A highly vascularized endocrine gland consisting of two lobes joined by a thin band of tissue with one lobe on each side of the TRACHEA. It secretes THYROID HORMONES from the follicular cells and CALCITONIN from the parafollicular cells thereby regulating METABOLISM and CALCIUM level in blood, respectively.
Tumors or cancer of the THYROID GLAND.
Pathological processes involving the THYROID GLAND.
Natural hormones secreted by the THYROID GLAND, such as THYROXINE, and their synthetic analogs.
A glycoprotein hormone secreted by the adenohypophysis (PITUITARY GLAND, ANTERIOR). Thyrotropin stimulates THYROID GLAND by increasing the iodide transport, synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE). Thyrotropin consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is common in the pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH; LUTEINIZING HORMONE and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity.
A small circumscribed mass in the THYROID GLAND that can be of neoplastic growth or non-neoplastic abnormality. It lacks a well-defined capsule or glandular architecture. Thyroid nodules are often benign but can be malignant. The growth of nodules can lead to a multinodular goiter (GOITER, NODULAR).
The major hormone derived from the thyroid gland. Thyroxine is synthesized via the iodination of tyrosines (MONOIODOTYROSINE) and the coupling of iodotyrosines (DIIODOTYROSINE) in the THYROGLOBULIN. Thyroxine is released from thyroglobulin by proteolysis and secreted into the blood. Thyroxine is peripherally deiodinated to form TRIIODOTHYRONINE which exerts a broad spectrum of stimulatory effects on cell metabolism.
Blood tests used to evaluate the functioning of the thyroid gland.
Enlargement of the THYROID GLAND that may increase from about 20 grams to hundreds of grams in human adults. Goiter is observed in individuals with normal thyroid function (euthyroidism), thyroid deficiency (HYPOTHYROIDISM), or hormone overproduction (HYPERTHYROIDISM). Goiter may be congenital or acquired, sporadic or endemic (GOITER, ENDEMIC).
Thyroglobulin is a glycoprotein synthesized and secreted by thyroid follicular cells, serving as a precursor for the production of thyroid hormones T3 and T4, and its measurement in blood serves as a tumor marker for thyroid cancer surveillance.
Surgical removal of the thyroid gland. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Glands that secrete SALIVA in the MOUTH. There are three pairs of salivary glands (PAROTID GLAND; SUBLINGUAL GLAND; SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND).
A syndrome that results from abnormally low secretion of THYROID HORMONES from the THYROID GLAND, leading to a decrease in BASAL METABOLIC RATE. In its most severe form, there is accumulation of MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES in the SKIN and EDEMA, known as MYXEDEMA.
A nonmetallic element of the halogen group that is represented by the atomic symbol I, atomic number 53, and atomic weight of 126.90. It is a nutritionally essential element, especially important in thyroid hormone synthesis. In solution, it has anti-infective properties and is used topically.
A T3 thyroid hormone normally synthesized and secreted by the thyroid gland in much smaller quantities than thyroxine (T4). Most T3 is derived from peripheral monodeiodination of T4 at the 5' position of the outer ring of the iodothyronine nucleus. The hormone finally delivered and used by the tissues is mainly T3.
A hemeprotein that catalyzes the oxidation of the iodide radical to iodine with the subsequent iodination of many organic compounds, particularly proteins. EC 1.11.1.8.
Inflammatory disease of the THYROID GLAND due to autoimmune responses leading to lymphocytic infiltration of the gland. It is characterized by the presence of circulating thyroid antigen-specific T-CELLS and thyroid AUTOANTIBODIES. The clinical signs can range from HYPOTHYROIDISM to THYROTOXICOSIS depending on the type of autoimmune thyroiditis.
A common form of hyperthyroidism with a diffuse hyperplastic GOITER. It is an autoimmune disorder that produces antibodies against the THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE RECEPTOR. These autoantibodies activate the TSH receptor, thereby stimulating the THYROID GLAND and hypersecretion of THYROID HORMONES. These autoantibodies can also affect the eyes (GRAVES OPHTHALMOPATHY) and the skin (Graves dermopathy).
A malignant neoplasm characterized by the formation of numerous, irregular, finger-like projections of fibrous stroma that is covered with a surface layer of neoplastic epithelial cells. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Hypersecretion of THYROID HORMONES from the THYROID GLAND. Elevated levels of thyroid hormones increase BASAL METABOLIC RATE.
MAMMARY GLANDS in the non-human MAMMALS.
Inflammatory diseases of the THYROID GLAND. Thyroiditis can be classified into acute (THYROIDITIS, SUPPURATIVE), subacute (granulomatous and lymphocytic), chronic fibrous (Riedel's), chronic lymphocytic (HASHIMOTO DISEASE), transient (POSTPARTUM THYROIDITIS), and other AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS subtypes.
Agents that are used to treat hyperthyroidism by reducing the excessive production of thyroid hormones.
One of two salivary glands in the neck, located in the space bound by the two bellies of the digastric muscle and the angle of the mandible. It discharges through the submandibular duct. The secretory units are predominantly serous although a few mucous alveoli, some with serous demilunes, occur. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Glands of external secretion that release its secretions to the body's cavities, organs, or surface, through a duct.
An adenocarcinoma of the thyroid gland, in which the cells are arranged in the form of follicles. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
Specific high affinity binding proteins for THYROID HORMONES in target cells. They are usually found in the nucleus and regulate DNA transcription. These receptors are activated by hormones that leads to transcription, cell differentiation, and growth suppression. Thyroid hormone receptors are encoded by two genes (GENES, ERBA): erbA-alpha and erbA-beta for alpha and beta thyroid hormone receptors, respectively.
Inorganic binary compounds of iodine or the I- ion.
An enlarged THYROID GLAND containing multiple nodules (THYROID NODULE), usually resulting from recurrent thyroid HYPERPLASIA and involution over many years to produce the irregular enlargement. Multinodular goiters may be nontoxic or may induce THYROTOXICOSIS.
A condition in infancy or early childhood due to an in-utero deficiency of THYROID HORMONES that can be caused by genetic or environmental factors, such as thyroid dysgenesis or HYPOTHYROIDISM in infants of mothers treated with THIOURACIL during pregnancy. Endemic cretinism is the result of iodine deficiency. Clinical symptoms include severe MENTAL RETARDATION, impaired skeletal development, short stature, and MYXEDEMA.
Defective development of the THYROID GLAND. This concept includes thyroid agenesis (aplasia), hypoplasia, or an ectopic gland. Clinical signs usually are those of CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM.
Unstable isotopes of iodine that decay or disintegrate emitting radiation. I atoms with atomic weights 117-139, except I 127, are radioactive iodine isotopes.
Compounds that contain the Cl(=O)(=O)(=O)O- structure. Included under this heading is perchloric acid and the salts and ester forms of perchlorate.
Occurs in seeds of Brassica and Crucifera species. Thiouracil has been used as antithyroid, coronary vasodilator, and in congestive heart failure although its use has been largely supplanted by other drugs. It is known to cause blood dyscrasias and suspected of terato- and carcinogenesis.
A thiourea antithyroid agent. Propythiouracil inhibits the synthesis of thyroxine and inhibits the peripheral conversion of throxine to tri-iodothyronine. It is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopeoia, 30th ed, p534)
Chronic autoimmune thyroiditis, characterized by the presence of high serum thyroid AUTOANTIBODIES; GOITER; and HYPOTHYROIDISM.
A thioureylene antithyroid agent that inhibits the formation of thyroid hormones by interfering with the incorporation of iodine into tyrosyl residues of thyroglobulin. This is done by interfering with the oxidation of iodide ion and iodotyrosyl groups through inhibition of the peroxidase enzyme.
The largest of the three pairs of SALIVARY GLANDS. They lie on the sides of the FACE immediately below and in front of the EAR.
A degradation product of ethylenebis(dithiocarbamate) fungicides. It has been found to be carcinogenic and to cause THYROID hyperplasia.
Cell surface proteins that bind pituitary THYROTROPIN (also named thyroid stimulating hormone or TSH) and trigger intracellular changes of the target cells. TSH receptors are present in the nervous system and on target cells in the thyroid gland. Autoantibodies to TSH receptors are implicated in thyroid diseases such as GRAVES DISEASE and Hashimoto disease (THYROIDITIS, AUTOIMMUNE).
An inorganic compound that is used as a source of iodine in thyrotoxic crisis and in the preparation of thyrotoxic patients for thyroidectomy. (From Dorland, 27th ed)
A mass of histologically normal tissue present in an abnormal location.
A diverticulum from the fourth pharyngeal pouch of an embryo, regarded by some as a rudimentary fifth pharyngeal pouch and by others as a lateral thyroid primordium. The ultimobranchial bodies of lower vertebrates contain large amounts of calcitonin. In mammals the bodies fuse with the thyroid gland and are thought to develop into the parafollicular cells. (Stedman, 25th ed)
A benign epithelial tumor with a glandular organization.
Sweat-producing structures that are embedded in the DERMIS. Each gland consists of a single tube, a coiled body, and a superficial duct.
A pair of glands located at the cranial pole of each of the two KIDNEYS. Each adrenal gland is composed of two distinct endocrine tissues with separate embryonic origins, the ADRENAL CORTEX producing STEROIDS and the ADRENAL MEDULLA producing NEUROTRANSMITTERS.
A peptide hormone that lowers calcium concentration in the blood. In humans, it is released by thyroid cells and acts to decrease the formation and absorptive activity of osteoclasts. Its role in regulating plasma calcium is much greater in children and in certain diseases than in normal adults.
Two pairs of small oval-shaped glands located in the front and the base of the NECK and adjacent to the two lobes of THYROID GLAND. They secrete PARATHYROID HORMONE that regulates the balance of CALCIUM; PHOSPHORUS; and MAGNESIUM in the body.
Small, sacculated organs found within the DERMIS. Each gland has a single duct that emerges from a cluster of oval alveoli. Each alveolus consists of a transparent BASEMENT MEMBRANE enclosing epithelial cells. The ducts from most sebaceous glands open into a HAIR FOLLICLE, but some open on the general surface of the SKIN. Sebaceous glands secrete SEBUM.
A product from the iodination of MONOIODOTYROSINE. In the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones, diiodotyrosine residues are coupled with other monoiodotyrosine or diiodotyrosine residues to form T4 or T3 thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE).
Spontaneously remitting inflammatory condition of the THYROID GLAND, characterized by FEVER; MUSCLE WEAKNESS; SORE THROAT; severe thyroid PAIN; and an enlarged damaged gland containing GIANT CELLS. The disease frequently follows a viral infection.
Iodoproteins are proteins that have iodine atoms covalently bonded to them, often as part of thyroid hormones or other biologically active molecules involved in various physiological processes such as metabolism regulation and antioxidant defense systems.
A salivary gland on each side of the mouth below the TONGUE.
A hypermetabolic syndrome caused by excess THYROID HORMONES which may come from endogenous or exogenous sources. The endogenous source of hormone may be thyroid HYPERPLASIA; THYROID NEOPLASMS; or hormone-producing extrathyroidal tissue. Thyrotoxicosis is characterized by NERVOUSNESS; TACHYCARDIA; FATIGUE; WEIGHT LOSS; heat intolerance; and excessive SWEATING.
A dehydrated extract of thyroid glands from domesticated animals. After the removal of fat and connective tissue, the extract is dried or lyophilized to yield a yellowish to buff-colored amorphous powder containing 0.17-0.23% of iodine.
The beta subunit of thyroid stimulating hormone, thyrotropin. It is a 112-amino acid glycopolypeptide of about 16 kD. Full biological activity of TSH requires the non-covalently bound heterodimers of an alpha and a beta subunit.
A compound forming white, odorless deliquescent crystals and used as iodine supplement, expectorant or in its radioactive (I-131) form as an diagnostic aid, particularly for thyroid function tests.
A carcinoma composed mainly of epithelial elements with little or no stroma. Medullary carcinomas of the breast constitute 5%-7% of all mammary carcinomas; medullary carcinomas of the thyroid comprise 3%-10% of all thyroid malignancies. (From Dorland, 27th ed; DeVita Jr et al., Cancer: Principles & Practice of Oncology, 3d ed, p1141; Segen, Dictionary of Modern Medicine, 1992)
High affinity receptors for THYROID HORMONES, especially TRIIODOTHYRONINE. These receptors are usually found in the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. They are encoded by the THRB gene (also known as NR1A2, THRB1, or ERBA2 gene) as several isoforms produced by alternative splicing. Mutations in the THRB gene cause THYROID HORMONE RESISTANCE SYNDROME.
Using fine needles (finer than 22-gauge) to remove tissue or fluid specimens from the living body for examination in the pathology laboratory and for disease diagnosis.
A thiourea antithyroid agent that inhibits the synthesis of thyroid hormone. It is used in the treatment of hyperthyroidism.
A sebaceous gland that, in some animals, acts as an accessory to the lacrimal gland. The harderian gland excretes fluid that facilitates movement of the third eyelid.
A group of metabolites derived from THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE via the peripheral enzymatic removal of iodines from the thyroxine nucleus. Thyronine is the thyroxine nucleus devoid of its four iodine atoms.
A malignant neoplasm made up of epithelial cells tending to infiltrate the surrounding tissues and give rise to metastases. It is a histological type of neoplasm but is often wrongly used as a synonym for "cancer." (From Dorland, 27th ed)
A dangerous life-threatening hypermetabolic condition characterized by high FEVER and dysfunction of the cardiovascular, the nervous, and the gastrointestinal systems.
Tumors or cancer of the SALIVARY GLANDS.
A gamma-emitting radionuclide imaging agent used for the diagnosis of diseases in many tissues, particularly in the gastrointestinal system, cardiovascular and cerebral circulation, brain, thyroid, and joints.
Large cells with small irregular nuclei and dense acidophilic granules due to the presence of abundant MITOCHONDRIA. Oxyphil cells, also known as oncocytes, are found in oncocytomas of the kidney, salivary glands, and endocrine glands. In the thyroid gland, oxyphil cells are known as Hurthle cells and Askenazy cells.
The measurement of an organ in volume, mass, or heaviness.
A product from the iodination of tyrosine. In the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones (THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE), tyrosine is first iodized to monoiodotyrosine.
An adenocarcinoma containing finger-like processes of vascular connective tissue covered by neoplastic epithelium, projecting into cysts or the cavity of glands or follicles. It occurs most frequently in the ovary and thyroid gland. (Stedman, 25th ed)
A metabolite of THYROXINE, formed by the peripheral enzymatic monodeiodination of T4 at the 5 position of the inner ring of the iodothyronine nucleus.
A cyst in the neck caused by persistence of portions of, or by lack of closure of, the primitive thyroglossal duct. (Dorland, 27th ed)
Autoantibodies that bind to the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) receptor (RECEPTORS, THYROTROPIN) on thyroid epithelial cells. The autoantibodies mimic TSH causing an unregulated production of thyroid hormones characteristic of GRAVES DISEASE.
Infection of the ENDOCRINE GLANDS with species of MYCOBACTERIUM, most often MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS.
High affinity receptors for THYROID HORMONES, especially TRIIODOTHYRONINE. These receptors are usually found in the nucleus where they regulate DNA transcription. They are encoded by the THRA gene (also known as NR1A1, THRA1, ERBA or ERBA1 gene) as several isoforms produced by alternative splicing.
A class of thiocarbamate derivatives whose salts possess fungicidal activity.
'Tongue diseases' is a broad term referring to various medical conditions that primarily affect the structure, function, or appearance of the tongue, including but not limited to infections, inflammatory conditions, autoimmune disorders, congenital abnormalities, and malignancies.
April 25th -26th, 1986 nuclear power accident that occurred at Chernobyl in the former USSR (Ukraine) located 80 miles north of Kiev.
Histochemical localization of immunoreactive substances using labeled antibodies as reagents.
Radiopaque medium used as diagnostic aid.
Pathological processes of the PARATHYROID GLANDS. They usually manifest as hypersecretion or hyposecretion of PARATHYROID HORMONE that regulates the balance of CALCIUM; PHOSPHORUS; and MAGNESIUM in the body.
Profound physical changes during maturation of living organisms from the immature forms to the adult forms, such as from TADPOLES to frogs; caterpillars to BUTTERFLIES.
"Salivary gland diseases refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the function, structure, or health of the salivary glands, leading to symptoms such as dry mouth, swelling, pain, and abnormal secretions."
A form of IODINE deficiency disorders characterized by an enlargement of the THYROID GLAND in a significantly large fraction of a POPULATION GROUP. Endemic goiter is common in mountainous and iodine-deficient areas of the world where the DIET contains insufficient amount of iodine.
Stable iodine atoms that have the same atomic number as the element iodine, but differ in atomic weight. I-127 is the only naturally occurring stable iodine isotope.
Ductless glands that secrete HORMONES directly into the BLOOD CIRCULATION. These hormones influence the METABOLISM and other functions of cells in the body.
The sebaceous glands situated on the inner surface of the eyelids between the tarsal plates and CONJUNCTIVA.
The tear-forming and tear-conducting system which includes the lacrimal glands, eyelid margins, conjunctival sac, and the tear drainage system.
A thyroid neoplasm of mixed papillary and follicular arrangement. Its biological behavior and prognosis is the same as that of a papillary adenocarcinoma of the thyroid. (From DeVita Jr et al., Cancer: Principles & Practice of Oncology, 3d ed, p1271)
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
The abundant submucosal mucous glands in the DUODENUM. These glands secrete BICARBONATE IONS; GLYCOPROTEINS; and PEPSINOGEN II.
Membrane transporters that co-transport two or more dissimilar molecules in the same direction across a membrane. Usually the transport of one ion or molecule is against its electrochemical gradient and is "powered" by the movement of another ion or molecule with its electrochemical gradient.
Accessory salivary glands located in the lip, cheek, tongue, floor of mouth, palate and intramaxillary.
Receptor protein-tyrosine kinases involved in the signaling of GLIAL CELL-LINE DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR ligands. They contain an extracellular cadherin domain and form a receptor complexes with GDNF RECEPTORS. Mutations in ret protein are responsible for HIRSCHSPRUNG DISEASE and MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA TYPE 2.
Antibodies that react with self-antigens (AUTOANTIGENS) of the organism that produced them.
A condition characterized by a dry, waxy type of swelling (EDEMA) with abnormal deposits of MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES in the SKIN and other tissues. It is caused by a deficiency of THYROID HORMONES. The skin becomes puffy around the eyes and on the cheeks. The face is dull and expressionless with thickened nose and lips.
Uncontrolled release of radioactive material from its containment. This either threatens to, or does, cause exposure to a radioactive hazard. Such an incident may occur accidentally or deliberately.
Tumors, cancer or other neoplasms produced by exposure to ionizing or non-ionizing radiation.
An immunoglobulin G, often found in the blood of hyperthyroid individuals. It stimulates the thyroid for a longer duration than does thyrotoxin and may cause hyperthyroidism in newborns due to placental transmission.
A usually benign glandular tumor composed of oxyphil cells, large cells with small irregular nuclei and dense acidophilic granules due to the presence of abundant MITOCHONDRIA. Oxyphil cells, also known as oncocytes, are found in oncocytomas of the kidney, salivary glands, and endocrine glands. In the thyroid gland, oxyphil cells are known as Hurthle cells and Askanazy cells.
A small, unpaired gland situated in the SELLA TURCICA. It is connected to the HYPOTHALAMUS by a short stalk which is called the INFUNDIBULUM.
Exocrine glands in animals which secrete scents which either repel or attract other animals, e.g. perianal glands of skunks, anal glands of weasels, musk glands of foxes, ventral glands of wood rats, and dorsal glands of peccaries.
Submandibular Gland Diseases refer to a group of medical conditions affecting the structure and function of the submandibular glands, leading to symptoms such as swelling, pain, difficulty swallowing, and reduced saliva production.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Ukraine" is a country located in Eastern Europe and it is not a medical term or concept. Therefore, I can't provide a medical definition for it.
An enlarged THYROID GLAND with at least 50% of the gland situated behind the STERNUM. It is an unusual presentation of an intrathoracic goiter. Substernal goiters frequently cause compression on the TRACHEA leading to deviation, narrowing, and respiratory symptoms.
Study of intracellular distribution of chemicals, reaction sites, enzymes, etc., by means of staining reactions, radioactive isotope uptake, selective metal distribution in electron microscopy, or other methods.
Acute inflammatory disease of the THYROID GLAND due to infections by BACTERIA; FUNGI; or other microorganisms. Symptoms include tender swelling, FEVER, and often with LEUKOCYTOSIS.
An imidazole antithyroid agent. Carbimazole is metabolized to METHIMAZOLE, which is responsible for the antithyroid activity.
The part of a human or animal body connecting the HEAD to the rest of the body.
An increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ without tumor formation. It differs from HYPERTROPHY, which is an increase in bulk without an increase in the number of cells.
Inorganic compounds that contain sodium as an integral part of the molecule.
A tripeptide that stimulates the release of THYROTROPIN and PROLACTIN. It is synthesized by the neurons in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS of the HYPOTHALAMUS. After being released into the pituitary portal circulation, TRH (was called TRF) stimulates the release of TSH and PRL from the ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND.
Tumors or cancer of the PARATHYROID GLANDS.
An inherited autosomal recessive trait, characterized by peripheral resistance to THYROID HORMONES and the resulting elevation in serum levels of THYROXINE and TRIIODOTHYRONINE. This syndrome is caused by mutations of gene THRB encoding the THYROID HORMONE RECEPTORS BETA in target cells. HYPOTHYROIDISM in these patients is partly overcome by the increased thyroid hormone levels.
Organic compounds containing the radical -CSNH2.
A tumor of both low- and high-grade malignancy. The low-grade grow slowly, appear in any age group, and are readily cured by excision. The high-grade behave aggressively, widely infiltrate the salivary gland and produce lymph node and distant metastases. Mucoepidermoid carcinomas account for about 21% of the malignant tumors of the parotid gland and 10% of the sublingual gland. They are the most common malignant tumor of the parotid. (From DeVita Jr et al., Cancer: Principles & Practice of Oncology, 3d ed, p575; Holland et al., Cancer Medicine, 3d ed, p1240)
The species Tursiops truncatus, in the family Delphinidae, characterized by a bottle-shaped beak and slightly hooked broad dorsal fin.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
A group of autosomal dominant diseases characterized by the combined occurrence of tumors involving two or more ENDOCRINE GLANDS that secrete PEPTIDE HORMONES or AMINES. These neoplasias are often benign but can be malignant. They are classified by the endocrine glands involved and the degree of aggressiveness. The two major forms are MEN1 and MEN2 with gene mutations on CHROMOSOME 11 and CHROMOSOME 10, respectively.
Large, branched, specialized sweat glands that empty into the upper portion of a HAIR FOLLICLE instead of directly onto the SKIN.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
Congenital structural abnormalities and deformities of the musculoskeletal system.
Submandibular Gland Neoplasms are abnormal growths or tumors, which can be benign or malignant, originating from the glandular tissues of the submandibular salivary gland located beneath the mandible (jawbone).
The amount of radiation energy that is deposited in a unit mass of material, such as tissues of plants or animal. In RADIOTHERAPY, radiation dosage is expressed in gray units (Gy). In RADIOLOGIC HEALTH, the dosage is expressed by the product of absorbed dose (Gy) and quality factor (a function of linear energy transfer), and is called radiation dose equivalent in sievert units (Sv).
The mass or quantity of heaviness of an individual. It is expressed by units of pounds or kilograms.
Unanticipated information discovered in the course of testing or medical care. Used in discussions of information that may have social or psychological consequences, such as when it is learned that a child's biological father is someone other than the putative father, or that a person tested for one disease or disorder has, or is at risk for, something else.
Immunologic techniques based on the use of: (1) enzyme-antibody conjugates; (2) enzyme-antigen conjugates; (3) antienzyme antibody followed by its homologous enzyme; or (4) enzyme-antienzyme complexes. These are used histologically for visualizing or labeling tissue specimens.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Cyst due to the occlusion of the duct of a follicle or small gland.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
Collection of granular epithelial cells in the uterine muscle beneath the placenta that develop during pregnancy in certain species of animals.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
F344 rats are an inbred strain of albino laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus) that have been widely used in biomedical research due to their consistent and reliable genetic background, which facilitates the study of disease mechanisms and therapeutic interventions.
Removal and examination of tissue obtained through a transdermal needle inserted into the specific region, organ, or tissue being analyzed.
A multifunctional galactin initially discovered as a macrophage antigen that binds to IMMUNOGLOBULIN E, and as 29-35-kDa lectin that binds LAMININ. It is involved in a variety of biological events including interactions with galactose-containing glycoconjugates, cell proliferation, CELL DIFFERENTIATION, and APOPTOSIS.
A family of transcription factors that control EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT within a variety of cell lineages. They are characterized by a highly conserved paired DNA-binding domain that was first identified in DROSOPHILA segmentation genes.
Any fluid-filled closed cavity or sac that is lined by an EPITHELIUM. Cysts can be of normal, abnormal, non-neoplastic, or neoplastic tissues.
The processes of milk secretion by the maternal MAMMARY GLANDS after PARTURITION. The proliferation of the mammary glandular tissue, milk synthesis, and milk expulsion or let down are regulated by the interactions of several hormones including ESTRADIOL; PROGESTERONE; PROLACTIN; and OXYTOCIN.
The visualization of deep structures of the body by recording the reflections or echoes of ultrasonic pulses directed into the tissues. Use of ultrasound for imaging or diagnostic purposes employs frequencies ranging from 1.6 to 10 megahertz.
I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Kazakhstan" is not a medical term and does not have a medical definition; it is the name of a country located in Central Asia, known officially as the Republic of Kazakhstan.
Accumulation of a drug or chemical substance in various organs (including those not relevant to its pharmacologic or therapeutic action). This distribution depends on the blood flow or perfusion rate of the organ, the ability of the drug to penetrate organ membranes, tissue specificity, protein binding. The distribution is usually expressed as tissue to plasma ratios.
A strain of albino rat developed at the Wistar Institute that has spread widely at other institutions. This has markedly diluted the original strain.
The largest cartilage of the larynx consisting of two laminae fusing anteriorly at an acute angle in the midline of the neck. The point of fusion forms a subcutaneous projection known as the Adam's apple.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
Tomography using x-ray transmission and a computer algorithm to reconstruct the image.
Tests to experimentally measure the tumor-producing/cancer cell-producing potency of an agent by administering the agent (e.g., benzanthracenes) and observing the quantity of tumors or the cell transformation developed over a given period of time. The carcinogenicity value is usually measured as milligrams of agent administered per tumor developed. Though this test differs from the DNA-repair and bacterial microsome MUTAGENICITY TESTS, researchers often attempt to correlate the finding of carcinogenicity values and mutagenicity values.
Diseases of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). This term does not include diseases of wild dogs, WOLVES; FOXES; and other Canidae for which the heading CARNIVORA is used.
Microscopy using an electron beam, instead of light, to visualize the sample, thereby allowing much greater magnification. The interactions of ELECTRONS with specimens are used to provide information about the fine structure of that specimen. In TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY the reactions of the electrons that are transmitted through the specimen are imaged. In SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY an electron beam falls at a non-normal angle on the specimen and the image is derived from the reactions occurring above the plane of the specimen.
Perianal glands, also known as hepatoid glands, are sebaceous glands located in the perianal region of many mammals, including humans, that produce and secret lubricating oils for skin protection and cleanliness.
The production of an image obtained by cameras that detect the radioactive emissions of an injected radionuclide as it has distributed differentially throughout tissues in the body. The image obtained from a moving detector is called a scan, while the image obtained from a stationary camera device is called a scintiphotograph.
Excision of one or more of the parathyroid glands.
A condition of abnormally elevated output of PARATHYROID HORMONE (or PTH) triggering responses that increase blood CALCIUM. It is characterized by HYPERCALCEMIA and BONE RESORPTION, eventually leading to bone diseases. PRIMARY HYPERPARATHYROIDISM is caused by parathyroid HYPERPLASIA or PARATHYROID NEOPLASMS. SECONDARY HYPERPARATHYROIDISM is increased PTH secretion in response to HYPOCALCEMIA, usually caused by chronic KIDNEY DISEASES.
Death resulting from the presence of a disease in an individual, as shown by a single case report or a limited number of patients. This should be differentiated from DEATH, the physiological cessation of life and from MORTALITY, an epidemiological or statistical concept.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
Wormlike or grublike stage, following the egg in the life cycle of insects, worms, and other metamorphosing animals.
Two or more abnormal growths of tissue occurring simultaneously and presumed to be of separate origin. The neoplasms may be histologically the same or different, and may be found in the same or different sites.
Genetically identical individuals developed from brother and sister matings which have been carried out for twenty or more generations or by parent x offspring matings carried out with certain restrictions. This also includes animals with a long history of closed colony breeding.
A type of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) where polyribosomes are present on the cytoplasmic surfaces of the ER membranes. This form of ER is prominent in cells specialized for protein secretion and its principal function is to segregate proteins destined for export or intracellular utilization.
One or more layers of EPITHELIAL CELLS, supported by the basal lamina, which covers the inner or outer surfaces of the body.
An array of tests used to determine the toxicity of a substance to living systems. These include tests on clinical drugs, foods, and environmental pollutants.
Radiation protection, also known as radiation safety, is the science and practice of protecting people and the environment from harmful ionizing radiation exposure while allowing for the safe medical, industrial, and research uses of such radiation.
Disorders that are characterized by the production of antibodies that react with host tissues or immune effector cells that are autoreactive to endogenous peptides.
A large lobed glandular organ in the abdomen of vertebrates that is responsible for detoxification, metabolism, synthesis and storage of various substances.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
Glands situated on each side of the prostate that secrete a fluid component of the seminal fluid into the urethra.
Calculi occurring in a salivary gland. Most salivary gland calculi occur in the submandibular gland, but can also occur in the parotid gland and in the sublingual and minor salivary glands.
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control (induction or repression) of gene action at the level of transcription or translation.
The domestic dog, Canis familiaris, comprising about 400 breeds, of the carnivore family CANIDAE. They are worldwide in distribution and live in association with people. (Walker's Mammals of the World, 5th ed, p1065)
Classic quantitative assay for detection of antigen-antibody reactions using a radioactively labeled substance (radioligand) either directly or indirectly to measure the binding of the unlabeled substance to a specific antibody or other receptor system. Non-immunogenic substances (e.g., haptens) can be measured if coupled to larger carrier proteins (e.g., bovine gamma-globulin or human serum albumin) capable of inducing antibody formation.
Branches of the VAGUS NERVE. The superior laryngeal nerves originate near the nodose ganglion and separate into external branches, which supply motor fibers to the cricothyroid muscles, and internal branches, which carry sensory fibers. The RECURRENT LARYNGEAL NERVE originates more caudally and carries efferents to all muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid. The laryngeal nerves and their various branches also carry sensory and autonomic fibers to the laryngeal, pharyngeal, tracheal, and cardiac regions.
A large group of diseases which are characterized by a low prevalence in the population. They frequently are associated with problems in diagnosis and treatment.
Industrial products consisting of a mixture of chlorinated biphenyl congeners and isomers. These compounds are highly lipophilic and tend to accumulate in fat stores of animals. Many of these compounds are considered toxic and potential environmental pollutants.
A malignant epithelial tumor with a glandular organization.
The relationship between the dose of administered radiation and the response of the organism or tissue to the radiation.
Any of various animals that constitute the family Suidae and comprise stout-bodied, short-legged omnivorous mammals with thick skin, usually covered with coarse bristles, a rather long mobile snout, and small tail. Included are the genera Babyrousa, Phacochoerus (wart hogs), and Sus, the latter containing the domestic pig (see SUS SCROFA).

