birds have a unique digestive system that is adapted to their dietary needs. Their stomach is divided into two parts: the proventriculus and the gizzard (also known as the ventriculus). The proventriculus is a muscular sac where food is mixed with digestive enzymes, while the gizzard is a powerful, grinding organ that uses stones or grit swallowed by the bird to break down tough plant material and seeds.

Therefore, if we were to define "avian stomach" in medical terms, it would refer to the two-part stomach of birds, consisting of the proventriculus and the gizzard (ventriculus).

Ghrelin is a hormone primarily produced and released by the stomach with some production in the small intestine, pancreas, and brain. It is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because it stimulates appetite, promotes food intake, and contributes to the regulation of energy balance.

Ghrelin levels increase before meals and decrease after eating. In addition to its role in regulating appetite and meal initiation, ghrelin also has other functions, such as modulating glucose metabolism, insulin secretion, gastric motility, and cardiovascular function. Its receptor, the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R), is found in various tissues throughout the body, indicating its wide range of physiological roles.

The "gastric stump" refers to the remaining portion of the stomach that is left behind following a surgical procedure called gastrectomy. In a gastrectomy, a part or the entire stomach is removed, and the remaining parts are reconnected. The gastric stump is the end that is connected to the small intestine, where the food residue from the stomach enters the intestinal tract. This term is often used in the context of patients who have undergone surgeries for conditions such as stomach cancer or peptic ulcers.

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also known as the digestive tract, is a continuous tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is responsible for ingesting, digesting, absorbing, and excreting food and waste materials. The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, colon, rectum, anus), and accessory organs such as the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The primary function of this system is to process and extract nutrients from food while also protecting the body from harmful substances, pathogens, and toxins.

Gastrointestinal (GI) neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the gastrointestinal tract, which can be benign or malignant. The gastrointestinal tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.

Benign neoplasms are non-cancerous growths that do not invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body. They can sometimes be removed completely and may not cause any further health problems.

Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous growths that can invade nearby tissues and organs and spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or lymphatic system. These types of neoplasms can be life-threatening if not diagnosed and treated promptly.

GI neoplasms can cause various symptoms, including abdominal pain, bloating, changes in bowel habits, nausea, vomiting, weight loss, and anemia. The specific symptoms may depend on the location and size of the neoplasm.

There are many types of GI neoplasms, including adenocarcinomas, gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs), lymphomas, and neuroendocrine tumors. The diagnosis of GI neoplasms typically involves a combination of medical history, physical examination, imaging studies, and biopsy. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or immunotherapy.

Metaplasia is a term used in pathology to describe the replacement of one differentiated cell type with another differentiated cell type within a tissue or organ. It is an adaptive response of epithelial cells to chronic irritation, inflammation, or injury and can be reversible if the damaging stimulus is removed. Metaplastic changes are often associated with an increased risk of cancer development in the affected area.

For example, in the case of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), chronic exposure to stomach acid can lead to metaplasia of the esophageal squamous epithelium into columnar epithelium, a condition known as Barrett's esophagus. This metaplastic change is associated with an increased risk of developing esophageal adenocarcinoma.

Pentagastrin is a synthetic polypeptide hormone that stimulates the release of gastrin and hydrochloric acid from the stomach. It is used diagnostically to test for conditions such as Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, a rare disorder in which tumors in the pancreas or duodenum produce excessive amounts of gastrin, leading to severe ulcers and other digestive problems.

Pentagastrin is typically administered intravenously, and its effects are monitored through blood tests that measure gastric acid secretion. It is a potent stimulant of gastric acid production, and its use is limited to diagnostic purposes due to the risk of adverse effects such as nausea, flushing, and increased heart rate.

Adenocarcinoma is a type of cancer that arises from glandular epithelial cells. These cells line the inside of many internal organs, including the breasts, prostate, colon, and lungs. Adenocarcinomas can occur in any of these organs, as well as in other locations where glands are present.

The term "adenocarcinoma" is used to describe a cancer that has features of glandular tissue, such as mucus-secreting cells or cells that produce hormones. These cancers often form glandular structures within the tumor mass and may produce mucus or other substances.

Adenocarcinomas are typically slow-growing and tend to spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system or bloodstream. They can be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination of these treatments. The prognosis for adenocarcinoma depends on several factors, including the location and stage of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and age.

A vagotomy is a surgical procedure that involves cutting or blocking the vagus nerve, which is a parasympathetic nerve that runs from the brainstem to the abdomen and helps regulate many bodily functions such as heart rate, gastrointestinal motility, and digestion. In particular, vagotomy is often performed as a treatment for peptic ulcers, as it can help reduce gastric acid secretion.

There are several types of vagotomy procedures, including:

1. Truncal vagotomy: This involves cutting the main trunks of the vagus nerve as they enter the abdomen. It is a more extensive procedure that reduces gastric acid secretion significantly but can also lead to side effects such as delayed gastric emptying and diarrhea.
2. Selective vagotomy: This involves cutting only the branches of the vagus nerve that supply the stomach, leaving the rest of the nerve intact. It is a less extensive procedure that reduces gastric acid secretion while minimizing side effects.
3. Highly selective vagotomy (HSV): Also known as parietal cell vagotomy, this involves cutting only the branches of the vagus nerve that supply the acid-secreting cells in the stomach. It is a highly targeted procedure that reduces gastric acid secretion while minimizing side effects such as delayed gastric emptying and diarrhea.

Vagotomy is typically performed using laparoscopic or open surgical techniques, depending on the patient's individual needs and the surgeon's preference. While vagotomy can be effective in treating peptic ulcers, it is not commonly performed today due to the development of less invasive treatments such as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) that reduce gastric acid secretion without surgery.

Smooth muscle, also known as involuntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and functions without conscious effort. These muscles are found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, intestines, bladder, and blood vessels, as well as in the eyes, skin, and other areas of the body.

Smooth muscle fibers are shorter and narrower than skeletal muscle fibers and do not have striations or sarcomeres, which give skeletal muscle its striped appearance. Smooth muscle is controlled by the autonomic nervous system through the release of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and norepinephrine, which bind to receptors on the smooth muscle cells and cause them to contract or relax.

Smooth muscle plays an important role in many physiological processes, including digestion, circulation, respiration, and elimination. It can also contribute to various medical conditions, such as hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, and genitourinary dysfunction, when it becomes overactive or underactive.

Peptide hormones are a type of hormone consisting of short chains of amino acids known as peptides. They are produced and released by various endocrine glands and play crucial roles in regulating many physiological processes in the body, including growth and development, metabolism, stress response, and reproductive functions.

Peptide hormones exert their effects by binding to specific receptors on the surface of target cells, which triggers a series of intracellular signaling events that ultimately lead to changes in cell behavior or function. Some examples of peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, prolactin, oxytocin, and vasopressin.

Peptide hormones are synthesized as larger precursor proteins called prohormones, which are cleaved by enzymes to release the active peptide hormone. They are water-soluble and cannot pass through the cell membrane, so they exert their effects through autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine mechanisms. Autocrine signaling occurs when a cell releases a hormone that binds to receptors on the same cell, while paracrine signaling involves the release of a hormone that acts on nearby cells. Endocrine signaling, on the other hand, involves the release of a hormone into the bloodstream, which then travels to distant target cells to exert its effects.

The vagus nerve, also known as the 10th cranial nerve (CN X), is the longest of the cranial nerves and extends from the brainstem to the abdomen. It has both sensory and motor functions and plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, speech, and sweating, among others.

The vagus nerve is responsible for carrying sensory information from the internal organs to the brain, and it also sends motor signals from the brain to the muscles of the throat and voice box, as well as to the heart, lungs, and digestive tract. The vagus nerve helps regulate the body's involuntary responses, such as controlling heart rate and blood pressure, promoting relaxation, and reducing inflammation.

Dysfunction in the vagus nerve can lead to various medical conditions, including gastroparesis, chronic pain, and autonomic nervous system disorders. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a therapeutic intervention that involves delivering electrical impulses to the vagus nerve to treat conditions such as epilepsy, depression, and migraine headaches.

The cardia is a term used in anatomical context to refer to the upper part of the stomach that surrounds and opens into the lower end of the esophagus. It is responsible for controlling the passage of food from the esophagus into the stomach and is also known as the cardiac orifice or cardiac sphincter. Any medical condition that affects this area, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), can lead to symptoms like heartburn, difficulty swallowing, and chest pain.

The small intestine is the portion of the gastrointestinal tract that extends from the pylorus of the stomach to the beginning of the large intestine (cecum). It plays a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients from food. The small intestine is divided into three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

1. Duodenum: This is the shortest and widest part of the small intestine, approximately 10 inches long. It receives chyme (partially digested food) from the stomach and begins the process of further digestion with the help of various enzymes and bile from the liver and pancreas.
2. Jejunum: The jejunum is the middle section, which measures about 8 feet in length. It has a large surface area due to the presence of circular folds (plicae circulares), finger-like projections called villi, and microvilli on the surface of the absorptive cells (enterocytes). These structures increase the intestinal surface area for efficient absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water.
3. Ileum: The ileum is the longest and final section of the small intestine, spanning about 12 feet. It continues the absorption process, mainly of vitamin B12, bile salts, and any remaining nutrients. At the end of the ileum, there is a valve called the ileocecal valve that prevents backflow of contents from the large intestine into the small intestine.

The primary function of the small intestine is to absorb the majority of nutrients, electrolytes, and water from ingested food. The mucosal lining of the small intestine contains numerous goblet cells that secrete mucus, which protects the epithelial surface and facilitates the movement of chyme through peristalsis. Additionally, the small intestine hosts a diverse community of microbiota, which contributes to various physiological functions, including digestion, immunity, and protection against pathogens.

Carcinoma, signet ring cell is a type of adenocarcinoma, which is a cancer that begins in glandular cells. In signet ring cell carcinoma, the cancer cells have a characteristic appearance when viewed under a microscope. They contain large amounts of mucin, a substance that causes the nucleus of the cell to be pushed to one side, giving the cell a crescent or "signet ring" shape.

Signet ring cell carcinoma can occur in various organs, including the stomach, colon, rectum, and breast. It is often aggressive and has a poor prognosis, as it tends to grow and spread quickly. Treatment options may include surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, depending on the location and extent of the cancer.

Pepsinogens are inactive precursor forms of the enzyme pepsin, which is produced in the stomach. They are composed of two types: Pepsinogen I (or gastric intrinsic factor) and Pepsinogen II. When exposed to acid in the stomach, these pepsinogens get converted into their active form, pepsin, which helps digest proteins in food. Measurement of pepsinogens in blood can be used as a diagnostic marker for certain stomach conditions, such as atrophic gastritis and gastric cancer.

Chief cells, also known as zymogenic cells or peptic cells, are a type of cell located in the gastric glands of the stomach. They are responsible for producing and secreting pepsinogen, a precursor to the enzyme pepsin, which plays a crucial role in digesting proteins in the stomach.

The gastric glands are tubular structures that extend deep into the lamina propria of the stomach mucosa. They consist of several types of cells, including chief cells, parietal cells, mucous neck cells, and enteroendocrine cells. Chief cells are located in the base of the gastric glands, and they are characterized by their large, basophilic cytoplasm and apical secretory granules.

When stimulated by gastrin, a hormone produced by the G cells in the antrum of the stomach, chief cells release pepsinogen into the stomach lumen. Once in the acidic environment of the stomach, pepsinogen is converted to pepsin, which begins the process of protein digestion.

It's worth noting that chronic inflammation or damage to the stomach lining, such as that caused by gastritis or Helicobacter pylori infection, can lead to decreased numbers of chief cells and reduced production of pepsinogen, which can impair protein digestion and contribute to malnutrition.

I believe there might be a slight confusion in your question as intubation is a procedure typically related to the respiratory system rather than the gastrointestinal system.

Intubation generally refers to the process of inserting a tube into a specific part of the body. In the context of medical terminology, intubation usually means the placement of a flexible plastic tube through the mouth or nose and into the trachea (windpipe). This is done to secure and maintain an open airway during surgery or in emergency situations when a person cannot breathe on their own.

However, if you're referring to a procedure that involves the gastrointestinal tract, it might be "gastric lavage" or "nasogastric intubation."

Gastric lavage is a medical procedure where a tube is inserted through the mouth or nose, down the esophagus, and into the stomach to wash out its contents. This can help remove harmful substances from the stomach in case of poisoning.

Nasogastric intubation refers to the insertion of a thin, flexible tube through the nostril, down the back of the throat, and into the stomach. The tube can be used for various purposes, such as draining the stomach of fluids and air or administering nutrients and medications directly into the stomach.

I hope this clarifies any confusion. If you have further questions, please let me know!

The digestive system is a complex network of organs and glands that work together to break down food into nutrients, which are then absorbed and utilized by the body for energy, growth, and cell repair. The physiological phenomena associated with the digestive system include:

1. Ingestion: This is the process of taking in food through the mouth.
2. Mechanical digestion: This involves the physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces through processes such as chewing, churning, and segmentation.
3. Chemical digestion: This involves the chemical breakdown of food molecules into simpler forms that can be absorbed by the body. This is achieved through the action of enzymes produced by the mouth, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine.
4. Motility: This refers to the movement of food through the digestive tract, which is achieved through a series of coordinated muscle contractions called peristalsis.
5. Secretion: This involves the production and release of various digestive juices and enzymes by glands such as the salivary glands, gastric glands, pancreas, and liver.
6. Absorption: This is the process of absorbing nutrients from the digested food into the bloodstream through the walls of the small intestine.
7. Defecation: This is the final process of eliminating undigested food and waste products from the body through the rectum and anus.

Overall, the coordinated functioning of these physiological phenomena ensures the proper digestion and absorption of nutrients, maintaining the health and well-being of the individual.

Gastric mucins refer to the mucin proteins that are produced and secreted by the mucus-secreting cells in the stomach lining, also known as gastric mucosa. These mucins are part of the gastric mucus layer that coats and protects the stomach from damage caused by digestive acids and enzymes, as well as from physical and chemical injuries.

Gastric mucins have a complex structure and are composed of large glycoprotein molecules that contain both protein and carbohydrate components. They form a gel-like substance that provides a physical barrier between the stomach lining and the gastric juices, preventing acid and enzymes from damaging the underlying tissues.

There are several types of gastric mucins, including MUC5AC and MUC6, which have different structures and functions. MUC5AC is the predominant mucin in the stomach and is produced by surface mucous cells, while MUC6 is produced by deeper glandular cells.

Abnormalities in gastric mucin production or composition can contribute to various gastrointestinal disorders, including gastritis, gastric ulcers, and gastric cancer.

The esophagogastric junction (EGJ) is the region of the gastrointestinal tract where the esophagus (the tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach) meets the stomach. It serves as a physiological sphincter, which helps control the direction of flow and prevent reflux of gastric contents back into the esophagus. The EGJ is also known as the gastroesophageal junction or cardia.

