Inflammatory responses of the epithelium of the URINARY TRACT to microbial invasions. They are often bacterial infections with associated BACTERIURIA and PYURIA.
The duct which coveys URINE from the pelvis of the KIDNEY through the URETERS, BLADDER, and URETHRA.
A musculomembranous sac along the URINARY TRACT. URINE flows from the KIDNEYS into the bladder via the ureters (URETER), and is held there until URINATION.
Pathological processes of the URINARY TRACT in both males and females.
Symptoms of disorders of the lower urinary tract including frequency, NOCTURIA; urgency, incomplete voiding, and URINARY INCONTINENCE. They are often associated with OVERACTIVE BLADDER; URINARY INCOMPETENCE; and INTERSTITIAL CYSTITIS. Lower urinary tract symptoms in males were traditionally called PROSTATISM.
Passage of a CATHETER into the URINARY BLADDER or kidney.
Substances capable of killing agents causing urinary tract infections or of preventing them from spreading.
Liquid by-product of excretion produced in the kidneys, temporarily stored in the bladder until discharge through the URETHRA.
The presence of bacteria in the urine which is normally bacteria-free. These bacteria are from the URINARY TRACT and are not contaminants of the surrounding tissues. Bacteriuria can be symptomatic or asymptomatic. Significant bacteriuria is an indicator of urinary tract infection.
Retrograde flow of urine from the URINARY BLADDER into the URETER. This is often due to incompetence of the vesicoureteral valve leading to ascending bacterial infection into the KIDNEY.
Inflammation of the KIDNEY involving the renal parenchyma (the NEPHRONS); KIDNEY PELVIS; and KIDNEY CALICES. It is characterized by ABDOMINAL PAIN; FEVER; NAUSEA; VOMITING; and occasionally DIARRHEA.
Properties, functions, and processes of the URINARY TRACT as a whole or of any of its parts.
Low-density crystals or stones in any part of the URINARY TRACT. Their chemical compositions often include CALCIUM OXALATE, magnesium ammonium phosphate (struvite), CYSTINE, or URIC ACID.
Abnormalities in the process of URINE voiding, including bladder control, frequency of URINATION, as well as the volume and composition of URINE.
Involuntary loss of URINE, such as leaking of urine. It is a symptom of various underlying pathological processes. Major types of incontinence include URINARY URGE INCONTINENCE and URINARY STRESS INCONTINENCE.
Inflammation of the URINARY BLADDER, either from bacterial or non-bacterial causes. Cystitis is usually associated with painful urination (dysuria), increased frequency, urgency, and suprapubic pain.
Infections with bacteria of the species ESCHERICHIA COLI.
One of a pair of thick-walled tubes that transports urine from the KIDNEY PELVIS to the URINARY BLADDER.
Radiography of any part of the urinary tract.
Infections with bacteria of the genus PROTEUS.
Pathological processes of the URINARY BLADDER.
Inability to empty the URINARY BLADDER with voiding (URINATION).
Strains of Escherichia coli that preferentially grow and persist within the urinary tract. They exhibit certain virulence factors and strategies that cause urinary tract infections.
A tube that transports URINE from the URINARY BLADDER to the outside of the body in both the sexes. It also has a reproductive function in the male by providing a passage for SPERM.
Tumors or cancer of the URINARY TRACT in either the male or the female.
The mechanical laws of fluid dynamics as they apply to urine transport.
The presence of white blood cells (LEUKOCYTES) in the urine. It is often associated with bacterial infections of the urinary tract. Pyuria without BACTERIURIA can be caused by TUBERCULOSIS, stones, or cancer.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that is frequently isolated from clinical specimens. Its most common site of infection is the urinary tract.
A urinary anti-infective agent effective against most gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. Although sulfonamides and antibiotics are usually the agents of choice for urinary tract infections, nitrofurantoin is widely used for prophylaxis and long-term suppression.
Examination of urine by chemical, physical, or microscopic means. Routine urinalysis usually includes performing chemical screening tests, determining specific gravity, observing any unusual color or odor, screening for bacteriuria, and examining the sediment microscopically.
Abnormal enlargement or swelling of a KIDNEY due to dilation of the KIDNEY CALICES and the KIDNEY PELVIS. It is often associated with obstruction of the URETER or chronic kidney diseases that prevents normal drainage of urine into the URINARY BLADDER.