The epizootiology and pathogenesis of thyroid hyperplasia in coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) in Lake Ontario. (1/4177)

The thyroid glands of coho salmon collected at different stages of their anadromous migration exhibited progressive and extensive hyperplasia and hypertrophy. The incidence of overt nodule formation rose from 5% in fish collected in August to 24% in fish collected in October. The histological picture of the goiters was similar to that found in thiourea-treated teleosts and thiouracil-treated mammals. There was a concomitant, significant decrease in serum thyroxine and triiodothyronine values between September and October (thyroxine, 1.0+/-0.3 mug/100 ml and 0.4 mug/100 ml in September and October, respectively; triiodothyronine, 400.3+/-51.6 ng/100 ml and 80.2 ng/100 ml in September and October, respectively) and marked hypertrophy and hyperplasia of thyrotrophs. These data indicate a progressive hypothyroid condition which, although it may be linked to iodide deficiency, may well be enhanced by other environmental factors. The evidence for involvement of other factors is discussed.  (+info)

Characterization of an amphioxus paired box gene, AmphiPax2/5/8: developmental expression patterns in optic support cells, nephridium, thyroid-like structures and pharyngeal gill slits, but not in the midbrain-hindbrain boundary region. (2/4177)

On the basis of developmental gene expression, the vertebrate central nervous system comprises: a forebrain plus anterior midbrain, a midbrain-hindbrain boundary region (MHB) having organizer properties, and a rhombospinal domain. The vertebrate MHB is characterized by position, by organizer properties and by being the early site of action of Wnt1 and engrailed genes, and of genes of the Pax2/5/8 subfamily. Wada and others (Wada, H., Saiga, H., Satoh, N. and Holland, P. W. H. (1998) Development 125, 1113-1122) suggested that ascidian tunicates have a vertebrate-like MHB on the basis of ascidian Pax258 expression there. In another invertebrate chordate, amphioxus, comparable gene expression evidence for a vertebrate-like MHB is lacking. We, therefore, isolated and characterized AmphiPax2/5/8, the sole member of this subfamily in amphioxus. AmphiPax2/5/8 is initially expressed well back in the rhombospinal domain and not where a MHB would be expected. In contrast, most of the other expression domains of AmphiPax2/5/8 correspond to expression domains of vertebrate Pax2, Pax5 and Pax8 in structures that are probably homologous - support cells of the eye, nephridium, thyroid-like structures and pharyngeal gill slits; although AmphiPax2/5/8 is not transcribed in any structures that could be interpreted as homologues of vertebrate otic placodes or otic vesicles. In sum, the developmental expression of AmphiPax2/5/8 indicates that the amphioxus central nervous system lacks a MHB resembling the vertebrate isthmic region. Additional gene expression data for the developing ascidian and amphioxus nervous systems would help determine whether a MHB is a basal chordate character secondarily lost in amphioxus. The alternative is that the MHB is a vertebrate innovation.  (+info)

The paired-domain transcription factor Pax8 binds to the upstream enhancer of the rat sodium/iodide symporter gene and participates in both thyroid-specific and cyclic-AMP-dependent transcription. (3/4177)

The gene encoding the Na/I symporter (NIS) is expressed at high levels only in thyroid follicular cells, where its expression is regulated by the thyroid-stimulating hormone via the second messenger, cyclic AMP (cAMP). In this study, we demonstrate the presence of an enhancer that is located between nucleotides -2264 and -2495 in the 5'-flanking region of the NIS gene and that recapitulates the most relevant aspects of NIS regulation. When fused to either its own or a heterologous promoter, the NIS upstream enhancer, which we call NUE, stimulates transcription in a thyroid-specific and cAMP-dependent manner. The activity of NUE depends on the four most relevant sites, identified by mutational analysis. The thyroid-specific transcription factor Pax8 binds at two of these sites. Mutations that interfere with Pax8 binding also decrease transcriptional activity of the NUE. Furthermore, expression of Pax8 in nonthyroid cells results in transcriptional activation of NUE, strongly suggesting that the paired-domain protein Pax8 plays an important role in NUE activity. The NUE responds to cAMP in both protein kinase A-dependent and -independent manners, indicating that this enhancer could represent a novel type of cAMP responsive element. Such a cAMP response requires Pax8 but also depends on the integrity of a cAMP responsive element (CRE)-like sequence, thus suggesting a functional interaction between Pax8 and factors binding at the CRE-like site.  (+info)

Diverse developing mouse lineages exhibit high-level c-Myb expression in immature cells and loss of expression upon differentiation. (4/4177)

The c-myb gene encodes a sequence specific transactivator that is required for fetal hematopoiesis, but its potential role in other tissues is less clear because of the early fetal demise of mice with targeted deletions of the c-myb gene and incomplete of knowledge about c-myb's expression pattern. In the hematopoietic system, c-Myb protein acts on target genes whose expression is restricted to individual lineages, despite Myb's presence and role in multiple immature lineages. This suggests that c-Myb actions within different cell type-specific contexts are strongly affected by combinatorial interactions. To consider the possibility of similar c-Myb actions could extend into non-hematopoietic systems in other cell and tissue compartments, we characterized c-myb expression in developing and adult mice using in situ hybridization and correlated this with stage-specific differentiation and mitotic activity. Diverse tissues exhibited strong c-myb expression during development, notably tooth buds, the thyroid primordium, developing trachea and proximal branching airway epithelium, hair follicles, hematopoietic cells, and gastrointestinal crypt epithelial cells. The latter three of these all maintained high expression into adulthood, but with characteristic restriction to immature cell lineages prior to their terminal differentiation. In all sites, during fetal and adult stages, loss of c-Myb expression correlated strikingly with the initiation of terminal differentiation, but not the loss of mitotic activity. Based on these data, we hypothesize that c-Myb's function during cellular differentiation is both an activator of immature gene expression and a suppressor of terminal differentiation in diverse lineages.  (+info)

Measurement of serum TSH in the investigation of patients presenting with thyroid enlargement. (5/4177)

In otherwise euthyroid patients presenting with thyroid enlargement, reduction in serum thyrotrophin (TSH) concentrations measured in a sensitive assay may be a marker of thyroid autonomy and may therefore indicate a benign underlying pathology. We investigated prospectively a cohort of 467 subjects presenting consecutively to our thyroid clinic with nodular or diffuse enlargement of the thyroid. Subjects were divided into those with normal (0.4-5.5 mU/l), low but detectable (0.1-0.39 mU/l) or undetectable (< 0.1 mU/l) serum TSH concentrations. The final pathological diagnosis was defined by fine-needle aspiration cytology and clinical follow-up of at least 2 years or by fine-needle aspiration cytology and histology following surgical treatment. Serum TSH concentrations below normal were found in 75 patients (16.1%), those with low serum TSH results having higher mean free T4 concentrations, were older and were more likely to be female. In those with undetectable serum TSH, no patient had a diagnosis of thyroid neoplasia and in those with low but detectable TSH, thyroid neoplasms were diagnosed in two patients (3.4%). In those with normal serum TSH, 12.0% had a final diagnosis of thyroid neoplasm (p = 0.013). Overall, thyroid malignancy was found in one patient (1.3%) of those with a serum TSH measurement below the normal range and 6.9% of those with normal serum TSH (p < 0.06). Reduction in serum TSH at presentation may identify a group which requires less intensive investigation and follow-up than those without biochemical evidence of thyroid autonomy.  (+info)

RhoA activity is required for fibronectin assembly and counteracts beta1B integrin inhibitory effect in FRT epithelial cells. (6/4177)

FRT thyroid epithelial cells synthesize fibronectin and organize a network of fibronectin fibrils at the basal surface of the cells. Fibronectin fibril formation is enhanced by the overexpression of the ubiquitous beta1A integrin and is inhibited by the expression of the dominant-negative beta1B subunit. We tested the hypotheses that RhoA activity might mediate the integrin-dependent fibronectin fibrillogenesis and might counteract beta1B integrin inhibitory effect. FRT-beta1A cells were transfected with a vector carrying a dominant negative form of RhoA (RhoAN19) or treated with the C3 transferase exoenzyme. Both treatments inhibited fibronectin assembly and caused loss of actin microfilaments and adhesion plaques. On the other hand, FRT-beta1B cells were transfected with the constitutively activated form of RhoA (RhoAV14) or treated with the E. coli cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1, which directly activates RhoA. Either treatment restored microfilament and adhesion plaque assembly and promoted fibronectin fibril organization. A great increase in fibronectin fibril assembly was also obtained by treatment of FRT-beta1B cells with TGF-beta. Our data indicate that RhoA is required to promote fibronectin matrix assembly in FRT cells and that the activation of the signal transduction pathway downstream of RhoA can overcome the inhibitory effect of beta1B integrin.  (+info)

Thyroid volumes and urinary iodine in Swiss school children, 17 years after improved prophylaxis of iodine deficiency. (7/4177)

Salt iodine content in Switzerland was raised from 7.5 to 15 mg per kg in 1980, and since then dietary iodine intake has been considered to be sufficient, even though a slight decrease due to imported food has recently been reported. The aim of this study was to establish normal values for thyroid volumes of school children who can be assumed to have had a sufficient iodine intake all their lifetime. Moreover. the present investigation was undertaken to verify that iodine sufficiency had been achieved equally in two regions each served by one of the two Swiss salt producers. Mean iodine concentration in urine spot samples from school children was 16.1 microg/dl, and it was identical in both the city of Lausanne (n=215) and the city of Solothurn (n=208). Thus it can be stated that in both cities (served by two different salt producers) iodine intake is equal and sufficient. Accordingly, thyroid volumes measured by ultrasound in school children aged 6 to 16 years were the same in both Lausanne (n=202) and Solothurn (n=207). Moreover, the age-adjusted median volumes at the 97th percentiles closely agree with and validate provisional international reference values recently proposed by the World Health Organisation and by the International Council for Control of Iodine Deficiency Disease.  (+info)

Regulation of PiT-1, a sodium-dependent phosphate co-transporter in rat parathyroid glands. (8/4177)

A cDNA encoding an Na+-Pi co-transporter, termed rat PiT-1, has now been isolated from rat parathyroid. Expression of rat PiT-1 in Xenopus oocytes revealed that it possesses Na+-dependent Pi co-transport activity. The amount of PiT-1 mRNA in the parathyroid of vitamin D-deficient rats was reduced compared with that in normal animals, and increased markedly after administration of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Furthermore, the abundance of PiT-1 mRNA in the parathyroid was much greater in rats fed a low-Pi diet than in those fed a high-Pi diet. Thus, rat PiT-1 may contribute to the effects of Pi and vitamin D on parathyroid function.  (+info)

The thyroid gland is a major endocrine gland located in the neck, anterior to the trachea and extends from the lower third of the Adams apple to the suprasternal notch. It has two lateral lobes, connected by an isthmus, and sometimes a pyramidal lobe. This gland plays a crucial role in the metabolism, growth, and development of the human body through the production of thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine/T3 and thyroxine/T4) and calcitonin. The thyroid hormones regulate body temperature, heart rate, and the production of protein, while calcitonin helps in controlling calcium levels in the blood. The function of the thyroid gland is controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland through the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).

Thyroid neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the thyroid gland, which can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). These growths can vary in size and may cause a noticeable lump or nodule in the neck. Thyroid neoplasms can also affect the function of the thyroid gland, leading to hormonal imbalances and related symptoms. The exact causes of thyroid neoplasms are not fully understood, but risk factors include radiation exposure, family history, and certain genetic conditions. It is important to note that most thyroid nodules are benign, but a proper medical evaluation is necessary to determine the nature of the growth and develop an appropriate treatment plan.

Thyroid diseases are a group of conditions that affect the function and structure of the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the base of the neck. The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate many vital functions in the body, including metabolism, growth, and development.

Thyroid diseases can be classified into two main categories: hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones, leading to symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, and depression. Hyperthyroidism, on the other hand, occurs when the thyroid gland produces too much hormone, resulting in symptoms such as weight loss, heat intolerance, rapid heart rate, tremors, and anxiety.

Other common thyroid diseases include:

1. Goiter: an enlargement of the thyroid gland that can be caused by iodine deficiency or autoimmune disorders.
2. Thyroid nodules: abnormal growths on the thyroid gland that can be benign or malignant.
3. Thyroid cancer: a malignant tumor of the thyroid gland that requires medical treatment.
4. Hashimoto's disease: an autoimmune disorder that causes chronic inflammation of the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.
5. Graves' disease: an autoimmune disorder that causes hyperthyroidism and can also lead to eye problems and skin changes.

Thyroid diseases are diagnosed through a combination of physical examination, medical history, blood tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment options depend on the specific type and severity of the disease and may include medication, surgery, or radioactive iodine therapy.

Thyroid hormones are hormones produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small endocrine gland located in the neck that helps regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. The two main thyroid hormones are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which contain iodine atoms. These hormones play a crucial role in various bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, digestion, and brain development. They help regulate the rate at which your body uses energy, affects how sensitive your body is to other hormones, and plays a vital role in the development and differentiation of all cells of the human body. Thyroid hormone levels are regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland through a feedback mechanism that helps maintain proper balance.

Thyrotropin, also known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Its primary function is to regulate the production and release of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) hormones from the thyroid gland. Thyrotropin binds to receptors on the surface of thyroid follicular cells, stimulating the uptake of iodide and the synthesis and release of T4 and T3. The secretion of thyrotropin is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis: thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of thyrotropin, while T3 and T4 inhibit its release through a negative feedback mechanism.

A thyroid nodule is a growth or lump that forms within the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of your neck. Thyroid nodules can be solid or fluid-filled (cystic) and vary in size. Most thyroid nodules are benign (noncancerous) and do not cause symptoms. However, some thyroid nodules may be cancerous or overproduce hormones, leading to hyperthyroidism. The exact cause of thyroid nodules is not always known, but factors such as iodine deficiency, Hashimoto's disease, and family history can increase the risk of developing them. A healthcare professional typically diagnoses a thyroid nodule through physical examination, imaging tests like ultrasound, or fine-needle aspiration biopsy to determine if further treatment is necessary.

Thyroxine (T4) is a type of hormone produced and released by the thyroid gland, a small butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of your neck. It is one of two major hormones produced by the thyroid gland, with the other being triiodothyronine (T3).

Thyroxine plays a crucial role in regulating various metabolic processes in the body, including growth, development, and energy expenditure. Specifically, T4 helps to control the rate at which your body burns calories for energy, regulates protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism, and influences the body's sensitivity to other hormones.

T4 is produced by combining iodine and tyrosine, an amino acid found in many foods. Once produced, T4 circulates in the bloodstream and gets converted into its active form, T3, in various tissues throughout the body. Thyroxine has a longer half-life than T3, which means it remains active in the body for a more extended period.

Abnormal levels of thyroxine can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) or hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid). These conditions can cause a range of symptoms, including weight gain or loss, fatigue, mood changes, and changes in heart rate and blood pressure.

Thyroid function tests (TFTs) are a group of blood tests that assess the functioning of the thyroid gland, which is a small butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of the neck. The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development in the body.

TFTs typically include the following tests:

1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) test: This test measures the level of TSH, a hormone produced by the pituitary gland that regulates the production of thyroid hormones. High levels of TSH may indicate an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism), while low levels may indicate an overactive thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism).
2. Thyroxine (T4) test: This test measures the level of T4, a hormone produced by the thyroid gland. High levels of T4 may indicate hyperthyroidism, while low levels may indicate hypothyroidism.
3. Triiodothyronine (T3) test: This test measures the level of T3, another hormone produced by the thyroid gland. High levels of T3 may indicate hyperthyroidism, while low levels may indicate hypothyroidism.
4. Thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb) test: This test measures the level of TPOAb, an antibody that attacks the thyroid gland and can cause hypothyroidism.
5. Thyroglobulin (Tg) test: This test measures the level of Tg, a protein produced by the thyroid gland. It is used to monitor the treatment of thyroid cancer.

These tests help diagnose and manage various thyroid disorders, including hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism, thyroiditis, and thyroid cancer.

Goiter is a medical term that refers to an enlarged thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of your neck below the larynx or voice box. It produces hormones that regulate your body's metabolism, growth, and development.

Goiter can vary in size and may be visible as a swelling at the base of the neck. It can be caused by several factors, including iodine deficiency, autoimmune disorders, thyroid cancer, pregnancy, or the use of certain medications. Depending on the underlying cause and the severity of the goiter, treatment options may include medication, surgery, or radioactive iodine therapy.

Thyroglobulin is a protein produced and used by the thyroid gland in the production of thyroid hormones, primarily thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). It is composed of two subunits, an alpha and a beta or gamma unit, which bind iodine atoms necessary for the synthesis of the thyroid hormones. Thyroglobulin is exclusively produced by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland.

In clinical practice, measuring thyroglobulin levels in the blood can be useful as a tumor marker for monitoring treatment and detecting recurrence of thyroid cancer, particularly in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer (papillary or follicular) who have had their thyroid gland removed. However, it is important to note that thyroglobulin is not specific to thyroid tissue and can be produced by some non-thyroidal cells under certain conditions, which may lead to false positive results in some cases.

Thyroidectomy is a surgical procedure where all or part of the thyroid gland is removed. The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the neck, responsible for producing hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development.

There are different types of thyroidectomy procedures, including:

1. Total thyroidectomy: Removal of the entire thyroid gland.
2. Partial (or subtotal) thyroidectomy: Removal of a portion of the thyroid gland.
3. Hemithyroidectomy: Removal of one lobe of the thyroid gland, often performed to treat benign solitary nodules or differentiated thyroid cancer.

Thyroidectomy may be recommended for various reasons, such as treating thyroid nodules, goiter, hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid), or thyroid cancer. Potential risks and complications of the procedure include bleeding, infection, damage to nearby structures like the parathyroid glands and recurrent laryngeal nerve, and hypoparathyroidism or hypothyroidism due to removal of or damage to the parathyroid glands or thyroid gland, respectively. Close postoperative monitoring and management are essential to minimize these risks and ensure optimal patient outcomes.

Salivary glands are exocrine glands that produce saliva, which is secreted into the oral cavity to keep the mouth and throat moist, aid in digestion by initiating food breakdown, and help maintain dental health. There are three major pairs of salivary glands: the parotid glands located in the cheeks, the submandibular glands found beneath the jaw, and the sublingual glands situated under the tongue. Additionally, there are numerous minor salivary glands distributed throughout the oral cavity lining. These glands release their secretions through a system of ducts into the mouth.

Hypothyroidism is a medical condition where the thyroid gland, which is a small butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of your neck, does not produce enough thyroid hormones. This results in a slowing down of the body's metabolic processes, leading to various symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, constipation, cold intolerance, dry skin, hair loss, muscle weakness, and depression.

The two main thyroid hormones produced by the thyroid gland are triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones play crucial roles in regulating various bodily functions, including heart rate, body temperature, and energy levels. In hypothyroidism, the production of these hormones is insufficient, leading to a range of symptoms that can affect multiple organ systems.

Hypothyroidism can be caused by several factors, including autoimmune disorders (such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis), surgical removal of the thyroid gland, radiation therapy for neck cancer, certain medications, and congenital defects. Hypothyroidism is typically diagnosed through blood tests that measure levels of TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), T3, and T4. Treatment usually involves taking synthetic thyroid hormones to replace the missing hormones and alleviate symptoms.

Iodine is an essential trace element that is necessary for the production of thyroid hormones in the body. These hormones play crucial roles in various bodily functions, including growth and development, metabolism, and brain development during pregnancy and infancy. Iodine can be found in various foods such as seaweed, dairy products, and iodized salt. In a medical context, iodine is also used as an antiseptic to disinfect surfaces, wounds, and skin infections due to its ability to kill bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

Triiodothyronine (T3) is a thyroid hormone, specifically the active form of thyroid hormone, that plays a critical role in the regulation of metabolism, growth, and development in the human body. It is produced by the thyroid gland through the iodination and coupling of the amino acid tyrosine with three atoms of iodine. T3 is more potent than its precursor, thyroxine (T4), which has four iodine atoms, as T3 binds more strongly to thyroid hormone receptors and accelerates metabolic processes at the cellular level.

In circulation, about 80% of T3 is bound to plasma proteins, while the remaining 20% is unbound or free, allowing it to enter cells and exert its biological effects. The primary functions of T3 include increasing the rate of metabolic reactions, promoting protein synthesis, enhancing sensitivity to catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline), and supporting normal brain development during fetal growth and early infancy. Imbalances in T3 levels can lead to various medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, which may require clinical intervention and management.

Iodide peroxidase, also known as iodide:hydrogen peroxide oxidoreductase, is an enzyme that belongs to the family of oxidoreductases. Specifically, it is a peroxidase that uses iodide as its physiological reducing substrate. This enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of iodide by hydrogen peroxide to produce iodine, which plays a crucial role in thyroid hormone biosynthesis.

The systematic name for this enzyme is iodide:hydrogen-peroxide oxidoreductase (iodinating). It is most commonly found in the thyroid gland, where it helps to produce and regulate thyroid hormones by facilitating the iodination of tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin, a protein produced by the thyroid gland.

Iodide peroxidase requires a heme cofactor for its enzymatic activity, which is responsible for the oxidation-reduction reactions it catalyzes. The enzyme's ability to iodinate tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin is essential for the production of triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), two critical hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development in mammals.

Autoimmune thyroiditis, also known as Hashimoto's disease, is a chronic inflammation of the thyroid gland caused by an autoimmune response. In this condition, the immune system produces antibodies that attack and damage the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid). The thyroid gland may become enlarged (goiter), and symptoms can include fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin, and depression. Autoimmune thyroiditis is more common in women than men and tends to run in families. It is often associated with other autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, Addison's disease, and type 1 diabetes. The diagnosis is typically made through blood tests that measure levels of thyroid hormones and antibodies. Treatment usually involves thyroid hormone replacement therapy to manage the symptoms of hypothyroidism.

Graves' disease is defined as an autoimmune disorder that leads to overactivity of the thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism). It results when the immune system produces antibodies that stimulate the thyroid gland, causing it to produce too much thyroid hormone. This can result in a variety of symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, weight loss, heat intolerance, and bulging eyes (Graves' ophthalmopathy). The exact cause of Graves' disease is unknown, but it is more common in women and people with a family history of the disorder. Treatment may include medications to control hyperthyroidism, radioactive iodine therapy to destroy thyroid tissue, or surgery to remove the thyroid gland.

Carcinoma, papillary is a type of cancer that begins in the cells that line the glandular structures or the lining of organs. In a papillary carcinoma, the cancerous cells grow and form small finger-like projections, called papillae, within the tumor. This type of cancer most commonly occurs in the thyroid gland, but can also be found in other organs such as the lung, breast, and kidney. Papillary carcinoma of the thyroid gland is usually slow-growing and has a good prognosis, especially when it is diagnosed at an early stage.

Hyperthyroidism is a medical condition characterized by an excessive production and release of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland, leading to an increased metabolic rate in various body systems. The thyroid gland, located in the front of the neck, produces two main thyroid hormones: triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones play crucial roles in regulating many bodily functions, including heart rate, digestion, energy levels, and mood.