A bezoar is a mass trapped in the gastrointestinal tract, typically in the stomach, that is composed of indigestible materials such as hair, fibers, or food particles. Bezoars can cause various symptoms including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and obstruction. They are more commonly found in people with certain conditions such as diabetes, mental health disorders, or those who have had gastric surgery. Treatment may involve medication or endoscopic removal of the bezoar.

Hydrochloric acid, also known as muriatic acid, is not a substance that is typically found within the human body. It is a strong mineral acid with the chemical formula HCl. In a medical context, it might be mentioned in relation to gastric acid, which helps digest food in the stomach. Gastric acid is composed of hydrochloric acid, potassium chloride and sodium chloride dissolved in water. The pH of hydrochloric acid is very low (1-2) due to its high concentration of H+ ions, making it a strong acid. However, it's important to note that the term 'hydrochloric acid' does not directly refer to a component of human bodily fluids or tissues.

Atropine is an anticholinergic drug that blocks the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the central and peripheral nervous system. It is derived from the belladonna alkaloids, which are found in plants such as deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), Jimson weed (Datura stramonium), and Duboisia spp.

In clinical medicine, atropine is used to reduce secretions, increase heart rate, and dilate the pupils. It is often used before surgery to dry up secretions in the mouth, throat, and lungs, and to reduce salivation during the procedure. Atropine is also used to treat certain types of nerve agent and pesticide poisoning, as well as to manage bradycardia (slow heart rate) and hypotension (low blood pressure) caused by beta-blockers or calcium channel blockers.

Atropine can have several side effects, including dry mouth, blurred vision, dizziness, confusion, and difficulty urinating. In high doses, it can cause delirium, hallucinations, and seizures. Atropine should be used with caution in patients with glaucoma, prostatic hypertrophy, or other conditions that may be exacerbated by its anticholinergic effects.

Esophageal diseases refer to a range of medical conditions that affect the esophagus, which is the muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach. Here are some common esophageal diseases with their brief definitions:

1. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD): A chronic condition in which stomach acid or bile flows back into the esophagus, causing symptoms such as heartburn, chest pain, and difficulty swallowing.
2. Esophagitis: Inflammation of the esophageal lining, often caused by GERD, infection, or medication.
3. Esophageal stricture: Narrowing of the esophagus due to scarring or inflammation, which can make swallowing difficult.
4. Esophageal cancer: Cancer that forms in the tissues of the esophagus, often as a result of long-term GERD or smoking.
5. Esophageal motility disorders: Disorders that affect the normal movement and function of the esophagus, such as achalasia, diffuse spasm, and nutcracker esophagus.
6. Barrett's esophagus: A condition in which the lining of the lower esophagus changes, increasing the risk of esophageal cancer.
7. Esophageal diverticula: Small pouches that form in the esophageal wall, often causing difficulty swallowing or regurgitation.
8. Eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE): A chronic immune-mediated disorder characterized by inflammation of the esophagus due to an allergic reaction.

These are some of the common esophageal diseases, and their diagnosis and treatment may vary depending on the severity and underlying cause of the condition.

Neoplasms are abnormal growths of cells or tissues in the body that serve no physiological function. They can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign neoplasms are typically slow growing and do not spread to other parts of the body, while malignant neoplasms are aggressive, invasive, and can metastasize to distant sites.

Neoplasms occur when there is a dysregulation in the normal process of cell division and differentiation, leading to uncontrolled growth and accumulation of cells. This can result from genetic mutations or other factors such as viral infections, environmental exposures, or hormonal imbalances.

Neoplasms can develop in any organ or tissue of the body and can cause various symptoms depending on their size, location, and type. Treatment options for neoplasms include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy, among others.

Methylnitronitrosoguanidine (MNNG) is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is a chemical compound with potential implications in medical research and toxicology. Therefore, I will provide you with a general definition of this compound.

Methylnitronitrosoguanidine (C2H6N4O2), also known as MNNG or nitroso-guanidine, is a nitrosamine compound used primarily in laboratory research. It is an alkylating agent, which means it can introduce alkyl groups into other molecules through chemical reactions. In this case, MNNG is particularly reactive towards DNA and RNA, making it a potent mutagen and carcinogen.

MNNG has been used in research to study the mechanisms of carcinogenesis (the development of cancer) and mutations at the molecular level. However, due to its high toxicity and potential for causing damage to genetic material, its use is strictly regulated and typically limited to laboratory settings.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Gastrointestinal endoscopy is a medical procedure that allows direct visualization of the inner lining of the digestive tract, which includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), and sometimes the upper part of the small intestine (duodenum). This procedure is performed using an endoscope, a long, thin, flexible tube with a light and camera at its tip. The endoscope is inserted through the mouth for upper endoscopy or through the rectum for lower endoscopy (colonoscopy), and the images captured by the camera are transmitted to a monitor for the physician to view.

Gastrointestinal endoscopy can help diagnose various conditions, such as inflammation, ulcers, tumors, polyps, or bleeding in the digestive tract. It can also be used for therapeutic purposes, such as removing polyps, taking tissue samples (biopsies), treating bleeding, and performing other interventions to manage certain digestive diseases.

There are different types of gastrointestinal endoscopy procedures, including:

1. Upper Endoscopy (Esophagogastroduodenoscopy or EGD): This procedure examines the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum.
2. Colonoscopy: This procedure examines the colon and rectum.
3. Sigmoidoscopy: A limited examination of the lower part of the colon (sigmoid colon) using a shorter endoscope.
4. Enteroscopy: An examination of the small intestine, which can be performed using various techniques, such as push enteroscopy, single-balloon enteroscopy, or double-balloon enteroscopy.
5. Capsule Endoscopy: A procedure that involves swallowing a small capsule containing a camera, which captures images of the digestive tract as it passes through.

Gastrointestinal endoscopy is generally considered safe when performed by experienced medical professionals. However, like any medical procedure, there are potential risks and complications, such as bleeding, infection, perforation, or adverse reactions to sedatives used during the procedure. Patients should discuss these risks with their healthcare provider before undergoing gastrointestinal endoscopy.

Gastric acidity determination is a medical test used to measure the amount of acid in the stomach. This test is often performed to diagnose or monitor conditions such as gastritis, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. The test involves measuring the pH level of the stomach contents using a thin, flexible tube called a catheter that is passed through the nose and down into the stomach. In some cases, a small sample of stomach fluid may also be collected for further testing.

The normal range for gastric acidity is typically considered to be a pH level below 4. A higher pH level may indicate that the stomach is producing too little acid, while a lower pH level may suggest that it is producing too much. Based on the results of the test, healthcare providers can develop an appropriate treatment plan for the underlying condition causing abnormal gastric acidity.

Metiamide is not generally considered a medical term, but it is a medication that has been used in the past. Medically, metiamide is defined as a synthetic histamine H2-receptor antagonist, which means it blocks the action of histamine at the H2 receptors in the stomach. This effect reduces gastric acid secretion and can be useful in treating gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, and other conditions associated with excessive stomach acid production.

However, metiamide has largely been replaced by other H2 blockers like cimetidine, ranitidine, and famotidine due to its association with a rare but serious side effect called agranulocytosis, which is a severe decrease in white blood cell count that can increase the risk of infections.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mucin-6" is not a widely recognized or established medical term. Mucins are high molecular weight glycoproteins that are the major component of mucus, which is produced by specialized epithelial cells in various organs. Each mucin is identified by a number, such as Mucin-1, Mucin-2, and so on, based on their order of discovery.

However, I couldn't find any reputable medical sources that mention "Mucin-6." It's possible that it may be a topic of ongoing research or that it might be referred to by another name. I would recommend consulting a specific scientific study or researcher for more accurate and detailed information.

Histamine is defined as a biogenic amine that is widely distributed throughout the body and is involved in various physiological functions. It is derived primarily from the amino acid histidine by the action of histidine decarboxylase. Histamine is stored in granules (along with heparin and proteases) within mast cells and basophils, and is released upon stimulation or degranulation of these cells.

Once released into the tissues and circulation, histamine exerts a wide range of pharmacological actions through its interaction with four types of G protein-coupled receptors (H1, H2, H3, and H4 receptors). Histamine's effects are diverse and include modulation of immune responses, contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle, increased vascular permeability, stimulation of gastric acid secretion, and regulation of neurotransmission.

Histamine is also a potent mediator of allergic reactions and inflammation, causing symptoms such as itching, sneezing, runny nose, and wheezing. Antihistamines are commonly used to block the actions of histamine at H1 receptors, providing relief from these symptoms.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Esophageal neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the tissue of the esophagus, which is the muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Malignant esophageal neoplasms are typically classified as either squamous cell carcinomas or adenocarcinomas, depending on the type of cell from which they originate.

Esophageal cancer is a serious and often life-threatening condition that can cause symptoms such as difficulty swallowing, chest pain, weight loss, and coughing. Risk factors for esophageal neoplasms include smoking, heavy alcohol consumption, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), and Barrett's esophagus. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

The intestines, also known as the bowel, are a part of the digestive system that extends from the stomach to the anus. They are responsible for the further breakdown and absorption of nutrients from food, as well as the elimination of waste products. The intestines can be divided into two main sections: the small intestine and the large intestine.

The small intestine is a long, coiled tube that measures about 20 feet in length and is lined with tiny finger-like projections called villi, which increase its surface area and enhance nutrient absorption. The small intestine is where most of the digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place.

The large intestine, also known as the colon, is a wider tube that measures about 5 feet in length and is responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes from digested food, forming stool, and eliminating waste products from the body. The large intestine includes several regions, including the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus.

Together, the intestines play a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being by ensuring that the body receives the nutrients it needs to function properly.

Hydrogen-ion concentration, also known as pH, is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a solution. It is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution. The standard unit of measurement is the pH unit. A pH of 7 is neutral, less than 7 is acidic, and greater than 7 is basic.

In medical terms, hydrogen-ion concentration is important for maintaining homeostasis within the body. For example, in the stomach, a high hydrogen-ion concentration (low pH) is necessary for the digestion of food. However, in other parts of the body such as blood, a high hydrogen-ion concentration can be harmful and lead to acidosis. Conversely, a low hydrogen-ion concentration (high pH) in the blood can lead to alkalosis. Both acidosis and alkalosis can have serious consequences on various organ systems if not corrected.

'Digestive System Neoplasms' refer to new and abnormal growths of tissue in the digestive system that can be benign or malignant. These growths are also known as tumors, and they can occur in any part of the digestive system, including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon and rectum), liver, bile ducts, pancreas, and gallbladder. Neoplasms in the digestive system can interfere with normal digestion and absorption of nutrients, cause bleeding, obstruct the digestive tract, and spread to other parts of the body (metastasis) if they are malignant.

Benign neoplasms are not cancerous and do not usually spread to other parts of the body. They can often be removed surgically and may not require further treatment. Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous and can invade nearby tissues and organs and spread to other parts of the body. Treatment for malignant neoplasms in the digestive system typically involves a combination of surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy.

The causes of digestive system neoplasms are varied and include genetic factors, environmental exposures, lifestyle factors (such as diet and smoking), and infectious agents. Prevention strategies may include maintaining a healthy diet, avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol consumption, practicing safe sex, getting vaccinated against certain viral infections, and undergoing regular screenings for certain types of neoplasms (such as colonoscopies for colorectal cancer).

The colon, also known as the large intestine, is a part of the digestive system in humans and other vertebrates. It is an organ that eliminates waste from the body and is located between the small intestine and the rectum. The main function of the colon is to absorb water and electrolytes from digested food, forming and storing feces until they are eliminated through the anus.

The colon is divided into several regions, including the cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum, and anus. The walls of the colon contain a layer of muscle that helps to move waste material through the organ by a process called peristalsis.

The inner surface of the colon is lined with mucous membrane, which secretes mucus to lubricate the passage of feces. The colon also contains a large population of bacteria, known as the gut microbiota, which play an important role in digestion and immunity.

Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.

Urease is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. It is found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and plants. In medicine, urease is often associated with certain bacterial infections, such as those caused by Helicobacter pylori, which can produce large amounts of this enzyme. The presence of urease in these infections can lead to increased ammonia production, contributing to the development of gastritis and peptic ulcers.

Hypertrophic gastritis is a relatively uncommon condition characterized by thickened folds in the stomach lining (gastric mucosa) due to an increase in the number of cells and/or the size of the cells. This chronic inflammatory condition can lead to atrophy of the glands, intestinal metaplasia, and an increased risk of developing gastric cancer. It is often associated with autoimmune disorders, such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis, pernicious anemia, or type A atrophic gastritis.

The condition can be asymptomatic or may present with symptoms like abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, bloating, and loss of appetite. Diagnosis typically involves endoscopy with biopsy to assess the extent of inflammation and cellular changes in the stomach lining. Treatment usually includes proton pump inhibitors to reduce acid secretion, as well as addressing any underlying conditions that may be contributing to the development or progression of hypertrophic gastritis.

Cimetidine is a histamine-2 (H2) receptor antagonist, which is a type of medication that reduces the production of stomach acid. It works by blocking the action of histamine on the H2 receptors in the stomach, which are responsible for stimulating the release of stomach acid. By blocking these receptors, cimetidine reduces the amount of stomach acid produced and can help to relieve symptoms such as heartburn, indigestion, and stomach ulcers.

Cimetidine is available by prescription in various forms, including tablets, capsules, and liquid. It is typically taken two or three times a day, depending on the specific condition being treated. Common side effects of cimetidine may include headache, dizziness, diarrhea, and constipation.

In addition to its use in treating stomach acid-related conditions, cimetidine has also been studied for its potential anti-cancer properties. Some research suggests that it may help to enhance the immune system's response to cancer cells and reduce the growth of certain types of tumors. However, more research is needed to confirm these effects and determine the optimal dosage and duration of treatment.

A polyp is a general term for a small growth that protrudes from a mucous membrane, such as the lining of the nose or the digestive tract. Polyps can vary in size and shape, but they are usually cherry-sized or smaller and have a stalk or a broad base. They are often benign (noncancerous), but some types of polyps, especially those in the colon, can become cancerous over time.

In the digestive tract, polyps can form in the colon, rectum, stomach, or small intestine. Colorectal polyps are the most common type and are usually found during routine colonoscopies. There are several types of colorectal polyps, including:

* Adenomatous polyps (adenomas): These polyps can become cancerous over time and are the most likely to turn into cancer.
* Hyperplastic polyps: These polyps are usually small and benign, but some types may have a higher risk of becoming cancerous.
* Inflammatory polyps: These polyps are caused by chronic inflammation in the digestive tract, such as from inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Polyps can also form in other parts of the body, including the nose, sinuses, ears, and uterus. In most cases, polyps are benign and do not cause any symptoms. However, if they become large enough, they may cause problems such as bleeding, obstruction, or discomfort. Treatment typically involves removing the polyp through a surgical procedure.

Gastrin-secreting cells, also known as G cells, are endocrine cells that produce and release the hormone gastrin. These cells are primarily located in the antrum of the stomach, but they can also be found in the duodenum and pancreas. Gastrin stimulates the release of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells in the stomach, which aids in digestion by breaking down proteins and activating other digestive enzymes.