Partial or complete blockage in any part of the URETHRA that can lead to difficulty or inability to empty the URINARY BLADDER. It is characterized by an enlarged, often damaged, bladder with frequent urges to void.
The flattened, funnel-shaped expansion connecting the URETER to the KIDNEY CALICES.
The epithelial lining of the URINARY TRACT.
Cancer or tumors of the URETER which may cause obstruction leading to hydroureter, HYDRONEPHROSIS, and PYELONEPHRITIS. HEMATURIA is a common symptom.
Tumors or cancer of the URINARY BLADDER.
Discharge of URINE, liquid waste processed by the KIDNEY, from the body.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
Lower urinary tract symptom, such as slow urinary stream, associated with PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA in older men.
Substances that reduce the growth or reproduction of BACTERIA.
Blocked urine flow through the bladder neck, the narrow internal urethral opening at the base of the URINARY BLADDER. Narrowing or strictures of the URETHRA can be congenital or acquired. It is often observed in males with enlarged PROSTATE glands.
Involuntary discharge of URINE as a result of physical activities that increase abdominal pressure on the URINARY BLADDER without detrusor contraction or overdistended bladder. The subtypes are classified by the degree of leakage, descent and opening of the bladder neck and URETHRA without bladder contraction, and sphincter deficiency.
Temporary or permanent diversion of the flow of urine through the ureter away from the URINARY BLADDER in the presence of a bladder disease or after cystectomy. There is a variety of techniques: direct anastomosis of ureter and bowel, cutaneous ureterostomy, ileal, jejunal or colon conduit, ureterosigmoidostomy, etc. (From Campbell's Urology, 6th ed, p2654)
A pyrimidine inhibitor of dihydrofolate reductase, it is an antibacterial related to PYRIMETHAMINE. It is potentiated by SULFONAMIDES and the TRIMETHOPRIM, SULFAMETHOXAZOLE DRUG COMBINATION is the form most often used. It is sometimes used alone as an antimalarial. TRIMETHOPRIM RESISTANCE has been reported.
Body organ that filters blood for the secretion of URINE and that regulates ion concentrations.
Generally refers to the digestive structures stretching from the MOUTH to ANUS, but does not include the accessory glandular organs (LIVER; BILIARY TRACT; PANCREAS).
Increase in constituent cells in the PROSTATE, leading to enlargement of the organ (hypertrophy) and adverse impact on the lower urinary tract function. This can be caused by increased rate of cell proliferation, reduced rate of cell death, or both.
Dysfunction of the URINARY BLADDER due to disease of the central or peripheral nervous system pathways involved in the control of URINATION. This is often associated with SPINAL CORD DISEASES, but may also be caused by BRAIN DISEASES or PERIPHERAL NERVE DISEASES.
Catheters inserted into the URINARY BLADDER or kidney for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes.
A plant species of the family VACCINIUM known for the sour fruit which is sometimes used for urinary tract infections.
Thin, filamentous protein structures, including proteinaceous capsular antigens (fimbrial antigens), that mediate adhesion of E. coli to surfaces and play a role in pathogenesis. They have a high affinity for various epithelial cells.
A nontoxic radiopharmaceutical that is used in the diagnostic imaging of the renal cortex.
Symptom of overactive detrusor muscle of the URINARY BLADDER that contracts with abnormally high frequency and urgency. Overactive bladder is characterized by the frequent feeling of needing to urinate during the day, during the night, or both. URINARY INCONTINENCE may or may not be present.
This drug combination has proved to be an effective therapeutic agent with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. It is effective in the treatment of many infections, including PNEUMOCYSTIS PNEUMONIA in AIDS.
Invasion of the host RESPIRATORY SYSTEM by microorganisms, usually leading to pathological processes or diseases.
Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the urinary bladder.
Thin, hairlike appendages, 1 to 20 microns in length and often occurring in large numbers, present on the cells of gram-negative bacteria, particularly Enterobacteriaceae and Neisseria. Unlike flagella, they do not possess motility, but being protein (pilin) in nature, they possess antigenic and hemagglutinating properties. They are of medical importance because some fimbriae mediate the attachment of bacteria to cells via adhesins (ADHESINS, BACTERIAL). Bacterial fimbriae refer to common pili, to be distinguished from the preferred use of "pili", which is confined to sex pili (PILI, SEX).
Stones in the URINARY BLADDER; also known as vesical calculi, bladder stones, or cystoliths.