In hyperthyroidism, the elevated levels of T3 and T4 can cause a wide range of symptoms, such as rapid heartbeat, weight loss, heat intolerance, increased appetite, tremors, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. Some common causes of hyperthyroidism include Graves' disease, toxic adenoma, Plummer's disease (toxic multinodular goiter), and thyroiditis. Proper diagnosis and treatment are essential to manage the symptoms and prevent potential complications associated with this condition.

Mammary glands are specialized exocrine glands found in mammals, including humans and other animals. These glands are responsible for producing milk, which is used to nurse offspring after birth. The mammary glands are located in the breast region of female mammals and are usually rudimentary or absent in males.

In animals, mammary glands can vary in number and location depending on the species. For example, humans and other primates have two mammary glands, one in each breast. Cows, goats, and sheep, on the other hand, have multiple pairs of mammary glands located in their lower abdominal region.

Mammary glands are made up of several structures, including lobules, ducts, and connective tissue. The lobules contain clusters of milk-secreting cells called alveoli, which produce and store milk. The ducts transport the milk from the lobules to the nipple, where it is released during lactation.

Mammary glands are an essential feature of mammals, as they provide a source of nutrition for newborn offspring. They also play a role in the development and maintenance of the mother-infant bond, as nursing provides opportunities for physical contact and bonding between the mother and her young.

Thyroiditis is a general term that refers to inflammation of the thyroid gland. It can be caused by various factors such as infections, autoimmune disorders, or medications. Depending on the cause and severity, thyroiditis may lead to overproduction (hyperthyroidism) or underproduction (hypothyroidism) of thyroid hormones, or it can result in a temporary or permanent loss of thyroid function.

There are several types of thyroiditis, including:

1. Hashimoto's thyroiditis - an autoimmune disorder where the body attacks and damages the thyroid gland, leading to hypothyroidism.
2. Subacute granulomatous thyroiditis (De Quervain's thyroiditis) - often follows a viral infection and results in painful inflammation of the thyroid gland, causing hyperthyroidism followed by hypothyroidism.
3. Silent thyroiditis - an autoimmune disorder similar to Hashimoto's thyroiditis but without symptoms like pain or tenderness; it can cause temporary hyperthyroidism and later hypothyroidism.
4. Postpartum thyroiditis - occurs in women after childbirth, causing inflammation of the thyroid gland leading to hyperthyroidism followed by hypothyroidism.
5. Acute suppurative thyroiditis - a rare bacterial infection that causes painful swelling and redness of the thyroid gland, usually requiring antibiotics for treatment.

Symptoms of thyroiditis depend on whether it leads to hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism. Hyperthyroidism symptoms include rapid heartbeat, weight loss, heat intolerance, anxiety, and tremors. Hypothyroidism symptoms include fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin, and depression. Treatment varies depending on the type of thyroiditis and its severity.

Antithyroid agents are a class of medications that are used to treat hyperthyroidism, a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone. These medications work by inhibiting the production of thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland. There are several types of antithyroid agents available, including:

1. Propylthiouracil (PTU): This medication works by blocking the enzyme that is needed to produce thyroid hormones. It also reduces the conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), another thyroid hormone, in peripheral tissues.
2. Methimazole: This medication works similarly to propylthiouracil by blocking the enzyme that is needed to produce thyroid hormones. However, it does not affect the conversion of T4 to T3 in peripheral tissues.
3. Carbimazole: This medication is converted to methimazole in the body and works similarly to block the production of thyroid hormones.

Antithyroid agents are usually taken orally, and their effects on thyroid hormone production begin within a few hours after ingestion. However, it may take several weeks for patients to notice an improvement in their symptoms. These medications can have side effects, including rash, hives, and joint pain. In rare cases, they can cause liver damage or agranulocytosis, a condition in which the body does not produce enough white blood cells.

It is important to note that antithyroid agents do not cure hyperthyroidism; they only treat the symptoms by reducing thyroid hormone production. Therefore, patients may need to take these medications for several months or even years, depending on their individual circumstances. In some cases, surgery or radioactive iodine therapy may be recommended as alternative treatments for hyperthyroidism.

The submandibular glands are one of the major salivary glands in the human body. They are located beneath the mandible (jawbone) and produce saliva that helps in digestion, lubrication, and protection of the oral cavity. The saliva produced by the submandibular glands contains enzymes like amylase and mucin, which aid in the digestion of carbohydrates and provide moisture to the mouth and throat. Any medical condition or disease that affects the submandibular gland may impact its function and could lead to problems such as dry mouth (xerostomia), swelling, pain, or infection.

Exocrine glands are a type of gland in the human body that produce and release substances through ducts onto an external or internal surface. These glands are responsible for secreting various substances such as enzymes, hormones, and lubricants that help in digestion, protection, and other bodily functions.

Exocrine glands can be further classified into three types based on their mode of secretion:

1. Merocrine glands: These glands release their secretions by exocytosis, where the secretory product is enclosed in a vesicle that fuses with the cell membrane and releases its contents outside the cell. Examples include sweat glands and mucous glands.
2. Apocrine glands: These glands release their secretions by pinching off a portion of the cytoplasm along with the secretory product. An example is the apocrine sweat gland found in the armpits and genital area.
3. Holocrine glands: These glands release their secretions by disintegrating and releasing the entire cell, including its organelles and secretory products. An example is the sebaceous gland found in the skin, which releases an oily substance called sebum.

Adenocarcinoma, follicular is a type of cancer that develops in the follicular cells of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the neck that produces hormones responsible for regulating various bodily functions such as metabolism and growth.

Follicular adenocarcinoma arises from the follicular cells, which are responsible for producing thyroid hormones. This type of cancer is typically slow-growing and may not cause any symptoms in its early stages. However, as it progresses, it can lead to a variety of symptoms such as a lump or nodule in the neck, difficulty swallowing, hoarseness, or pain in the neck or throat.

Follicular adenocarcinoma is usually treated with surgical removal of the thyroid gland (thyroidectomy), followed by radioactive iodine therapy to destroy any remaining cancer cells. In some cases, additional treatments such as radiation therapy or chemotherapy may be necessary. The prognosis for follicular adenocarcinoma is generally good, with a five-year survival rate of around 90%. However, this can vary depending on the stage and aggressiveness of the cancer at the time of diagnosis.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), and regulate gene transcription in target cells. These receptors play a crucial role in the development, growth, and metabolism of an organism by mediating the actions of thyroid hormones. THRs are encoded by genes THRA and THRB, which give rise to two major isoforms: TRα1 and TRβ1. Additionally, alternative splicing results in other isoforms with distinct tissue distributions and functions. THRs function as heterodimers with retinoid X receptors (RXRs) and bind to thyroid hormone response elements (TREs) in the regulatory regions of target genes. The binding of T3 or T4 to THRs triggers a conformational change, which leads to recruitment of coactivators or corepressors, ultimately resulting in activation or repression of gene transcription.

Iodides are chemical compounds that contain iodine in the form of an iodide ion (I-). Iodide ions are negatively charged ions that consist of one iodine atom and an extra electron. Iodides are commonly found in dietary supplements and medications, and they are often used to treat or prevent iodine deficiency. They can also be used as expectorants to help thin and loosen mucus in the respiratory tract. Examples of iodides include potassium iodide (KI) and sodium iodide (NaI).

A goiter is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland, which is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of the neck. Goiters can be either diffuse (uniformly enlarged) or nodular (lumpy with distinct nodules). Nodular goiter refers to a thyroid gland that has developed one or more discrete lumps or nodules while the remaining tissue is normal or may also be diffusely enlarged.

Nodular goiters can be classified into two types: multinodular goiter and solitary thyroid nodule. Multinodular goiter consists of multiple nodules in the thyroid gland, while a solitary thyroid nodule is an isolated nodule within an otherwise normal or diffusely enlarged thyroid gland.

The majority of nodular goiters are benign and do not cause symptoms. However, some patients may experience signs and symptoms related to compression of nearby structures (such as difficulty swallowing or breathing), hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid), or hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid). The evaluation of a nodular goiter typically includes a physical examination, imaging studies like ultrasound, and sometimes fine-needle aspiration biopsy to determine the nature of the nodules and assess the risk of malignancy. Treatment options depend on various factors, including the size and number of nodules, the presence of compressive symptoms, and the patient's thyroid function.

Congenital hypothyroidism is a medical condition characterized by the partial or complete absence of thyroid hormone production in the baby's body at birth. The thyroid gland, which is located in the front of the neck, produces hormones that are essential for normal growth and development of the brain and body.

Congenital hypothyroidism can occur due to various reasons such as the absence or abnormal development of the thyroid gland, or a defect in the production or regulation of thyroid hormones. In some cases, it may be caused by genetic mutations that affect the development or function of the thyroid gland.

If left untreated, congenital hypothyroidism can lead to mental and physical retardation, growth problems, and other health issues. Therefore, it is important to diagnose and treat this condition as early as possible, usually within the first few weeks of life. Treatment typically involves replacing the missing thyroid hormones with synthetic medications, which are safe and effective when administered under a doctor's supervision.

Thyroid dysgenesis is a developmental disorder that affects the thyroid gland, which is a small butterfly-shaped gland located in the front of the neck. The thyroid gland is responsible for producing hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development.

In thyroid dysgenesis, the thyroid gland fails to develop properly during fetal development or early childhood. This can result in a range of abnormalities, including:

* Athyreosis: Complete absence of the thyroid gland.
* Hypoplasia: Underdevelopment of the thyroid gland, resulting in a smaller than normal gland.
* Ectopy: Displacement of the thyroid gland from its normal location in the neck to elsewhere in the body, such as the chest or tongue.
* Heterotopy: Presence of thyroid tissue in abnormal locations, such as within the thymus gland or along the course of the thyroglossal duct.

Thyroid dysgenesis can lead to hypothyroidism, a condition characterized by low levels of thyroid hormones in the body. Symptoms of hypothyroidism may include fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin, and depression. Treatment typically involves replacement therapy with synthetic thyroid hormones.

Iodine radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes of the element iodine, which decays and emits radiation in the form of gamma rays. Some commonly used iodine radioisotopes include I-123, I-125, I-131. These radioisotopes have various medical applications such as in diagnostic imaging, therapy for thyroid disorders, and cancer treatment.

For example, I-131 is commonly used to treat hyperthyroidism and differentiated thyroid cancer due to its ability to destroy thyroid tissue. On the other hand, I-123 is often used in nuclear medicine scans of the thyroid gland because it emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera, allowing for detailed images of the gland's structure and function.

It is important to note that handling and administering radioisotopes require specialized training and safety precautions due to their radiation-emitting properties.

Perchlorates are chemical compounds containing the perchlorate ion (ClO4-). Perchloric acid is the parent compound and has the formula HClO4. Perchlorates contain chlorine in its highest oxidation state (+7) and are strong oxidizing agents. They have been used in various industrial and military applications, such as in explosives, rocket propellants, and matches.

In a medical context, perchlorates can be relevant due to their potential health effects. Exposure to high levels of perchlorates can affect the thyroid gland's function because they can compete with iodide ions for uptake by the thyroid gland. Iodide is an essential component of thyroid hormones, and disruption of iodide uptake may lead to hypothyroidism, particularly in individuals who are iodine-deficient. However, it's important to note that the evidence for adverse health effects in humans from environmental exposures to perchlorates is still a subject of ongoing research and debate.

Thiouracil is not typically used as a medical treatment in current clinical practice. It is an anti-thyroid medication that was historically used to manage hyperthyroidism, particularly in cases of Graves' disease. However, due to its adverse effect profile and the availability of safer and more effective treatment options, thiouracil has largely been replaced by other medications such as methimazole and propylthiouracil.

Thiouracil works by inhibiting the enzyme thyroperoxidase, which is necessary for the production of thyroid hormones in the body. By blocking this enzyme, thiouracil reduces the amount of thyroid hormones produced and can help to control symptoms of hyperthyroidism such as rapid heart rate, tremors, and weight loss.

While thiouracil is still available for use in some cases, its use is generally reserved for patients who cannot tolerate or have failed other treatments. The medication can cause serious side effects, including liver damage, bone marrow suppression, and allergic reactions, and requires careful monitoring during treatment.

Propylthiouracil is a medication that is primarily used to treat hyperthyroidism, a condition characterized by an overactive thyroid gland that produces too much thyroid hormone. The medication works by inhibiting the production of thyroid hormones in the body. It belongs to a class of drugs called antithyroid agents or thionamides.

In medical terms, propylthiouracil is defined as an antithyroid medication used to manage hyperthyroidism due to Graves' disease or toxic adenoma. It acts by inhibiting the synthesis of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), in the thyroid gland. Propylthiouracil also reduces the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. The medication is available as a tablet for oral administration and is typically prescribed at a starting dose of 100-150 mg three times daily, with adjustments made based on the patient's response and thyroid function tests.

It's important to note that propylthiouracil should be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider due to potential side effects and risks associated with its use. Regular monitoring of thyroid function tests is necessary during treatment, and patients should promptly report any signs or symptoms of adverse reactions to their healthcare provider.

Hashimoto's disease, also known as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system mistakenly attacks and damages the thyroid gland. The resulting inflammation often leads to an underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism). It primarily affects middle-aged women but can also occur in men and women of any age and in children.

The exact cause of Hashimoto's disease is unclear, but it appears to involve interactions between genetic and environmental factors. The disorder tends to run in families, and having a family member with Hashimoto's disease or another autoimmune disorder increases the risk.

Symptoms of hypothyroidism include fatigue, weight gain, constipation, cold intolerance, joint and muscle pain, dry skin, thinning hair, irregular menstrual periods, and depression. However, some people with Hashimoto's disease may have no symptoms for many years.

Diagnosis is typically based on a combination of symptoms, physical examination findings, and laboratory test results. Treatment usually involves thyroid hormone replacement therapy, which can help manage symptoms and prevent complications of hypothyroidism. Regular monitoring of thyroid function is necessary to adjust the dosage of medication as needed.

Methimazole is an anti-thyroid medication that is primarily used to treat hyperthyroidism, a condition in which the thyroid gland produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones. It works by inhibiting the enzyme thyroperoxidase, which is essential for the production of thyroid hormones. By blocking this enzyme, methimazole reduces the amount of thyroid hormones produced by the thyroid gland, helping to restore normal thyroid function.

Methimazole is available in oral tablet form and is typically taken two to three times a day. Common side effects of methimazole include nausea, vomiting, skin rashes, and joint pain. In rare cases, it can cause more serious side effects such as liver damage or agranulocytosis (a severe decrease in white blood cell count).

It is important to note that methimazole should only be used under the close supervision of a healthcare provider, as regular monitoring of thyroid function and potential side effects is necessary. Additionally, it may take several weeks or months of treatment with methimazole before thyroid function returns to normal.

The parotid gland is the largest of the major salivary glands. It is a bilobed, accessory digestive organ that secretes serous saliva into the mouth via the parotid duct (Stensen's duct), located near the upper second molar tooth. The parotid gland is primarily responsible for moistening and lubricating food to aid in swallowing and digestion.

Anatomically, the parotid gland is located in the preauricular region, extending from the zygomatic arch superiorly to the angle of the mandible inferiorly, and from the masseter muscle anteriorly to the sternocleidomastoid muscle posteriorly. It is enclosed within a fascial capsule and has a rich blood supply from the external carotid artery and a complex innervation pattern involving both parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers.

Parotid gland disorders can include salivary gland stones (sialolithiasis), infections, inflammatory conditions, benign or malignant tumors, and autoimmune diseases such as Sjögren's syndrome.

Ethylenethiourea is defined as a white, crystalline solid with a slightly bitter taste and an odorless property. It is used as a stabilizer in certain industrial processes and products, such as rubber and pesticides. In the medical field, ethylenethiourea has been studied for its potential effects on human health.

It is known to have reproductive and developmental toxicity, and it has been classified as a possible human carcinogen by some organizations. However, exposure to ethylenethiourea through consumer products or the environment is generally low, and the risk it poses to human health is considered to be minimal.

It's important to note that this compound should be handled with care in industrial settings due to its potential hazards. As with any chemical, it's essential to follow proper safety protocols and guidelines when working with ethylenethiourea or any products containing it.

Thyrotropin receptors (TSHRs) are a type of G protein-coupled receptor found on the surface of cells in the thyroid gland. They bind to thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is produced and released by the pituitary gland. When TSH binds to the TSHR, it activates a series of intracellular signaling pathways that stimulate the production and release of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). These hormones are important for regulating metabolism, growth, and development in the body. Mutations in the TSHR gene can lead to various thyroid disorders, such as hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism.

Potassium iodide is an inorganic, non-radioactive salt of iodine. Medically, it is used as a thyroid blocking agent to prevent the absorption of radioactive iodine in the event of a nuclear accident or radiation exposure. It works by saturating the thyroid gland with stable iodide, which then prevents the uptake of radioactive iodine. This can help reduce the risk of thyroid cancer and other thyroid related issues that may arise from exposure to radioactive materials. Potassium iodide is also used in the treatment of iodine deficiency disorders.

A choristoma is a type of growth that occurs when normally functioning tissue is found in an abnormal location within the body. It is not cancerous or harmful, but it can cause problems if it presses on surrounding structures or causes symptoms. Choristomas are typically congenital, meaning they are present at birth, and are thought to occur due to developmental errors during embryonic growth. They can be found in various organs and tissues throughout the body, including the brain, eye, skin, and gastrointestinal tract.

The ultimobranchial body is a term used in human embryology to refer to a vestigial structure present during fetal development. It is the remnant of the fifth pharyngeal pouch, which eventually forms a part of the thyroid gland called the parafollicular or C cells. These cells are responsible for producing calcitonin, a hormone that helps regulate calcium levels in the body.

It's important to note that the term 'ultimobranchial body' is not commonly used in modern medical literature, and the structure it refers to is typically just referred to as the parafollicular cells or C cells of the thyroid gland.

An adenoma is a benign (noncancerous) tumor that develops from glandular epithelial cells. These types of cells are responsible for producing and releasing fluids, such as hormones or digestive enzymes, into the surrounding tissues. Adenomas can occur in various organs and glands throughout the body, including the thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, and digestive systems.

Depending on their location, adenomas may cause different symptoms or remain asymptomatic. Some common examples of adenomas include:

1. Colorectal adenoma (also known as a polyp): These growths occur in the lining of the colon or rectum and can develop into colorectal cancer if left untreated. Regular screenings, such as colonoscopies, are essential for early detection and removal of these polyps.
2. Thyroid adenoma: This type of adenoma affects the thyroid gland and may result in an overproduction or underproduction of hormones, leading to conditions like hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) or hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid).
3. Pituitary adenoma: These growths occur in the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain and controls various hormonal functions. Depending on their size and location, pituitary adenomas can cause vision problems, headaches, or hormonal imbalances that affect growth, reproduction, and metabolism.
4. Liver adenoma: These rare benign tumors develop in the liver and may not cause any symptoms unless they become large enough to press on surrounding organs or structures. In some cases, liver adenomas can rupture and cause internal bleeding.
5. Adrenal adenoma: These growths occur in the adrenal glands, which are located above the kidneys and produce hormones that regulate stress responses, metabolism, and blood pressure. Most adrenal adenomas are nonfunctioning, meaning they do not secrete excess hormones. However, functioning adrenal adenomas can lead to conditions like Cushing's syndrome or Conn's syndrome, depending on the type of hormone being overproduced.

It is essential to monitor and manage benign tumors like adenomas to prevent potential complications, such as rupture, bleeding, or hormonal imbalances. Treatment options may include surveillance with imaging studies, medication to manage hormonal issues, or surgical removal of the tumor in certain cases.

Sweat glands are specialized tubular structures in the skin that produce and secrete sweat, also known as perspiration. They are part of the body's thermoregulatory system, helping to maintain optimal body temperature by releasing water and heat through evaporation. There are two main types of sweat glands: eccrine and apocrine.

1. Eccrine sweat glands: These are distributed throughout the body, with a higher concentration on areas like the palms, soles, and forehead. They are responsible for producing a watery, odorless sweat that primarily helps to cool down the body through evaporation.

2. Apocrine sweat glands: These are mainly found in the axillary (armpit) region and around the anogenital area. They become active during puberty and produce a thick, milky fluid that does not have a strong odor on its own but can mix with bacteria on the skin's surface, leading to body odor.

Sweat glands are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, meaning they function involuntarily in response to various stimuli such as emotions, physical activity, or changes in environmental temperature.

The adrenal glands are a pair of endocrine glands that are located on top of the kidneys. Each gland has two parts: the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The adrenal cortex produces hormones such as cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens, which regulate metabolism, blood pressure, and other vital functions. The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines, including epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help the body respond to stress by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness.

Calcitonin is a hormone that is produced and released by the parafollicular cells (also known as C cells) of the thyroid gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating calcium homeostasis in the body. Specifically, it helps to lower elevated levels of calcium in the blood by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts, which are bone cells that break down bone tissue and release calcium into the bloodstream. Calcitonin also promotes the uptake of calcium in the bones and increases the excretion of calcium in the urine.

Calcitonin is typically released in response to high levels of calcium in the blood, and its effects help to bring calcium levels back into balance. In addition to its role in calcium regulation, calcitonin may also have other functions in the body, such as modulating immune function and reducing inflammation.

Clinically, synthetic forms of calcitonin are sometimes used as a medication to treat conditions related to abnormal calcium levels, such as hypercalcemia (high blood calcium) or osteoporosis. Calcitonin can be administered as an injection, nasal spray, or oral tablet, depending on the specific formulation and intended use.

The parathyroid glands are four small endocrine glands located in the neck, usually near or behind the thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), which plays a critical role in regulating calcium and phosphate levels in the blood and bones. PTH helps maintain the balance of these minerals by increasing the absorption of calcium from food in the intestines, promoting reabsorption of calcium in the kidneys, and stimulating the release of calcium from bones when needed. Additionally, PTH decreases the excretion of calcium through urine and reduces phosphate reabsorption in the kidneys, leading to increased phosphate excretion. Disorders of the parathyroid glands can result in conditions such as hyperparathyroidism (overactive glands) or hypoparathyroidism (underactive glands), which can have significant impacts on calcium and phosphate homeostasis and overall health.

Sebaceous glands are microscopic, exocrine glands that are found in the dermis of mammalian skin. They are attached to hair follicles and produce an oily substance called sebum, which is composed of triglycerides, wax esters, squalene, and metabolites of fat-producing cells (fatty acids, cholesterol). Sebum is released through a duct onto the surface of the skin, where it forms a protective barrier that helps to prevent water loss, keeps the skin and hair moisturized, and has antibacterial properties.

Sebaceous glands are distributed throughout the body, but they are most numerous on the face, scalp, and upper trunk. They can also be found in other areas of the body such as the eyelids (where they are known as meibomian glands), the external ear canal, and the genital area.

Abnormalities in sebaceous gland function can lead to various skin conditions, including acne, seborrheic dermatitis, and certain types of skin cancer.

Diiodotyrosine (DIT) is a thyroid hormone precursor that contains two iodine atoms and the amino acid tyrosine. It is formed in the thyroid gland by the enzymatic iodination of tyrosine residues within the thyroglobulin protein. DIT can then be further combined and processed to form the active thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which contain three and four iodine atoms, respectively.

In summary, Diiodotyrosine is an essential intermediate in the synthesis of thyroid hormones T3 and T4.

Subacute thyroiditis, also known as de Quervain's thyroiditis or granulomatous thyroiditis, is a inflammatory disorder of the thyroid gland. It is characterized by the presence of granulomas, which are collections of immune cells, within the thyroid tissue. The condition often follows an upper respiratory infection and is more common in women than men.

Subacute thyroiditis typically presents with pain and tenderness in the front of the neck, along with systemic symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and low-grade fever. The disorder can cause hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) initially, followed by hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) as the gland becomes damaged and inflamed. In some cases, the thyroid function may return to normal on its own after several months. Treatment typically involves anti-inflammatory medications to reduce pain and inflammation, and beta blockers to manage symptoms of hyperthyroidism.

Iodoproteins are proteins that have iodine atoms chemically bonded to them. This type of modification is often seen in the thyroid hormones, where iodination of the tyrosine residues plays a crucial role in their biological activity. The iodination of proteins can also occur as a result of exposure to certain disinfectants such as iodopovidone (povidone-iodine), which is used for its antimicrobial properties. However, it's important to note that non-specific iodination of proteins can alter their structure and function, and may even lead to the formation of harmful byproducts, so it's not a common practice in biological systems.

The sublingual glands are a pair of salivary glands located in the floor of the mouth, beneath the tongue. They are the smallest of the major salivary glands and produce around 5-10% of the total saliva in the mouth. The sublingual glands secrete saliva containing electrolytes, enzymes (such as amylase), and antibacterial compounds that help in digestion, lubrication, and protection against microorganisms.

The sublingual glands' secretions are released through multiple small ducts called the ducts of Rivinus or minor sublingual ducts, as well as a larger duct called the duct of Wharton, which is a common excretory duct for both sublingual and submandibular glands.

Sublingual gland dysfunction can lead to conditions such as dry mouth (xerostomia), dental caries, or oral infections.

Thyrotoxicosis is a medical condition that results from an excess of thyroid hormones in the body, leading to an overactive metabolic state. It can be caused by various factors such as Graves' disease, toxic adenoma, Plummer's disease, or excessive intake of thyroid hormone medication. Symptoms may include rapid heart rate, weight loss, heat intolerance, tremors, and increased sweating, among others. Thyrotoxicosis is not a diagnosis itself but a manifestation of various underlying thyroid disorders. Proper diagnosis and management are crucial to prevent complications and improve quality of life.

Thyrotropin, also known as thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), is a hormone produced and released by the anterior pituitary gland. It plays a crucial role in regulating the function of the thyroid gland by stimulating the production and release of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).

The TSH molecule is composed of two subunits: alpha and beta. The alpha subunit is common to several pituitary hormones, including TSH, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). In contrast, the beta subunit is unique to each hormone, determining its specific biological activity.

Therefore, 'Thyrotropin, beta Subunit' refers to the distinct portion of the TSH molecule that confers its thyroid-stimulating properties and allows it to be identified and measured separately from other pituitary hormones sharing the common alpha subunit. Beta-subunit assays are sometimes used in clinical settings to evaluate thyroid function, as they can provide information about TSH levels independent of the common alpha subunit.

Sodium iodide is a chemical compound with the formula NaI. It is a white, crystalline solid that is widely used in medicine, particularly as a radiocontrast agent for imaging procedures such as CT scans and X-rays. Sodium iodide is also used in the treatment of thyroid disorders because it contains iodine, which is an essential nutrient for proper thyroid function.

In medical applications, sodium iodide may be combined with a radioactive isotope such as technetium-99m or iodine-131 to create a radiopharmaceutical that can be used to diagnose or treat various conditions. The radiation emitted by the isotope can be detected by medical imaging equipment, allowing doctors to visualize and assess the function of organs and tissues within the body.

It's important to note that sodium iodide should only be used under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional, as it may have potential side effects and risks associated with its use.

Medullary carcinoma is a type of cancer that develops in the neuroendocrine cells of the thyroid gland. These cells produce hormones that help regulate various bodily functions. Medullary carcinoma is a relatively rare form of thyroid cancer, accounting for about 5-10% of all cases.

Medullary carcinoma is characterized by the presence of certain genetic mutations that cause the overproduction of calcitonin, a hormone produced by the neuroendocrine cells. This overproduction can lead to the formation of tumors in the thyroid gland.