Gastrin secretion is regulated by several factors, including the presence of food in the stomach, particularly protein-rich foods, and the hormone gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), which is released from the small intestine in response to nutrient absorption. Gastrin also plays a role in regulating gastric motility and mucosal growth.

Abnormalities in gastrin-secreting cells can lead to various gastrointestinal disorders, such as Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, which is characterized by excessive gastrin production and severe gastric acid hypersecretion, leading to peptic ulcers and other digestive complications.

Gastric lavage, also known as stomach pumping, is a medical procedure where the stomach's contents are emptied using a tube that is inserted through the mouth or nose and into the stomach. The tube is then connected to suction, which helps remove the stomach contents. This procedure is often used in emergency situations to treat poisonings or overdoses by removing the toxic substance before it gets absorbed into the bloodstream. It can also be used to empty the stomach before certain surgeries or procedures.

Achlorhydria is a medical condition characterized by the absence or near-absence of hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Hydrochloric acid is a digestive fluid that helps to break down food, particularly proteins, and also creates an acidic environment that prevents harmful bacteria from growing in the stomach.

Achlorhydria can be caused by various factors, including certain medications, autoimmune disorders, aging, or surgical removal of the stomach. Symptoms of achlorhydria may include indigestion, bloating, abdominal pain, and malabsorption of nutrients. If left untreated, it can lead to complications such as anemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, and increased risk of gastrointestinal infections.

It is important to note that achlorhydria can be diagnosed through various tests, including a gastric acid analysis or a pH test. Treatment for achlorhydria may involve supplementing with hydrochloric acid or other digestive enzymes, modifying the diet, and addressing any underlying conditions.

Enterochromaffin cells, also known as Kulchitsky cells or enteroendocrine cells, are a type of neuroendocrine cell found in the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract. These cells are responsible for producing and secreting a variety of hormones and neuropeptides that play important roles in regulating gastrointestinal motility, secretion, and sensation.

Enterochromaffin cells are named for their ability to take up chromaffin stains, which contain silver salts and oxidizing agents that react with the catecholamines stored within the cells. These cells can be further classified based on their morphology, location within the gastrointestinal tract, and the types of hormones they produce.

Some examples of hormones produced by enterochromaffin cells include serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), histamine, gastrin, somatostatin, and cholecystokinin. Serotonin is one of the most well-known hormones produced by these cells, and it plays a critical role in regulating gastrointestinal motility and secretion, as well as mood and cognition.

Abnormalities in enterochromaffin cell function have been implicated in a number of gastrointestinal disorders, including irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), functional dyspepsia, and gastroparesis. Additionally, mutations in genes associated with enterochromaffin cells have been linked to several inherited cancer syndromes, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1) and neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1).

Organ specificity, in the context of immunology and toxicology, refers to the phenomenon where a substance (such as a drug or toxin) or an immune response primarily affects certain organs or tissues in the body. This can occur due to various reasons such as:

1. The presence of specific targets (like antigens in the case of an immune response or receptors in the case of drugs) that are more abundant in these organs.
2. The unique properties of certain cells or tissues that make them more susceptible to damage.
3. The way a substance is metabolized or cleared from the body, which can concentrate it in specific organs.

For example, in autoimmune diseases, organ specificity describes immune responses that are directed against antigens found only in certain organs, such as the thyroid gland in Hashimoto's disease. Similarly, some toxins or drugs may have a particular affinity for liver cells, leading to liver damage or specific drug interactions.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

The jejunum is the middle section of the small intestine, located between the duodenum and the ileum. It is responsible for the majority of nutrient absorption that occurs in the small intestine, particularly carbohydrates, proteins, and some fats. The jejunum is characterized by its smooth muscle structure, which allows it to contract and mix food with digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients through its extensive network of finger-like projections called villi.

The jejunum is also lined with microvilli, which further increase the surface area available for absorption. Additionally, the jejunum contains numerous lymphatic vessels called lacteals, which help to absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins into the bloodstream. Overall, the jejunum plays a critical role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients from food.

Atrophic gastritis is a condition characterized by the inflammation and atrophy (wasting away) of the stomach lining, specifically the mucous membrane called the gastric mucosa. This process involves the loss of glandular cells in the stomach, which can result in decreased acid production and potential vitamin B12 deficiency due to reduced intrinsic factor production. Atrophic gastritis can be caused by various factors, including autoimmune disorders, chronic bacterial infection (usually with Helicobacter pylori), and the use of certain medications such as proton pump inhibitors. It can increase the risk of developing stomach cancer, so regular monitoring is often recommended.

Artiodactyla is an order of mammals that includes even-toed ungulates, or hooved animals, with an odd number of toes. This group includes animals such as pigs, peccaries, hippos, camels, deer, giraffes, antelopes, and ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats. The primary identifying feature of Artiodactyls is the presence of a pair of weight-bearing toes located in the middle of the foot, with the other toes being either reduced or absent. This arrangement provides stability and adaptability for these animals to thrive in various habitats worldwide.

A choristoma is a type of growth that occurs when normally functioning tissue is found in an abnormal location within the body. It is not cancerous or harmful, but it can cause problems if it presses on surrounding structures or causes symptoms. Choristomas are typically congenital, meaning they are present at birth, and are thought to occur due to developmental errors during embryonic growth. They can be found in various organs and tissues throughout the body, including the brain, eye, skin, and gastrointestinal tract.

Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells are a type of neuroendocrine cell found in the stomach lining. They are located in the mucosa of the gastric glands and are responsible for producing and secreting hormones, such as histamine, that regulate gastric acid secretion. ECL cells are stimulated by the hormone gastrin, which is released by G cells in response to food intake or other stimuli. The histamine produced by ECL cells then acts on H2 receptors located on parietal cells, leading to the release of hydrochloric acid into the stomach.

ECL cells are named for their ability to take up and decarboxylate certain amines, such as serotonin and dopamine, which results in the formation of chromaffin granules that can be stained with chromium salts. These cells play an important role in regulating gastric acid secretion and are also involved in the development of some stomach disorders, such as gastrinomas and atrophic gastritis.

Pepsin A is defined as a digestive enzyme that is primarily secreted by the chief cells in the stomach's fundic glands. It plays a crucial role in protein catabolism, helping to break down food proteins into smaller peptides during the digestive process. Pepsin A has an optimal pH range of 1.5-2.5 for its enzymatic activity and is activated from its inactive precursor, pepsinogen, upon exposure to acidic conditions in the stomach.

"Helicobacter felis" is a gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacterium that colonizes the stomachs of cats and other animals. It is closely related to "Helicobacter pylori," which is a well-known cause of gastritis, peptic ulcers, and gastric cancer in humans. "Helicobacter felis" has been associated with similar gastrointestinal diseases in cats and has been occasionally found in human stomachs, although its role in human pathogenesis is not as clearly established as that of "Helicobacter pylori."

Gastric outlet obstruction (GOO) is a medical condition that refers to the blockage of the passage from the stomach to the small intestine, also known as the pylorus. This blockage can be caused by various factors, including tumors, scar tissue, or gallstones. As a result, food and digestive enzymes cannot pass through the pylorus into the small intestine, leading to symptoms such as vomiting, abdominal pain, bloating, and weight loss. In severe cases, GOO can lead to malnutrition, dehydration, and other complications if left untreated. Treatment options for GOO depend on the underlying cause of the obstruction and may include medication, endoscopic procedures, or surgery.

Pepsinogen A is the inactive precursor form of the enzyme pepsin, which is produced in the stomach chief cells. Once exposed to acidic environment in the stomach, pepsinogen A is converted into its active form, pepsin. Pepsin plays a crucial role in digestion by breaking down proteins into smaller peptides. An elevated level of pepsinogen A in the blood may indicate damage to the stomach lining, such as that seen in gastritis or gastric cancer.

Gastrointestinal diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which includes the organs from the mouth to the anus, responsible for food digestion, absorption, and elimination of waste. These diseases can affect any part of the GI tract, causing various symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, constipation, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss.

Common gastrointestinal diseases include:

1. Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) - a condition where stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing heartburn and other symptoms.
2. Peptic ulcers - sores that develop in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by bacterial infection or long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
3. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) - a group of chronic inflammatory conditions of the intestine, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
4. Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) - a functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and altered bowel habits.
5. Celiac disease - an autoimmune disorder where the ingestion of gluten leads to damage in the small intestine.
6. Diverticular disease - a condition that affects the colon, causing diverticula (small pouches) to form and potentially become inflamed or infected.
7. Constipation - a common gastrointestinal symptom characterized by infrequent bowel movements, hard stools, and difficulty passing stools.
8. Diarrhea - a common gastrointestinal symptom characterized by loose, watery stools and frequent bowel movements.
9. Food intolerances and allergies - adverse reactions to specific foods or food components that can cause various gastrointestinal symptoms.
10. Gastrointestinal infections - caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi that can lead to a range of symptoms, including diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.

Bile reflux is a condition in which bile flows backward from the small intestine into the stomach and sometimes into the esophagus, causing symptoms such as heartburn, nausea, vomiting a greenish-yellow fluid (bile), and abdominal pain. Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver that helps to break down fats in the small intestine. Normally, a muscle called the sphincter of Oddi prevents bile from flowing backward into the stomach. However, if this muscle becomes weak or damaged, bile reflux can occur.

Bile reflux is different from gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), which occurs when stomach acid flows backward into the esophagus. Although both conditions can cause similar symptoms, such as heartburn and regurgitation, they require different treatments. Bile reflux can increase the risk of complications such as inflammation of the stomach lining (gastritis), ulcers, and cancer of the esophagus. If left untreated, bile reflux can lead to serious health problems, so it is important to seek medical attention if you experience symptoms.

Histamine H2 antagonists, also known as H2 blockers, are a class of medications that work by blocking the action of histamine on the H2 receptors in the stomach. Histamine is a chemical that is released by the body during an allergic reaction and can also be released by certain cells in the stomach in response to food or other stimuli. When histamine binds to the H2 receptors in the stomach, it triggers the release of acid. By blocking the action of histamine on these receptors, H2 antagonists reduce the amount of acid produced by the stomach, which can help to relieve symptoms such as heartburn, indigestion, and stomach ulcers. Examples of H2 antagonists include ranitidine (Zantac), famotidine (Pepcid), and cimetidine (Tagamet).

Manometry is a medical test that measures pressure inside various parts of the gastrointestinal tract. It is often used to help diagnose digestive disorders such as achalasia, gastroparesis, and irritable bowel syndrome. During the test, a thin, flexible tube called a manometer is inserted through the mouth or rectum and into the area being tested. The tube is connected to a machine that measures and records pressure readings. These readings can help doctors identify any abnormalities in muscle function or nerve reflexes within the digestive tract.

A myoelectric complex is a group of electromyographic (EMG) signals that are recorded from muscles during a specific physiological process. These signals can provide information about the electrical activity of the muscle and its functional state.

A migrating myoelectric complex (MMC), also known as a migrating motor complex, is a pattern of muscle contractions that occurs in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract during periods of fasting. These complexes are responsible for cleaning out the GI tract and preparing it for the next meal.

An MMC typically consists of four phases: phase I, which is a period of quiescence; phase II, which is characterized by irregular muscle contractions; phase III, which is a period of strong, rhythmic contractions that sweep through the GI tract; and phase IV, which is a transition phase back to phase I.

The term "migrating" refers to the fact that these complexes move along the GI tract at a rate of about 1-2 cm/min. This allows them to effectively clean out the entire length of the GI tract during periods of fasting.

It is important to note that dysfunction of MMCs has been implicated in various gastrointestinal disorders, such as gastroparesis and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS).

I must clarify that the term "Guinea Pigs" is not typically used in medical definitions. However, in colloquial or informal language, it may refer to people who are used as the first to try out a new medical treatment or drug. This is known as being a "test subject" or "in a clinical trial."

In the field of scientific research, particularly in studies involving animals, guinea pigs are small rodents that are often used as experimental subjects due to their size, cost-effectiveness, and ease of handling. They are not actually pigs from Guinea, despite their name's origins being unclear. However, they do not exactly fit the description of being used in human medical experiments.

Hematemesis is the medical term for vomiting blood. It can range in appearance from bright red blood to dark, coffee-ground material that results from the stomach acid digesting the blood. Hematemesis is often a sign of a serious condition, such as bleeding in the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum, and requires immediate medical attention. The underlying cause can be various, including gastritis, ulcers, esophageal varices, or tumors.

The digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that process food. Abnormalities in the digestive system can refer to a wide range of conditions that affect any part of the system, including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. These abnormalities can be present at birth (congenital) or acquired later in life due to various factors such as infection, inflammation, injury, or disease.

Some examples of digestive system abnormalities include:

1. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD): A condition where the stomach acid flows back into the esophagus, causing heartburn and damage to the esophageal lining.
2. Peptic Ulcers: Open sores that develop on the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by bacterial infections or long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
3. Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD): A group of chronic inflammatory conditions of the intestine, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis.
4. Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS): A functional gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, bloating, and altered bowel habits.
5. Celiac Disease: An autoimmune disorder where the ingestion of gluten leads to damage in the small intestine.
6. Diverticulosis: The presence of small pouches or sacs that form on the lining of the intestine, which can become inflamed or infected (diverticulitis).
7. Hiatal Hernia: A condition where a portion of the stomach protrudes through the diaphragm into the chest cavity.
8. Hepatitis: Inflammation of the liver, often caused by viral infections or toxins.
9. Cirrhosis: A chronic liver disease characterized by scarring and loss of liver function, often due to long-term alcohol abuse or hepatitis.
10. Gallstones: Small, hard deposits that form in the gallbladder and can cause pain and inflammation.

These are just a few examples of gastrointestinal disorders, and there are many others. If you are experiencing symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, constipation, or difficulty swallowing, it is important to speak with your healthcare provider to determine the cause and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

A peptic ulcer is a sore or erosion in the lining of your stomach and the first part of your small intestine (duodenum). The most common causes of peptic ulcers are bacterial infection and long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as aspirin, ibuprofen, or naproxen.

The symptoms of a peptic ulcer include abdominal pain, often in the upper middle part of your abdomen, which can be dull, sharp, or burning and may come and go for several days or weeks. Other symptoms can include bloating, burping, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. Severe ulcers can cause bleeding in the digestive tract, which can lead to anemia, black stools, or vomit that looks like coffee grounds.

If left untreated, peptic ulcers can result in serious complications such as perforation (a hole through the wall of the stomach or duodenum), obstruction (blockage of the digestive tract), and bleeding. Treatment for peptic ulcers typically involves medications to reduce acid production, neutralize stomach acid, and kill the bacteria causing the infection. In severe cases, surgery may be required.

Gastrointestinal transit refers to the movement of food, digestive secretions, and waste products through the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the anus. This process involves several muscles and nerves that work together to propel the contents through the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum.

The transit time can vary depending on factors such as the type and amount of food consumed, hydration levels, and overall health. Abnormalities in gastrointestinal transit can lead to various conditions, including constipation, diarrhea, and malabsorption. Therefore, maintaining normal gastrointestinal transit is essential for proper digestion, nutrient absorption, and overall health.