A malignant neoplasm derived from TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIAL CELLS, occurring chiefly in the URINARY BLADDER; URETERS; or RENAL PELVIS.
Surgery performed on the urinary tract or its parts in the male or female. For surgery of the male genitalia, UROLOGIC SURGICAL PROCEDURES, MALE is available.
Infections resulting from the use of catheters. Proper aseptic technique, site of catheter placement, material composition, and virulence of the organism are all factors that can influence possible infection.
A bacteriostatic antibacterial agent that interferes with folic acid synthesis in susceptible bacteria. Its broad spectrum of activity has been limited by the development of resistance. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p208)
Painful URINATION. It is often associated with infections of the lower URINARY TRACT.
Methods and procedures for the diagnosis of diseases or dysfunction of the urinary tract or its organs or demonstration of its physiological processes.
Presence of blood in the urine.
Infections by bacteria, general or unspecified.
Formation of stones in any part of the URINARY TRACT, usually in the KIDNEY; URINARY BLADDER; or the URETER.
Blockage in any part of the URETER causing obstruction of urine flow from the kidney to the URINARY BLADDER. The obstruction may be congenital, acquired, unilateral, bilateral, complete, partial, acute, or chronic. Depending on the degree and duration of the obstruction, clinical features vary greatly such as HYDRONEPHROSIS and obstructive nephropathy.
Fibers that arise from cells within the cerebral cortex, pass through the medullary pyramid, and descend in the spinal cord. Many authorities say the pyramidal tracts include both the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts.
Narrow pieces of material impregnated or covered with a substance used to produce a chemical reaction. The strips are used in detecting, measuring, producing, etc., other substances. (From Dorland, 28th ed)
Stones in the KIDNEY, usually formed in the urine-collecting area of the kidney (KIDNEY PELVIS). Their sizes vary and most contains CALCIUM OXALATE.
Congenital structural abnormalities of the UROGENITAL SYSTEM in either the male or the female.
Pathological processes involving the URETHRA.
Pathological processes involving the URETERS.
Pathological processes of the KIDNEY or its component tissues.
Any tests that demonstrate the relative efficacy of different chemotherapeutic agents against specific microorganisms (i.e., bacteria, fungi, viruses).
Gram-negative rods isolated from human urine and feces.
Involuntary discharge of URINE that is associated with an abrupt and strong desire to void. It is usually related to the involuntary contractions of the detrusor muscle of the bladder (detrusor hyperreflexia or detrusor instability).
Inflammation of the KIDNEY PELVIS and KIDNEY CALICES where urine is collected before discharge, but does not involve the renal parenchyma (the NEPHRONS) where urine is processed.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that occurs in the intestines of humans and a wide variety of animals, as well as in manure, soil, and polluted waters. Its species are pathogenic, causing urinary tract infections and are also considered secondary invaders, causing septic lesions at other sites of the body.
Studies used to test etiologic hypotheses in which inferences about an exposure to putative causal factors are derived from data relating to characteristics of persons under study or to events or experiences in their past. The essential feature is that some of the persons under study have the disease or outcome of interest and their characteristics are compared with those of unaffected persons.
A genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria whose organisms arrange singly, in pairs, or short chains. This genus is commonly found in the intestinal tract and is an opportunistic pathogen that can give rise to bacteremia, pneumonia, urinary tract and several other types of human infection.
Elements of limited time intervals, contributing to particular results or situations.
Observation of a population for a sufficient number of persons over a sufficient number of years to generate incidence or mortality rates subsequent to the selection of the study group.
Physicochemical property of fimbriated (FIMBRIAE, BACTERIAL) and non-fimbriated bacteria of attaching to cells, tissue, and nonbiological surfaces. It is a factor in bacterial colonization and pathogenicity.
Fluorescent antibody technique for visualizing antibody-bacteria complexes in urine. The presence or absence of antibody-coated bacteria in urine correlates with localization of urinary tract infection in the kidney or bladder, respectively.
Any infection which a patient contracts in a health-care institution.
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, or inborn or inherited characteristic, which, on the basis of epidemiologic evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
An infant during the first month after birth.
All the organs involved in reproduction and the formation and release of URINE. It includes the kidneys, ureters, BLADDER; URETHRA, and the organs of reproduction - ovaries, UTERUS; FALLOPIAN TUBES; VAGINA; and CLITORIS in women and the testes; SEMINAL VESICLES; PROSTATE; seminal ducts; and PENIS in men.