Medullary carcinoma can be hereditary or sporadic. Hereditary forms of the disease are caused by mutations in the RET gene and are often associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2), a genetic disorder that affects the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and parathyroid glands. Sporadic forms of medullary carcinoma, on the other hand, are not inherited and occur randomly in people with no family history of the disease.

Medullary carcinoma is typically more aggressive than other types of thyroid cancer and tends to spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes, lungs, and liver. Symptoms may include a lump or nodule in the neck, difficulty swallowing, hoarseness, and coughing. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. Regular monitoring of calcitonin levels is also recommended to monitor the effectiveness of treatment and detect any recurrence of the disease.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones and mediate their effects in target cells. There are two main types of THRs, referred to as THR alpha and THR beta. THR beta is further divided into two subtypes, THR beta1 and THR beta2.

THR beta is a type of nuclear receptor that is primarily expressed in the liver, kidney, and heart, as well as in the central nervous system. It plays an important role in regulating the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, as well as in the development and function of the heart. THR beta is also involved in the regulation of body weight and energy expenditure.

THR beta1 is the predominant subtype expressed in the liver and is responsible for many of the metabolic effects of thyroid hormones in this organ. THR beta2, on the other hand, is primarily expressed in the heart and plays a role in regulating cardiac function.

Abnormalities in THR beta function can lead to various diseases, including thyroid hormone resistance, a condition in which the body's cells are unable to respond properly to thyroid hormones. This can result in symptoms such as weight gain, fatigue, and cold intolerance.

A fine-needle biopsy (FNB) is a medical procedure in which a thin, hollow needle is used to obtain a sample of cells or tissue from a suspicious or abnormal area in the body, such as a lump or mass. The needle is typically smaller than that used in a core needle biopsy, and it is guided into place using imaging techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI.

The sample obtained during an FNB can be used to diagnose various medical conditions, including cancer, infection, or inflammation. The procedure is generally considered safe and well-tolerated, with minimal risks of complications such as bleeding, infection, or discomfort. However, the accuracy of the diagnosis depends on the skill and experience of the healthcare provider performing the biopsy, as well as the adequacy of the sample obtained.

Overall, FNB is a valuable diagnostic tool that can help healthcare providers make informed decisions about treatment options and improve patient outcomes.

Methimazole (brand name Tapazole) is often used instead of methylthiouracil in current clinical practice due to its more favorable side effect profile. However, I will provide the medical definition for methylthiouracil as you requested:

Methylthiouracil is an anti-thyroid medication primarily used to manage hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid gland). It works by inhibiting the enzyme thyroperoxidase, which is essential for the production of thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). By blocking this enzyme, methylthiouracil helps reduce the levels of these hormones in the body.

Methylthiouracil has additional immunomodulatory effects that can help suppress the autoimmune response responsible for some forms of hyperthyroidism, such as Graves' disease. It may be used to prepare patients for thyroid surgery or radioactive iodine therapy, or it can be employed as a long-term treatment option in certain cases.

Common side effects of methylthiouracil include nausea, vomiting, skin rashes, and joint pain. Rare but serious side effects may include agranulocytosis (a severe decrease in white blood cells), hepatotoxicity (liver damage), and vasculitis (inflammation of the blood vessels). Due to these potential adverse reactions, methylthiouracil is generally used less frequently than methimazole in current clinical practice.

The Harderian gland is a specialized exocrine gland located in many vertebrate species, including birds and mammals. In humans, it is rudimentary and not fully developed. However, in other animals like rodents, lagomorphs (rabbits and hares), and some reptiles, this gland plays a significant role.

The Harderian gland is primarily responsible for producing and secreting lipids, which help to lubricate the eye's surface and the nictitating membrane (third eyelid). This lubrication ensures that the eyes remain moist and protected from dryness and external irritants. Additionally, the secretions of the Harderian gland contain immunoglobulins, which contribute to the animal's immune defense system by providing protection against pathogens.

In some animals, the Harderian gland also has a role in pheromone production and communication. The study and understanding of this gland are particularly important in toxicological research, as it is often used as an indicator of environmental pollutant exposure and their effects on wildlife.

Thyronines are a type of hormone that is produced and released by the thyroid gland. They are iodinated amino acids, specifically triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), that are essential for regulating the body's metabolic rate, growth, and development. These hormones play a crucial role in maintaining the body's energy balance, brain development, and overall health. They work by binding to specific receptors in cells throughout the body, where they help to regulate gene expression and various cellular processes. Disorders of thyronine production or function can lead to a variety of medical conditions, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.

Carcinoma is a type of cancer that develops from epithelial cells, which are the cells that line the inner and outer surfaces of the body. These cells cover organs, glands, and other structures within the body. Carcinomas can occur in various parts of the body, including the skin, lungs, breasts, prostate, colon, and pancreas. They are often characterized by the uncontrolled growth and division of abnormal cells that can invade surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body through a process called metastasis. Carcinomas can be further classified based on their appearance under a microscope, such as adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and basal cell carcinoma.

A thyroid crisis, also known as thyrotoxic crisis or storm, is a rare but life-threatening condition characterized by an exaggerated response to the excess production of thyroid hormones (thyrotoxicosis). This condition can lead to severe hypermetabolic state, multi-organ dysfunction, and cardiovascular collapse if not promptly diagnosed and treated.

Thyroid crisis is often triggered by a stressful event, infection, or surgery in individuals with uncontrolled or poorly managed hyperthyroidism, particularly those with Graves' disease. The symptoms of thyroid crisis include high fever, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), hypertension (high blood pressure), agitation, confusion, delirium, vomiting, diarrhea, and sometimes coma.

The diagnosis of thyroid crisis is based on the clinical presentation, laboratory tests, and imaging studies. Treatment typically involves hospitalization in an intensive care unit, administration of medications to block the production and release of thyroid hormones, control heart rate and rhythm, correct electrolyte imbalances, and provide supportive care until the patient's condition stabilizes.

Salivary gland neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the salivary glands. These glands are responsible for producing saliva, which helps in digestion, lubrication of food and maintaining oral health. Salivary gland neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Benign neoplasms are slow-growing and typically do not spread to other parts of the body. They may cause symptoms such as swelling, painless lumps, or difficulty swallowing if they grow large enough to put pressure on surrounding tissues.

Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, can be aggressive and have the potential to invade nearby structures and metastasize (spread) to distant organs. Symptoms of malignant salivary gland neoplasms may include rapid growth, pain, numbness, or paralysis of facial nerves.

Salivary gland neoplasms can occur in any of the major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands) or in the minor salivary glands located throughout the mouth and throat. The exact cause of these neoplasms is not fully understood, but risk factors may include exposure to radiation, certain viral infections, and genetic predisposition.

Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m is a radioactive pharmaceutical preparation used in medical diagnostic imaging. It is a technetium-99m radiopharmaceutical, where technetium-99m is a metastable nuclear isomer of technetium-99, which emits gamma rays and has a half-life of 6 hours. Sodium Pertechnetate Tc 99m is used as a contrast agent in various diagnostic procedures, such as imaging of the thyroid, salivary glands, or the brain, to evaluate conditions like inflammation, tumors, or abnormalities in blood flow. It is typically administered intravenously, and its short half-life ensures that the radiation exposure is limited.

Oxyphil cells, also known as oncocytes, are large granular cells with abundant mitochondria. They can be found in various organs, including the thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, salivary glands, and skin. In the thyroid gland, oxyphil cells are often observed in the context of follicular adenomas or follicular carcinomas, where they can make up a significant portion of the tumor. The exact function of oxyphil cells is not well understood, but it is thought that they may play a role in the production and metabolism of hormones or other substances. In general, the presence of oxyphil cells in a tumor is not considered to be indicative of a specific type or behavior of the tumor, but rather a histological feature that can be observed in a variety of contexts.

Organ size refers to the volume or physical measurement of an organ in the body of an individual. It can be described in terms of length, width, and height or by using specialized techniques such as imaging studies (like CT scans or MRIs) to determine the volume. The size of an organ can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, body size, and overall health status. Changes in organ size may indicate various medical conditions, including growths, inflammation, or atrophy.

Monoiodotyrosine (MIT) is a thyroid hormone precursor that is formed by the iodination of the amino acid tyrosine. It is produced in the thyroid gland as part of the process of creating triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), which are active forms of thyroid hormones. MIT itself does not have significant biological activity, but it plays a crucial role in the synthesis of more important thyroid hormones.

Adenocarcinoma, papillary is a type of cancer that begins in the glandular cells and grows in a finger-like projection (called a papilla). This type of cancer can occur in various organs, including the lungs, pancreas, thyroid, and female reproductive system. The prognosis and treatment options for papillary adenocarcinoma depend on several factors, such as the location and stage of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health. It is important to consult with a healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and personalized treatment plan.

Reverse Triiodothyronine (rT3) is a thyroid hormone that is chemically identical to triiodothyronine (T3), but has a reverse configuration at one end of the molecule. It is produced in smaller quantities compared to T3 and its function is not well understood. In some cases, increased levels of rT3 have been associated with decreased thyroid hormone action, such as in non-thyroidal illnesses or during calorie restriction. However, the clinical significance of rT3 levels remains a topic of ongoing research and debate.

A Thyroglossal cyst is defined as a congenital abnormality, specifically a developmental anomaly of the thyroid gland. It is a cystic mass that forms along the path of the thyroglossal duct, which is a tube-like structure that extends from the tongue to the developing thyroid gland in the neck during embryonic development.

The thyroglossal duct typically disappears before birth, but if it persists, it can result in the formation of a cyst. Thyroglossal cysts are usually midline and located either at or above the level of the hyoid bone in the neck. They may become symptomatic if they become infected or inflamed, leading to pain, swelling, and difficulty swallowing.

Treatment for thyroglossal cyst typically involves surgical removal through a procedure called a Sistrunk operation, which involves removing the cyst as well as a portion of the hyoid bone and the central part of the thyroglossal duct to reduce the risk of recurrence.

Immunoglobulins, Thyroid-Stimulating (TSI), are autoantibodies that bind to the thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor (TSHR) on the surface of thyroid cells. These antibodies mimic the action of TSH and stimulate the growth and function of the thyroid gland, leading to excessive production of thyroid hormones. This results in a condition known as Graves' disease, which is characterized by hyperthyroidism, goiter, and sometimes ophthalmopathy (eye problems). The presence and titer of TSIs are used in the diagnosis of Graves' disease.

Endocrine tuberculosis (TB) is a form of extrapulmonary tuberculosis that involves the endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, pituitary, and adrenal glands. The infection can cause inflammation, granulomatous lesions, and tissue damage in these glands, leading to hormonal imbalances and various clinical manifestations.

Tuberculosis bacilli (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) reach the endocrine glands through hematogenous spread from a primary or secondary focus, usually in the lungs. The most common form of endocrine TB is adrenal TB, which can lead to adrenal insufficiency due to destruction of the adrenal cortex. Thyroid TB is rare and typically presents as a cold abscess or a thyroid mass. Pituitary TB is also uncommon but can cause hypopituitarism and visual impairment due to compression of the optic chiasm.

Diagnosis of endocrine TB often involves imaging studies, such as CT or MRI scans, hormonal assessments, and microbiological or histopathological examination of tissue samples obtained through biopsy. Treatment typically consists of a standard anti-tuberculous chemotherapy regimen, which may need to be adjusted based on the patient's hormonal status and clinical response.

Thyroid hormone receptors (THRs) are nuclear receptor proteins that bind to thyroid hormones and mediate their effects in the body. There are two main types of THRs, referred to as THRα and THRβ.

THRα is a subtype of thyroid hormone receptor that is primarily expressed in tissues such as the heart, skeletal muscle, and brown adipose tissue. It plays an important role in regulating metabolism, growth, and development in these tissues. THRα has two subtypes, THRα1 and THRα2, which have different functions and are expressed in different tissues.

THRα1 is the predominant form of THRα and is found in many tissues, including the heart, skeletal muscle, and brown adipose tissue. It regulates genes involved in metabolism, growth, and development, and has been shown to play a role in regulating heart rate and contractility.

THRα2, on the other hand, is primarily expressed in the brain and pituitary gland, where it regulates the production of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). THRα2 is unable to bind to thyroid hormones, but can form heterodimers with THRα1 or THRβ1, which allows it to modulate their activity.

Overall, THRα plays an important role in regulating various physiological processes in the body, and dysregulation of THRα function has been implicated in a number of diseases, including heart disease, muscle wasting, and neurological disorders.

Tongue diseases refer to various medical conditions that affect the structure, function, or appearance of the tongue. These conditions can be categorized into several types, including:

1. Infections: Bacterial, viral, or fungal infections can cause tongue inflammation (glossitis), pain, and ulcers. Common causes include streptococcus, herpes simplex, and candida albicans.
2. Traumatic injuries: These can result from accidental bites, burns, or irritation caused by sharp teeth, dental appliances, or habitual habits like tongue thrusting or chewing.
3. Neoplasms: Both benign and malignant growths can occur on the tongue, such as papillomas, fibromas, and squamous cell carcinoma.
4. Congenital disorders: Some individuals may be born with abnormalities of the tongue, like ankyloglossia (tongue-tie) or macroglossia (enlarged tongue).
5. Neurological conditions: Certain neurological disorders can affect tongue movement and sensation, such as Bell's palsy, stroke, or multiple sclerosis.
6. Systemic diseases: Various systemic conditions can have symptoms that manifest on the tongue, like diabetes mellitus (which can cause dryness and furring), iron deficiency anemia (which may lead to atrophic glossitis), or Sjögren's syndrome (which can result in xerostomia).
7. Idiopathic: In some cases, the cause of tongue symptoms remains unknown, leading to a diagnosis of idiopathic glossitis or burning mouth syndrome.

Proper diagnosis and treatment of tongue diseases require a thorough examination by a healthcare professional, often involving a dental or medical specialist such as an oral pathologist, otolaryngologist, or dermatologist.

The Chernobyl nuclear accident, also known as the Chernobyl disaster, was a catastrophic nuclear meltdown that occurred on April 26, 1986, at the No. 4 reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian SSR in the Soviet Union. It is considered the worst nuclear disaster in history and resulted in a significant release of radioactive material into the environment, which had serious health and environmental consequences both in the immediate vicinity of the reactor and in the wider region.

The accident occurred during a late-night safety test which simulated a station blackout power-failure, in order to test an emergency cooling feature of the reactor. The operators temporarily disabled several safety systems, including the automatic shutdown mechanisms. They also removed too many control rods from the reactor core, which made the reactor extremely unstable. When they performed a surprise test at low power, a sudden power surge occurred, which led to a reactor vessel rupture and a series of explosions. This event exposed the graphite moderator components of the reactor to air, causing them to ignite.

The resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive smoke into the atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area, including Pripyat. The plume drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union and Europe. From 1986 to 2000, 350,000 people were evacuated and resettled from the most severely contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine.

According to official post-Soviet data, about 60% of the fallout landed in Belarus. The battle to contain the contamination and prevent a subsequent disaster required about 500,000 workers and cost an estimated 18 billion rubles. During the accident itself, 31 people died, and long-term effects such as cancers and deformities are still being accounted for.

The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone was established around the power plant, and it is still in place today, with restricted access. The site of the reactor is now enclosed in a large steel and concrete structure, called the New Safe Confinement, to prevent further leakage of radiation.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Iopanoic acid is a contrast medium, specifically a radiocontrast agent, that is used during imaging examinations such as X-rays and CT scans to help improve the visibility of internal body structures. It works by blocking the absorption of X-rays in the digestive tract, making it possible to visualize the gastrointestinal tract more clearly on imaging studies. Iopanoic acid is typically given orally before the examination.

It's important to note that the use of iopanoic acid and other radiocontrast agents should be carefully weighed against the potential risks, as they can cause allergic reactions, kidney damage, and other complications in some individuals. Therefore, it is usually reserved for situations where the benefits of improved imaging outweigh these potential risks.

Parathyroid diseases refer to conditions that affect the parathyroid glands, which are small endocrine glands located in the neck, near or attached to the back surface of the thyroid gland. The primary function of the parathyroid glands is to produce and secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH), a crucial hormone that helps regulate calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood and bones.

There are four parathyroid glands, and they can develop various diseases, including:

1. Hyperparathyroidism: A condition where one or more parathyroid glands produce excessive amounts of PTH. This can lead to an imbalance in calcium and phosphorus levels, resulting in symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, bone pain, kidney stones, and increased risk of osteoporosis. Hyperparathyroidism can be primary (caused by a benign or malignant tumor in the parathyroid gland), secondary (due to chronic kidney disease or vitamin D deficiency), or tertiary (when secondary hyperparathyroidism becomes autonomous and continues even after correcting the underlying cause).
2. Hypoparathyroidism: A condition where the parathyroid glands do not produce enough PTH, leading to low calcium levels in the blood (hypocalcemia) and high phosphorus levels (hyperphosphatemia). Symptoms of hypoparathyroidism may include muscle spasms, tingling sensations in the fingers, toes, or lips, anxiety, cataracts, and seizures. Hypoparathyroidism can be caused by surgical removal of the parathyroid glands, autoimmune disorders, radiation therapy, or genetic conditions.
3. Parathyroid tumors: Abnormal growths in the parathyroid glands can lead to hyperparathyroidism. Benign tumors (adenomas) are the most common cause of primary hyperparathyroidism. Malignant tumors (carcinomas) are rare but can also occur, leading to more severe symptoms and a worse prognosis.
4. Parathyroid dysfunction in genetic disorders: Some genetic syndromes, such as multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1), multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A (MEN2A), and hyperparathyroidism-jaw tumor syndrome (HPT-JT), can involve parathyroid gland abnormalities, leading to hyperparathyroidism or other related conditions.

Proper diagnosis and management of parathyroid disorders are crucial for maintaining optimal calcium homeostasis and preventing complications associated with hypocalcemia or hypercalcemia. Treatment options may include surgery, medication, dietary modifications, and monitoring hormone levels.

Biological metamorphosis is a complex process of transformation that certain organisms undergo during their development from embryo to adult. This process involves profound changes in form, function, and structure of the organism, often including modifications of various body parts, reorganization of internal organs, and changes in physiology.

In metamorphosis, a larval or juvenile form of an animal is significantly different from its adult form, both morphologically and behaviorally. This phenomenon is particularly common in insects, amphibians, and some fish and crustaceans. The most well-known examples include the transformation of a caterpillar into a butterfly or a tadpole into a frog.

The mechanisms that drive metamorphosis are regulated by hormonal signals and genetic programs. In many cases, metamorphosis is triggered by environmental factors such as temperature, moisture, or food availability, which interact with the organism's internal developmental cues to initiate the transformation. The process of metamorphosis allows these organisms to exploit different ecological niches at different stages of their lives and contributes to their evolutionary success.

Salivary gland diseases refer to a group of conditions that affect the function and structure of the salivary glands. These glands are responsible for producing saliva, which helps in digestion, lubrication, and protection of the mouth and throat. The major salivary glands include the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.

There are several types of salivary gland diseases, including:

1. Salivary Gland Infections: These are usually caused by bacteria or viruses that infect the gland, ducts, or surrounding tissues. The most common infection is called sialadenitis, which can cause pain, swelling, redness, and difficulty swallowing.

2. Salivary Gland Stones (Sialolithiasis): These are small, hard deposits that form in the ducts of the salivary glands, causing blockages and leading to swelling, pain, and infection.

3. Salivary Gland Tumors: Both benign and malignant tumors can develop in the salivary glands. Benign tumors are usually slow-growing and cause localized swelling, while malignant tumors may be more aggressive and spread to other parts of the body.

4. Salivary Gland Dysfunction: This refers to conditions that affect the production or flow of saliva, such as Sjogren's syndrome, radiation therapy, dehydration, or certain medications.

5. Autoimmune Disorders: Conditions like Sjogren's syndrome, lupus, and rheumatoid arthritis can affect the salivary glands and cause inflammation, dry mouth, and other symptoms.

6. Salivary Gland Trauma: Injuries to the face or neck can damage the salivary glands and lead to swelling, bleeding, or decreased function.

Proper diagnosis and treatment of salivary gland diseases require a thorough evaluation by a healthcare professional, often involving imaging studies, laboratory tests, and biopsies. Treatment options may include antibiotics, surgery, radiation therapy, or changes in medication or lifestyle.

Endemic goiter refers to a condition of abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland that is prevalent in a particular geographic area due to deficiency of iodine in the diet or drinking water. The lack of iodine leads to decreased production of thyroid hormones, which in turn stimulates the thyroid gland to grow and attempt to increase hormone production. This results in the visible enlargement of the thyroid gland, known as a goiter. Endemic goiter is preventable through iodine supplementation in the diet or through iodized salt.

Iodine isotopes are different forms of the chemical element iodine, which have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Iodine has a total of 53 protons in its nucleus, and its stable isotope, iodine-127, has 74 neutrons, giving it a mass number of 127. However, there are also radioactive isotopes of iodine, which have different numbers of neutrons and are therefore unstable.

Radioactive isotopes of iodine emit radiation as they decay towards a stable state. For example, iodine-131 is a commonly used isotope in medical imaging and therapy, with a half-life of about 8 days. It decays by emitting beta particles and gamma rays, making it useful for treating thyroid cancer and other conditions that involve overactive thyroid glands.

Other radioactive iodine isotopes include iodine-123, which has a half-life of about 13 hours and is used in medical imaging, and iodine-125, which has a half-life of about 60 days and is used in brachytherapy (a type of radiation therapy that involves placing radioactive sources directly into or near tumors).

It's important to note that exposure to radioactive iodine isotopes can be harmful, especially if it occurs through inhalation or ingestion. This is because the iodine can accumulate in the thyroid gland and cause damage over time. Therefore, appropriate safety measures must be taken when handling or working with radioactive iodine isotopes.

Endocrine glands are ductless glands in the human body that release hormones directly into the bloodstream, which then carry the hormones to various tissues and organs in the body. These glands play a crucial role in regulating many of the body's functions, including metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and mood.

Examples of endocrine glands include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pineal gland, pancreas, ovaries, and testes. Each of these glands produces specific hormones that have unique effects on various target tissues in the body.

The endocrine system works closely with the nervous system to regulate many bodily functions through a complex network of feedback mechanisms. Disorders of the endocrine system can result in a wide range of symptoms and health problems, including diabetes, thyroid disease, growth disorders, and sexual dysfunction.

Meibomian glands are sebaceous glands located in the eyelids, specifically at the rim of the eyelid near the lashes. They produce an oily substance called meibum that forms the outermost layer of the tear film, helping to prevent evaporation and keep the eye surface lubricated. The Meibomian glands play a crucial role in maintaining the health and comfort of the eyes by providing stability to the tear film and protecting the eye from irritants and dryness.

The lacrimal apparatus is a complex system in the eye that produces, stores, and drains tears. It consists of several components including:

1. Lacrimal glands: These are located in the upper outer part of the eyelid and produce tears to keep the eye surface moist and protected from external agents.
2. Tear ducts (lacrimal canaliculi): These are small tubes that drain tears from the surface of the eye into the lacrimal sac.
3. Lacrimal sac: This is a small pouch-like structure located in the inner part of the eyelid, which collects tears from the tear ducts and drains them into the nasolacrimal duct.
4. Nasolacrimal duct: This is a tube that runs from the lacrimal sac to the nose and drains tears into the nasal cavity.

The lacrimal apparatus helps maintain the health and comfort of the eye by keeping it lubricated, protecting it from infection, and removing any foreign particles or debris.

Papillary and follicular carcinomas are both types of differentiated thyroid cancer. They are called "differentiated" because the cells still have some features of normal thyroid cells. These cancers tend to grow slowly and usually have a good prognosis, especially if they are treated early.

Papillary carcinoma is the most common type of thyroid cancer, accounting for about 80% of all cases. It tends to grow in finger-like projections called papillae, which give the tumor its name. Papillary carcinoma often spreads to nearby lymph nodes, but it is usually still treatable and curable.

Follicular carcinoma is less common than papillary carcinoma, accounting for about 10-15% of all thyroid cancers. It tends to grow in round clusters called follicles, which give the tumor its name. Follicular carcinoma is more likely to spread to distant parts of the body, such as the lungs or bones, than papillary carcinoma. However, it is still usually treatable and curable if it is caught early.

It's important to note that while these cancers are called "papillary" and "follicular," they are not the same as benign (non-cancerous) tumors called papillomas or follicular adenomas, which do not have the potential to spread or become life-threatening.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Brunner glands, also known as submucosal glands of Brunner, are tubulo-acinar exocrine glands located in the submucosa of the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. These glands secrete alkaline mucus that helps neutralize the acidic chyme (partially digested food) entering from the stomach, providing a more favorable environment for the enzymes involved in nutrient absorption and protecting the duodenal mucosa from acid-induced damage.

A symporter is a type of transmembrane protein that functions to transport two or more molecules or ions across a biological membrane in the same direction, simultaneously. This process is called co-transport and it is driven by the concentration gradient of one of the substrates, which is usually an ion such as sodium (Na+) or proton (H+).

Symporters are classified based on the type of energy that drives the transport process. Primary active transporters, such as symporters, use the energy from ATP hydrolysis or from the electrochemical gradient of ions to move substrates against their concentration gradient. In contrast, secondary active transporters use the energy stored in an existing electrochemical gradient of one substrate to drive the transport of another substrate against its own concentration gradient.

Symporters play important roles in various physiological processes, including nutrient uptake, neurotransmitter reuptake, and ion homeostasis. For example, the sodium-glucose transporter (SGLT) is a symporter that co-transports glucose and sodium ions across the intestinal epithelium and the renal proximal tubule, contributing to glucose absorption and regulation of blood glucose levels. Similarly, the dopamine transporter (DAT) is a symporter that co-transports dopamine and sodium ions back into presynaptic neurons, terminating the action of dopamine in the synapse.

Minor salivary glands are numerous small exocrine glands that produce saliva and are distributed throughout the oral cavity, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, and paranasal sinuses. They are classified as "minor" due to their smaller size compared to the three pairs of major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual). The minor salivary glands are primarily mucous glands, although some contain serous cells. They are responsible for producing approximately 5-10% of the total saliva in the mouth. These glands help moisten the oral cavity, protect the mucosal lining, and facilitate speaking, chewing, and swallowing.

Proto-oncogene proteins c-RET are a group of gene products that play crucial roles in the development and functioning of the nervous system, as well as in other tissues. The c-RET proto-oncogene encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase, which is a type of enzyme that helps transmit signals from the outside to the inside of cells. This receptor is activated by binding to its ligands, leading to the activation of various signaling pathways that regulate cell growth, differentiation, and survival.

Mutations in the c-RET proto-oncogene can lead to its overactivation, resulting in the conversion of this gene into an oncogene. Oncogenes are genes that have the potential to cause cancer when they are mutated or abnormally expressed. Activating mutations in c-RET have been implicated in several types of human cancers, including multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN2), papillary thyroid carcinoma, and certain types of lung and kidney cancers. These mutations can lead to the constitutive activation of c-RET, resulting in uncontrolled cell growth and tumor formation.

Autoantibodies are defined as antibodies that are produced by the immune system and target the body's own cells, tissues, or organs. These antibodies mistakenly identify certain proteins or molecules in the body as foreign invaders and attack them, leading to an autoimmune response. Autoantibodies can be found in various autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and thyroiditis. The presence of autoantibodies can also be used as a diagnostic marker for certain conditions.