Muscle contraction is the physiological process in which muscle fibers shorten and generate force, leading to movement or stability of a body part. This process involves the sliding filament theory where thick and thin filaments within the sarcomeres (the functional units of muscles) slide past each other, facilitated by the interaction between myosin heads and actin filaments. The energy required for this action is provided by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary, and they play a crucial role in various bodily functions such as locomotion, circulation, respiration, and posture maintenance.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

The intestinal mucosa is the innermost layer of the intestines, which comes into direct contact with digested food and microbes. It is a specialized epithelial tissue that plays crucial roles in nutrient absorption, barrier function, and immune defense. The intestinal mucosa is composed of several cell types, including absorptive enterocytes, mucus-secreting goblet cells, hormone-producing enteroendocrine cells, and immune cells such as lymphocytes and macrophages.

The surface of the intestinal mucosa is covered by a single layer of epithelial cells, which are joined together by tight junctions to form a protective barrier against harmful substances and microorganisms. This barrier also allows for the selective absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. The intestinal mucosa also contains numerous lymphoid follicles, known as Peyer's patches, which are involved in immune surveillance and defense against pathogens.

In addition to its role in absorption and immunity, the intestinal mucosa is also capable of producing hormones that regulate digestion and metabolism. Dysfunction of the intestinal mucosa can lead to various gastrointestinal disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, and food allergies.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

The ileum is the third and final segment of the small intestine, located between the jejunum and the cecum (the beginning of the large intestine). It plays a crucial role in nutrient absorption, particularly for vitamin B12 and bile salts. The ileum is characterized by its thin, lined walls and the presence of Peyer's patches, which are part of the immune system and help surveil for pathogens.

A hiatal hernia is a type of hernia that occurs when a part of the stomach protrudes or squeezes through an opening (hiatus) in the diaphragm, the muscular partition between the chest and abdominal cavities. Normally, the esophagus passes through this opening to connect to the stomach, but in a hiatal hernia, a portion of the stomach also moves up into the chest cavity through the hiatus.

There are two main types of hiatal hernias: sliding and paraesophageal. In a sliding hiatal hernia, the junction between the esophagus and stomach (gastroesophageal junction) slides upward into the chest cavity, which is the most common type. Paraesophageal hiatal hernias are less common but can be more severe, as they involve the stomach herniating alongside the esophagus, potentially leading to complications like obstruction or strangulation of the blood supply to the stomach.

Many people with hiatal hernias do not experience symptoms, but some may have heartburn, acid reflux, regurgitation, difficulty swallowing, chest pain, or shortness of breath. Treatment depends on the severity and associated symptoms, ranging from lifestyle modifications and medications to surgical repair in severe cases.

Gastrointestinal (GI) hemorrhage is a term used to describe any bleeding that occurs in the gastrointestinal tract, which includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum. The bleeding can range from mild to severe and can produce symptoms such as vomiting blood, passing black or tarry stools, or having low blood pressure.

GI hemorrhage can be classified as either upper or lower, depending on the location of the bleed. Upper GI hemorrhage refers to bleeding that occurs above the ligament of Treitz, which is a point in the small intestine where it becomes narrower and turns a corner. Common causes of upper GI hemorrhage include gastritis, ulcers, esophageal varices, and Mallory-Weiss tears.

Lower GI hemorrhage refers to bleeding that occurs below the ligament of Treitz. Common causes of lower GI hemorrhage include diverticulosis, colitis, inflammatory bowel disease, and vascular abnormalities such as angiodysplasia.

The diagnosis of GI hemorrhage is often made based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests such as endoscopy, CT scan, or radionuclide scanning. Treatment depends on the severity and cause of the bleeding and may include medications, endoscopic procedures, surgery, or a combination of these approaches.

The pancreas is a glandular organ located in the abdomen, posterior to the stomach. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine portion of the pancreas consists of acinar cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. These enzymes help in the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in food.

The endocrine portion of the pancreas consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which include alpha, beta, delta, and F cells. These cells produce and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are critical regulators of blood sugar levels, with insulin promoting glucose uptake and storage in tissues and glucagon stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to raise blood glucose when it is low.

Mucins are high molecular weight, heavily glycosylated proteins that are the major components of mucus. They are produced and secreted by specialized epithelial cells in various organs, including the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts, as well as the eyes and ears.

Mucins have a characteristic structure consisting of a protein backbone with numerous attached oligosaccharide side chains, which give them their gel-forming properties and provide a protective barrier against pathogens, environmental insults, and digestive enzymes. They also play important roles in lubrication, hydration, and cell signaling.

Mucins can be classified into two main groups based on their structure and function: secreted mucins and membrane-bound mucins. Secreted mucins are released from cells and form a physical barrier on the surface of mucosal tissues, while membrane-bound mucins are integrated into the cell membrane and participate in cell adhesion and signaling processes.

Abnormalities in mucin production or function have been implicated in various diseases, including chronic inflammation, cancer, and cystic fibrosis.

A precancerous condition, also known as a premalignant condition, is a state of abnormal cellular growth and development that has a higher-than-normal potential to progress into cancer. These conditions are characterized by the presence of certain anomalies in the cells, such as dysplasia (abnormal changes in cell shape or size), which can indicate an increased risk for malignant transformation.

It is important to note that not all precancerous conditions will eventually develop into cancer, and some may even regress on their own. However, individuals with precancerous conditions are often at a higher risk of developing cancer compared to the general population. Regular monitoring and appropriate medical interventions, if necessary, can help manage this risk and potentially prevent or detect cancer at an early stage when it is more treatable.

Examples of precancerous conditions include:

1. Dysplasia in the cervix (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or CIN)
2. Atypical ductal hyperplasia or lobular hyperplasia in the breast
3. Actinic keratosis on the skin
4. Leukoplakia in the mouth
5. Barrett's esophagus in the digestive tract

Regular medical check-ups, screenings, and lifestyle modifications are crucial for individuals with precancerous conditions to monitor their health and reduce the risk of cancer development.

A medical definition of 'food' would be:

"Substances consumed by living organisms, usually in the form of meals, which contain necessary nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. These substances are broken down during digestion to provide energy, build and repair tissues, and regulate bodily functions."

It's important to note that while this is a medical definition, it also aligns with common understanding of what food is.

Esophagoplasty is a surgical procedure that involves reconstructing or reshaping the esophagus, which is the muscular tube that connects the throat to the stomach. This procedure may be performed to treat various conditions such as esophageal atresia (a birth defect in which the esophagus does not develop properly), esophageal stricture (narrowing of the esophagus), or esophageal cancer.

During an esophagoplasty, a surgeon may use tissue from another part of the body, such as the stomach or colon, to reconstruct the esophagus. The specific technique used will depend on the individual patient's needs and the nature of their condition.

It is important to note that esophagoplasty is a complex surgical procedure that carries risks such as bleeding, infection, and complications related to anesthesia. Patients who undergo this procedure may require extensive postoperative care and rehabilitation to recover fully.

"Helicobacter" is a genus of gram-negative, spiral-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the stomach. The most well-known species is "Helicobacter pylori," which is known to cause various gastrointestinal diseases, such as gastritis, peptic ulcers, and gastric cancer. These bacteria are able to survive in the harsh acidic environment of the stomach by producing urease, an enzyme that neutralizes stomach acid. Infection with "Helicobacter pylori" is usually acquired in childhood and can persist for life if not treated.

Endoscopy of the digestive system, also known as gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy, is a medical procedure that allows healthcare professionals to visually examine the inside lining of the digestive tract using a flexible tube with a light and camera attached to it, called an endoscope. This procedure can help diagnose and treat various conditions affecting the digestive system, including gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), ulcers, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and cancer.

There are several types of endoscopy procedures that focus on different parts of the digestive tract:

1. Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD): This procedure examines the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is often used to investigate symptoms such as difficulty swallowing, abdominal pain, or bleeding in the upper GI tract.
2. Colonoscopy: This procedure explores the large intestine (colon) and rectum. It is commonly performed to screen for colon cancer, as well as to diagnose and treat conditions like inflammatory bowel disease, diverticulosis, or polyps.
3. Sigmoidoscopy: Similar to a colonoscopy, this procedure examines the lower part of the colon (sigmoid colon) and rectum. It is often used as a screening tool for colon cancer and to investigate symptoms like rectal bleeding or changes in bowel habits.
4. Upper GI endoscopy: This procedure focuses on the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum, using a thin, flexible tube with a light and camera attached to it. It is used to diagnose and treat conditions such as GERD, ulcers, and difficulty swallowing.
5. Capsule endoscopy: This procedure involves swallowing a small capsule containing a camera that captures images of the digestive tract as it passes through. It can help diagnose conditions in the small intestine that may be difficult to reach with traditional endoscopes.

Endoscopy is typically performed under sedation or anesthesia to ensure patient comfort during the procedure. The images captured by the endoscope are displayed on a monitor, allowing the healthcare provider to assess the condition of the digestive tract and make informed treatment decisions.

A diet, in medical terms, refers to the planned and regular consumption of food and drinks. It is a balanced selection of nutrient-rich foods that an individual eats on a daily or periodic basis to meet their energy needs and maintain good health. A well-balanced diet typically includes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy products.

A diet may also be prescribed for therapeutic purposes, such as in the management of certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypertension, or obesity. In these cases, a healthcare professional may recommend specific restrictions or modifications to an individual's regular diet to help manage their condition and improve their overall health.

It is important to note that a healthy and balanced diet should be tailored to an individual's age, gender, body size, activity level, and any underlying medical conditions. Consulting with a healthcare professional, such as a registered dietitian or nutritionist, can help ensure that an individual's dietary needs are being met in a safe and effective way.

I believe there may be some confusion in your question. "Rubber" is not a medical term, but rather a common term used to describe a type of material that is elastic and can be stretched or deformed and then return to its original shape when the force is removed. It is often made from the sap of rubber trees or synthetically.

However, in a medical context, "rubber" might refer to certain medical devices or supplies made from rubber materials, such as rubber gloves used for medical examinations or procedures, or rubber stoppers used in laboratory equipment. But there is no medical definition specifically associated with the term 'Rubber' itself.

Gastroenterostomy is a surgical procedure that creates an anastomosis (a connection or junction) between the stomach and the small intestine, usually between the stomach's lesser curvature and the jejunum (the second part of the small intestine). This procedure is often performed to bypass a diseased or obstructed portion of the gastrointestinal tract, such as in the case of gastric ulcers, tumors, or other conditions that prevent normal digestion and absorption.

There are different types of gastroenterostomy procedures, including:
1. Billroth I (or "gastroduodenostomy"): The stomach is connected directly to the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine).
2. Billroth II (or "gastrojejunostomy"): The stomach is connected to the jejunum, bypassing the duodenum.
3. Roux-en-Y gastrojejunostomy: A more complex procedure in which a portion of the jejunum is separated and reconnected further down the small intestine, creating a Y-shaped configuration. This type of gastroenterostomy is often used in bariatric surgery for weight loss.

The choice of gastroenterostomy technique depends on the specific medical condition being treated and the patient's overall health status.

Barium sulfate is a medication that is commonly used as a contrast material in medical imaging procedures, such as X-rays and CT scans. It works by coating the inside of the digestive tract, making it visible on an X-ray or CT scan and allowing doctors to see detailed images of the stomach, intestines, and other parts of the digestive system.

Barium sulfate is a white, chalky powder that is mixed with water to create a thick, milky liquid. It is generally safe and does not cause significant side effects when used in medical imaging procedures. However, it should not be taken by individuals who have a known allergy to barium or who have certain digestive conditions, such as obstructions or perforations of the bowel.

It's important to note that while barium sulfate is an important tool for medical diagnosis, it is not a treatment for any medical condition and should only be used under the direction of a healthcare professional.

Anti-ulcer agents are a class of medications that are used to treat and prevent ulcers in the gastrointestinal tract. These medications work by reducing the production of stomach acid, neutralizing stomach acid, or protecting the lining of the stomach and duodenum from damage caused by stomach acid.

There are several types of anti-ulcer agents, including:

1. Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs): These medications block the action of proton pumps in the stomach, which are responsible for producing stomach acid. PPIs include drugs such as omeprazole, lansoprazole, and pantoprazole.
2. H-2 receptor antagonists: These medications block the action of histamine on the H-2 receptors in the stomach, reducing the production of stomach acid. Examples include ranitidine, famotidine, and cimetidine.
3. Antacids: These medications neutralize stomach acid and provide quick relief from symptoms such as heartburn and indigestion. Common antacids include calcium carbonate, magnesium hydroxide, and aluminum hydroxide.
4. Protective agents: These medications form a barrier between the stomach lining and stomach acid, protecting the lining from damage. Examples include sucralfate and misoprostol.

Anti-ulcer agents are used to treat conditions such as gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, and Zollinger-Ellison syndrome. It is important to take these medications as directed by a healthcare provider, as they can have side effects and interactions with other medications.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a hormone that is produced in the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine) and in the brain. It is released into the bloodstream in response to food, particularly fatty foods, and plays several roles in the digestive process.

In the digestive system, CCK stimulates the contraction of the gallbladder, which releases bile into the small intestine to help digest fats. It also inhibits the release of acid from the stomach and slows down the movement of food through the intestines.

In the brain, CCK acts as a neurotransmitter and has been shown to have effects on appetite regulation, mood, and memory. It may play a role in the feeling of fullness or satiety after eating, and may also be involved in anxiety and panic disorders.

CCK is sometimes referred to as "gallbladder-stimulating hormone" or "pancreozymin," although these terms are less commonly used than "cholecystokinin."

Duodenogastric reflux (DGR) is a medical condition in which the contents of the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, flow backward into the stomach. This occurs when the pyloric sphincter, a muscle that separates the stomach and duodenum, fails to function properly, allowing the reflux of duodenal juice into the stomach.

Duodenogastric refluxate typically contains bile acids, digestive enzymes, and other stomach-irritating substances. Chronic DGR can lead to gastritis (inflammation of the stomach lining), ulcers, and other gastrointestinal complications. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, heartburn, and indigestion. Treatment usually involves medications that reduce acid production or neutralize stomach acid, as well as lifestyle modifications to minimize reflux triggers.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

The medical definition of "eating" refers to the process of consuming and ingesting food or nutrients into the body. This process typically involves several steps, including:

1. Food preparation: This may involve cleaning, chopping, cooking, or combining ingredients to make them ready for consumption.
2. Ingestion: The act of taking food or nutrients into the mouth and swallowing it.
3. Digestion: Once food is ingested, it travels down the esophagus and enters the stomach, where it is broken down by enzymes and acids to facilitate absorption of nutrients.
4. Absorption: Nutrients are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine and transported to cells throughout the body for use as energy or building blocks for growth and repair.
5. Elimination: Undigested food and waste products are eliminated from the body through the large intestine (colon) and rectum.

Eating is an essential function that provides the body with the nutrients it needs to maintain health, grow, and repair itself. Disorders of eating, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa, can have serious consequences for physical and mental health.