Creatinine is a waste product that's generated from muscle metabolism, typically filtered through the kidneys and released in urine, with increased levels in blood indicating impaired kidney function.
Those components of an organism that determine its capacity to cause disease but are not required for its viability per se. Two classes have been characterized: TOXINS, BIOLOGICAL and surface adhesion molecules that effect the ability of the microorganism to invade and colonize a host. (From Davis et al., Microbiology, 4th ed. p486)
A human disease caused by the infection of parasitic worms SCHISTOSOMA HAEMATOBIUM. It is endemic in AFRICA and parts of the MIDDLE EAST. Tissue damages most often occur in the URINARY TRACT, specifically the URINARY BLADDER.
Endoscopic examination, therapy or surgery of the ureter.
The degree of pathogenicity within a group or species of microorganisms or viruses as indicated by case fatality rates and/or the ability of the organism to invade the tissues of the host. The pathogenic capacity of an organism is determined by its VIRULENCE FACTORS.
The return of a sign, symptom, or disease after a remission.
Any infection acquired in the community, that is, contrasted with those acquired in a health care facility (CROSS INFECTION). An infection would be classified as community-acquired if the patient had not recently been in a health care facility or been in contact with someone who had been recently in a health care facility.
Frequent URINATION at night that interrupts sleep. It is often associated with outflow obstruction, DIABETES MELLITUS, or bladder inflammation (CYSTITIS).
An antibiotic produced by Streptomyces fradiae.
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
A family of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that do not form endospores. Its organisms are distributed worldwide with some being saprophytes and others being plant and animal parasites. Many species are of considerable economic importance due to their pathogenic effects on agriculture and livestock.
Evaluation undertaken to assess the results or consequences of management and procedures used in combating disease in order to determine the efficacy, effectiveness, safety, and practicability of these interventions in individual cases or series.
A broad-spectrum antimicrobial carboxyfluoroquinoline.
A mercaptodicarboxylic acid used as an antidote to heavy metal poisoning because it forms strong chelates with them.
Proteins that are structural components of bacterial fimbriae (FIMBRIAE, BACTERIAL) or sex pili (PILI, SEX).
A short-acting sulfonamide antibacterial with activity against a wide range of gram- negative and gram-positive organisms.
One of the three domains of life (the others being Eukarya and ARCHAEA), also called Eubacteria. They are unicellular prokaryotic microorganisms which generally possess rigid cell walls, multiply by cell division, and exhibit three principal forms: round or coccal, rodlike or bacillary, and spiral or spirochetal. Bacteria can be classified by their response to OXYGEN: aerobic, anaerobic, or facultatively anaerobic; by the mode by which they obtain their energy: chemotrophy (via chemical reaction) or PHOTOTROPHY (via light reaction); for chemotrophs by their source of chemical energy: CHEMOLITHOTROPHY (from inorganic compounds) or chemoorganotrophy (from organic compounds); and by their source for CARBON; NITROGEN; etc.; HETEROTROPHY (from organic sources) or AUTOTROPHY (from CARBON DIOXIDE). They can also be classified by whether or not they stain (based on the structure of their CELL WALLS) with CRYSTAL VIOLET dye: gram-negative or gram-positive.
Catheters designed to be left within an organ or passage for an extended period of time.
A species of gram-positive bacteria in the family STAPHYLOCOCCACEAE. It commonly causes urinary tract infections in humans.
Inbred CBA mice are a strain of laboratory mice that have been selectively bred to be genetically identical and uniform, which makes them useful for scientific research, particularly in the areas of immunology and cancer.
A species of gram-positive, coccoid bacteria commonly isolated from clinical specimens and the human intestinal tract. Most strains are nonhemolytic.
Infections caused by bacteria that retain the crystal violet stain (positive) when treated by the gram-staining method.
Bacteria which lose crystal violet stain but are stained pink when treated by Gram's method.
Structures which collect and store urine and are emptied by catheterization of a cutaneous stoma or internal diversion to the urethra. The reservoirs are surgically created during procedures for urinary diversion.
A group of organs stretching from the MOUTH to the ANUS, serving to breakdown foods, assimilate nutrients, and eliminate waste. In humans, the digestive system includes the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT and the accessory glands (LIVER; BILIARY TRACT; PANCREAS).
A glycosyl-phosphatidyl-inositol (GPI) - anchored membrane protein found on the thick ascending limb of the LOOP OF HENLE. The cleaved form of the protein is found abundantly in URINE.