Myxedema is not a term used in modern medicine to describe a specific medical condition. However, historically, it was used to refer to the severe form of hypothyroidism, a condition characterized by an underactive thyroid gland that doesn't produce enough thyroid hormones. In hypothyroidism, various body functions slow down, which can lead to symptoms such as fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, and dry skin.

Myxedema specifically refers to the physical signs of severe hypothyroidism, including swelling (edema) and thickening of the skin, particularly around the face, hands, and feet, as well as a puffy appearance of the face. The term myxedema coma was used to describe a rare but life-threatening complication of long-standing, untreated hypothyroidism, characterized by altered mental status, hypothermia, and other systemic manifestations.

Nowadays, healthcare professionals use more precise medical terminology to describe these conditions, such as hypothyroidism or myxedematous edema, rather than the outdated term myxedema.

A "Radioactive Hazard Release" is defined in medical and environmental health terms as an uncontrolled or accidental release of radioactive material into the environment, which can pose significant risks to human health and the ecosystem. This can occur due to various reasons such as nuclear accidents, improper handling or disposal of radioactive sources, or failure of radiation-generating equipment.

The released radioactive materials can contaminate air, water, and soil, leading to both external and internal exposure pathways. External exposure occurs through direct contact with the skin or by inhaling radioactive particles, while internal exposure happens when radioactive substances are ingested or inhaled and become deposited within the body.

The health effects of radioactive hazard release depend on several factors, including the type and amount of radiation released, the duration and intensity of exposure, and the sensitivity of the exposed individuals. Potential health impacts range from mild radiation sickness to severe diseases such as cancer and genetic mutations, depending on the level and length of exposure.

Prompt identification, assessment, and management of radioactive hazard releases are crucial to minimize potential health risks and protect public health.

Radiation-induced neoplasms are a type of cancer or tumor that develops as a result of exposure to ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is radiation with enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms or molecules, leading to the formation of ions. This type of radiation can damage DNA and other cellular structures, which can lead to mutations and uncontrolled cell growth, resulting in the development of a neoplasm.

Radiation-induced neoplasms can occur after exposure to high levels of ionizing radiation, such as that received during radiation therapy for cancer treatment or from nuclear accidents. The risk of developing a radiation-induced neoplasm depends on several factors, including the dose and duration of radiation exposure, the type of radiation, and the individual's genetic susceptibility to radiation-induced damage.

Radiation-induced neoplasms can take many years to develop after initial exposure to ionizing radiation, and they often occur at the site of previous radiation therapy. Common types of radiation-induced neoplasms include sarcomas, carcinomas, and thyroid cancer. It is important to note that while ionizing radiation can increase the risk of developing cancer, the overall risk is still relatively low, especially when compared to other well-established cancer risk factors such as smoking and exposure to certain chemicals.

A long-acting thyroid stimulator (LATS) is a type of antibody that can stimulate the thyroid gland to produce excess thyroid hormones over an extended period. These antibodies are typically present in individuals with Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder characterized by hyperthyroidism, goiter, and sometimes eye changes (Graves' ophthalmopathy).

LATS binds to the TSH receptor on thyroid cells, mimicking the action of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and leading to increased production and release of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), resulting in hyperthyroidism. The "long-acting" nature of these antibodies distinguishes them from other TSH receptor antibodies, which may have a more transient effect on thyroid function.

An oxyphilic adenoma is a type of benign tumor that develops in the endocrine glands, specifically in the parathyroid gland. This type of adenoma is characterized by the presence of cells called oxyphils, which have an abundance of mitochondria and appear pink on histological examination due to their high oxidative enzyme activity. Oxyphilic adenomas are a common cause of primary hyperparathyroidism, a condition in which the parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone (PTH), leading to an imbalance of calcium and phosphorus metabolism. Symptoms of primary hyperparathyroidism may include fatigue, weakness, bone pain, kidney stones, and psychological disturbances. Treatment typically involves surgical removal of the affected parathyroid gland.

The pituitary gland is a small, endocrine gland located at the base of the brain, in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It is often called the "master gland" because it controls other glands and makes the hormones that trigger many body functions. The pituitary gland measures about 0.5 cm in height and 1 cm in width, and it weighs approximately 0.5 grams.

The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The anterior lobe is further divided into three zones: the pars distalis, pars intermedia, and pars tuberalis. Each part of the pituitary gland has distinct functions and produces different hormones.

The anterior pituitary gland produces and releases several important hormones, including:

* Growth hormone (GH), which regulates growth and development in children and helps maintain muscle mass and bone strength in adults.
* Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which controls the production of thyroid hormones by the thyroid gland.
* Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other steroid hormones.
* Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which regulate reproductive function in both males and females.
* Prolactin, which stimulates milk production in pregnant and lactating women.

The posterior pituitary gland stores and releases two hormones that are produced by the hypothalamus:

* Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), which helps regulate water balance in the body by controlling urine production.
* Oxytocin, which stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk release during breastfeeding.

Overall, the pituitary gland plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis and regulating various bodily functions, including growth, development, metabolism, and reproductive function.

Scent glands are specialized sebaceous (oil) or sudoriferous (sweat) glands in various animals that produce and release scents for different purposes, such as marking territory, attracting mates, or providing warning signals. These scents can be released through various methods, including rubbing, spraying, or secreting onto fur or skin. Examples of scent glands include the anal glands in dogs and cats, the musk glands in deer, and the civet gland in civets. In humans, scent glands are not as developed or specialized, but some sebaceous glands can produce scents associated with personal body odor.

Submandibular gland diseases refer to a group of disorders that affect the function or structure of the submandibular glands, which are salivary glands located beneath the jaw and produce saliva. These diseases can be categorized into inflammatory, infectious, obstructive, neoplastic (benign or malignant), and autoimmune disorders.

Some common submandibular gland diseases include:

1. Submandibular sialadenitis: Inflammation of the submandibular gland due to bacterial or viral infections, stones, or autoimmune conditions.
2. Salivary gland stones (sialolithiasis): Calcified deposits that obstruct the ducts leading from the submandibular gland, causing swelling and pain, especially during meals.
3. Submandibular gland tumors: Abnormal growths in the submandibular gland, which can be benign or malignant (cancerous). Malignant tumors may invade surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body.
4. Sjögren's syndrome: An autoimmune disorder that affects the exocrine glands, including the submandibular gland, leading to dry mouth and eyes.
5. IgG4-related disease: A systemic inflammatory condition characterized by the infiltration of IgG4-positive plasma cells into various organs, including the submandibular gland, causing swelling and damage.
6. Mikulicz's disease: A rare benign lymphoepithelial lesion that affects the salivary and lacrimal glands, including the submandibular gland, leading to enlargement and dryness of the affected glands.
7. Salivary gland dysfunction: Reduced or impaired saliva production due to aging, medications, radiation therapy, or systemic diseases, which can affect the submandibular gland.

Proper diagnosis and treatment of submandibular gland diseases require a thorough clinical evaluation, imaging studies, and sometimes biopsy or surgical intervention.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Ukraine" is not a medical term. It is the name of a country located in Eastern Europe. If you have any questions about medical terminology or health-related topics, I would be happy to try and help answer those for you.

Substernal goiter refers to an enlarged thyroid gland that extends below the sternum or breastbone. It is also known as a retrosternal goiter. This condition can cause compression of surrounding structures such as the trachea and esophagus, leading to symptoms like difficulty swallowing, shortness of breath, and cough. Substernal goiters may be asymptomatic or may require treatment, including surgery, to alleviate symptoms and prevent complications.

Histochemistry is the branch of pathology that deals with the microscopic localization of cellular or tissue components using specific chemical reactions. It involves the application of chemical techniques to identify and locate specific biomolecules within tissues, cells, and subcellular structures. This is achieved through the use of various staining methods that react with specific antigens or enzymes in the sample, allowing for their visualization under a microscope. Histochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to identify different types of tissues, cells, and structures, as well as in research to study cellular and molecular processes in health and disease.

Suppurative thyroiditis is a rare type of thyroid gland inflammation that is caused by a bacterial infection. It is characterized by the formation of pus (suppuration) within the thyroid tissue. The infection can result from a direct spread of bacteria from adjacent structures, such as the upper respiratory tract or neck, or through the bloodstream due to an underlying infection elsewhere in the body.

Suppurative thyroiditis primarily affects people with pre-existing conditions that weaken the immune system, making them more susceptible to bacterial infections. These conditions may include diabetes, HIV/AIDS, or alcoholism. Additionally, it can occur in individuals who have recently undergone surgical procedures on the thyroid gland or after a traumatic injury to the area.

Symptoms of suppurative thyroiditis include fever, chills, painful swallowing, neck pain and swelling, difficulty breathing, hoarseness, and symptoms related to bacteremia (bacterial infection in the blood) if the infection spreads. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, imaging studies like ultrasound or CT scan, and laboratory tests to identify the causative organism. Treatment usually consists of antibiotics to eliminate the bacterial infection and possible surgical drainage of the infected thyroid tissue in severe cases.

Carbimazole is an antithyroid medication that is primarily used to manage hyperthyroidism, a condition characterized by an overactive thyroid gland that produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones. The drug works by inhibiting the enzyme responsible for producing these hormones, thereby reducing their levels in the body and alleviating symptoms associated with the disorder.

Hyperthyroidism can manifest as various signs and symptoms, including rapid heartbeat, weight loss, heat intolerance, tremors, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. Common causes of hyperthyroidism include Graves' disease, toxic adenoma, and thyroiditis.

Carbimazole is a prodrug that gets converted to its active metabolite, methimazole, in the liver. Methimazole inhibits the activity of thyroperoxidase, an enzyme involved in the synthesis of thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). By blocking this enzyme, carbimazole reduces the production of T3 and T4, ultimately helping to control hyperthyroidism.

The medication is typically administered orally in tablet form, with dosages varying depending on individual patient needs and response to treatment. Common side effects of carbimazole include gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Rare but severe adverse reactions may include agranulocytosis (a severe decrease in white blood cells), aplastic anemia (a condition where the bone marrow fails to produce sufficient numbers of blood cells), and hepatotoxicity (liver damage).

Patients taking carbimazole should be closely monitored for signs of adverse reactions, and regular blood tests are necessary to assess thyroid hormone levels and potential side effects. Pregnant women should avoid using carbimazole due to the risk of birth defects in the developing fetus. In such cases, alternative antithyroid medications like propylthiouracil may be prescribed instead.

In summary, carbimazole is an antithyroid medication used primarily for managing hyperthyroidism by inhibiting thyroperoxidase and reducing the production of thyroid hormones T3 and T4. While effective, it carries potential risks and side effects that necessitate close monitoring during treatment.

In medical terms, the "neck" is defined as the portion of the body that extends from the skull/head to the thorax or chest region. It contains 7 cervical vertebrae, muscles, nerves, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and glands (such as the thyroid gland). The neck is responsible for supporting the head, allowing its movement in various directions, and housing vital structures that enable functions like respiration and circulation.

Hyperplasia is a medical term that refers to an abnormal increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue, leading to an enlargement of the affected area. It's a response to various stimuli such as hormones, chronic irritation, or inflammation. Hyperplasia can be physiological, like the growth of breast tissue during pregnancy, or pathological, like in the case of benign or malignant tumors. The process is generally reversible if the stimulus is removed. It's important to note that hyperplasia itself is not cancerous, but some forms of hyperplasia can increase the risk of developing cancer over time.

Sodium compounds are chemical substances that contain the element sodium (Na) combined with one or more other elements. Sodium is an alkali metal and is highly reactive, so it rarely exists in its pure form in nature. Instead, it is typically found combined with other elements in the form of various sodium compounds.

Some common examples of sodium compounds include:

* Sodium chloride (NaCl), also known as table salt, which is a compound formed from the reaction between sodium and chlorine.
* Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), also known as baking soda, which is used as a leavening agent in baking and as a household cleaner.
* Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as lye, which is a strong alkali used in industrial applications such as the manufacture of soap and paper.
* Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), also known as washing soda, which is used as a water softener and cleaning agent.

Sodium compounds have a variety of uses in medicine, including as electrolytes to help maintain fluid balance in the body, as antacids to neutralize stomach acid, and as laxatives to relieve constipation. However, it is important to use sodium compounds as directed by a healthcare professional, as excessive intake can lead to high blood pressure and other health problems.

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) is a tripeptide hormone that is produced and released by the hypothalamus in the brain. Its main function is to regulate the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland. TRH acts on the pituitary gland to stimulate the synthesis and secretion of TSH, which then stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)) into the bloodstream.

TRH is a tripeptide amino acid sequence with the structure of pGlu-His-Pro-NH2, and it is synthesized as a larger precursor molecule called preprothyrotropin-releasing hormone (preproTRH) in the hypothalamus. PreproTRH undergoes post-translational processing to produce TRH, which is then stored in secretory vesicles and released into the hypophyseal portal system, where it travels to the anterior pituitary gland and binds to TRH receptors on thyrotroph cells.

In addition to its role in regulating TSH release, TRH has been shown to have other physiological functions, including modulation of feeding behavior, body temperature, and neurotransmitter release. Dysregulation of the TRH-TSH axis can lead to various thyroid disorders, such as hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.

Parathyroid neoplasms refer to abnormal growths in the parathyroid glands, which are small endocrine glands located in the neck, near or within the thyroid gland. These neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Benign parathyroid neoplasms are typically called parathyroid adenomas and are the most common type of parathyroid disorder. They result in overproduction of parathyroid hormone (PTH), leading to a condition known as primary hyperparathyroidism. Symptoms may include kidney stones, osteoporosis, fatigue, depression, and abdominal pain.

Malignant parathyroid neoplasms are called parathyroid carcinomas. They are rare but more aggressive than adenomas, with a higher risk of recurrence and metastasis. Symptoms are similar to those of benign neoplasms but may also include hoarseness, difficulty swallowing, and enlarged lymph nodes in the neck.

It is important to note that parathyroid neoplasms can only be definitively diagnosed through biopsy or surgical removal and subsequent histopathological examination.

Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome, also known as Refractory Thyroid Disease or Generalized T3 Resistance, is a rare genetic disorder characterized by reduced sensitivity and impaired response of the body's tissues to thyroid hormones, despite having normal or elevated levels of these hormones in the blood. This condition is caused by mutations in the THRB gene, which encodes the thyroid hormone receptor beta.

In this syndrome, the target cells and tissues do not respond properly to thyroid hormones, leading to a wide range of symptoms similar to those seen in hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid), such as fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, constipation, dry skin, and depression. However, unlike hypothyroidism, patients with Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome usually have normal or increased levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (FT4) in their blood.

The diagnosis of Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome is often challenging, as it requires the exclusion of other causes of hypothyroidism and the confirmation of normal or elevated thyroid hormone levels with impaired tissue response. Treatment typically involves careful monitoring and management of symptoms, as the use of additional thyroid hormones may not improve the condition and can even worsen symptoms in some cases.

Thioamides are a type of organic compound that contain a sulfur atom (S) in place of the oxygen atom (O) in an amide. The general structure of a thioamide is R-C(=S)-NH-R', where R and R' are organic groups. Thioamides are found in some naturally occurring compounds, such as certain antibiotics and enzyme inhibitors, and they can also be synthesized in the laboratory. They have been studied for their potential use as pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals.

Mucoepidermoid carcinoma is a type of cancer that develops in the salivary glands or, less commonly, in other areas such as the lungs or skin. It is called "mucoepidermoid" because it contains two types of cells: mucus-secreting cells and squamous (or epidermoid) cells.

Mucoepidermoid carcinomas can vary in their behavior, ranging from low-grade tumors that grow slowly and rarely spread to other parts of the body, to high-grade tumors that are aggressive and can metastasize. The treatment and prognosis for mucoepidermoid carcinoma depend on several factors, including the grade and stage of the tumor, as well as the patient's overall health.

It is important to note that while I strive to provide accurate and up-to-date information, this definition may not capture all the nuances of this medical condition. Therefore, it is always best to consult with a healthcare professional for medical advice.

The Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) is the most common and well-known dolphin species. They are called "bottlenose" due to the distinctive shape of their short, thick beak which resembles a bottle. Adult bottlenose dolphins can grow up to 2-4 meters in length and weigh between 150-650 kilograms.

They have a streamlined body, a prominent dorsal fin, and a flexible, powerful tail fluke that they use for swimming. Bottlenose dolphins are known for their intelligence, social behavior, and complex communication skills, which include a series of clicks, whistles, and body movements. They typically live in groups called pods and are found in warm and temperate seas worldwide.

Bottlenose dolphins are also known for their playful behavior and have been observed engaging in activities such as surfing waves, playing with seaweed or marine debris, and leaping out of the water. They feed on a variety of fish and squid species and use echolocation to help them locate prey.

In addition to being popular in aquariums and dolphin shows, bottlenose dolphins are also trained by the military for tasks such as locating underwater mines and recovering lost equipment. However, they face several threats from human activities, including habitat loss, pollution, and intentional harm from fishing gear entanglement and vessel strikes. Conservation efforts are in place to protect bottlenose dolphins and their populations are monitored to ensure their continued survival.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN) is a group of inherited disorders characterized by the development of tumors in various endocrine glands, which can lead to overproduction of hormones. There are two main types: MEN type 1 and MEN type 2.

MEN type 1, also known as Wermer's syndrome, is caused by mutations in the MEN1 gene. It typically involves tumors in the parathyroid glands (leading to hyperparathyroidism), pancreas (often gastrinomas or insulinomas), and pituitary gland. Some individuals may also develop tumors in other organs, such as the adrenal glands, lungs, or thyroid gland.

MEN type 2, which includes MEN type 2A and MEN type 2B, is caused by mutations in the RET gene. MEN type 2A involves medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), pheochromocytomas (tumors of the adrenal glands), and parathyroid tumors. MEN type 2B includes MTC, pheochromocytomas, neuromas (nerve tissue tumors), and distinctive physical features such as a marfanoid habitus and mucosal neuromas.

Early detection and management of these tumors are crucial to prevent complications from hormone excess or tumor invasion. Regular screening and monitoring are recommended for individuals with MEN, even if they do not have symptoms. Treatment typically involves surgical removal of the affected glands or tumors, along with medications to manage hormonal imbalances.

Apocrine glands are a type of sweat gland found in mammals, including humans. They are most concentrated in areas with dense hair follicles, such as the axillae (armpits) and genital region. These glands release their secretions into the hair follicle, which then reaches the skin surface through the pores.

Apocrine glands become active during puberty and are associated with the production of odorous sweat. The sweat produced by apocrine glands is initially odorless but can acquire a smell when it comes into contact with bacteria on the skin surface, which break down the organic compounds in the sweat. This can contribute to body odor.

It's important to note that while apocrine glands are often associated with body odor, they do not cause body odor directly. The odor is produced when the sweat from apocrine glands mixes with bacteria on the skin surface.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Musculoskeletal abnormalities refer to structural and functional disorders that affect the musculoskeletal system, which includes the bones, muscles, cartilages, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other related tissues. These abnormalities can result from genetic factors, trauma, overuse, degenerative processes, infections, or tumors. They may cause pain, stiffness, limited mobility, deformity, weakness, and susceptibility to injuries. Examples of musculoskeletal abnormalities include osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, scoliosis, kyphosis, lordosis, fractures, dislocations, tendinitis, bursitis, myopathies, and various congenital conditions.

Submandibular gland neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that develop in the submandibular glands. These are one of the three pairs of major salivary glands located beneath the jaw and produce saliva that helps in digestion. Submandibular gland neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Benign neoplasms are typically slow-growing, do not invade surrounding tissues, and rarely spread to other parts of the body. Common types of benign submandibular gland neoplasms include pleomorphic adenomas and monomorphic adenomas.

Malignant neoplasms, on the other hand, are aggressive and can invade nearby structures or metastasize (spread) to distant organs. Common types of malignant submandibular gland neoplasms include mucoepidermoid carcinoma, adenoid cystic carcinoma, and acinic cell carcinoma.

Symptoms of submandibular gland neoplasms may include a painless swelling or mass in the neck, difficulty swallowing, speaking, or breathing, numbness or tingling in the tongue or lips, and unexplained weight loss. Treatment options depend on the type, size, location, and stage of the tumor but often involve surgical excision, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy. Regular follow-up care is essential to monitor for recurrence or metastasis.

Radiation dosage, in the context of medical physics, refers to the amount of radiation energy that is absorbed by a material or tissue, usually measured in units of Gray (Gy), where 1 Gy equals an absorption of 1 Joule of radiation energy per kilogram of matter. In the clinical setting, radiation dosage is used to plan and assess the amount of radiation delivered to a patient during treatments such as radiotherapy. It's important to note that the biological impact of radiation also depends on other factors, including the type and energy level of the radiation, as well as the sensitivity of the irradiated tissues or organs.

Body weight is the measure of the force exerted on a scale or balance by an object's mass, most commonly expressed in units such as pounds (lb) or kilograms (kg). In the context of medical definitions, body weight typically refers to an individual's total weight, which includes their skeletal muscle, fat, organs, and bodily fluids.

Healthcare professionals often use body weight as a basic indicator of overall health status, as it can provide insights into various aspects of a person's health, such as nutritional status, metabolic function, and risk factors for certain diseases. For example, being significantly underweight or overweight can increase the risk of developing conditions like malnutrition, diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.

It is important to note that body weight alone may not provide a complete picture of an individual's health, as it does not account for factors such as muscle mass, bone density, or body composition. Therefore, healthcare professionals often use additional measures, such as body mass index (BMI), waist circumference, and blood tests, to assess overall health status more comprehensively.

Incidental findings are diagnoses or conditions that are discovered unintentionally while evaluating a patient for a different condition or symptom. These findings are not related to the primary reason for the medical examination, investigation, or procedure. They can occur in various contexts such as radiology studies, laboratory tests, or physical examinations.

Incidental findings can sometimes lead to further evaluation and management, depending on their nature and potential clinical significance. However, they also pose challenges related to communication, informed consent, and potential patient anxiety or harm. Therefore, it is essential to have clear guidelines for managing incidental findings in clinical practice.

Immunoenzyme techniques are a group of laboratory methods used in immunology and clinical chemistry that combine the specificity of antibody-antigen reactions with the sensitivity and amplification capabilities of enzyme reactions. These techniques are primarily used for the detection, quantitation, or identification of various analytes (such as proteins, hormones, drugs, viruses, or bacteria) in biological samples.

In immunoenzyme techniques, an enzyme is linked to an antibody or antigen, creating a conjugate. This conjugate then interacts with the target analyte in the sample, forming an immune complex. The presence and amount of this immune complex can be visualized or measured by detecting the enzymatic activity associated with it.

There are several types of immunoenzyme techniques, including:

1. Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA): A widely used method for detecting and quantifying various analytes in a sample. In ELISA, an enzyme is attached to either the capture antibody or the detection antibody. After the immune complex formation, a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme, producing a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.
2. Immunoblotting (Western blot): A method used for detecting specific proteins in a complex mixture, such as a protein extract from cells or tissues. In this technique, proteins are separated by gel electrophoresis and transferred to a membrane, where they are probed with an enzyme-conjugated antibody directed against the target protein.
3. Immunohistochemistry (IHC): A method used for detecting specific antigens in tissue sections or cells. In IHC, an enzyme-conjugated primary or secondary antibody is applied to the sample, and the presence of the antigen is visualized using a chromogenic substrate that produces a colored product at the site of the antigen-antibody interaction.
4. Immunofluorescence (IF): A method used for detecting specific antigens in cells or tissues by employing fluorophore-conjugated antibodies. The presence of the antigen is visualized using a fluorescence microscope.
5. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): A method used for detecting and quantifying specific antigens or antibodies in liquid samples, such as serum or culture supernatants. In ELISA, an enzyme-conjugated detection antibody is added after the immune complex formation, and a substrate is added that reacts with the enzyme to produce a colored product that can be measured spectrophotometrically.

These techniques are widely used in research and diagnostic laboratories for various applications, including protein characterization, disease diagnosis, and monitoring treatment responses.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

A Follicular Cyst is a type of cyst that forms within a follicle, which is the sac-like structure in the skin that contains and protects a hair root. In particular, it refers to a specific condition in the ovary where a follicle fails to rupture or release an egg after maturation, instead continuing to grow and fill with fluid, forming a cyst. These cysts are usually asymptomatic but can become large and cause symptoms such as pelvic pain or discomfort, irregular menstrual cycles, or abnormal vaginal bleeding. In most cases, follicular cysts resolve on their own within 2-3 menstrual cycles, but in rare cases, they may require medical intervention if they become complicated or do not resolve.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "metrial gland" does not have a recognized medical definition. It seems there might be some misunderstanding or misspelling in your query. If you intended to ask about "mammary glands," which are the milk-producing organs found in female mammals, I would be happy to provide more information on those!

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

F344 is a strain code used to designate an outbred stock of rats that has been inbreeded for over 100 generations. The F344 rats, also known as Fischer 344 rats, were originally developed at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and are now widely used in biomedical research due to their consistent and reliable genetic background.

Inbred strains, like the F344, are created by mating genetically identical individuals (siblings or parents and offspring) for many generations until a state of complete homozygosity is reached, meaning that all members of the strain have identical genomes. This genetic uniformity makes inbred strains ideal for use in studies where consistent and reproducible results are important.

F344 rats are known for their longevity, with a median lifespan of around 27-31 months, making them useful for aging research. They also have a relatively low incidence of spontaneous tumors compared to other rat strains. However, they may be more susceptible to certain types of cancer and other diseases due to their inbred status.

It's important to note that while F344 rats are often used as a standard laboratory rat strain, there can still be some genetic variation between individual animals within the same strain, particularly if they come from different suppliers or breeding colonies. Therefore, it's always important to consider the source and history of any animal model when designing experiments and interpreting results.

A needle biopsy is a medical procedure in which a thin, hollow needle is used to remove a small sample of tissue from a suspicious or abnormal area of the body. The tissue sample is then examined under a microscope to check for cancer cells or other abnormalities. Needle biopsies are often used to diagnose lumps or masses that can be felt through the skin, but they can also be guided by imaging techniques such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI to reach areas that cannot be felt. There are several types of needle biopsy procedures, including fine-needle aspiration (FNA) and core needle biopsy. FNA uses a thin needle and gentle suction to remove fluid and cells from the area, while core needle biopsy uses a larger needle to remove a small piece of tissue. The type of needle biopsy used depends on the location and size of the abnormal area, as well as the reason for the procedure.

Galectin-3 is a type of protein belonging to the galectin family, which binds to carbohydrates (sugars) and plays a role in various biological processes such as inflammation, immune response, and cancer. It is also known as Mac-2 binding protein or LGALS3.

Galectin-3 is unique among galectins because it can form oligomers (complexes of multiple subunits) and has a wide range of functions in the body. It is involved in cell adhesion, proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis (programmed cell death), and angiogenesis (formation of new blood vessels).

In the context of disease, Galectin-3 has been implicated in several pathological conditions such as fibrosis, heart failure, and cancer. High levels of Galectin-3 have been associated with poor prognosis in patients with heart failure, and it is considered a potential biomarker for this condition. In addition, Galectin-3 has been shown to promote tumor growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis, making it a target for cancer therapy.