Pernicious anemia is a specific type of vitamin B12 deficiency anemia that is caused by a lack of intrinsic factor, a protein made in the stomach that is needed to absorb vitamin B12. The absence of intrinsic factor leads to poor absorption of vitamin B12 from food and results in its deficiency.

Vitamin B12 is essential for the production of healthy red blood cells, which carry oxygen throughout the body. Without enough vitamin B12, the body cannot produce enough red blood cells, leading to anemia. Pernicious anemia typically develops slowly over several years and can cause symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, and a decreased appetite.

Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune disorder, which means that the body's immune system mistakenly attacks healthy cells in the stomach lining, leading to a loss of intrinsic factor production. It is more common in older adults, particularly those over 60 years old, and can also be associated with other autoimmune disorders such as type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and Addison's disease.

Treatment for pernicious anemia typically involves vitamin B12 replacement therapy, either through oral supplements or injections of the vitamin. In some cases, dietary changes may also be recommended to ensure adequate intake of vitamin B12-rich foods such as meat, fish, poultry, and dairy products.

A biopsy is a medical procedure in which a small sample of tissue is taken from the body to be examined under a microscope for the presence of disease. This can help doctors diagnose and monitor various medical conditions, such as cancer, infections, or autoimmune disorders. The type of biopsy performed will depend on the location and nature of the suspected condition. Some common types of biopsies include:

1. Incisional biopsy: In this procedure, a surgeon removes a piece of tissue from an abnormal area using a scalpel or other surgical instrument. This type of biopsy is often used when the lesion is too large to be removed entirely during the initial biopsy.

2. Excisional biopsy: An excisional biopsy involves removing the entire abnormal area, along with a margin of healthy tissue surrounding it. This technique is typically employed for smaller lesions or when cancer is suspected.

3. Needle biopsy: A needle biopsy uses a thin, hollow needle to extract cells or fluid from the body. There are two main types of needle biopsies: fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA extracts loose cells, while a core needle biopsy removes a small piece of tissue.

4. Punch biopsy: In a punch biopsy, a round, sharp tool is used to remove a small cylindrical sample of skin tissue. This type of biopsy is often used for evaluating rashes or other skin abnormalities.

5. Shave biopsy: During a shave biopsy, a thin slice of tissue is removed from the surface of the skin using a sharp razor-like instrument. This technique is typically used for superficial lesions or growths on the skin.

After the biopsy sample has been collected, it is sent to a laboratory where a pathologist will examine the tissue under a microscope and provide a diagnosis based on their findings. The results of the biopsy can help guide further treatment decisions and determine the best course of action for managing the patient's condition.

Multiple primary neoplasms refer to the occurrence of more than one primary malignant tumor in an individual, where each tumor is unrelated to the other and originates from separate cells or organs. This differs from metastatic cancer, where a single malignancy spreads to multiple sites in the body. Multiple primary neoplasms can be synchronous (occurring at the same time) or metachronous (occurring at different times). The risk of developing multiple primary neoplasms increases with age and is associated with certain genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices such as smoking and alcohol consumption.

A gastric balloon is a medical device that is temporarily inserted into the stomach to help with weight loss. It is typically used for individuals who are moderately overweight and have not been able to lose weight through diet and exercise alone. The procedure involves placing a deflated balloon into the stomach through the mouth, then filling it with saline solution once it's in place. This reduces the amount of space available in the stomach for food, leading to a feeling of fullness and reduced appetite. After several months, the balloon is removed through an endoscopic procedure. It's important to note that gastric balloons are not a permanent solution to obesity and should be used as part of a comprehensive weight loss plan that includes diet, exercise, and behavior modification.

In medical terms, pressure is defined as the force applied per unit area on an object or body surface. It is often measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) in clinical settings. For example, blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood on the walls of the arteries and is recorded as two numbers: systolic pressure (when the heart beats and pushes blood out) and diastolic pressure (when the heart rests between beats).

Pressure can also refer to the pressure exerted on a wound or incision to help control bleeding, or the pressure inside the skull or spinal canal. High or low pressure in different body systems can indicate various medical conditions and require appropriate treatment.

The Upper Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract refers to the segment of the digestive system that includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. This region is responsible for the initial stages of digestion, such as mechanical breakdown of food by chewing and churning, and chemical breakdown through enzymes and acids. It's also where the majority of nutrient absorption occurs. Various medical conditions, including infections, inflammation, and cancers, can affect the upper GI tract.

Intestinal absorption refers to the process by which the small intestine absorbs water, nutrients, and electrolytes from food into the bloodstream. This is a critical part of the digestive process, allowing the body to utilize the nutrients it needs and eliminate waste products. The inner wall of the small intestine contains tiny finger-like projections called villi, which increase the surface area for absorption. Nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream through the walls of the capillaries in these villi, and then transported to other parts of the body for use or storage.

Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the release of several hormones and also has a role in slowing down digestion. It is produced by the body in various parts of the body, including the hypothalamus (a part of the brain), the pancreas, and the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin exists in two forms: somatostatin-14 and somatostatin-28, which differ in their length. Somatostatin-14 is the predominant form found in the brain, while somatostatin-28 is the major form found in the gastrointestinal tract.

Somatostatin has a wide range of effects on various physiological processes, including:

* Inhibiting the release of several hormones such as growth hormone, insulin, glucagon, and gastrin
* Slowing down digestion by inhibiting the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas and reducing blood flow to the gastrointestinal tract
* Regulating neurotransmission in the brain

Somatostatin is used clinically as a diagnostic tool for detecting certain types of tumors that overproduce growth hormone or other hormones, and it is also used as a treatment for some conditions such as acromegaly (a condition characterized by excessive growth hormone production) and gastrointestinal disorders.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Japan" is not a medical term. Japan is the name of a country, officially known as Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku in Japanese, and is located in East Asia. It is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean with a population of about 126 million people.

If you have any medical questions or terms that you would like me to define, please let me know!

Tetragastrin is not a medical condition but a synthetic peptide hormone that is used in medical research and diagnostic tests. It is composed of four amino acids (glutamic acid, proline, tryptophan, and methionine) and is similar to the natural hormone gastrin, which is produced by the stomach and helps regulate digestion.

Tetragastrin is used in medical research to study the function of the stomach and intestines, and it is also used in diagnostic tests to stimulate the release of gastric acid from the stomach. This can help diagnose conditions such as pernicious anemia, a condition in which the body cannot absorb vitamin B12 due to a lack of intrinsic factor, a protein produced by the stomach.

In summary, Tetragastrin is a synthetic hormone that mimics the function of natural gastrin and is used for research and diagnostic purposes related to the digestive system.

Bethanechol compounds are a type of cholinergic agent used in medical treatment. They are parasympathomimetic drugs, which means they mimic the actions of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors. Specifically, bethanechol compounds stimulate the muscarinic receptors in the smooth muscle of the bladder and gastrointestinal tract, increasing tone and promoting contractions.

Bethanechol is primarily used to treat urinary retention and associated symptoms, such as those that can occur after certain types of surgery or with conditions like spinal cord injury or multiple sclerosis. It works by helping the bladder muscle contract, which can promote urination.

It's important to note that bethanechol should be used with caution, as it can have various side effects, including sweating, increased salivation, flushed skin, and gastrointestinal symptoms like nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea. It may also interact with other medications, so it's crucial to discuss any potential risks with a healthcare provider before starting this treatment.

Enteroendocrine cells are specialized cells found within the epithelial lining of the gastrointestinal tract, which play a crucial role in regulating digestion and energy balance. They are responsible for producing and secreting various hormones in response to mechanical or chemical stimuli, such as the presence of nutrients in the gut lumen. These hormones include:

1. Gastrin: Secreted by G cells in the stomach, gastrin promotes the release of hydrochloric acid from parietal cells and increases gastric motility.
2. Cholecystokinin (CCK): Produced by I cells in the small intestine, CCK stimulates the secretion of digestive enzymes from the pancreas, promotes gallbladder contraction, and inhibits gastric emptying.
3. Secretin: Released by S cells in the duodenum, secretin stimulates bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas to neutralize stomach acid and increases pancreatic secretions.
4. Serotonin (5-HT): Found in enterochromaffin cells throughout the gastrointestinal tract, serotonin regulates gut motility, sensation, and secretion. It also plays a role in modulating the immune response and affecting mood and cognition when released into the bloodstream.
5. Motilin: Produced by MO cells in the small intestine, motilin stimulates gastrointestinal motility and regulates the migrating motor complex (MMC), which is responsible for the housekeeping functions of the gut during fasting periods.
6. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): Secreted by K cells in the duodenum, GIP promotes insulin secretion, inhibits gastric acid secretion, and stimulates intestinal motility and pancreatic bicarbonate secretion.
7. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2): Released by L cells in the ileum and colon, GLP-1 stimulates insulin secretion, inhibits glucagon release, slows gastric emptying, and promotes satiety. GLP-2 enhances intestinal growth and absorption.

These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various aspects of gastrointestinal function, including digestion, motility, secretion, sensation, and immune response. Dysregulation of these hormones can contribute to the development of several gastrointestinal disorders, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), functional dyspepsia, and diabetes. Understanding the complex interactions between these hormones and their receptors is essential for developing targeted therapeutic strategies to treat gastrointestinal diseases.

Dyspepsia is a medical term that refers to discomfort or pain in the upper abdomen, often accompanied by symptoms such as bloating, nausea, belching, and early satiety (feeling full quickly after starting to eat). It is also commonly known as indigestion. Dyspepsia can have many possible causes, including gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, gastritis, and functional dyspepsia (a condition in which there is no obvious structural or biochemical explanation for the symptoms). Treatment for dyspepsia depends on the underlying cause.

Oral administration is a route of giving medications or other substances by mouth. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids, pastes, or other forms that can be swallowed. Once ingested, the substance is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to reach its intended target site in the body. Oral administration is a common and convenient route of medication delivery, but it may not be appropriate for all substances or in certain situations, such as when rapid onset of action is required or when the patient has difficulty swallowing.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Diverticulosis is a condition that affects the digestive system and typically occurs in the colon, rather than the stomach. Diverticula are small, bulging pouches that form in the lining of the intestine, most commonly in the large intestine (colon). When these diverticula occur in the colon, it is called diverticulosis.

Stomach diverticula are relatively rare and are usually congenital, meaning that a person is born with them. They can occur anywhere along the gastrointestinal tract, including the stomach. Stomach diverticula are typically asymptomatic, but in some cases, they may cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, bloating, and difficulty swallowing.

Therefore, there is no medical definition for "diverticulosis, stomach" because it is not a commonly recognized or defined medical condition. If you have concerns about your digestive health, I would recommend consulting with a healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and treatment plan.

Ghrelin receptors are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found in the central nervous system and other tissues throughout the body. They are also known as growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R1a) because they were initially identified as being activated by synthetic ligands called growth hormone secretagogues, which stimulate the release of growth hormone.

However, it was later discovered that ghrelin, a hormone produced in the stomach, is the natural endogenous ligand for these receptors. Ghrelin is often referred to as the "hunger hormone" because its levels rise before meals and decrease after eating, signaling to the brain that it's time to eat.

Activation of ghrelin receptors has been shown to have a variety of effects on the body, including stimulating appetite, increasing growth hormone secretion, promoting fat storage, and modulating glucose metabolism. Dysregulation of the ghrelin system has been implicated in various pathological conditions such as obesity, anorexia nervosa, and type 2 diabetes.