An abnormal passage in any part of the URINARY TRACT between itself or with other organs.
Measurable and quantifiable biological parameters (e.g., specific enzyme concentration, specific hormone concentration, specific gene phenotype distribution in a population, presence of biological substances) which serve as indices for health- and physiology-related assessments, such as disease risk, psychiatric disorders, environmental exposure and its effects, disease diagnosis, metabolic processes, substance abuse, pregnancy, cell line development, epidemiologic studies, etc.
Substances that prevent infectious agents or organisms from spreading or kill infectious agents in order to prevent the spread of infection.
The aggregation of ERYTHROCYTES by AGGLUTININS, including antibodies, lectins, and viral proteins (HEMAGGLUTINATION, VIRAL).
A topical anti-infective agent effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. It is used for superficial WOUNDS AND INJURIES and skin infections. Nitrofurazone has also been administered orally in the treatment of TRYPANOSOMIASIS.
A synthetic fluoroquinolone (FLUOROQUINOLONES) with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against most gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Norfloxacin inhibits bacterial DNA GYRASE.
Stones in the URETER that are formed in the KIDNEY. They are rarely more than 5 mm in diameter for larger renal stones cannot enter ureters. They are often lodged at the ureteral narrowing and can cause excruciating renal colic.
Pivaloyloxymethyl ester of amdinocillin that is well absorbed orally, but broken down to amdinocillin in the intestinal mucosa. It is active against gram-negative organisms and used as for amdinocillin.
The genital canal in the female, extending from the UTERUS to the VULVA. (Stedman, 25th ed)
Use of antibiotics before, during, or after a diagnostic, therapeutic, or surgical procedure to prevent infectious complications.
The fibrous tissue that replaces normal tissue during the process of WOUND HEALING.
A cystic dilatation of the end of a URETER as it enters into the URINARY BLADDER. It is characterized by the ballooning of the ureteral orifice into the lumen of the bladder and may obstruct urine flow.
Infections with bacteria of the family ENTEROBACTERIACEAE.
A semisynthetic cephalosporin antibiotic with antimicrobial activity similar to that of CEPHALORIDINE or CEPHALOTHIN, but somewhat less potent. It is effective against both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms.
Pathological processes of the female URINARY TRACT and the reproductive system (GENITALIA, FEMALE).
The total number of cases of a given disease in a specified population at a designated time. It is differentiated from INCIDENCE, which refers to the number of new cases in the population at a given time.
Infections caused by bacteria that show up as pink (negative) when treated by the gram-staining method.
Gram-negative, non-motile, capsulated, gas-producing rods found widely in nature and associated with urinary and respiratory infections in humans.
The ability of microorganisms, especially bacteria, to resist or to become tolerant to chemotherapeutic agents, antimicrobial agents, or antibiotics. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
Binary classification measures to assess test results. Sensitivity or recall rate is the proportion of true positives. Specificity is the probability of correctly determining the absence of a condition. (From Last, Dictionary of Epidemiology, 2d ed)
A surgical specialty concerned with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases of the urinary tract in both sexes, and the genital tract in the male. Common urological problems include urinary obstruction, URINARY INCONTINENCE, infections, and UROGENITAL NEOPLASMS.
Nonsusceptibility of bacteria to the action of TRIMETHOPRIM.
An abnormal elevation of body temperature, usually as a result of a pathologic process.
Nitro-phenanthrenes occurring in ARISTOLOCHIACEAE and other plants. They derive from stephanine (APORPHINES) by oxidative ring cleavage. The nitro group is a reactive alkylator (ALKYLATING AGENTS) that binds to biological macromolecules. Ingestion by humans is associated with nephropathy (NEPHRITIS). There is no relationship to the similar named aristolochene (SESQUITERPENES).
The presence of proteins in the urine, an indicator of KIDNEY DISEASES.
Studies in which individuals or populations are followed to assess the outcome of exposures, procedures, or effects of a characteristic, e.g., occurrence of disease.
Cancer or tumors of the URETHRA. Benign epithelial tumors of the urethra usually consist of squamous and transitional cells. Primary urethral carcinomas are rare and typically of squamous cells. Urethral carcinoma is the only urological malignancy that is more common in females than in males.
Infections with bacteria of the genus KLEBSIELLA.
Pain emanating from below the RIBS and above the ILIUM.