Paired box (PAX) transcription factors are a group of proteins that regulate gene expression during embryonic development and in some adult tissues. They are characterized by the presence of a paired box domain, a conserved DNA-binding motif that recognizes specific DNA sequences. PAX proteins play crucial roles in various developmental processes, such as the formation of the nervous system, eyes, and pancreas. Dysregulation of PAX genes has been implicated in several human diseases, including cancer.

A cyst is a closed sac, having a distinct membrane and division between the sac and its surrounding tissue, that contains fluid, air, or semisolid material. Cysts can occur in various parts of the body, including the skin, internal organs, and bones. They can be caused by various factors, such as infection, genetic predisposition, or blockage of a duct or gland. Some cysts may cause symptoms, such as pain or discomfort, while others may not cause any symptoms at all. Treatment for cysts depends on the type and location of the cyst, as well as whether it is causing any problems. Some cysts may go away on their own, while others may need to be drained or removed through a surgical procedure.

Lactation is the process by which milk is produced and secreted from the mammary glands of female mammals, including humans, for the nourishment of their young. This physiological function is initiated during pregnancy and continues until it is deliberately stopped or weaned off. The primary purpose of lactation is to provide essential nutrients, antibodies, and other bioactive components that support the growth, development, and immune system of newborns and infants.

The process of lactation involves several hormonal and physiological changes in a woman's body. During pregnancy, the hormones estrogen and progesterone stimulate the growth and development of the mammary glands. After childbirth, the levels of these hormones drop significantly, allowing another hormone called prolactin to take over. Prolactin is responsible for triggering the production of milk in the alveoli, which are tiny sacs within the breast tissue.

Another hormone, oxytocin, plays a crucial role in the release or "let-down" of milk from the alveoli to the nipple during lactation. This reflex is initiated by suckling or thinking about the baby, which sends signals to the brain to release oxytocin. The released oxytocin then binds to receptors in the mammary glands, causing the smooth muscles around the alveoli to contract and push out the milk through the ducts and into the nipple.

Lactation is a complex and highly regulated process that ensures the optimal growth and development of newborns and infants. It provides not only essential nutrients but also various bioactive components, such as immunoglobulins, enzymes, and growth factors, which protect the infant from infections and support their immune system.

In summary, lactation is the physiological process by which milk is produced and secreted from the mammary glands of female mammals for the nourishment of their young. It involves hormonal changes, including the actions of prolactin, oxytocin, estrogen, and progesterone, to regulate the production, storage, and release of milk.

Ultrasonography, also known as sonography, is a diagnostic medical procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) to produce dynamic images of organs, tissues, or blood flow inside the body. These images are captured in real-time and can be used to assess the size, shape, and structure of various internal structures, as well as detect any abnormalities such as tumors, cysts, or inflammation.

During an ultrasonography procedure, a small handheld device called a transducer is placed on the patient's skin, which emits and receives sound waves. The transducer sends high-frequency sound waves into the body, and these waves bounce back off internal structures and are recorded by the transducer. The recorded data is then processed and transformed into visual images that can be interpreted by a medical professional.

Ultrasonography is a non-invasive, painless, and safe procedure that does not use radiation like other imaging techniques such as CT scans or X-rays. It is commonly used to diagnose and monitor conditions in various parts of the body, including the abdomen, pelvis, heart, blood vessels, and musculoskeletal system.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Kazakhstan" is not a medical term or concept. It is the world's largest landlocked country, located in Central Asia. If you have any questions about medical terms or concepts, I would be happy to help with those!

Tissue distribution, in the context of pharmacology and toxicology, refers to the way that a drug or xenobiotic (a chemical substance found within an organism that is not naturally produced by or expected to be present within that organism) is distributed throughout the body's tissues after administration. It describes how much of the drug or xenobiotic can be found in various tissues and organs, and is influenced by factors such as blood flow, lipid solubility, protein binding, and the permeability of cell membranes. Understanding tissue distribution is important for predicting the potential effects of a drug or toxin on different parts of the body, and for designing drugs with improved safety and efficacy profiles.

"Wistar rats" are a strain of albino rats that are widely used in laboratory research. They were developed at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, USA, and were first introduced in 1906. Wistar rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not have a fixed set of genetic characteristics like inbred strains.

Wistar rats are commonly used as animal models in biomedical research because of their size, ease of handling, and relatively low cost. They are used in a wide range of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, cardiovascular disease, and behavioral studies. Wistar rats are also used in safety testing of drugs, medical devices, and other products.

Wistar rats are typically larger than many other rat strains, with males weighing between 500-700 grams and females weighing between 250-350 grams. They have a lifespan of approximately 2-3 years. Wistar rats are also known for their docile and friendly nature, making them easy to handle and work with in the laboratory setting.

Thyroid cartilage is the largest and most superior of the laryngeal cartilages, forming the front and greater part of the larynx, also known as the "Adam's apple" in humans. It serves to protect the vocal cords and provides attachment for various muscles involved in voice production. The thyroid cartilage consists of two laminae that join in front at an angle, creating a noticeable prominence in the anterior neck. This structure is crucial in speech formation and swallowing functions.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging method that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional (tomographic) images (virtual "slices") of the body. These cross-sectional images can then be used to display detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body.

The term "computed tomography" is used instead of "CT scan" or "CAT scan" because the machines take a series of X-ray measurements from different angles around the body and then use a computer to process these data to create detailed images of internal structures within the body.

CT scanning is a noninvasive, painless medical test that helps physicians diagnose and treat medical conditions. CT imaging provides detailed information about many types of tissue including lung, bone, soft tissue and blood vessels. CT examinations can be performed on every part of the body for a variety of reasons including diagnosis, surgical planning, and monitoring of therapeutic responses.

In computed tomography (CT), an X-ray source and detector rotate around the patient, measuring the X-ray attenuation at many different angles. A computer uses this data to construct a cross-sectional image by the process of reconstruction. This technique is called "tomography". The term "computed" refers to the use of a computer to reconstruct the images.

CT has become an important tool in medical imaging and diagnosis, allowing radiologists and other physicians to view detailed internal images of the body. It can help identify many different medical conditions including cancer, heart disease, lung nodules, liver tumors, and internal injuries from trauma. CT is also commonly used for guiding biopsies and other minimally invasive procedures.

In summary, X-ray computed tomography (CT or CAT scan) is a medical imaging technique that uses computer-processed combinations of many X-ray images taken from different angles to produce cross-sectional images of the body. It provides detailed internal views of organs, bones, and soft tissues in the body, allowing physicians to diagnose and treat medical conditions.

Carcinogenicity tests are a type of toxicity test used to determine the potential of a chemical or physical agent to cause cancer. These tests are typically conducted on animals, such as rats or mice, and involve exposing the animals to the agent over a long period of time, often for the majority of their lifespan. The animals are then closely monitored for any signs of tumor development or other indicators of cancer.

The results of carcinogenicity tests can be used by regulatory agencies, such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), to help determine safe exposure levels for chemicals and other agents. The tests are also used by industry to assess the potential health risks associated with their products and to develop safer alternatives.

It is important to note that carcinogenicity tests have limitations, including the use of animals, which may not always accurately predict the effects of a chemical on humans. Additionally, these tests can be time-consuming and expensive, which has led to the development of alternative test methods, such as in vitro (test tube) assays and computational models, that aim to provide more efficient and ethical alternatives for carcinogenicity testing.

There is no medical definition for "dog diseases" as it is too broad a term. However, dogs can suffer from various health conditions and illnesses that are specific to their species or similar to those found in humans. Some common categories of dog diseases include:

1. Infectious Diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites. Examples include distemper, parvovirus, kennel cough, Lyme disease, and heartworms.
2. Hereditary/Genetic Disorders: Some dogs may inherit certain genetic disorders from their parents. Examples include hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), and degenerative myelopathy.
3. Age-Related Diseases: As dogs age, they become more susceptible to various health issues. Common age-related diseases in dogs include arthritis, dental disease, cancer, and cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS).
4. Nutritional Disorders: Malnutrition or improper feeding can lead to various health problems in dogs. Examples include obesity, malnutrition, and vitamin deficiencies.
5. Environmental Diseases: These are caused by exposure to environmental factors such as toxins, allergens, or extreme temperatures. Examples include heatstroke, frostbite, and toxicities from ingesting harmful substances.
6. Neurological Disorders: Dogs can suffer from various neurological conditions that affect their nervous system. Examples include epilepsy, intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), and vestibular disease.
7. Behavioral Disorders: Some dogs may develop behavioral issues due to various factors such as anxiety, fear, or aggression. Examples include separation anxiety, noise phobias, and resource guarding.

It's important to note that regular veterinary care, proper nutrition, exercise, and preventative measures can help reduce the risk of many dog diseases.

Electron microscopy (EM) is a type of microscopy that uses a beam of electrons to create an image of the sample being examined, resulting in much higher magnification and resolution than light microscopy. There are several types of electron microscopy, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and reflection electron microscopy (REM).

In TEM, a beam of electrons is transmitted through a thin slice of the sample, and the electrons that pass through the sample are focused to form an image. This technique can provide detailed information about the internal structure of cells, viruses, and other biological specimens, as well as the composition and structure of materials at the atomic level.

In SEM, a beam of electrons is scanned across the surface of the sample, and the electrons that are scattered back from the surface are detected to create an image. This technique can provide information about the topography and composition of surfaces, as well as the structure of materials at the microscopic level.

REM is a variation of SEM in which the beam of electrons is reflected off the surface of the sample, rather than scattered back from it. This technique can provide information about the surface chemistry and composition of materials.

Electron microscopy has a wide range of applications in biology, medicine, and materials science, including the study of cellular structure and function, disease diagnosis, and the development of new materials and technologies.

Perianal glands, also known as hepatoid glands or circumanal glands, are specialized sebaceous glands located in the perianal region of many mammals, including dogs and cats. These glands are found in the skin around the anus and are responsible for producing a scent that is unique to each individual animal. The secretions from these glands play a role in territorial marking and communication.

In humans, there are no true perianal glands, but there are some sweat glands located in the perianal region that can sometimes become inflamed or infected, leading to conditions such as hidradenitis suppurativa or perianal abscesses. However, these conditions are not related to the perianal glands found in animals.

Radionuclide imaging, also known as nuclear medicine, is a medical imaging technique that uses small amounts of radioactive material, called radionuclides or radiopharmaceuticals, to diagnose and treat various diseases and conditions. The radionuclides are introduced into the body through injection, inhalation, or ingestion and accumulate in specific organs or tissues. A special camera then detects the gamma rays emitted by these radionuclides and converts them into images that provide information about the structure and function of the organ or tissue being studied.

Radionuclide imaging can be used to evaluate a wide range of medical conditions, including heart disease, cancer, neurological disorders, gastrointestinal disorders, and bone diseases. The technique is non-invasive and generally safe, with minimal exposure to radiation. However, it should only be performed by qualified healthcare professionals in accordance with established guidelines and regulations.

Parathyroidectomy is a surgical procedure for the removal of one or more of the parathyroid glands. These glands are located in the neck and are responsible for producing parathyroid hormone (PTH), which helps regulate the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

Parathyroidectomy is typically performed to treat conditions such as hyperparathyroidism, where one or more of the parathyroid glands become overactive and produce too much PTH. This can lead to high levels of calcium in the blood, which can cause symptoms such as weakness, fatigue, bone pain, kidney stones, and mental confusion.

There are different types of parathyroidectomy procedures, including:

* Partial parathyroidectomy: removal of one or more, but not all, of the parathyroid glands.
* Total parathyroidectomy: removal of all four parathyroid glands.
* Subtotal parathyroidectomy: removal of three and a half of the four parathyroid glands, leaving a small portion of one gland to prevent hypoparathyroidism (a condition where the body produces too little PTH).

The choice of procedure depends on the underlying condition and its severity. After the surgery, patients may need to have their calcium levels monitored and may require calcium and vitamin D supplements to maintain normal calcium levels in the blood.

Hyperparathyroidism is a condition in which the parathyroid glands produce excessive amounts of parathyroid hormone (PTH). There are four small parathyroid glands located in the neck, near or within the thyroid gland. They release PTH into the bloodstream to help regulate the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

In hyperparathyroidism, overproduction of PTH can lead to an imbalance in these minerals, causing high blood calcium levels (hypercalcemia) and low phosphate levels (hypophosphatemia). This can result in various symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, bone pain, kidney stones, and cognitive issues.

There are two types of hyperparathyroidism: primary and secondary. Primary hyperparathyroidism occurs when there is a problem with one or more of the parathyroid glands, causing them to become overactive and produce too much PTH. Secondary hyperparathyroidism develops as a response to low calcium levels in the body due to conditions like vitamin D deficiency, chronic kidney disease, or malabsorption syndromes.

Treatment for hyperparathyroidism depends on the underlying cause and severity of symptoms. In primary hyperparathyroidism, surgery to remove the overactive parathyroid gland(s) is often recommended. For secondary hyperparathyroidism, treating the underlying condition and managing calcium levels with medications or dietary changes may be sufficient.

A fatal outcome is a term used in medical context to describe a situation where a disease, injury, or illness results in the death of an individual. It is the most severe and unfortunate possible outcome of any medical condition, and is often used as a measure of the severity and prognosis of various diseases and injuries. In clinical trials and research, fatal outcome may be used as an endpoint to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of different treatments or interventions.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

A larva is a distinct stage in the life cycle of various insects, mites, and other arthropods during which they undergo significant metamorphosis before becoming adults. In a medical context, larvae are known for their role in certain parasitic infections. Specifically, some helminth (parasitic worm) species use larval forms to infect human hosts. These invasions may lead to conditions such as cutaneous larva migrans, visceral larva migrans, or gnathostomiasis, depending on the specific parasite involved and the location of the infection within the body.

The larval stage is characterized by its markedly different morphology and behavior compared to the adult form. Larvae often have a distinct appearance, featuring unsegmented bodies, simple sense organs, and undeveloped digestive systems. They are typically adapted for a specific mode of life, such as free-living or parasitic existence, and rely on external sources of nutrition for their development.

In the context of helminth infections, larvae may be transmitted to humans through various routes, including ingestion of contaminated food or water, direct skin contact with infective stages, or transmission via an intermediate host (such as a vector). Once inside the human body, these parasitic larvae can cause tissue damage and provoke immune responses, leading to the clinical manifestations of disease.

It is essential to distinguish between the medical definition of 'larva' and its broader usage in biology and zoology. In those fields, 'larva' refers to any juvenile form that undergoes metamorphosis before reaching adulthood, regardless of whether it is parasitic or not.

Multiple primary neoplasms refer to the occurrence of more than one primary malignant tumor in an individual, where each tumor is unrelated to the other and originates from separate cells or organs. This differs from metastatic cancer, where a single malignancy spreads to multiple sites in the body. Multiple primary neoplasms can be synchronous (occurring at the same time) or metachronous (occurring at different times). The risk of developing multiple primary neoplasms increases with age and is associated with certain genetic predispositions, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices such as smoking and alcohol consumption.

"Inbred strains of rats" are genetically identical rodents that have been produced through many generations of brother-sister mating. This results in a high degree of homozygosity, where the genes at any particular locus in the genome are identical in all members of the strain.

Inbred strains of rats are widely used in biomedical research because they provide a consistent and reproducible genetic background for studying various biological phenomena, including the effects of drugs, environmental factors, and genetic mutations on health and disease. Additionally, inbred strains can be used to create genetically modified models of human diseases by introducing specific mutations into their genomes.

Some commonly used inbred strains of rats include the Wistar Kyoto (WKY), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Fischer 344 (F344) rat strains. Each strain has its own unique genetic characteristics, making them suitable for different types of research.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is a type of organelle found in eukaryotic cells, which are characterized by the presence of ribosomes on their cytoplasmic surface. These ribosomes give the RER a "rough" appearance and are responsible for the synthesis of proteins that are destined to be exported from the cell or targeted to various organelles within the cell.

The RER is involved in several important cellular processes, including:

1. Protein folding and modification: Once proteins are synthesized by ribosomes on the RER, they are transported into the lumen of the RER where they undergo folding and modifications such as glycosylation.
2. Quality control: The RER plays a crucial role in ensuring that only properly folded and modified proteins are transported to their final destinations within the cell or exported from the cell. Misfolded or improperly modified proteins are retained within the RER and targeted for degradation.
3. Transport: Proteins that are synthesized on the RER are packaged into vesicles and transported to the Golgi apparatus, where they undergo further modifications and sorting before being transported to their final destinations.

Overall, the rough endoplasmic reticulum is a critical organelle for protein synthesis, folding, modification, and transport in eukaryotic cells.

Epithelium is the tissue that covers the outer surface of the body, lines the internal cavities and organs, and forms various glands. It is composed of one or more layers of tightly packed cells that have a uniform shape and size, and rest on a basement membrane. Epithelial tissues are avascular, meaning they do not contain blood vessels, and are supplied with nutrients by diffusion from the underlying connective tissue.

Epithelial cells perform a variety of functions, including protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensation. They can be classified based on their shape and the number of cell layers they contain. The main types of epithelium are:

1. Squamous epithelium: composed of flat, scalelike cells that fit together like tiles on a roof. It forms the lining of blood vessels, air sacs in the lungs, and the outermost layer of the skin.
2. Cuboidal epithelium: composed of cube-shaped cells with equal height and width. It is found in glands, tubules, and ducts.
3. Columnar epithelium: composed of tall, rectangular cells that are taller than they are wide. It lines the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
4. Pseudostratified epithelium: appears stratified or layered but is actually made up of a single layer of cells that vary in height. The nuclei of these cells appear at different levels, giving the tissue a stratified appearance. It lines the respiratory and reproductive tracts.
5. Transitional epithelium: composed of several layers of cells that can stretch and change shape to accommodate changes in volume. It is found in the urinary bladder and ureters.

Epithelial tissue provides a barrier between the internal and external environments, protecting the body from physical, chemical, and biological damage. It also plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating the exchange of substances between the body and its environment.

Toxicity tests, also known as toxicity assays, are a set of procedures used to determine the harmful effects of various substances on living organisms, typically on cells, tissues, or whole animals. These tests measure the degree to which a substance can cause damage, inhibit normal functioning, or lead to death in exposed organisms.

Toxicity tests can be conducted in vitro (in a test tube or petri dish) using cell cultures or in vivo (in living organisms) using animals such as rats, mice, or rabbits. The results of these tests help researchers and regulators assess the potential risks associated with exposure to various chemicals, drugs, or environmental pollutants.

There are several types of toxicity tests, including:

1. Acute toxicity tests: These tests measure the immediate effects of a single exposure to a substance over a short period (usually 24 hours or less).
2. Chronic toxicity tests: These tests evaluate the long-term effects of repeated exposures to a substance over an extended period (weeks, months, or even years).
3. Genotoxicity tests: These tests determine whether a substance can damage DNA or cause mutations in genetic material.
4. Developmental and reproductive toxicity tests: These tests assess the impact of a substance on fertility, embryonic development, and offspring health.
5. Carcinogenicity tests: These tests evaluate the potential of a substance to cause cancer.
6. Ecotoxicity tests: These tests determine the effects of a substance on entire ecosystems, including plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Toxicity tests play a crucial role in protecting public health by helping to identify potentially harmful substances and establish safe exposure levels. They also contribute to the development of new drugs, chemicals, and consumer products by providing critical data for risk assessment and safety evaluation.

Radiation protection, also known as radiation safety, is a field of study and practice that aims to protect people and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation. It involves various measures and techniques used to minimize or eliminate exposure to ionizing radiation, such as:

1. Time: Reducing the amount of time spent near a radiation source.
2. Distance: Increasing the distance between oneself and a radiation source.
3. Shielding: Using materials that can absorb or block radiation to reduce exposure.
4. Containment: Preventing the release of radiation into the environment.
5. Training and education: Providing information and training to individuals who work with radiation sources.
6. Dosimetry and monitoring: Measuring and monitoring radiation doses received by individuals and populations.
7. Emergency planning and response: Developing plans and procedures for responding to radiation emergencies or accidents.

Radiation protection is an important consideration in various fields, including medicine, nuclear energy, research, and manufacturing, where ionizing radiation sources are used or produced.

Autoimmune diseases are a group of disorders in which the immune system, which normally protects the body from foreign invaders like bacteria and viruses, mistakenly attacks the body's own cells and tissues. This results in inflammation and damage to various organs and tissues in the body.

In autoimmune diseases, the body produces autoantibodies that target its own proteins or cell receptors, leading to their destruction or malfunction. The exact cause of autoimmune diseases is not fully understood, but it is believed that a combination of genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development.

There are over 80 different types of autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, multiple sclerosis, type 1 diabetes, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, psoriasis, and inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms can vary widely depending on the specific autoimmune disease and the organs or tissues affected. Treatment typically involves managing symptoms and suppressing the immune system to prevent further damage.

The liver is a large, solid organ located in the upper right portion of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm and above the stomach. It plays a vital role in several bodily functions, including:

1. Metabolism: The liver helps to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and proteins from the food we eat into energy and nutrients that our bodies can use.
2. Detoxification: The liver detoxifies harmful substances in the body by breaking them down into less toxic forms or excreting them through bile.
3. Synthesis: The liver synthesizes important proteins, such as albumin and clotting factors, that are necessary for proper bodily function.
4. Storage: The liver stores glucose, vitamins, and minerals that can be released when the body needs them.
5. Bile production: The liver produces bile, a digestive juice that helps to break down fats in the small intestine.
6. Immune function: The liver plays a role in the immune system by filtering out bacteria and other harmful substances from the blood.

Overall, the liver is an essential organ that plays a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

The bulbourethral glands, also known as Cowper's glands, are a pair of pea-sized exocrine glands located in the male reproductive system. They are situated in the deep perineal pouch, posterior to the membranous part of the urethra and inferior to the prostate gland.

The bulbourethral glands produce a clear, slippery, alkaline secretion known as pre-ejaculate or Cowper's fluid. This fluid is released into the urethra through separate ducts during sexual arousal and serves to lubricate the urethra and neutralize any residual acidic urine in the urethra, creating a more favorable environment for sperm survival and transport.

Bulbourethral glands play an essential role in maintaining the health and functionality of the male reproductive system. Issues with these glands can lead to complications like painful ejaculation or discomfort during sexual activity.

Salivary gland calculi, also known as salivary duct stones or sialoliths, are small, hard deposits that form in the salivary glands or their ducts. These calculi typically consist of calcium salts and other minerals, and can vary in size from a few millimeters to over a centimeter in diameter.

Salivary gland calculi can cause a range of symptoms, including pain, swelling, and difficulty swallowing, particularly during meals. The obstruction of the salivary duct by the calculus can lead to infection or inflammation of the salivary gland (sialadenitis).

The most common location for salivary gland calculi is in the submandibular gland and its duct, followed by the parotid gland and then the sublingual gland. Treatment options for salivary gland calculi include conservative management with hydration, massage, and warm compresses, as well as more invasive procedures such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, sialendoscopy, or surgical removal of the calculus.

'Gene expression regulation' refers to the processes that control whether, when, and where a particular gene is expressed, meaning the production of a specific protein or functional RNA encoded by that gene. This complex mechanism can be influenced by various factors such as transcription factors, chromatin remodeling, DNA methylation, non-coding RNAs, and post-transcriptional modifications, among others. Proper regulation of gene expression is crucial for normal cellular function, development, and maintaining homeostasis in living organisms. Dysregulation of gene expression can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

Radioimmunoassay (RIA) is a highly sensitive analytical technique used in clinical and research laboratories to measure concentrations of various substances, such as hormones, vitamins, drugs, or tumor markers, in biological samples like blood, urine, or tissues. The method relies on the specific interaction between an antibody and its corresponding antigen, combined with the use of radioisotopes to quantify the amount of bound antigen.

In a typical RIA procedure, a known quantity of a radiolabeled antigen (also called tracer) is added to a sample containing an unknown concentration of the same unlabeled antigen. The mixture is then incubated with a specific antibody that binds to the antigen. During the incubation period, the antibody forms complexes with both the radiolabeled and unlabeled antigens.

After the incubation, the unbound (free) radiolabeled antigen is separated from the antibody-antigen complexes, usually through a precipitation or separation step involving centrifugation, filtration, or chromatography. The amount of radioactivity in the pellet (containing the antibody-antigen complexes) is then measured using a gamma counter or other suitable radiation detection device.

The concentration of the unlabeled antigen in the sample can be determined by comparing the ratio of bound to free radiolabeled antigen in the sample to a standard curve generated from known concentrations of unlabeled antigen and their corresponding bound/free ratios. The higher the concentration of unlabeled antigen in the sample, the lower the amount of radiolabeled antigen that will bind to the antibody, resulting in a lower bound/free ratio.

Radioimmunoassays offer high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy, making them valuable tools for detecting and quantifying low levels of various substances in biological samples. However, due to concerns about radiation safety and waste disposal, alternative non-isotopic immunoassay techniques like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have become more popular in recent years.

The laryngeal nerves are a pair of nerves that originate from the vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) and provide motor and sensory innervation to the larynx. There are two branches of the laryngeal nerves: the superior laryngeal nerve and the recurrent laryngeal nerve.

The superior laryngeal nerve has two branches: the external branch, which provides motor innervation to the cricothyroid muscle and sensation to the mucous membrane of the laryngeal vestibule; and the internal branch, which provides sensory innervation to the mucous membrane of the laryngeal vestibule.

The recurrent laryngeal nerve provides motor innervation to all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx, except for the cricothyroid muscle, and sensation to the mucous membrane below the vocal folds. The right recurrent laryngeal nerve has a longer course than the left one, as it hooks around the subclavian artery before ascending to the larynx.

Damage to the laryngeal nerves can result in voice changes, difficulty swallowing, and respiratory distress.

A rare disease, also known as an orphan disease, is a health condition that affects fewer than 200,000 people in the United States or fewer than 1 in 2,000 people in Europe. There are over 7,000 rare diseases identified, and many of them are severe, chronic, and often life-threatening. The causes of rare diseases can be genetic, infectious, environmental, or degenerative. Due to their rarity, research on rare diseases is often underfunded, and treatments may not be available or well-studied. Additionally, the diagnosis of rare diseases can be challenging due to a lack of awareness and understanding among healthcare professionals.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of man-made organic chemicals consisting of 209 individual compounds, known as congeners. The congeners are formed by the combination of two benzene rings with varying numbers and positions of chlorine atoms.

PCBs were widely used in electrical equipment, such as transformers and capacitors, due to their non-flammability, chemical stability, and insulating properties. They were also used in other applications, including coolants and lubricants, plasticizers, pigments, and copy oils. Although PCBs were banned in many countries in the 1970s and 1980s due to their toxicity and environmental persistence, they still pose significant health and environmental concerns because of their continued presence in the environment and in products manufactured before the ban.

PCBs are known to have various adverse health effects on humans and animals, including cancer, immune system suppression, reproductive and developmental toxicity, and endocrine disruption. They can also cause neurological damage and learning and memory impairment in both human and animal populations. PCBs are highly persistent in the environment and can accumulate in the food chain, leading to higher concentrations in animals at the top of the food chain, including humans.

Adenocarcinoma is a type of cancer that arises from glandular epithelial cells. These cells line the inside of many internal organs, including the breasts, prostate, colon, and lungs. Adenocarcinomas can occur in any of these organs, as well as in other locations where glands are present.

The term "adenocarcinoma" is used to describe a cancer that has features of glandular tissue, such as mucus-secreting cells or cells that produce hormones. These cancers often form glandular structures within the tumor mass and may produce mucus or other substances.