Human stomach High-quality image of the stomach Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stomach. Gastroesophageal reflux disease ... The anatomy of the stomach may be modified, or the stomach may be bypassed entirely. Surgical removal of the stomach is called ... The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach volume in adults is ... The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital organ in the digestive system. The stomach is involved in the ...
Its name originates from its original conception, in which men suffering from stomach illnesses were moved to a single division ... In military terminology, a stomach division is a unit created for the purpose of containing combatants of disuse[clarification ...
The sound of air moving around the lumen of the stomach is amplified by the empty space. Around two hours after the stomach has ... "Causes of Stomach Growling". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 7 February 2012. Govender, Serusha. "Why Does My Stomach Growl?". WebMD. ... Other causes of stomach rumbles: Incomplete digestion of food can lead to excess gas in the intestine. In humans, this can be ... A stomach rumble, also known as a bowel sound, peristaltic sound, abdominal sound, bubble gut or borborygmus (pronounced / ...
... has low viscosity and will solidify into a hard wax if allowed to cool. It was once thought that stomach oil was a ... Stomach oil is the light oil composed of neutral dietary lipids found in the proventriculus (fore-gut) of birds in the order ... The chemical make up of stomach oil varies from species to species and between individuals, but almost always contains both wax ... Roby, Daniel D, Taylor, Jan R E, Place, Allen R (1997) "Significance of stomach oil for reproduction in seabirds: An ...
"We Speak to Ben Steiner and Dan Dixon, Filmmakers Behind Thriller The Stomach". ASFF. Retrieved 6 August 2015. The Stomach at ... The Stomach is a British short horror film that was written and directed by Ben Steiner. The film had its world premiere on 21 ... Whenever a spirit is present his stomach will swell and pulsate, a process that enables his customers to talk to their dead ... "Dallas 2015: THE STOMACH, A Meeting Point For Infernal And Criminal Underworlds". Twitch Film. Retrieved 6 August 2015. " ...
... (マリアの胃袋, Maria no Ibukuro) is a 1990 Japanese film directed by Hideyuki Hirayama. Haruko Sagara as Shoko Akira ...
... is a 1927 silent animated short starring the comic strip character Krazy Kat. The short was released by Winkler ... Stomach Trouble at the Big Cartoon Database v t e (Articles with short description, Short description is different from ...
Stomach may also refer to: Abdomen, in colloquial use Stomach (Chinese constellation) Stomach (Chinese medicine) The Stomach, a ... Look up stomach in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The stomach is an organ found in animals. ... 2014 British short horror film by Ben Steiner This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Stomach. If an ...
... , also known as gastric cancer, is a cancer that develops from the lining of the stomach. Most cases of stomach ... In 2014, stomach cancer resulted in 0.61% of deaths (13,303 cases) in the U.S. In China, stomach cancer accounted for 3.56% of ... Because stomach cancer can spread to the liver, pancreas, and other organs near the stomach, as well as to the lungs, the ... "Detailed Guide: Stomach Cancer: How Is Stomach Cancer Staged?". American Cancer Society. Archived from the original on 25 March ...
The stomach does vary in size but its J shape is constant.[citation needed] The stomach lies in the upper part of the abdomen ... Cancers of the stomach are rare and the incidence has been declining worldwide. Stomach cancers usually occur due to ... Stomach diseases include gastritis, gastroparesis, Crohn's disease and various cancers. The stomach is an important organ in ... In the past it was widely but incorrectly believed that the highly acidic environment of the stomach would keep the stomach ...
... is a condition that results from acute gastric necrosis. The tarry black colour is produced by the coagulative ... Grifson JJ, T Perungo, A Amudhan, D Bennet, R Prabhakaran, SM Chandramohan, L Anand, DG Kannan.Black Stomach.JCR 2016;6:44-46 ...
Collar choke (Knee on stomach, with gi) Elbow lock (Knee on stomach, with gi) Heel hook. Shows a heel hook from the bottom. Uki ... simply by rising up slightly and putting a knee on the opponent's stomach or chest. Knee-on-stomach is an advantageous position ... Knee-on-stomach, or knee-on-belly, knee-on-chest, knee-ride, knee mount (uki-gatame, 浮固, "floating hold" in budō), is a ... It is not however considered as stable as the mount, which on the other hand complements the knee-on-stomach well, since it is ...
The Stomach mansion (胃宿, pinyin: Wèi Xiù) is one of the twenty-eight mansions of the Chinese constellations. It is one of the ...
Stomach, a concept from traditional Chinese medicine as distinct from the Western medical concept of stomach, is more a way of ... The Stomach and its paired organ, the Spleen, are associated with the element of earth and the emotions of anxiety and stress. ... Zang-fu Wu, Xie-Ning (1998-02-15). "Current concept of Spleen-Stomach theory and Spleen deficiency syndrome in TCM". World ...
... is the debut album by the AALY Trio + Ken Vandermark, which was recorded in 1996 and released on the ... with the same basic formal skeleton but without the composed melodic theme heard on Hidden in the Stomach. The album includes ... percussion Hidden in the Stomach at Silkheart Olewnick, Brian. AALY Trio + Ken Vandermak - Hidden in the Stomack: Review at ...
The curvatures of the stomach refer to the greater and lesser curvatures. The greater curvature of the stomach is four or five ... The greater curvature of the stomach forms the lower left or lateral border of the stomach. Starting from the cardiac orifice ... Stomach. Greater curvature.Deep dissection. stomach at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman (Georgetown University) celiactrunk ... lower part The lesser curvature of the stomach forms the upper right or medial border of the stomach. The lesser curvature of ...
... is the physical sensation in humans of a "fluttery" feeling in the stomach, caused by a reduction of ... Butterflies in the stomach are usually linked in culture and language to the sentiment of love and romantic passion to a ... One may feel butterflies in the stomach prior to meeting or confronting a love interest due to high levels of emotion and ... Anxiety Bennett, Howard (May 10, 2010). "Why do you get butterflies in your stomach?". The Washington Post. Retrieved 27 ...
The right margin of the oesophagus is continuous with the lesser curvature of the stomach, while the left margin joins the ... stomach at The Anatomy Lesson by Wesley Norman (Georgetown University) (stomachinside) Portal: Anatomy v t e (Wikipedia ... Stomach, All stub articles, Digestive system stubs). ...
... is a 1988 Filipino comedy film co-written and directed by Junn P. Cabreira. The film stars Eddie Garcia, ... DART CINEMA....Stomach In, Chest Out "Movie Guide". Manila Standard. Manila Standard News, Inc. August 10, 1988. p. 13. ... DART CINEMA..Blood Sport d/w Ibulong Mo sa Diyos Stomach In, Chest Out at IMDb (Use Philippine English from March 2023, All ... Monica Herrera Janice Jurado as Kapitan Katakutan's wife Arsenio Bautista Rudy Mayer Rochelle Alfaro Emil Cabanlig Stomach In, ...
"The Stomach For It - The Bunny The Bear - Awards". AllMusic. Retrieved 20 March 2015. "The Stomach For It - The Bunny The Bear ... The Stomach for It is the third studio album by American post-hardcore band The Bunny the Bear, released through Victory ...
"As the Stomach Turns". Ultimately Fulton ended up not appearing on the show, but the "Stomach Turns" sketch did. Cher appeared ... "As the Stomach Turns" is a series of comedy sketches parodying the soap opera As the World Turns (or its title, at any rate) ... This was the only installment of "As the Stomach Turns" that did not air on The Carol Burnett Show, which completed its run ... The final installment of "As the Stomach Turns" did not air until September 8, 1979, on a different four-week summer series ...
"Stomach , SEER Training". training.seer.cancer.gov. Retrieved 2022-04-02. "Stomach Cancer". NORD (National Organization for ... Tumors of the stomach are known as gastric tumors, and can be either benign or malignant (gastric cancer). These tumors arise ... It is also important to note that depending on where in the stomach the tumor starts, signs and symptoms as well as treatment ... With that being the case, It is very important to learn the causes of stomach tumors, risk factors, and their signs and ...
... is the second studio album by Scottish indie rock band We Were Promised Jetpacks, released on 4 ... "We Were Promised Jetpacks: In the Pit of the Stomach". The A.V. Club. 4 October 2011. Heather Phares (4 October 2011). "In the ... "We Were Promised Jetpacks, 'In the Pit of the Stomach' (FatCat)". SPIN.com. 4 October 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2016. v t e ( ... Hadusek, Jon (14 October 2011). "We Were Promised Jetpacks - In the Pit of the Stomach , Album Reviews". Consequence of Sound. ...
In 1965, Pell went into the studio with members of The Wrecking Crew and recorded "No Matter What Shape (Your Stomach's In)," a ... "No Matter What Shape (Your Stomach's In)" is an instrumental composition recorded in 1965 by The T-Bones and released as a ... Tedesco, Denny (Director). The Wrecking Crew (DVD extras) (DVD). "NO MATTER WHAT SHAPE (YOUR STOMACH'S IN) by THE T-BONES". ...
... is a book by Anthony Bourdain and a companion to the television show of ...
... , released in 1999 through Tank Records, is the debut full-length ...
This allows the stomach to expand, therefore increasing the volume of the stomach without increasing pressure. They also ... "Stomach". InnerBody. Retrieved November 13, 2017. "Stomach". BioNet. Retrieved November 13, 2017. "Gastritis, Giant ... It is the second layer of the stomach and supports the mucosa. Thickening of the gastric folds may be observed by endoscopy or ... The gastric folds consist of two layers: Mucosal layer - This layer releases stomach acid. It is the innermost layer of the ...
In 1935, the founder André Citroën died from stomach cancer. Pierre-Jules Boulanger had been a First World War air ... stomach . "Automobilia". Toutes les Voitures Françaises 1938 (Salon [Oct] 1937). Paris: Histoire & collections. Nr. 6: 26. 1998 ...
Stomach. Section of the human esophagus. Moderately magnified. Vertical section of bladder wall. General structure of the gut ...
Stomach! (In!) Chest! (Out!) Shoulders! (Back!) Elbows! (Frozen!) Chin! (Up!) Eyes! (With pride!) Eyes! (With pride!)" From ...
... but there are several risk factors that may increase your chance of getting stomach cancer. ... Stomach Cancer Causes and Risk Factors Stomach cancer is caused by certain changes to the way stomach cells function, ... Who gets stomach cancer. Stomach cancer is the fifth most common cancer worldwide. It is more common in countries in East Asia ... The risk of stomach cancer is increased in people who have *chronic atrophic gastritis (thinning of the stomach lining caused ...
Human stomach High-quality image of the stomach Wikimedia Commons has media related to Stomach. Gastroesophageal reflux disease ... The anatomy of the stomach may be modified, or the stomach may be bypassed entirely. Surgical removal of the stomach is called ... The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30 millilitres. The maximum stomach volume in adults is ... The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital organ in the digestive system. The stomach is involved in the ...
Stomach cancer is cancer that starts in the stomach. ... Stomach cancer is cancer that starts in the stomach. ... Tumors in the lower stomach are cured more often than those in the higher stomach. The chance of a cure also depends on how far ... www.cancer.gov/types/stomach/hp/stomach-treatment-pdq. Updated January 30, 2023. Accessed March 06, 2023. ... When the tumor has spread outside the stomach, a cure is less likely. When a cure is not possible, the goal of treatment is to ...
Did you know risk factors for stomach (gastric) cancer include a diet high in salty or smoked food or having an H. pylori ... Have a family history of stomach cancer. It is hard to diagnose stomach cancer in its early stages. Indigestion and stomach ... What Is Stomach Cancer? (National Cancer Institute) Also in Spanish * What Is Stomach Cancer? (American Cancer Society) Also in ... Stomach Cancer Stages (National Cancer Institute) Also in Spanish * Tests for Stomach Cancer (American Cancer Society) Also in ...
There are several symptoms of stomach cancer but these symptoms are also experienced when folk have other, less serious ... Stomach Cancer "Alarm" Symptoms. Doctors will specifically suspect stomach cancer is you experience difficult swallowing and/or ... Again, some of these stomach cancer symptoms tend to be quite common in the population and may not necessarily indicate stomach ... Other factors considered important when considering stomach cancer symptoms include:. Family history of stomach cancer. ...
The stomach sleeper should have a thin pillow or a soft mattress rolled under the tummy to avoid pressure on the back. The side ... Those who sleep on the stomach want space as it can get stuffy for them if the partner gets too clingy. But there is a way out ... Stomach sleeper with side sleeper. Those who sleep on the stomach want space as it can get stuffy for them if the partner gets ... The stomach sleeper should have a thin pillow or a soft mattress rolled under the tummy to avoid pressure on the back. The side ...
Subjects: health, microbiology, stomach-and-digestion Green vegies may boost good gut gene. Monday, 4 March 2013. Eating green ... Subjects: diet-and-nutrition, obesity, stomach-and-digestion, greatmomentsinscience, drkarl, podcasts Why is poo brown?. ... Subjects: evolution, stomach-and-digestion Gut clock regulates when were hungry. Thursday, 5 December 2013. Certain nerves in ... Subjects: health, biology, stomach-and-digestion, greatmomentsinscience, drkarl, podcasts Bacteria balance a gutsy battle. ...
Additional stomach contents corroborate that finding, as Oetzi ate deer, not mutton or beef, as his last meal. ... Looking Inside a Mummys Stomach. Analysis of swallowed plant material sheds new light on Oetzi the Iceman ... highlight six mosses in Oetzis stomach. The discovery of any moss is strange, as moss has no nutritional value. Oeggl and his ...
Rock star collapses and has a pint of semen pumped from his stomach. ... Urban legend describes a rock star who collapses at a party and has a pint of semen pumped from his stomach.. Snopes Staff ... Last week Elton John collapsed at a party, and had to have his stomach pumped. They extracted more then a gallon of semen, I ... That is, in some tellings the stomach contents are said to have included dog semen, as if sperm typing were a category of test ...
Although stress does not directly cause stomach cancer, chronic stress may increase cancer risk or make cancer spread faster. ... History of stomach surgery: Previous stomach surgeries, such as surgery for stomach ulcers, may increase the risk of stomach ... Does Stomach Cancer Pain Come and Go?. Stomach cancer, also known as gastric cancer, develops in the lining of the stomach. ... Stomach cancer occurs when there is an uncontrolled growth of cancer cells in the stomach. The exact cause of stomach cancer is ...
Learn more about what else it could be, and how to prevent and treat a pimple on the stomach here. ... Pimples do not typically appear on the stomach. ... including the stomach. Other causes of pimples on the stomach ... Treatment for a pimple on the stomach can depend on the cause:. Acne. People should not attempt to express a pimple on their ... Why are people less likely to experience acne on the stomach?. A:. Since clogged oil glands are a more common cause of acne, we ...
Here we hypothesize that ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone produced by the stomach and known to increase food reward behavior, ... This study provides the first demonstration that the stomach-produced hormone ghrelin increases impulsivity and also indicates ... Anderberg, R., Hansson, C., Fenander, M. et al. The Stomach-Derived Hormone Ghrelin Increases Impulsive Behavior. ... The Stomach-Derived Hormone Ghrelin Increases Impulsive Behavior. *Rozita H Anderberg1, ...
New from the folks that brought you Experi-mints and Predica-mints its Stomach Settlers.These tasty new antacid tablets come ...
There are many types of cells in the stomach that help with the digestion of food. Here are their names, functions, and ... The stomach is a muscular organ in the upper abdomen that is part of the digestive system. The cells of the stomach are ... These cells exist mainly in the fundus of the stomach.. *D-cells: These cells are in the pylorus of the stomach. They secrete ... The cells of the stomach: Types and functions. Medically reviewed by Cynthia Taylor Chavoustie, MPAS, PA-C - By Zia Sherrell, ...
This can lead to the development of stomach cancer. ... smoke can cause genetic changes in the cells of the stomach ... The stomach lining is made of five layers. Stomach cancer starts in the inner layer of the stomach called the mucosa and can ... What is stomach cancer?. Stomach or gastric cancer is the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the stomach lining, leading ... How does quitting reduce the risk of stomach cancer? Quitting smoking reduces the risk of stomach cancer.Footnote 9Footnote 10 ...
Nagri cant stomach DBT. Nagri cant stomach DBT. Cash-for-ration going directly to beneficiary bank accounts a disaster. Our ...
Stomach ulcers occur when the thick layer of mucus that protects your stomach from digestive juices is reduced. This allows ... Stomach ulcers are painful sores in the lining of the stomach. They are a type of peptic ulcer disease. ... digestive acids to eat away at your stomach lining. Learn the causes and treatments. ... Stomach ulcers, which are also known as gastric ulcers, are painful sores in the stomach lining. Stomach ulcers are a type of ...
Stomach cancer occurs when cells in the inner lining of the stomach undergo abnormal changes that cause them to grow and divide ... In most cases, stomach cancer treatment includes one or more of the following options:. *Surgery - A surgical oncologist may be ... This form of stomach cancer treatment usually involves a prescribed number of sessions over a given span of time. Other types ... For example, Moffitts stomach cancer team may suggest radiation therapy before surgery to help shrink the size of the tumor, ...