Encrustations, formed from microbes (bacteria, algae, fungi, plankton, or protozoa) embedding in extracellular polymers, that adhere to surfaces such as teeth (DENTAL DEPOSITS); PROSTHESES AND IMPLANTS; and catheters. Biofilms are prevented from forming by treating surfaces with DENTIFRICES; DISINFECTANTS; ANTI-INFECTIVE AGENTS; and antifouling agents.
Penetrating and non-penetrating injuries to the spinal cord resulting from traumatic external forces (e.g., WOUNDS, GUNSHOT; WHIPLASH INJURIES; etc.).
Glycosides formed by the reaction of the hydroxyl group on the anomeric carbon atom of mannose with an alcohol to form an acetal. They include both alpha- and beta-mannosides.
Infiltration of inflammatory cells into the parenchyma of PROSTATE. The subtypes are classified by their varied laboratory analysis, clinical presentation and response to treatment.
The number of new cases of a given disease during a given period in a specified population. It also is used for the rate at which new events occur in a defined population. It is differentiated from PREVALENCE, which refers to all cases, new or old, in the population at a given time.
Enumeration by direct count of viable, isolated bacterial, archaeal, or fungal CELLS or SPORES capable of growth on solid CULTURE MEDIA. The method is used routinely by environmental microbiologists for quantifying organisms in AIR; FOOD; and WATER; by clinicians for measuring patients' microbial load; and in antimicrobial drug testing.
A fixed-ratio combination of amoxicillin trihydrate and potassium clavulanate.
A tetraspanin domain-containing uroplakin subtype. It heterodimerizes with UROPLAKIN II to form a component of the asymmetric unit membrane found in urothelial cells.
The status during which female mammals carry their developing young (EMBRYOS or FETUSES) in utero before birth, beginning from FERTILIZATION to BIRTH.
An abnormal passage in the URINARY BLADDER or between the bladder and any surrounding organ.
Excrement from the INTESTINES, containing unabsorbed solids, waste products, secretions, and BACTERIA of the DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
Chemical substances that are destructive to spermatozoa used as topically administered vaginal contraceptives.
Removal of all or part of the PROSTATE, often using a cystoscope and/or resectoscope passed through the URETHRA.
Pathological processes involving the PROSTATE or its component tissues.
The presence of viable bacteria circulating in the blood. Fever, chills, tachycardia, and tachypnea are common acute manifestations of bacteremia. The majority of cases are seen in already hospitalized patients, most of whom have underlying diseases or procedures which render their bloodstreams susceptible to invasion.
The female reproductive organs. The external organs include the VULVA; BARTHOLIN'S GLANDS; and CLITORIS. The internal organs include the VAGINA; UTERUS; OVARY; and FALLOPIAN TUBES.
Soft tissue formed mainly by the pelvic diaphragm, which is composed of the two levator ani and two coccygeus muscles. The pelvic diaphragm lies just below the pelvic aperture (outlet) and separates the pelvic cavity from the PERINEUM. It extends between the PUBIC BONE anteriorly and the COCCYX posteriorly.
Proteins obtained from ESCHERICHIA COLI.
Age as a constituent element or influence contributing to the production of a result. It may be applicable to the cause or the effect of a circumstance. It is used with human or animal concepts but should be differentiated from AGING, a physiological process, and TIME FACTORS which refers only to the passage of time.
Surgical creation of an opening (stoma) in the URINARY BLADDER for drainage.
A sulfathiazole antibacterial agent.
A uroplakin subtype that heterodimerizes with UROPLAKIN IB to form a component of the asymmetric unit membrane found in urothelial cells.
Hospital department responsible for the administration and provision of diagnostic and therapeutic services for the urologic patient.
Naturally occurring or experimentally induced animal diseases with pathological processes sufficiently similar to those of human diseases. They are used as study models for human diseases.
The inability in the male to have a PENILE ERECTION due to psychological or organ dysfunction.
Inorganic compounds that contain magnesium as an integral part of the molecule.
A gland in males that surrounds the neck of the URINARY BLADDER and the URETHRA. It secretes a substance that liquefies coagulated semen. It is situated in the pelvic cavity behind the lower part of the PUBIC SYMPHYSIS, above the deep layer of the triangular ligament, and rests upon the RECTUM.
The presence of albumin in the urine, an indicator of KIDNEY DISEASES.