Adenocarcinomas are typically slow-growing and tend to spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system or bloodstream. They can be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, or a combination of these treatments. The prognosis for adenocarcinoma depends on several factors, including the location and stage of the cancer, as well as the patient's overall health and age.

A dose-response relationship in radiation refers to the correlation between the amount of radiation exposure (dose) and the biological response or adverse health effects observed in exposed individuals. As the level of radiation dose increases, the severity and frequency of the adverse health effects also tend to increase. This relationship is crucial in understanding the risks associated with various levels of radiation exposure and helps inform radiation protection standards and guidelines.

The effects of ionizing radiation can be categorized into two types: deterministic and stochastic. Deterministic effects have a threshold dose below which no effect is observed, and above this threshold, the severity of the effect increases with higher doses. Examples include radiation-induced cataracts or radiation dermatitis. Stochastic effects, on the other hand, do not have a clear threshold and are based on probability; as the dose increases, so does the likelihood of the adverse health effect occurring, such as an increased risk of cancer.

Understanding the dose-response relationship in radiation exposure is essential for setting limits on occupational and public exposure to ionizing radiation, optimizing radiation protection practices, and developing effective medical countermeasures in case of radiation emergencies.

"Swine" is a common term used to refer to even-toed ungulates of the family Suidae, including domestic pigs and wild boars. However, in a medical context, "swine" often appears in the phrase "swine flu," which is a strain of influenza virus that typically infects pigs but can also cause illness in humans. The 2009 H1N1 pandemic was caused by a new strain of swine-origin influenza A virus, which was commonly referred to as "swine flu." It's important to note that this virus is not transmitted through eating cooked pork products; it spreads from person to person, mainly through respiratory droplets produced when an infected person coughs or sneezes.