Stomach cancer may be unrecognizable in the cancers early stages. The symptoms may not appear initially, or, if they do, they ... If stomach cancer is diagnosed, our multispecialty team will come together in a tumor board to discuss and develop an ... Stomach cancer symptoms may be unrecognizable in the cancers early stages because the symptoms may not appear initially, or, ... Some of the stomach cancer symptoms that may appear during the cancers early stages include:. *Discomfort or pain in the ...
While most people are not bothered by moderate consumption, beer has the potential to irritate your stomach or perhaps trigger ... Stomach or peptic ulcers can also cause stomach pain. A peptic ulcer is an open sore in the lining of the stomach, typically ... In addition, too much alcohol slows down stomach emptying, making regurgitation of stomach contents more likely. ... Acid reflux or heartburn occurs when some of the acidic contents of the stomach escape upward into the esophagus and damage its ...
... and treatment options for stomach cancer from Memorial Hermann Cancer Centers. ... How Is Stomach Cancer Treated?. Stomach (gastric) cancer treatment includes surgery and may also include chemotherapy or ... How Is Stomach Cancer Diagnosed?. Doctors use the following tests to confirm a diagnosis of gastrointestinal carcinoma:. * ... Gastrectomy, or surgical removal of the stomach, is the only treatment for gastric cancer that can cure the condition. ...
Congress may not have stomach for another SOPA. The massive online protests from a year ago have stuck in the minds of ...
The gastroepiploic artery refers to a group of blood vessels that are found in the abdomen and stomach. The artery is separated ... The fluid and bile wait to be released into the duodenum when the stomach releases food. ... Together with the esophagus, large intestine, and the stomach, it forms the… ... that it receives from the stomach. This fluid collects in a main duct that joins with a common bile duct. ...
Download No name specified , Format: HTML, Dataset: Stomach cancer: Mortality rate HTML 09 February 2010 Not available ... Deaths from stomach cancer - Directly age-Standardised Rates (DSR) per 100,000 population Source: Office for National ...
Researchers have for the first time identified progenitor cells in mouse stomachs in a region where cancer often begins. The ... of specialized cells needed to form the functional stomach glands that line the lower portion of the stomach. This property of ... Stomach cancer is a major cancer killer outside the United States. It is the most common cause of cancer deaths in much of East ... Stomach Stem Cell Discovery Could Bring Cancer Insights. Date:. October 4, 2007. Source:. University of Michigan Health System ...
It is looted from Lava Phoenix. In the Other Consumables category. An item from World of Warcraft: Dragonflight. Always up to date with the latest patch.
Nivolumab Improves Survival for Some Patients with Advanced Stomach Cancer Incidence of Cancers of the Lower Stomach Increasing ... Stomach (Gastric) Cancer-Health Professional Version. Treatment. PDQ Treatment Information for Health Professionals * Gastric ... Stomach cancer statistics based on data from large groups of patients to be used as a general guide. ...
How stomach cancer is diagnosed. There are different tests used for diagnosing stomach cancer. Not all tests described here ... An ultrasound image of the stomach wall helps doctors determine how far the cancer has spread into the stomach and nearby lymph ... For stomach cancer, testing may be done for PD-L1 and high microsatellite instability (MSI-H), which may also be called a ... In addition to a physical examination, the following tests may be used to diagnose stomach cancer:. * Biopsy. A biopsy is the ...
Such discomfort, often called stomach pain, can signify a transient, benign problem, or it can herald something far more ... For example, upper abdominal pain that gets better after a meal is often caused by a stomach ulcer, while a severe, ... Such discomfort, often called stomach pain, can signify a transient, benign problem, or it can herald something far more ... The abdominal organs include the stomach, the large and small intestines, the liver, the gallbladder, the spleen, the pancreas ...
  • Gastroenteritis is an inflammation of the lining of the stomach and intestines. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The pyloric sphincter controls the passage of partially digested food (chyme) from the stomach into the duodenum, where peristalsis takes over to move this through the rest of the intestines. (wikipedia.org)
  • The correct time to add water to the digestive process is throughout the day so the cells of the stomach and intestines are prehydrated and the blood is fluid. (bellaonline.com)
  • The third trimester is when heartburn and indigestion begin, because the growing uterus puts pressure on the intestines and the stomach. (bellaonline.com)
  • With most viruses that cause the "stomach flu," as the infection moves through the stomach and intestines, vomiting stops after about 24 hours. (healthychildren.org)
  • Greeks have a name for this rumbling and growling borborygmi the rhythmic contraction of muscles in the stomach and intestines. (medindia.net)
  • The removal of the stomach and intestines showed that the bear was starving due to a plug of paper towels , disinfectant wipes, napkins, parts of plastic sacks and wax paper food wrappers in the pylorus," CPW district wildlife manager Mark Caddy said in the statement. (newsweek.com)
  • The entire stomach, nearby lymph nodes and sometimes the spleen, parts of the esophagus, intestines, pancreas and other organs where the cancer has spread, are removed. (mdanderson.org)
  • The gastrointestinal tract (or stomach and intestines) digests food and makes it ready to be absorbed into the bloodstream. (cdc.gov)
  • The digestive system consists of the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, gut (small and large intestines), and rectum. (cdc.gov)
  • Doctors may perform an upper gastrointestinal endoscopy to diagnose and help treat stomach ulcers. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This article reviews when an upper gastrointestinal endoscopy may be necessary, what to expect during the procedure, and treatments for stomach ulcers. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The treatment a doctor recommends for stomach ulcers may vary depending on their cause. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Results of the first human clinical studies confirm that the new yogurt fights the bacteria that cause gastritis and stomach ulcers with what researchers describe as almost vaccine-like effects, scientists in Japan are reporting. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Results of the first human clinical studies confirm that a new yogurt fights the bacteria that cause gastritis and stomach ulcers with what researchers describe as almost vaccine-like effects, scientists in Japan reported March 22 at the 237th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society. (sciencedaily.com)
  • The new yogurt represents a unique approach to fighting stomach ulcers, which affect 25 million people in the United States alone, and is part of a growing "functional food" market that now generates $60 billion in sales annually. (sciencedaily.com)
  • With this new yogurt, people can now enjoy the taste of yogurt while preventing or eliminating the bacteria that cause stomach ulcers," says study coordinator Hajime Hatta, Ph.D., a chemist at Kyoto Women's University in Kyoto, Japan. (sciencedaily.com)
  • A type of bacteria called Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) or over-use of aspirin and or other nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs, causes most stomach ulcers. (sciencedaily.com)
  • Stomach ulcers most often heal within 4 to 8 weeks. (healthline.com)
  • Stomach ulcers do not usually heal on their own. (healthline.com)
  • How long does it take for ulcers to heal in the stomach? (healthline.com)
  • Stomach ulcers, also called peptic ulcers , may take several weeks or months to heal. (healthline.com)
  • Stomach ulcers are sores that form in the lining of the stomach or duodenum . (healthline.com)
  • You can read more at Healthline on stomach ulcers in general, and about the two main causes of stomach ulcers. (healthline.com)
  • Does recovery time for stomach ulcers depend on the type or if they bleed? (healthline.com)
  • Can stomach ulcers heal on their own naturally? (healthline.com)
  • Does omeprazole help stomach ulcers? (healthline.com)
  • It's used to treat ulcers, acid reflux , and similar conditions because it reduces stomach acid. (healthline.com)
  • With less stomach acid, ulcers get an opportunity to heal instead of being continually irritated. (healthline.com)
  • What benefits do other medications have in healing stomach ulcers? (healthline.com)
  • These medications are most often used for ulcers in the duodenum, the part of the small intestine that attaches to the stomach. (healthline.com)
  • Decreased prostaglandin production over time (a hormone-like substance that plays a role in stomach acid secretion and GI muscle functioning) means a decrease in the protective lining of the stomach, too, leaving you more prone to gastritis and ulcers. (huffingtonpost.co.uk)
  • In the gut, though, capsaicin may increase gastrointestinal peristalsis and the risk of stomach irritation, ulcers, diarrhea and chronic irritable bowel syndrome. (livestrong.com)
  • However, the University of Maryland Medical Center says that capsaicin also increases the production of stomach acid, which is problematic if you have a history of peptic ulcers. (livestrong.com)
  • In the human digestive system, the stomach lies between the esophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). (wikipedia.org)
  • the lower esophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region), at the junction of the esophagus and stomach, and the pyloric sphincter at the junction of the stomach with the duodenum. (wikipedia.org)
  • The pylorus (from Greek 'gatekeeper') is the lower section of the stomach that empties contents into the duodenum. (wikipedia.org)
  • Stomach and duodenum, coronal section. (medscape.com)
  • The stomach and the first part of the duodenum are attached to the liver by the hepatogastric ligament (the left portion of the lesser omentum) containing right and left gastric vessels, to the left hemidiaphragm by the gastrophrenic ligament, to the spleen by the gastrosplenic/gastrolienal ligament containing short gastric vessels, and to the transverse colon by the gastrocolic ligament (part of the greater omentum) containing epiploic (omental) vessels. (medscape.com)
  • It involves a healthcare professional using an endoscope to examine a person's stomach and the upper portion of the small intestine that connects to the stomach, or duodenum. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • An endoscopy is a minimally invasive procedure that involves a healthcare professional inserting an endoscope through a person's esophagus, or food pipe, and into their stomach and duodenum. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The healthcare professional can then use the endoscope to view the esophagus, stomach, and duodenum. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • The stomach and duodenum are part of the upper gastrointestinal tract. (mydr.com.au)
  • The stomach is a muscular pouch located in the upper left abdomen, and the duodenum leads off the stomach, forming the beginning of the small intestine. (mydr.com.au)
  • Once food is semi-digested it is known as chyme and is passed through the pyloric sphincter , a ring of smooth muscle at the lower part of the stomach, by muscular contractions into the duodenum. (mydr.com.au)
  • The pyloric sphincter controls this exit of partially-digested food from the stomach into the duodenum, so that only small amounts are passed through at a time. (mydr.com.au)
  • Digestion continues in the duodenum once the chyme enters from the stomach. (mydr.com.au)
  • The stomach acid is neutralised in the duodenum because of its alkaline environment. (mydr.com.au)
  • For an upper GI endoscopy, a doctor uses an endoscope-a flexible tube with a camera-to see the lining of your upper GI tract , including your esophagus , stomach , and duodenum . (nih.gov)
  • In a brief procedure that could be performed on an outpatient basis, doctors laparoscopically implant the electrode-bearing wire into the muscle around the stomach and insert the case under the patient's abdominal skin. (technologyreview.com)
  • When the device is activated two weeks later, it begins to deliver high-frequency electrical pulses to the patient's stomach. (technologyreview.com)
  • The dream is to have a Jell-O-like smart pill, that once swallowed stays in the stomach and monitors the patient's health for a long time such as a month," Zhao says. (nih.gov)
  • CHICAGO - A new, nonsurgical weight-loss procedure - which involves inserting a tube down a patient's throat and suturing the stomach - is safe and effective, a new study finds. (livescience.com)
  • During the procedure, which is called endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty, doctors insert a long tube down a patient's esophagus to the stomach. (livescience.com)
  • Surgical intervention is necessary to repair a ruptured stomach and save the patient's life. (nbcnews.com)
  • A stomach cancer patient's treatment plan often involves more than one type of therapy. (mdanderson.org)
  • A person with a stomach ulcer may or may not present with symptoms. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • A person presenting with stomach ulcer symptoms should consider scheduling an appointment with a doctor. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • She said but since I have stomach problems and have to take acid reducers my stomach probably cant absorb it right and it is possible it could be whats causing all of my other symptoms. (medhelp.org)
  • Somedays I feel better then others but theirs always at some point during the day and night were I dont feel good weathers its my stomach or a few of these other symptoms that will happen randomly at different times. (medhelp.org)
  • You can access further information about stomach cancer, including risk factors, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment from Cancer Council Victoria . (cancervic.org.au)
  • However, in some cases of advanced stomach cancer, surgery may be performed to treat symptoms and not necessarily cure the disease. (mdanderson.org)
  • Most people have experienced stomach infection symptoms at least once in their lifetime. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • As soon as the stomach infection symptoms mentioned above are evident, it is important for people to consult a doctor. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • There are certain natural and home remedies that are excellent for controlling the stomach infection symptoms, like pain, cramps, vomiting and diarrhea. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • If it is not found and treated early, stomach cancer can spread to nearby lymph nodes or to other parts of the body, such as the liver and lungs as a secondary or metastatic cancer. (cancervic.org.au)
  • In early stages (stages 0 or I), when the cancer is still only in the stomach, surgery is used to remove the part of the stomach with cancer and nearby lymph nodes. (cancer.net)
  • The goal of a gastrectomy is to completely remove the stomach cancer and affected nearby lymph nodes (tissues that filter infection and disease) while preserving as much stomach function as possible. (mdanderson.org)
  • The cancerous part of the stomach, nearby lymph nodes and a margin of healthy tissue is removed. (mdanderson.org)
  • In a partial gastrectomy, the surgeon connects the remaining part of the stomach to the esophagus or small intestine. (cancer.net)
  • A thin, expandable tube is placed between the stomach and esophagus or small intestine to keep the passageway open. (mdanderson.org)
  • Stomach cancer is different from other cancers that can occur in the abdomen, like cancer of the colon or rectum (large intestine) , liver , pancreas , or small intestine . (cancer.org)
  • Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas. (wikipedia.org)
  • The posterior surface of the stomach is related to the left hemidiaphragm, the spleen, the left kidney (and adrenal), and the pancreas (stomach bed). (medscape.com)
  • Few peritoneal bands may be present between the posterior surface of the stomach and the anterior surface of the pancreas. (medscape.com)
  • Dr. Camilleri says VBLOC therapy is similar to a heart pacemaker, but instead of stimulating a normal, regular heartbeat, it uses high-frequency electricity to block the nerve impulses between the brain and the stomach and pancreas. (eurekalert.org)
  • Rarely, it can grow through the stomach wall into nearby organs such as the pancreas and bowel. (cancervic.org.au)
  • After several hours, the chyme passes from the stomach into the small intestine. (giantmicrobes.com)
  • He has been complaining of stomach pain and diarrhea for 2 weeks. (medscape.com)
  • Based on a question in the Sample Child and Sample Adult Interview that asks "Did [you/your child] have a stomach or intestinal illness with vomiting or diarrhea that started during the last two weeks? (cdc.gov)
  • In 2021, 744 Victorians were diagnosed with stomach cancer. (cancervic.org.au)
  • If you are diagnosed with stomach cancer, your doctor will discuss the best options to treat it. (mdanderson.org)
  • Have you been diagnosed with stomach cancer? (nih.gov)
  • Retrieved on Dec 07, 2023 from https://www.medindia.net/patients/lifestyleandwellness/why-does-your-stomach-growl-with-hunger.htm. (medindia.net)
  • Normally, your stomach can hold about one or one-and-a-half liters, Vreeman says -- this is the point you may reach if you overdo it tomorrow, when you feel full to the point of nausea. (nbcnews.com)
  • The stomach is a sac-like organ that's an important part of the digestive system. (cancer.org)
  • The stomach has a dilated structure and functions as a vital organ in the digestive system. (wikipedia.org)
  • The stomach is one of many organs involved with the digestive system . (urbandictionary.com)
  • The LGA runs toward the lesser curvature of the stomach and divides into an ascending branch (supplying the abdominal esophagus) and a descending branch (supplying the proximal stomach). (medscape.com)
  • A layer of mucus protects the stomach from the hydrochloric acid in the digestive juices. (mydr.com.au)
  • For instance, some people with pain in this area would say they have a 'stomach ache', when in fact the pain could be coming from some other organ in the area. (cancer.org)
  • I always feel gassy with constant belching weather I eat or not, acid indigestion, occasional stomach pain, nasuea, and sometimes vomiting. (medhelp.org)
  • Movement within the oesophagus and muscles involved in swallowing may not be as effective or coordinated, for instance, and can lead to higher rates of oesophageal reflux (known as GERD, where your stomach contents start to make a comeback), while slower motility in the stomach can cause what you've eaten to linger and trigger indigestion. (huffingtonpost.co.uk)