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Thyroid gland abnormalities. Various other neoplastic, metabolic, and inflammatory conditions. Archaeological kite aerial ...
Andreeva P (2014). "[Thyroid gland and fertility]". Akusherstvo I Ginekologiia. 53 (7): 18-23. PMID 25675618. Tersigni C, ... clinical thyroid dysfunction and thyroid autoimmunity before conception and in early pregnancy: a systematic review" (PDF). ... General factors Diabetes mellitus, thyroid disorders, undiagnosed and untreated coeliac disease, adrenal disease Hypothalamic- ... pituitary factors Hyperprolactinemia Hypopituitarism The presence of anti-thyroid antibodies is associated with an increased ...
Hjorth, L.; Thomsen, L.B.; Nielsen, V.T. (January 1986). "Adenolipoma of the thyroid gland". Histopathology. 10 (1): 91-96. doi ... Joon, Pawan; Weerakkody, Yuranga (2014-10-09), "Adenolipoma (thyroid gland)", Radiopaedia.org, doi:10.53347/rid-31440, S2CID ... An adenolipoma is a type of lipoma (benign fat tumor) that develops in the eccrine sweat glands. They can occur either in the ... The presence of eccrine sweat glands are used to distinguish the tumor from a common lipoma. Size and the development of the ...
Teratoma of the thyroid gland. Black grain mycetoma due to Madurella mycetomi: a case report from the East Central State of ... Suseelan, AV; Gupta, IM; Viswanathan, V; Udekwu, FA (1976). "Teratoma of the thyroid gland". International Surgery. 62 (11-12 ...
Wolff, J (1998). "Perchlorate and the thyroid gland". Pharmacological Reviews. 50 (1): 89-105. PMID 9549759. Barzilai, D; ... accumulated in the thyroid as a result of many different disruptions in the further metabolism of iodide in the thyroid gland. ... perchlorate begins to temporarily inhibit the thyroid gland's ability to absorb iodine from the bloodstream ("iodide uptake ... "The Effect of Short-Term Low-Dose Perchlorate on Various Aspects of Thyroid Function". Thyroid. 10 (8): 659-63. doi:10.1089/ ...
Wolff, J (1998). "Perchlorate and the thyroid gland". Pharmacological Reviews. 50 (1): 89-105. PMID 9549759. Barzilai, D; ... accumulated in the thyroid as a result of many different disruptions in the further metabolism of iodide in the thyroid gland. ... perchlorate begins to temporarily inhibit the thyroid gland's ability to absorb iodine from the bloodstream ("iodide uptake ... "The Effect of Short-Term Low-Dose Perchlorate on Various Aspects of Thyroid Function". Thyroid. 10 (8): 659-63. doi:10.1089/ ...
In large amounts perchlorate interferes with iodine uptake into the thyroid gland. In adults, the thyroid gland helps regulate ... effects of perchlorate on the thyroid gland are reversible, though effects on brain development from lack of thyroid hormone in ... Perchlorate contamination of food and water endangers human health, primarily affecting the thyroid gland. Ionic perchlorates ... "Perchlorate and the Thyroid Gland". Pharmacological Reviews. 50 (1): 89-105. PMID 9549759. Chen HX, Shao YP, Wu FH, Li YP, Peng ...
Tumors of the Thyroid Gland. Volume 4 of Atlas of tumor pathology: Second series. William A. Meissner, Shields Warren. Armed ... Salivary Gland Tumors. Neil W. Swinton, Shields Warren. (1938). Tumors of Dermal Appendages. Harvard University. Cancer ... Warren's research focused primarily on cancer, thyroid disorders, diabetes, and atomic radiation. During his cancer research in ...
... to image the thyroid gland; as a radiotracer to image bones and seeking cancers that have metastasized from other locations in ...
Superior thyroid visible at center.) The thyroid gland and its relations. Side of neck, showing chief surface markings. ... Besides the arteries distributed to the muscles and to the thyroid gland, the branches of the superior thyroid are: The ... and numerous branches to the thyroid gland, connecting with its fellow of the opposite side, and with the inferior thyroid ... A second branch descends on the posterior surface of the gland and anastomoses with the inferior thyroid artery. ...
Any thyroid residual along the descent course may lead to the development of ectopic thyroid glands. Thyroid carcinomas, ... The thyroid apex is located superiorly at the level of the mid-thyroid cartilage. The inferior margin of the gland is at the ... Intra-thyroid parathyroid adenomas mimic thyroid nodules in CT scans and may even show uptake on a thyroid iodine scan. ... Thyroid ultrasonography is the modality of choice for thyroid evaluation. Yet, focal and diffuse thyroid abnormalities are ...
In this volume, he clearly showed that the removing of the thyroid gland from dogs was fatal, and later showed that the ... Iason, Alfred Herbert (1946). The Thyroid Gland in Medical History ... Froben Press. Portals: biology Germany (CS1: Julian- ... Subsequently, he successfully used thyroid extract to treat humans. Untersuchungen zur Physiologie des Nervensystems mit ... injection of animal extract or thyroid transplantation can prevent death. ...
"Wölfler's gland": An accessory thyroid gland. "Wölfler's operation": Operation of gastroenterostomy. described in a paper ... Wölfler is remembered for his work in gastrointestinal surgery, and for his investigations involving the thyroid gland. On 28 ... Surgery of the thyroid and parathyroid glands by Daniel Oertli Works by or about Anton Wölfler at Internet Archive v t e ( ...
The thyroid gland and its relations. Jugular vein This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 648 of the 20th ... Inferior petrosal sinus Pharyngeal vein Common facial vein Lingual vein Superior thyroid vein Middle thyroid vein Occipital ...
The veins of the thyroid gland. The fascia and middle thyroid veins. Side view of the larynx, showing muscular attachments. ... Its action tilts the thyroid forward to help tense the vocal cords. The cricothyroid muscle is a fan-shaped muscle situated at ... The distance between the vocal processes and the angle of the thyroid is increased, elongating and thus tensing the vocal folds ... The straight part travels posterosuperiorly and inserts onto the inferior margin of the lamina of the thyroid cartilage. The ...
The veins of the thyroid gland. Hypoglossal nerve, cervical plexus, and their branches. The right brachial plexus with its ... Above, it attaches onto the greater cornu of the hyoid bone; below, it attaches onto the oblique line of the thyroid cartilage ... The muscle is provided with arterial blood by branches of the superior thyroid artery, and of the lingual artery. The ... Its inferior attachment is the oblique line of the thyroid cartilage (alongside the sternothyroid muscle).: 538 The thyrohyoid ...
It works by decreasing the amount of thyroid hormone produced by the thyroid gland and blocking the conversion of thyroxine (T4 ... De Groot LJ, Jameson JL (2010). Endocrinology Adult and Pediatric: The Thyroid Gland. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. e202. ISBN ... and actively concentrated to the thyroid gland. Depending on several patient variables, however, euthyroid status may not be ... report of a meeting jointly sponsored by the American Thyroid Association and the Food and Drug Administration". Thyroid. 19 (7 ...
In researching her thesis, Ãœber die Thyreoidea von Kretinen und Idioten (On the Thyroid Glands of Cretins and Idiots), she ... 22 March 2011). "Inmunohistochemical Profile of Solid Cell Nest of Thyroid Gland". Endocrine Pathology. Springer. 22 (1): 35-39 ... long been of interest to pathologists as it is thought they could be behind ectopic structures in thyroid glands or in thyroid ... Bychkov, Andrey (September 2015). "Thyroid gland, Congenital anomalies, Solid cell nests". PathologyOutline.com. Retrieved 7 ...
... they are not malignant and they will not spread beyond the thyroid gland. Colloid nodules are the most common kind of thyroid ... Diana S. Dean, M.D. Hossein Gharib, M.D. (10 October 2010). "Fine-Needle Aspiration Biopsy of the Thyroid Gland, Chapter 6d". ... Ultrasound images of diseases of thyroid gland (CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list, All articles with unsourced statements ... "Ultrasound images of diseases of thyroid gland". medicalonly.com. Archived from the original on 23 September 2011. Retrieved 26 ...
Beebe, S. (1914). The Nerve Control of the Thyroid Gland. Beebe, S. P. (1915). The serum treatment of hyperthyroidism. Journal ... Beebe, S. P. (1918). Thyroid disease and the war. Med. Rec. (93); 237-238. Beebe, S. P. (1921). Iodine in the treatment of ... 1909). "A contribution to the physiology and chemistry of the parathyroid gland." The Journal of medical research. 20(2): 149. ... Beebe, S. P. (1911). Present Knowledge of Thyroid Function. Journal of the American Medical Association. 56(9): 658-660. Van ...
"Diagnosing Hyperthyroidism: Overactivity of the Thyroid Gland". endocrineweb. D'Souza, Donna M.; Al-Sajee, Dhuha; Hawke, Thomas ... For example, most forms of hyperthyroidism are associated with an excess of thyroid hormone and a low level of thyroid ... syndrome Atrophic form Thyroiditis Hashimoto's thyroiditis Thyroid cancer Thyroid hormone resistance Parathyroid gland ... Endocrine gland hyperfunction/hypersecretion (leading to hormone excess) Tumours (benign or malignant) of endocrine glands ...
Ignjatovic, Mile (2003). "Historical review of the thyroid gland surgery". Acta Chirurgica Iugoslavica. 50 (3): 9-36. doi: ...
Thyroid follicles make up the thyroid gland. Follicles are best known as the sockets from which hairs grow in humans and other ...
... is a medical condition that affects the function of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is located at the ... Its primary function is to increase the production of T3 and T4 by the thyroid gland. The most useful marker of thyroid gland ... or surgical removal of the thyroid gland. Thyroid surgery may also be performed to remove a thyroid nodule or to reduce the ... The American Thyroid Association Guidelines Task Force on Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer". Thyroid. 26 (1): ...
Metastatic carcinomas in the thyroid gland. Thyroid metastasis from lung adenocarcinoma (a, b). Some metastatic tumor cells ( ... Thyroid neoplasm is a neoplasm or tumor of the thyroid. It can be a benign tumor such as thyroid adenoma, or it can be a ... Other thyroid malignancies include thyroid lymphoma, various types of thyroid sarcoma, smooth muscle tumors, teratoma, squamous ... These occur when the thyroid is producing too much or too little thyroid hormone respectively. Thyroid nodules are a major ...
"Full text of "The Thyroid and parathyroid glands"". Retrieved 2013-05-23. Über neue Cholesterin-Derivate - Sigmund Fränkel & ... notably on the chemistry of the thyroid gland. Fraenkel was born on 22 May 1868 in Krakau, which was then part of the Austro- ... The thyroid and parathyroid glands. Blakiston's. p. 56. Retrieved 23 May 2013. A. S. Travis (31 October 1998). Determinants in ...
One treatment option is the use of radioactive iodine which directly destroys the overactive thyroid gland. The thyroid gland ... Both cause the thyroid gland to overproduce thyroxine. A multinodular goiter is a condition where the thyroid develops nodules ... the overall goal of treatment is to reduce the overproduction of thyroxine from the thyroid gland and restore normal thyroid ... Thyroxine is a hormone produced in the thyroid gland that regulates the growth metabolism of the nervous system and regulates ...
The pituitary gland also controls the thyroid gland. The cranial cavity has a variety of spinal and cranial nerves residing in ... A gland that is found in this cavity is called the pituitary gland which secretes different fluids that are necessary for ... The body's temperature, physical, and sexual functions are regulated by this gland. One of the major glands are controlled ... The pituitary gland is also found in the make up of the cranial cavity. It plays a major role in the body, creating and ...
v t e (Glands, Endocrine system, Human head and neck, Thyroid, Anatomy named for one who described it, All stub articles, ... Zuckerkandls tubercle is a pyramidal extension of the thyroid gland, present at the most posterior side of each lobe. Emil ... The structure is important in thyroid surgery as it is closely related to the recurrent laryngeal nerve, the inferior thyroid ... it was discovered first by Otto Madelung in 1867 as the posterior horn of the thyroid. ...
You had surgery to remove part or all of your thyroid gland. This operation is called thyroidectomy. ... You had surgery to remove part or all of your thyroid gland. This operation is called thyroidectomy. ... Surgery of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2021:chap 31. ... You had surgery to remove part or all of your thyroid gland. This operation is called thyroidectomy. ...
The thyroid gland produces hormones that affect metabolism, mood, breathing, heart rate, and more. Learn more about thyroid ... Thyroid nodules. A thyroid nodule is a lump that may appear on the thyroid gland. It may feel like a bump in the middle or side ... Thyroid cancer. Thyroid cancer is a disease where cancer cells form in the tissue of the thyroid gland. ... Various conditions can affect the thyroid gland, and thyroid disease can develop when the thyroid makes too much or too little ...
Thyroid Eye Disease. Thyroid Function Tests. Thyroid Hormone Treatment. Thyroid Nodules. Thyroid Surgery. Thyroid & Weight. ... WHAT IS THE THYROID GLAND?. The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped endocrine gland that is normally located in the lower front ... Medullary Thyroid Cancer Microcarcinomas of the Thyroid Gland Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN). Type 2 NIFTP -. Non-invasive ... In order to detect a change in size or spread to lymph nodes outside of the thyroid gland, a thyroid ultrasound performed by an ...
The thyroid gland, a part of the endocrine (hormone) system, plays a major role in regulating the bodys metabolism. ... The thyroid gland, a part of the endocrine (hormone) system, plays a major role in regulating the bodys metabolism. ...
Synonyms: Follicular adenocarcinoma; Follicular adenocarcinoma, well differentiated; Follicular carcinoma; follicular thyroid ... thyroid gland follicular carcinoma (DOID:3962) Alliance: disease page Synonyms: Follicular adenocarcinoma; Follicular ... Human Disease Modeled: thyroid gland follicular carcinoma. Associated Mouse Gene: Pten Allelic Composition. Genetic Background ... Human Disease Modeled: thyroid gland follicular carcinoma. Associated Mouse Gene: Thrb Allelic Composition. Genetic Background ...
... ... Weight-Reducing Herbal Medicines Damage the Thyroid Gland. ... The thyroid gland controls the rate at which your body uses energy and increasing thyroid hormones increases the rate at which ... But the thyroid also controls a wide range of other body hormones and functions. Playing about with the bodys hormone system ... The thyroid hormone content of 1 capsule or tablet of herbal medicine, measured following Pronase digestion and ethanol ...
The thyroid originates from two main structures: the primitive pharynx and the neural crest. ... The thyroid gland is the first of the bodys endocrine glands to develop, on approximately the 24th day of gestation. ... Descent of the Thyroid Gland. The initial descent of the thyroid gland follows the primitive heart and occurs anterior to the ... Initial Thyroid Embryology. The thyroid gland is the first of the bodys endocrine glands to develop, on approximately the 24th ...
The thyroid gland is one of the most sensitive organs to gamma-radiation and endocrine disrupters. Low-level laser therapy ( ... The thyroid gland is one of the most sensitive organs to gamma-radiation and endocrine disrupters. Low-level laser therapy ( ... Phototherapeutic Effect of Low-Level Laser on Thyroid Gland of Gamma-Irradiated Rats Photochem Photobiol. 2015 Jul-Aug;91(4): ... The aim of this study was to gauge the value of using Helium-Neon laser to repair the damaged tissues of thyroid gland after ...
... and never consider a malfunctioning thyroid gland as a possible cause of their ill health. Often underlying thyroid disease is ... Hypothyroidism is the most common disorder of the thyroid gland, and can occur at any age. Thousands of Australians suffer with ... Dedicated to the people who suffer with thyroid conditions. May this book make some sense out of the madness that thyroid ... It is estimated that around 1 in 14 Australians suffer with a thyroid condition. ...
Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands. Thyroid Gland. The thyroid gland is a very vascular organ that is located in the neck. It ... This stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid gland to increase in ... Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. This hormone opposes the action of the parathyroid ... Parathyroid Gland. Four small masses of epithelial tissue are embedded in the connective tissue capsule on the posterior ...
If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Centers RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.. ...
Parathyroid gland and thyroid gland- histology slide This is a histology slide of the thyroid gland and parathyroid gland.. ...
The global thyroid gland disorder treatment market size was valued at USD 1.97 billion in 2016 and is expected to register a ... Thyroid Gland Disorder Treatment Market, Industry Report, 2018-2025 GVR Report cover Thyroid Gland Disorder Treatment Market ... The global thyroid gland disorder treatment market size was valued at USD 1.97 billion in 2016 and is expected to register a ... Thyroid Gland Disorder Treatment Market Share Insights. The market is fragmented in nature with numerous small and large ...
ICD-9 code 017.51 for Tuberculosis of thyroid gland bacteriological or histological examination not done is a medical ... Tuberculosis of thyroid gland bacteriological or histological examination not done (017.51). ICD-9 code 017.51 for Tuberculosis ... of thyroid gland bacteriological or histological examination not done is a medical classification as listed by WHO under the ...
So, what does a therapist need to know about the thyroid? ... Symptoms of thyroid problems can be very similar to symptoms ... Besides the thyroid affecting the heart it also affects the Pituitary gland. It is a very important gland being a master gland. ... Thyroid: the Bodys Most Mysterious Gland (with New Video). 11 Comments Got a question from a counselor recently, here is the ... However I also think that with thyroid in particular and I am not a medical doctor so I may not be qualified to say this but ...
Compared with follicular epithelial cells, there are a few morphological studies on the stroma of human thyroid gland. In order ... Compared with follicular epithelial cells, there are a few morphological studies on the stroma of human thyroid gland. In order ... In human thyroid gland, the interfollicular connective tissue surrounding the follicles contained collagenous matrix, ... Interfollicular fibroblasts in the human thyroid gland: recognition of a CD34 positive stromal cell network communicated by gap ...
... thyroid ultrasound Doppler revealed hypoechoic nodules in the left thyroid gland, resembling Chinese-Thyroid Imaging Reporting ... Papillary thyroid carcinoma with clear cell renal cell carcinoma metastasized to the thyroid gland: A case report. *Authors: * ... A) Thyroid ultrasound Doppler in November 2021 revealed hypoechoic nodules in the left thyroid gland, resembling C-TIRADS 4C ( ... to the thyroid gland is rare, and simultaneous occurrence of ccRCC and papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) is even rarer. Due to ...
A comparison study of remnant thyroid gland using salivary scintigraphy with post-ablation I-131 scan. Kwanhyeong Jo, Sang Hyun ... There was a statistically significant trend for increased visualization of the thyroid gland in salivary scan compared to RAI ... Conclusions Salivary scintigraphy showed a strong positive correlation with RAI scans in evaluation of thyroid gland function, ... A comparison study of remnant thyroid gland using salivary scintigraphy with post-ablation I-131 scan ...
Categories: Kidney, Nephrotoxicity, Liver, Thyroid Gland, Thyroid Cellular/Tissue Effects, Adrenal glands ... The thyroid gland was mildly atrophic. In the acutely fluorosed rats there was evidence of adrenal cortical hypertrophy, and ... Goitre (aka goiter) is an enlargement of the thyroid gland that in some cases can produce visible swelling in the neck. The ... Absence of DNA damage in multiple organs (blood, liver, kidney, thyroid gland and urinary bladder) after acute fluoride ...
Emerging Imaging Technologies for Parathyroid Gland Identification and Vascular Assessment in Thyroid Surgery : A Review from ... Emerging Imaging Technologies for Parathyroid Gland Identification and Vascular Assessment in Thyroid Surgery : A Review from ... Emerging imaging technologies hold promise to improve identification and preservation of PGs during thyroid surgery. ... Emerging imaging technologies hold promise to improve identification and preservation of PGs during thyroid surgery. ...
... thyroid.The underactive endocrine gland which causes goitre is the thyroid gland. Thyroid gland secrets thyroxine hormone, and ... The underactive endocrine gland which causes goitre is (a) pancreas (b) thyroid (c) adrenal (d) pituitary - (b) ... This gland is:(a)thyroid (b)pineal (c)adrenal (d)pituitary *. Saliva is released from(a) Pinus gland(b) Thyroid gland(c) ... The underactive endocrine gland which causes goitre is the thyroid gland. Thyroid gland secrets thyroxine hormone, and lack of ...
Come learn about how thyroid hormones, essential to every cell in the body, are produced, and how auto-immunity, stress and ... and have brain fog and wonder if its your thyroid hormone levels? ... Katy Wallace, Naturopathic Doctor of Human Nature, will present the roles of minerals and diet in supporting the thyroid gland. ... Watch the video - How the Thyroid Gland Works. by Katy Wallace November 10, 2022. ...
Click here to learn about thyroid and parathyroid glands. Schedule an appointment and call today! (770) 237-3000 ... When the thyroid gland doesnt communicate with the pituitary and hypothalamus glands correctly, it will cause an imbalance. ... The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped organ found in the base of the neck. Its main function is to release hormones ... These four, small glands are located behind the Thyroid. Their number one priority is continuously monitoring and regulating ...
Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands In: Barr F,Gashen L, eds. Manual of Canine and Feline Ultrasonography. Gloucester, UK: British ... Taeymans O. Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands In: Barr F,Gashen L, eds. ...
THE THYROID AND CYCLES - This tendency of the thyroid gland to enlarge is due to Cosmic conditions and to a Cosmic cycle that ... The exercise I am going to give you this week will not cause the thyroid gland to enlarge, nor will it cause it to reduce, for ... Whether you have any en-largement there or not, or whether you can feel the thyroid gland in your neck between the two cords or ... During certain phases of the moon each month some of these thyroid glands appear to be slightly larger than at other times and ...
Cite this article as: Ismayilov R, Aliyev A, Aliyev A, Hasanov I. Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis of Thyroid Gland in a Child: A ... Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis of Thyroid Gland in a Child: A Case Report and Literature Review. ...
Reese S.L., Kurzke E., Hermanns W., et al. Tierarztl Prax Ausg K Kleintiere Heimtiere, 2002. 30(K): p.274-281.
Mark Starr is the worlds foremost authority on the thyroid gland. He stopped by today to talk about how thyroid health is ... Obviously one of the ways to protect the thyroid gland is to limit your exposure to toxins that damage your thyroid. These ... The role of desecated thyroid glandulars and iodone to support proper thyroid health *The Aajonus Vonderplanitz thyroid shake ( ... Adrenals, Thyroid, Lungs, Liver, Brain, Testicle, Raw Honey, Raw Goats Milk) *And so much more! Learn how your thyroid gland ...
... 72(12). Wolff, Arthur H. "Radioactivity in animal thyroid glands" 72, no. 12 (1957). ... Animals Articles Humans Iodine Iodine Radioisotopes Nuclear Warfare Radioactivity Radioisotopes Thyroid Gland ... Wolff, Arthur H. "Radioactivity in animal thyroid glands" vol. 72, no. 12, 1957. Export RIS Citation Information.. ... Title : Radioactivity in animal thyroid glands Personal Author(s) : Wolff, Arthur H. Published Date : Dec 1957;12-1957; Source ...
  • Did you mean BOS aureus ADRENAL GLAND OR BOS aureus PITUITARY GLAND OR "THYROID," UNSPECIFIED ? (nih.gov)
  • It should be noted that iodine is also required by the pituitary, adrenal and pineal glands. (theherbsplace.com)
  • Finally, the adrenal glands can be evaluated ultrasonographically in cases of hyperadrenocorticism (pituitary- or adrenal-dependent), hyperaldosteronism, hypoadrenocorticism and adrenal neuroendocrine tumors. (bris.ac.uk)
  • For example, a functioning tumor on the pituitary gland can cause high levels of growth hormone, resulting in gigantism or acromegaly (a type of overgrowth). (nih.gov)
  • This production is controlled by the pituitary gland in the brain via thyroid stimulating hormone (called TSH). (healthychildren.org)
  • The causes of hypothyroidism can arise from the gland itself or from the pituitary. (healthychildren.org)
  • The pituitary gland can be damaged following a severe brain injury or secondary to radiation. (healthychildren.org)
  • These include the measurement of hormones produced by the thyroid gland and pituitary. (healthychildren.org)
  • Hypothyroidism is diagnosed when the stimulating hormone from the pituitary (TSH) is high and the free T4 produced from the thyroid is low. (healthychildren.org)
  • The production of thyroid hormones is under the direct control of the pituitary gland. (askdrshah.com)
  • The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland which is situated at the base of the brain and it secretes certain vital hormones which include TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone) or Thyrotropin, besides others. (askdrshah.com)
  • When the level of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) falls below the required amount, the pituitary gland secretes TSH which stimulates increased production of T3 and T4. (askdrshah.com)
  • TRH regulates the production of TSH by the pituitary, i.e. it has regulatory control over the pituitary gland. (askdrshah.com)
  • He measures the levels of your pituitary gland hormone and adjusts doses based on the results of the test performed every 3 months. (gov.sa)
  • Pituitary destruction: a person component your physician may perhaps look at when posing the dilemma, what is hypothyroidism, is whether or not the pituitary gland is functioning effectively. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • Your pituitary gland acts like a information Middle, and it sends messages towards your thyroid gland. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • In case the pituitary gland malfunctions it can cause hypothyroidism. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • TSH is a hormone that isn't even produced by your thyroid gland, but rather by your pituitary gland, the so-called master gland that stimulates the thyroid when it senses thyroid underactivity. (wholehealthchicago.com)
  • If your pituitary is producing too much TSH, it's inferred that your thyroid must be underfunctioning. (wholehealthchicago.com)
  • The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are in charge of the HPA axis. (thyroidcentral.com)
  • The endocrine system includes the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, and either the ovaries (in females) or testicles (in males). (orgaanics.com)
  • The pituitary gland, which sits at the base of your brain, senses the amount of thyroid hormone in the blood. (dryharbor.com)
  • We report a case with several rheumatoid nodules in a thyroid gland of a 33-year-old Greek woman with a 3-year history of rheumatoid arthritis treated with methotrexate, after having total thyroidectomy for hypothyroidism. (medscape.com)
  • This suggests that people with even minor changes in thyroid function may experience similar mental health effects as those with overt thyroid disorders, including hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. (science20.com)
  • One sign of a slightly underactive thyroid gland (subclinical hypothyroidism) is a raised level of the hormone which stimulates the thyroid - known as thyroid-stimulating hormone, or TSH. (admin.ch)
  • A review of literatures on the adverse effects of thyroid abnormalities and liver disorders: An overview on liver dysfunction and hypothyroidism. (scialert.net)
  • Thyroid gland disorders, such as hypothyroidism, can impact your entire body. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • For thyroid glands, it can be used to assess thyroid carcinomas, canine hypothyroidism and feline hyperthyroidism. (bris.ac.uk)
  • Hypothyroidism refers to an underactive thyroid gland that does not produce enough of the active hormones T3 and T4. (healthychildren.org)
  • Hypothyroidism is treated using a synthetic thyroid hormone called Levothyroxine. (healthychildren.org)
  • Weight gain due to hypothyroidism is the more common outcome of thyroid disorder. (possible.in)
  • Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland becomes slow. (possible.in)
  • Essentially a disorder of the endocrine system, hypothyroidism is a condition wherein the thyroid gland of the human body is unable to produce enough thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). (possible.in)
  • An underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism) is a condition where your thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones. (gov.sa)
  • Hypothyroidism can often be successfully treated by taking hormone tablets to replace the hormones your thyroid is not making. (gov.sa)
  • An underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism) is a case where your thyroid gland does not produce enough hormones to meet your body's needs, leading to a slowdown in some body functions. (gov.sa)
  • Hypothyroidism happens when the thyroid gland doesn't make enough thyroid hormone. (mayoclinic.org)
  • If you're taking thyroid hormone medicine for hypothyroidism, follow your health care provider's advice on how often you need medical appointments. (mayoclinic.org)
  • Using ginger supplements may benefit people experiencing hypothyroidism, where the thyroid is not producing enough hormones. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Development of Hypothyroidism exactly what is Enlarged Thyroid Gland Symptoms Causes is an issue which can be answered by first taking a look at the leads to and growth of hypothyroidism. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • The indications of hypothyroidism are introduced on if the gland slows or totally ceases the production of thyroid hormones. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • Surgical elimination: Surgical elimination of all or A part of the thyroid gland is another answer to your query, exactly what is hypothyroidism. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • Here's a list of symptoms associated with hypothyroidism (low thyroid). (wholehealthchicago.com)
  • Hypothyroidism (under active thyroid) is extremely common and often remains undiagnosed for many years. (cabothealth.com.au)
  • It is important to note that these side effects can vary depending on whether the thyroid gland is overactive (hyperthyroidism) or underactive (hypothyroidism). (novacorp.biz)
  • When the thyroid gland fails to generate an adequate amount of hormones, it triggers a condition known as hypothyroidism. (novacorp.biz)
  • Hypothyroidism occurs when the thyroid doesn't produce enough thyroid hormone. (orgaanics.com)
  • Hormonal study revealed high levels of serum thyroid hormones, and a tentative diagnosis of hyperthyroidism due to a thyroid tumor was made. (avmi.net)
  • If you have an over-active thyroid, a condition known as hyperthyroidism, black cohosh supplements should be avoided, according to the book, "Dr. Nieca Goldberg's Complete Guide to Women's Health" 1 2 . (healthfully.com)
  • Basedow's disease, an autoimmune disease which causes hyperthyroidism (an abnormally high production of thyroid hormones). (fluoptics.com)
  • Hyperthyroidism (overactivity of the thyroid gland) produces hypermetabolism, a condition in which the body uses abnormal amounts of oxygen, nutrients, and other materials. (keehealthcare.com)
  • Hyperthyroidism, the condition where the thyroid gland is overactive, results in excessive production of thyroid hormones. (novacorp.biz)
  • When the thyroid produces too much hormone, it causes a potentially serious condition called hyperthyroidism. (orgaanics.com)
  • In contrast, hyperthyroidism-caused by too much thyroid hormone-causes bodily processes to speed up. (orgaanics.com)
  • In extreme cases, untreated hyperthyroidism can result in a thyroid storm, in which heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature increase dangerously. (orgaanics.com)
  • The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located inside the front of the lower neck. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Lymph nodes around the thyroid gland are typically not removed unless they appear enlarged or suspicious on a neck ultrasound or at the time of surgery. (thyroid.org)
  • If there is a recurrence, it typically occurs in the other lobe of the thyroid or in lymph nodes in the central neck area (around the thyroid). (thyroid.org)
  • In addition to these risks, thyroid surgery will commonly result in a 1-2 inch scar at the base of the neck that may heal differently in different people. (thyroid.org)
  • Rats were irradiated once with gamma radiation (6 Gy), and an external dose of laser (Wavelength 632.8 nm, 12 mW, CW, Illuminated area 5.73 cm(2), 2.1 mW cm(-2) 120 s, 1.4 J, 0.252 J cm(-2)) twice weekly localized on thyroid region of the neck, for a total of six sessions. (nih.gov)
  • The thyroid gland is below the Adam's apple (called the thyroid cartilage ) in the front of the neck. (cancer.org)
  • Most thyroid cancers are found when patients see a doctor because of new neck lumps (called nodules). (cancer.org)
  • The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the middle of the neck. (healthychildren.org)
  • Often, your doctor will also be able to palpate an enlarged thyroid gland in the neck. (healthychildren.org)
  • The thyroid is a butterfly-shaped endocrine (hormone secreting) gland in the neck that is found on both sides of the trachea (windpipe). (askdrshah.com)
  • The thyroid gland which occurs in the base region of our neck is a very important endocrine gland which regulates hormone secretion for a healthy body. (possible.in)
  • The thyroid gland is a small butterfly-shaped gland in the front part of the neck. (gov.sa)
  • The thyroid gland is located at the base of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. (mayoclinic.org)
  • The thyroid is an endocrine gland that sits in the neck. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • He then removes all or part of the thyroid gland (and sometimes lymph nodes in the neck). (fluoptics.com)
  • These tiny glands at the base of the neck, at the back of the thyroid gland, are not always easy to locate, even for experienced surgeons. (fluoptics.com)
  • The thyroid gland is really a butterfly shaped gland located at The bottom of your neck. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • Located in the front of the neck, the thyroid gland helps regulate most of our body's metabolic processes by releasing hormones into the bloodstream that affect everything from energy levels to digestion. (doddingtonlodge.com)
  • The thyroid gland is located in the forward (anterior) part of the neck just under the skin and in front of the Adam's apple. (keehealthcare.com)
  • If a person has a goiter, which is an enlargement of the thyroid gland that causes swelling in the front of the neck, the swollen gland may cause difficulties with swallowing or breathing. (keehealthcare.com)
  • The parathyroid glands are located in the neck, right behind the thyroid glands. (medigac.com)
  • The parathyroid glands are little pea-sized glands found behind the butterfly-shaped thyroid gland in the neck. (medigac.com)
  • The inferior thyroid artery is a blood vessel that runs through the neck. (medigac.com)
  • This small butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck plays a crucial role in regulating the body's metabolism. (novacorp.biz)
  • The thyroid gland, a small gland resembling a graceful butterfly, is located in the front of the neck, just below the Adam's apple. (novacorp.biz)
  • The thyroid gland, located in the neck, is a small gland in the shape of a butterfly. (novacorp.biz)
  • The thyroid gland is located in the lower part of the neck. (thyroidcentral.com)
  • Most people don't think much about their thyroid, but this small, butterfly-shaped gland at the base of your neck produces thyroid hormones that influence every tissue in the body. (orgaanics.com)
  • CONCLUSION: thyroid tissue can appear as unilateral or bilateral asymmetric masses on neck CT scans after laryngectomy. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Offering valuable insight both for senior clinicians and graduate students, this publication will be of central interest to basic scientists involved in developmental biology as well as to pediatricians and endocrinologists dealing with patients with congenital disorders of thyroid function. (karger.com)
  • A Review of Literature on Thyroid Hormone Disorders Originated from Extra Thyroidal Illness J. Biol. (scialert.net)
  • Female reproduction physiology adversely manipulated by thyroid disorders: A review of literature. (scialert.net)
  • Clinical diagnostic laboratory play a crucial role in the management of thyroid disorders: a literature review. (scialert.net)
  • Can I Continue Working with Thyroid Gland Disorders? (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • Thyroid gland disorders can make working difficult. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • Thyroid gland disorders are types of endocrine system disorders. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • Over- of under-production of thyroid hormones is the most common thyroid gland disorders. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • Most thyroid disorders, including thyroid cancer, are treatable. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • The body systems, body functions affected, as well as the exact symptoms and their severity vary from one person with thyroid gland disorders to the next. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • Additionally, the effects on the immune system can limit what types of work environment are safe for those with some types of thyroid gland disorders. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • People who have had thyroid gland disorders since childhood may be unable to perform many types of physical work due to growth disorders and the problems associated with them. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • As with the effects of thyroid gland disorders on your physical ability to work, the impact on your mental ability to work depends on which symptoms you have and how severe they are. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • In some cases, the psychiatric conditions which can accompany thyroid gland disorders make it impossible to concentrate for extended periods of time. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • Thyroid gland disorders fall under this category, in Section 9 of the Blue Book. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • However, thyroid conditions are one of the most common forms of endocrine disorders globally. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Traditional Algerian medicine commonly uses the herb Atriplex halimus to manage thyroid disorders. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • This year, we are focusing on educating people about thyroid cancer and its risk factors, encouraging patients to maintain regular check-ups, and providing resources for those living with thyroid disorders. (doddingtonlodge.com)
  • Besides these primary conditions, thyroid gland disorders can impact other bodily systems. (novacorp.biz)
  • Does Thyroid Gland Disorders curable with Homeopathy Treatment? (drpositivehomeopathy.com)
  • Autoimmune disorders are the most common cause of thyroid problems. (orgaanics.com)
  • To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that rheumatoid nodules have been encountered in the thyroid gland. (medscape.com)
  • Thyroid nodules are common. (thyroid.org)
  • Virtually everyone will develop small thyroid nodules (less than 1 cm in size) that can be detected by ultrasound by the time they reach age 65. (thyroid.org)
  • The question arising is the possibility of improving the accuracy of FNA biopsy in tumor detection within cold nodules of the thyroid by combined use of scintigraphy and ultrasound-guided FNA biopsy. (uni-regensburg.de)
  • For example, thyroid nodules usually do not require treatment, because they are too small to cause symptoms. (nih.gov)
  • Useful to monitor nodules and patients after thyroid surgery for carcinoma. (mhmedical.com)
  • Both cancerous and noncancerous tumors (frequently called nodules) may develop in the thyroid gland. (keehealthcare.com)
  • If other diseases or nodules are present, the surgeon may remove only part of the gland. (keehealthcare.com)
  • 2015 American Thyroid Association Management Guidelines for Adult Patients with Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer: The American Thyroid Association Guidelines Task Force on Thyroid Nodules and Differentiated Thyroid Cancer. (nih.gov)
  • Other causes of thyroid dysfunction include side effects from medication, surgery or radiation treatment, nodules (non-cancerous lumps in the thyroid), inflammation of the thyroid gland, which can be caused by viruses or bacteria, and consuming too much or too little iodine. (orgaanics.com)
  • Study participants with TSH levels at the low end of the normal range - signaling they had more active thyroid glands - were more likely to have depression symptoms emerge during the course of the study. (science20.com)
  • The hormone levels in the thyroid are still within the normal range at this stage and symptoms are only minimal. (admin.ch)
  • One of the symptoms of menopause is hot flashes, which can be caused by thyroid imbalances. (healthfully.com)
  • Most babies born without a thyroid gland or with a gland that doesn't work correctly don't have symptoms right away. (mayoclinic.org)
  • When asking the problem exactly what is Enlarged Thyroid Gland Symptoms Causes , we should look 1st at the thyroid gland. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • As many organisations are joining forces to spread awareness this month, we have listed a few places where you can find more useful information on thyroid health below, these include various aspects of thyroid health including diet and lifestyle choices, symptoms management, early detection methods, and treatment options. (doddingtonlodge.com)
  • If you experience several of these symptoms, please visit your doctor and ask for a thyroid blood test. (cabothealth.com.au)
  • Fortunately there are a range of options available now, and porcine thyroid hormone can make you feel significantly better if regular thyroxine isn't addressing your thyroid symptoms. (cabothealth.com.au)
  • It is imperative to seek medical attention if any symptoms associated with thyroid gland dysfunction emerge. (novacorp.biz)
  • Whether the thyroid is underactive or overactive, individuals may experience a wide array of symptoms that can impact their physical and mental well-being. (novacorp.biz)
  • The exact symptoms of thyroid dysfunction depend on whether there is too much thyroid hormone, or too little. (orgaanics.com)
  • The thyroid gland has an important role in regulating the body's metabolism, but researchers say it can also influence mental health. (science20.com)
  • Now, a new study in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism has found an association between depression and thyroid activity variations. (science20.com)
  • But a study published in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism (May, 2013) revealed that when Armour Thyroid was compared to Synthroid, almost half the participants felt better, scored higher on cognitive tests and lost more weight on the natural thyroid supplement. (peoplespharmacy.com)
  • These results suggest the possibility that long-term alcoholism can disturb the normal structure of the thyroid gland, besides its well-known effects on the peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormones. (ac.be)
  • Our thyroid gland, which is located in our necks, affects out body's metabolism which, in turn, affects several other body functions and systems. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • The function of the thyroid gland is to take up iodine from the foods that we eat and to convert it into thyroid hormones namely Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3) and Calcitonin (which is involved in calcium metabolism). (askdrshah.com)
  • The regulation of the metabolism of every cell in the body requires thyroid hormones. (askdrshah.com)
  • Your thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate your metabolism. (cabothealth.com.au)
  • Hormones of both glands affect a large number of body processes, from metabolism to blood pressure. (thyroidcentral.com)
  • Our metabolism, fertility, ability to regulate temperature and heart rate, sleep, muscle strength and even our mood can be affected when the thyroid isn't functioning well. (orgaanics.com)
  • Approximately half of patients undergoing removal of half of the thyroid will need thyroid hormone supplements, while all of the patients having their entire thyroid removed will require thyroid hormone pills. (thyroid.org)
  • You may also have surgery if you have an overactive thyroid gland and do not want to have radioactive iodine treatment, or you cannot be treated with antithyroid medicines. (medlineplus.gov)
  • If you have an overactive thyroid gland, you will be treated with medicine. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The thyroid gland is the first of the body's endocrine glands to develop, on approximately the 24th day of gestation. (medscape.com)
  • The thyroid is one of the body's endocrine glands, which means that it secretes its products inside the body, into the blood or lymph. (keehealthcare.com)
  • Surgery for papillary thyroid microcarcinomas usually consists of removing the lobe of the thyroid gland containing the microcarcinoma. (thyroid.org)
  • This kind tends to grow very slowly and is most often in only one lobe of the thyroid gland. (cancer.org)
  • The thyroid gland is an element with the endocrine system and releases the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • Thyroxine is one of the hormones which have been produced by the thyroid gland, and using this can support stage out your thyroid levels. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • Papillary carcinoma of the thyroid gland. (uni-regensburg.de)
  • The reemergence of differentiated thyroid gland carcinoma after a period of remission. (nih.gov)
  • Thyroid Carcinoma, Version 2.2022, NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology. (nih.gov)
  • Thyroid gland medullary carcinoma that is resistant to treatment. (nih.gov)
  • Molecular elements of apoptosis-regulating pathways in follicular thyroid cells: mining for novel therapeutic targets in the treatment of thyroid carcinoma. (nih.gov)
  • Peptide receptor radionuclide therapy in patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma: predictors and pitfalls. (nih.gov)
  • Early prediction of lenvatinib treatment efficacy by using (18)F-FDG PET/CT in patients with unresectable or advanced thyroid carcinoma that is refractory to radioiodine treatment: a protocol for a non-randomized single-arm multicenter observational study. (nih.gov)
  • However, the SLC26A4 hyperactivity was recently associated with the emergence of autoimmune thyroid diseases (AITD) and asthma among human and mouse model. (nih.gov)
  • Having an autoimmune disorder in which your body attacks the thyroid gland (e.g. (gov.sa)
  • Autoimmune disorder can occasionally trigger Your system to error thyroid cells for invading cells, triggering Your whole body's immune procedure to assault. (yourfirsthealthcare.com)
  • The other explanation for the escalation of thyroid conditions is autoimmune disease. (cabothealth.com.au)
  • For more information see our books Your Thyroid Problems Solved or Healing Autoimmune Disease: A Plan to Help your Immune System and reduce Inflammation . (cabothealth.com.au)
  • Black cohosh helps limit the activity of your hypothalamus, which in turn limits its production of corticotropin-releasing hormones which stimulate your adrenal gland to produce adrenaline. (healthfully.com)
  • The adrenal gland can be seen as the engine of the body. (thyroidcentral.com)
  • The adrenal gland is located near the kidneys. (thyroidcentral.com)
  • Everybody knows that we can accelerate indefinitely, but it is useless if the engine (the adrenal gland) is not functioning. (thyroidcentral.com)
  • Because the thyroid and adrenal gland are so connected, adrenal fatigue may be balanced with your hormone replacement therapy medications. (thyroidcentral.com)
  • If you are undergoing hormone replacement therapy it is important to check the functioning of the adrenal gland. (thyroidcentral.com)
  • While many of these glands are specialized, affecting just one area or bodily function, the hormones produced by the thyroid gland affect the whole body. (orgaanics.com)
  • To evaluate the effects of radioiodine therapy on salivary flow in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer. (bvsalud.org)
  • Current practice in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer. (nih.gov)
  • The thyroid produces hormones responsible for regulating the body's functions. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • Therefore a healthy thyroid gland helps you maintain an ideal weight and a normal body temperature. (cabothealth.com.au)
  • Research from 2019 shows that using a methanolic extract, such as ashwagandha, supports thyroid function by reducing oxidative stress and improving thyroid hormones. (medicalnewstoday.com)
  • It occurs when the immune system attacks the thyroid gland with antibodies and inflammatory chemicals. (cabothealth.com.au)
  • Central dogma in thyroid dysfunction: A review on structure modification of TSHR as a cornerstone for thyroid abnormalities. (scialert.net)
  • Thyroid Gland Side Effects are the potential adverse effects that can occur as a result of dysfunction or imbalances in the thyroid gland. (novacorp.biz)
  • The side effects caused by thyroid gland dysfunction can manifest differently depending on whether the thyroid is underactive or overactive. (novacorp.biz)
  • In conclusion, the thyroid gland is a crucial regulator of various bodily functions, and any dysfunction can have significant effects. (novacorp.biz)
  • Being aware of these effects and seeking medical assistance when necessary is essential to ensure timely diagnosis and appropriate management of thyroid gland dysfunction. (novacorp.biz)
  • Fortunately, thyroid function can be assessed with a simple blood test, and many effective treatments exist for thyroid dysfunction. (orgaanics.com)
  • The pale pink parathyroid glands create parathyroid hormone, which raises calcium levels in the blood. (medigac.com)
  • These conditions range from cancer to goiter to conditions which cause the thyroid gland to produce too little or too much thyroid hormone. (disability-benefits-help.org)
  • Thyroid cancer or a goiter with a significant increase in thyroid volume. (fluoptics.com)
  • In contrast to more advanced thyroid cancers, generally there is no need to administer radioactive iodine after surgery for papillary microcarcinomas. (thyroid.org)
  • A study was made in 66 rabbits and 19 cats of the effects of various drugs on blood flow in the thyroid in situ, storage of radioactive iodine in the thyroid (immediately after i.v. injection of NaII31) and release of radioactive thyroxin (1 to 3 days after injection of I131). (erowid.org)
  • Radioactive Iodine Therapy in Differentiated Thyroid Cancer: 2020 Update. (nih.gov)
  • Radioactive Iodine-Refractory Differentiated Thyroid Cancer and Redifferentiation Therapy. (nih.gov)
  • As the thyroid gland descends, it forms its mature shape, with a median isthmus connecting the two lateral lobes. (medscape.com)
  • The thyroid gland is fashioned like a butterfly, with two wings or lobes on either side of the windpipe that are connected by an isthmus, a tissue bridge that spans the front of the windpipe. (medigac.com)
  • The majority of thyroid tumours are detected in the lobes, with only 2-9 percent identified in the isthmus. (medigac.com)
  • Thus, there were 26 remaining thyroid lobes, of which six were round and 20 were oval or lobular. (elsevierpure.com)
  • The guide summarizes the findings, explains how and why the study was conducted, and includes information about the treatment of thyroid disease. (cdc.gov)
  • Therefore the treatment of thyroid conditions involves correcting nutrient deficiencies and helping the immune system. (cabothealth.com.au)
  • Women, far more than men, can sense when their hormones are out of whack, whether they're feeling the effects of an underactive or overactive thyroid, adrenal fatigue, or some imbalance in the monthly hormonal roller-coaster ride of their menstrual cycles (or the relentless downhill course of hormone depletion in menopause). (wholehealthchicago.com)
  • You may need to have tests that show exactly where the abnormal thyroid growth is located. (medlineplus.gov)
  • In this volume world-class researchers review the advances of the past decade in the study of normal and abnormal organogenesis of the thyroid gland and of the ontogeny of its function. (karger.com)
  • Abnormal serum thyroid hormones concentration with healthy functional gland: A review on the metabolic role of thyroid hormones transporter proteins. (scialert.net)
  • The structure is important in thyroid surgery as it is closely related to the recurrent laryngeal nerve, the inferior thyroid artery, Berry's ligament and the parathyroid glands. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fitzgerald P.A. Fitzgerald, Paul A. Diseases of the Thyroid Gland: Thyroid Testing. (mhmedical.com)
  • This book is a unique in-depth and comprehensive reference that covers all surgically relevant thyroid and parathyroid diseases and presents the latest information on their management. (tactilebook.net)
  • Surgery of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands empowers the reader to diagnose benign and malignant diseases effectively, implement the latest cutting-edge techniques, and achieve optimal patient outcomes. (tactilebook.net)
  • Mental health issues like mood swings and cognitive impairments are commonly associated with imbalances in the thyroid gland. (novacorp.biz)
  • Some common side effects of thyroid gland issues include fatigue, weight gain or loss, changes in appetite, sensitivity to cold or heat, hair loss, and dry skin. (novacorp.biz)
  • There is a 4% risk of the tumor spreading to lymph nodes around the thyroid at 10 years - which means, approximately 96% of the tumors do not spread. (thyroid.org)
  • Since the vast majority of thyroid microcarcinomas will not cause any health risks during the patient's life, doctors believe that there are 2 correct approaches to managing these tumors: surgical excision versus active surveillance. (thyroid.org)
  • The initial descent of the thyroid gland follows the primitive heart and occurs anterior to the pharyngeal gut. (medscape.com)
  • Myxedema: It is a very rare, and potentially life-threatening, condition that occurs when thyroid hormones are too low. (gov.sa)
  • Stereological analysis showed a significant increase in the volume density of follicular epithelium /Vve/, its thickness /t/, index of activation of the thyroid gland /Ia=Vve/Vvc/, and significant reduction in volume density of colloid /Vvc/ in all the periods examined. (ac.be)
  • Inflammation of the thyroid gland should be diagnosed and given a severity grade whenever present. (nih.gov)
  • The type of inflammation should be indicated in the diagnosis with a modifier (e.g., thyroid gland - Inflammation, chronic). (nih.gov)
  • In the absence of other changes characteristic of inflammation (e.g., edema, necrosis, degeneration), a diagnosis of cellular infiltrate with the cell type identified (e.g., thyroid gland - infiltrate, lymphoid) may be preferred. (nih.gov)
  • The diagnosis should indicate whether the inflammation is bilateral, with the severity grade based on the more severely affected thyroid. (nih.gov)
  • Ultrasonography has become an important imaging modality for the evaluation of small structures, such as thyroid glands, lymph nodes and adrenal glands, because it is relatively inexpensive, it is non-invasive and it does not require general anesthesia. (bris.ac.uk)
  • Thyroid removal is an operation performed under general anesthesia which lasts from 40 minutes to 1.5 hours. (fluoptics.com)
  • The thyroid gland forms as a proliferation of endodermal epithelial cells on the median surface of the developing pharyngeal floor. (medscape.com)
  • These microcarcinomas typically are papillary thyroid cancer , the most common type of thyroid cancer. (thyroid.org)
  • Medullary ca ncer is a rare type of thyroid cancer. (cancer.org)
  • Anaplastic cancer is a rare type of thyroid cancer. (cancer.org)
  • The thyroid is classified as an endocrine hormone, which means it produces hormones. (hghprescription.com)
  • The thyroid produces several hormones that have two primary functions: they increase the synthesis of proteins in most of the body's tissues, and they raise the level of the body's oxygen consumption. (keehealthcare.com)
  • The endocrine system is the network of glands throughout your body that produces hormones. (orgaanics.com)
  • There remains much debate among thyroid cancer specialists about how to manage these small cancers. (thyroid.org)
  • The risk of dying from a small thyroid cancer is extremely small (less than 1 in 1,000 people). (thyroid.org)
  • The important field of thyroid cancer in the context of spontaneous occurrence and as part of familial neoplasia syndromes is described in detail. (karger.com)
  • What is thyroid cancer? (cancer.org)
  • Thyroid cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the thyroid gland. (cancer.org)
  • Thyroid cancer cells can spread to other parts of the body such as the lungs and the bone and grow there. (cancer.org)
  • So even if thyroid cancer spreads to the lung (or any other place), it's still called thyroid cancer, not called lung cancer. (cancer.org)
  • There are 4 main types of thyroid cancer . (cancer.org)
  • Papillary thyroid cancer is the most common kind of thyroid cancer. (cancer.org)
  • How does the doctor know I have thyroid cancer? (cancer.org)
  • Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research evaluation of thyroid disease. (cdc.gov)
  • If directly assigning SS2000, use the *Thyroid Gland* chapter on page 276 of the [SS2000 on-line manual](https://seer.cancer.gov/tools/ssm/ssm2000/SSSM2000-122012.pdf#page=276). (cancer.gov)
  • If cancer has been diagnosed, all or most of the gland is removed. (keehealthcare.com)
  • Differentiated Thyroid Cancer-Treatment: State of the Art. (nih.gov)
  • Management of thyroid cancer: United Kingdom National Multidisciplinary Guidelines. (nih.gov)
  • Update on thyroid cancer treatment. (nih.gov)
  • All-trans-retinoic acid treatment inhibits the growth of retinoic acid receptor beta messenger ribonucleic acid expressing thyroid cancer cell lines but does not reinduce the expression of thyroid-specific genes. (nih.gov)
  • Molecular basis and targeted therapy in thyroid cancer: Progress and opportunities. (nih.gov)
  • From 1979 to 1983, 94 papillary carcinomas of the thyroid gland were examined histologically in our institute after a preoperative cytologic examination. (uni-regensburg.de)
  • Barberet, V & Saunders, JH 2010, ' Ultrasonographic examination of selected small structures in dogs and cats: thyroid glands, lymph nodes and adrenal glands ', Vlaams diergeneeskundig tijdschrift , vol. 79, no. 2, pp. 147-155. (bris.ac.uk)