  • Doctors would call this symptom 'abdominal pain,' because the stomach is only one of many organs in the abdomen. (cancer.org)
  • The stomach lies in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. (medscape.com)
  • Both of those operations involve making small incisions in a person's abdomen to allow surgeons to reach the stomach. (livescience.com)
  • when i found out i was pregnant i was about 6 weeks nd i had alot of cramping in my lower abdomen they say when you are pregnant that you usually get pains or cramps in your stomach. (answers.com)
  • NCI researchers at the NIH Clinical Center need volunteers 18 or older with stomach cancer that has spread to the abdomen for a study at the NIH Clinical Center combining surgery with heated chemotherapy as a potential new treatment for stomach cancer. (nih.gov)
  • Accounting for 2% of all cancers diagnosed and 3.6% of all cancer-related deaths in 2021, stomach cancer was the 14th most commonly diagnosed cancer and the 8th most common cause of cancer-related deaths in Victoria. (cancervic.org.au)
  • Figure 4 provides a summary of the different types of cells (morphology) which have caused stomach cancers among all cases. (cancervic.org.au)
  • Figure 6 shows the age standardised incidence rates of stomach cancers in Australian-born Victorians compared to other major migrant groups, over the five-year period 2017 to 2021. (cancervic.org.au)
  • The highest age standardised incidence rate for stomach cancers was 12.2 for males born in the South and Central America region and the lowest rate of 2.9 was observed in males born in the North America region. (cancervic.org.au)
  • Figure 7 shows the change in 5-year survival for stomach cancer, and the 5-year survival trend for all cancers over the same time period. (cancervic.org.au)
  • A thin tube (an endoscope) equipped with surgical tools is inserted down the throat and into the stomach, allowing doctors to remove certain types of early, non-invasive stomach cancers. (mdanderson.org)
  • This method is typically used to treat stomach cancers with low likelihood of lymph node spread. (mdanderson.org)
  • In classical anatomy the human stomach is divided into four sections, beginning at the cardia. (wikipedia.org)
  • The lesser curvature of the human stomach is supplied by the right gastric artery inferiorly and the left gastric artery superiorly, which also supplies the cardiac region. (wikipedia.org)
  • Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the human stomach walls consist of a mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, subserosa and serosa. (wikipedia.org)
  • CINCINNATI - Scientists used pluripotent stem cells to generate functional, three-dimensional human stomach tissue in a laboratory - creating an unprecedented tool for researching the development and diseases of an organ central to several public health crises, ranging from cancer to diabetes. (cincinnatichildrens.org)
  • This is important because differences between species in the embryonic development and architecture of the adult stomach make mouse models less than optimal for studying human stomach development and disease, Wells added. (cincinnatichildrens.org)
  • Another significant part of the team's challenge has been the relative lack of previous research literature on how the human stomach develops, the authors said. (cincinnatichildrens.org)
  • The Human Stomach Anatomy Model is an anatomy model from 3B Scientific and manufactured in Germany. (anatomywarehouse.com)
  • You will learn about the different types of treatments doctors use for people with stomach cancer. (cancer.net)
  • This section explains the types of treatments, also known as therapies, that are the standard of care for stomach cancer. (cancer.net)
  • Often, a combination of treatments is used to treat stomach cancer. (cancer.net)
  • The common types of treatments used for stomach cancer are described below. (cancer.net)
  • After food is chewed and swallowed, it enters the esophagus , a tube that carries food through the throat and chest to the stomach. (cancer.org)
  • The stomach then starts to digest the food by secreting gastric juice. (cancer.org)
  • Some cells in these parts of the stomach make acid and pepsin (a digestive enzyme), which combine to make the gastric juice that helps digest food. (cancer.org)
  • Your stomach slowly pumps food and liquids into the small intestine, which then absorbs needed nutrients. (nih.gov)
  • The stomach secretes digestive enzymes and gastric acid to aid in food digestion. (wikipedia.org)
  • The purpose that the stomach serves is only to break down food further so that it can be passed on. (urbandictionary.com)
  • The stomach does NOT turn your food into stool. (urbandictionary.com)
  • After food travels to your belly, it starts to dissolve in stomach acid. (nih.gov)
  • Bariatric surgery techniques include "banding" -- placement of a band around the top part of the stomach to reduce its capacity -- or bypass procedures which reroute food and remove part of the stomach. (eurekalert.org)
  • But the patient flips a switch to activate the VBLOC device when the system is worn during the daytime hours so that the blocking signal can influence how the stomach functions and food is digested following a meal. (eurekalert.org)
  • The lower oesophageal sphincter is a ring of smooth muscle that controls the entry of food from the oesophagus into the stomach. (mydr.com.au)
  • Once food has passed into the stomach, the sphincter closes to prevent the acidic stomach contents from coming back up. (mydr.com.au)
  • Once food enters the stomach, the muscles within the stomach walls contract and squeeze strongly to mix the food and break it into smaller pieces, and the lining of the stomach secretes acid and enzymes important for the digestion of protein. (mydr.com.au)
  • This wave of stomach contractions mixes and churns food, liquid and enzymes. (medindia.net)
  • The stomach rumbles very often but the absence of food makes it louder. (medindia.net)
  • And this 1991 case report describes a similar "spontaneous rupture" in an adult's stomach "after overindulgence in food and drink. (nbcnews.com)
  • Pathologists' reports seem to suggest the stomach is able to do OK handling up to about three liters, but most cases of rupture seem to occur when a person has attempted to stuff their stomach with about five liters of food or fluid. (nbcnews.com)
  • And then once the stomach gets to this extremely distended point, the stomach muscles are too stretched out to be strong enough to vomit the food out. (nbcnews.com)
  • Other reported cases of spontaneous stomach rupture happen in individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome, a congenital disease that is characterized by, among other things, a kind of disordered eating: an "intense craving for food," resulting in "uncontrollable weight gain and morbid obesity. (nbcnews.com)
  • Hot cereal is a food that soothes stomach aches. (readersdigest.ca)
  • It's also a food that soothes your stomach. (readersdigest.ca)
  • Healthy food like veggie burgers can soothe your stomach. (readersdigest.ca)
  • The fundus of the stomach, and also the upper portion of the greater curvature, is supplied by the short gastric arteries, which arise from the splenic artery. (wikipedia.org)
  • The cardiac notch (incisura cardiaca gastri) is the acute angle between the left border of the abdominal esophagus and the fundus of the stomach, which is the part of stomach above a horizontal line drawn from the cardia. (medscape.com)
  • The convex greater curvature of the stomach starts at the left of the cardia and runs from the fundus along the left border of the body of the stomach and the inferior border of the pylorus. (medscape.com)
  • The parietal cells are located in the middle part of the glands of the fundus-body region of the stomach. (springer.com)
  • The stomach is a muscular, hollow organ in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and many other animals, including several invertebrates. (wikipedia.org)
  • What Is Stomach Cancer? (cancer.org)
  • Stomach cancer, also called gastric cancer, begins when cells in the stomach start to grow out of control. (cancer.org)
  • To understand stomach cancer, it helps to know about the normal structure and function of the stomach. (cancer.org)
  • Regional risk factors for stomach cancer in the FRG. (nih.gov)
  • After his speech, Toby cranked out his hit song, "Don't Let the Old Man In," marking his first TV performance since telling the world he had stomach cancer last June . (tmz.com)
  • Stomach cancer develops when cells in any part of the stomach grow and divide in an abnormal way. (cancervic.org.au)
  • This type of cancer is called adenocarcinoma of the stomach (also known as gastric cancer). (cancervic.org.au)
  • How common is stomach cancer? (cancervic.org.au)
  • Of these, there were 473 males and 269 females, representing 63.7% and 36.3% of the total Victorian stomach cancer diagnoses, respectively. (cancervic.org.au)
  • Currently, stomach cancer is diagnosed at a rate of 7.7 per 100,000 males and 3.9 per 100,000 females. (cancervic.org.au)
  • The median age at diagnosis of stomach cancer is 70 years in males and 73 in females (Figure 1 & 2). (cancervic.org.au)
  • Figure 3 shows that since 1982 incidence of stomach cancer has decreased by an average of 2.1% per year in males and decreased by an average of 1.6% per year in females. (cancervic.org.au)
  • Over the past 39 years, mortality from stomach cancer has decreased by 2.7% per year in males and decreased by 2.7% per year in females. (cancervic.org.au)
  • Most stomach cancer tumours, 83.9%, present as Adenocarcinoma tumours. (cancervic.org.au)
  • Figure 5 demonstrates variation in age-standardised incidence rates of stomach cancer, by local government areas. (cancervic.org.au)
  • Darker shading indicates areas with higher rates of stomach cancer. (cancervic.org.au)
  • People with stomach cancer may work with doctors in different specialties. (cancer.net)
  • It can be difficult to cure stomach cancer because it is often not found until it is at an advanced stage. (cancer.net)
  • Shared decision-making is particularly important for stomach cancer because there are different treatment options. (cancer.net)
  • If the cancer has spread to the outer stomach wall with or without having spread to the lymph nodes, surgery plus chemotherapy or chemotherapy and radiation therapy may be used (see below). (cancer.net)
  • At MD Anderson, we customize your stomach cancer treatment to ensure the highest chances for successful treatment while focusing on your quality of life. (mdanderson.org)
  • Surgery is the most common treatment for stomach cancer. (mdanderson.org)
  • When a stomach cancer tumor is blocking the stomach but cannot be removed completely, an endoluminal stent placement may help a patient eat normally. (mdanderson.org)
  • In collaboration with researchers at the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, they used laboratory generated mini-stomachs (called gastric organoids) to study infection by H. pylori bacteria, a major cause of peptic ulcer disease and stomach cancer. (cincinnatichildrens.org)
  • This first-time molecular generation of 3D human gastric organoids (hGOs) presents new opportunities for drug discovery, modeling early stages of stomach cancer and studying some of the underpinnings of obesity related diabetes, according to Jim Wells, PhD , principal investigator and a scientist in the divisions of Developmental Biology and Endocrinology at Cincinnati Children's. (cincinnatichildrens.org)
  • Tularemia with peritonitis developed in a 50-year-old man soon after diagnosis of stomach cancer with metastasis. (cdc.gov)
  • This muscular organ that is the stomach, sits in the upper left part of the abdominal cavity. (mydr.com.au)
  • During a laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy, surgeons cut away a large portion of the stomach, making the organ smaller and sleeve-shaped. (livescience.com)
  • During a laparoscopic banding operation, surgeons wrap a band around the upper portion of the stomach (rather than cutting the organ), so that only a smaller section of the stomach is left to carry out its functions. (livescience.com)
  • Stomach contains the thickest muscularis layer consisting of three layers, thus maximum peristalsis occurs here. (wikipedia.org)
  • The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and sympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretory activity of the stomach and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles. (wikipedia.org)
  • It stood up to both the harsh stomach acid and the grinding muscles for up to 29 days. (nih.gov)
  • When the stomach is empty it sets off a reflex of waves along the intestine and stomach muscles, which start contractions. (medindia.net)
  • The increasing volume of stuff in the gut puts pressure on the stomach's walls, so much so that the tissue weakens and tears, sending the stomach contents into the body and causing infection and pain, Vreeman says. (nbcnews.com)
  • I'm suffering with stomach infection and loose motions so please tell me some home made medicines for my problem to get relief as soon as possible. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • A stomach infection is one of the most common afflictions affecting thousands of people around the world. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • some people are known to suffer from a stomach bacterial infection, whereas others may have a viral stomach infection. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • It is more common to see stomach bacterial infection in children or adults who tend to eat out a lot. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • Because of this, there are many people who check with health experts whether a stomach bacterial infection is contagious. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • A bacterial stomach infection does not spread through contact. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • The stomach infection treatment options may also differ based on whether it is a bacterial infection, or a viral one. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • The medical health care provider usually prescribes antibiotics or other medication in order to get rid of a bacterial stomach infection. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • However, there are several people who prefer to use simple stomach bacterial infection home remedies, which are quite effective, and have fewer side effects, as compared to conventional medication. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • Loose motions or a stomach infection could be quite serious, if they affect pregnant women. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • The concave lesser curvature starts at the right of the cardia as a continuation of the right border of the abdominal esophagus and runs a short distance along the right border of the body of the stomach and the superior border of the pylorus. (medscape.com)
  • Inside of the stomach are simply means of enzymes and acids . (urbandictionary.com)
  • They occur when stomach acids wear away at the stomach lining over time. (healthline.com)
  • Heartburn occurs when the valve *sphincter" between the stomach and the esophagus are unable to prevent the stomach acids from passing back into the esophagus. (bellaonline.com)
  • The acids in the stomach are like battery acid. (bellaonline.com)
  • Bananas are the #1 fruit to calm acids in the stomach. (bellaonline.com)
  • Elevation will help the acids to stay in the stomach. (bellaonline.com)
  • The body is the main, central region of the stomach. (wikipedia.org)
  • Research has shown that the cardia is not an anatomically distinct region of the stomach but a region of the esophageal lining damaged by reflux. (wikipedia.org)
  • Figure 1 Stomach, Forestomach - Fibrosis in female F344/N rat from a chronic study. (nih.gov)
  • The stomach is involved in the gastric phase of digestion, following chewing. (wikipedia.org)
  • But if human trials now under way in the United States pan out, overweight people may one day have a less invasive surgical option: a device that helps people feel full by stimulating the stomach with electricity in much the same way a pacemaker stimulates the heart. (technologyreview.com)
  • The cardia is where the contents of the esophagus empty into the stomach. (wikipedia.org)
  • Standing a mere 5 inches tall, the stomach model contains 12 detachable parts and additional digestive organs, and comes on a display stand. (anatomywarehouse.com)
  • The stomach is a small hollow bag with muscular walls. (giantmicrobes.com)
  • The stomach is a J-shaped muscular pouch in the continuous tube that is the digestive tract. (mydr.com.au)
  • In humans and many other animals, the stomach is located between the esophagus and the small intestine. (wikipedia.org)
  • The stomach is located between the the oesophagus and the small intestine . (urbandictionary.com)
  • A team of engineers led by Dr. Xuanhe Zhao of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology set out to design a soft but strong device that could be swallowed and then quickly expand in the stomach to become too large to pass into the intestine. (nih.gov)
  • Strong waves of contractions which begin in the stomach and pass down to the large intestine (colon) at 90 minute intervals. (medindia.net)
  • The surgeon can perform a subtotal gastrectomy or a total gastrectomy, which is the removal of all of the stomach. (cancer.net)
  • A large double fold of visceral peritoneum called the greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature of the stomach. (wikipedia.org)
  • Gastric acid is strong enough to destroy the stomach itself, which is why protective mucus lines the stomach. (giantmicrobes.com)
  • Drink a lot of water, or other liquid that will help soothe the stomach. (home-remedies-for-you.com)
  • We all get belly aches from time to time, but if your stomach is causing you real pain, the new 21-Day Tummy book could help you soothe (and shrink) your stomach. (readersdigest.ca)
  • Here are five foods that soothe stomache aches and pains. (readersdigest.ca)
  • Beef and quinoa soothe your stomach. (readersdigest.ca)
  • Soothe your stomach with fish cakes. (readersdigest.ca)
  • Get more recipes to soothe your stomach and shrink your belly in the 21-Day Tummy book! (readersdigest.ca)
  • During upper GI endoscopy, a doctor obtains biopsies by passing an instrument through the endoscope to take small pieces of tissue from your stomach lining. (nih.gov)
  • And as hard as it was to eat/drink at times, if I could stay ahead of it with frequent small snacks and prevent my stomach from being empty that helped also. (babycenter.com)
  • Tumours can begin anywhere in the stomach, although most start in the stomach's inner layer (mucosa). (cancervic.org.au)