A beta-N-Acetylhexosaminidase that catalyzes the hydrolysis of terminal, non-reducing 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-beta-glucose residues in chitobiose and higher analogs as well as in glycoproteins. Has been used widely in structural studies on bacterial cell walls and in the study of diseases such as MUCOLIPIDOSIS and various inflammatory disorders of muscle and connective tissue.
The appearance of an abnormally large amount of GLUCOSE in the urine, such as more than 500 mg/day in adults. It can be due to HYPERGLYCEMIA or genetic defects in renal reabsorption (RENAL GLYCOSURIA).
Studies in which subsets of a defined population are identified. These groups may or may not be exposed to factors hypothesized to influence the probability of the occurrence of a particular disease or other outcome. Cohorts are defined populations which, as a whole, are followed in an attempt to determine distinguishing subgroup characteristics.
An anti-infective agent most commonly used in the treatment of urinary tract infections. Its anti-infective action derives from the slow release of formaldehyde by hydrolysis at acidic pH. (From Martindale, The Extra Pharmacopoeia, 30th ed, p173)
The ability of bacteria to resist or to become tolerant to several structurally and functionally distinct drugs simultaneously. This resistance may be acquired through gene mutation or foreign DNA in transmissible plasmids (R FACTORS).
The giving of drugs, chemicals, or other substances by mouth.
Disease having a short and relatively severe course.
```bild{shortcode=!false}
A nongenetic defect due to malformation of the KIDNEY which appears as a bunch of grapes with multiple renal cysts but lacking the normal renal bean shape, and the collection drainage system. This condition can be detected in-utero with ULTRASONOGRAPHY.
A group of QUINOLONES with at least one fluorine atom and a piperazinyl group.
Tumors or cancer of the UROGENITAL SYSTEM in either the male or the female.
A genus of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic, coccoid bacteria. Its organisms occur singly, in pairs, and in tetrads and characteristically divide in more than one plane to form irregular clusters. Natural populations of Staphylococcus are found on the skin and mucous membranes of warm-blooded animals. Some species are opportunistic pathogens of humans and animals.
Semi-synthetic derivative of penicillin that functions as an orally active broad-spectrum antibiotic.
A flexible, tubular device that is used to carry fluids into or from a blood vessel, hollow organ, or body cavity.
Studies which start with the identification of persons with a disease of interest and a control (comparison, referent) group without the disease. The relationship of an attribute to the disease is examined by comparing diseased and non-diseased persons with regard to the frequency or levels of the attribute in each group.
The insertion of a catheter through the skin and body wall into the kidney pelvis, mainly to provide urine drainage where the ureter is not functional. It is used also to remove or dissolve renal calculi and to diagnose ureteral obstruction.
Indolesulfonic acid used as a dye in renal function testing for the detection of nitrates and chlorates, and in the testing of milk.
Semisynthetic, broad-spectrum antibiotic derivative of CEPHALEXIN.
A syndrome characterized by abdominal wall musculature deficiency, cryptorchism, and urinary tract abnormalities. The syndrome derives its name from its characteristic distended abdomen with wrinkled skin.
Drugs that bind to and block the activation of ADRENERGIC ALPHA-1 RECEPTORS.
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of urea and water to carbon dioxide and ammonia. EC 3.5.1.5.
A genus of gram-positive, coccoid bacteria consisting of organisms causing variable hemolysis that are normal flora of the intestinal tract. Previously thought to be a member of the genus STREPTOCOCCUS, it is now recognized as a separate genus.
A family of gram-positive non-sporing bacteria including many parasitic, pathogenic, and saprophytic forms.
Downward displacement of the UTERUS. It is classified in various degrees: in the first degree the UTERINE CERVIX is within the vaginal orifice; in the second degree the cervix is outside the orifice; in the third degree the entire uterus is outside the orifice.
Excision of kidney.
Systemic inflammatory response syndrome with a proven or suspected infectious etiology. When sepsis is associated with organ dysfunction distant from the site of infection, it is called severe sepsis. When sepsis is accompanied by HYPOTENSION despite adequate fluid infusion, it is called SEPTIC SHOCK.
Pathological processes of the male URINARY TRACT and the reproductive system (GENITALIA, MALE).
Pathologic processes that affect patients after a surgical procedure. They may or may not be related to the disease for which the surgery was done, and they may or may not be direct results of the surgery.
The destruction of a calculus of the kidney, ureter, bladder, or gallbladder by physical forces, including crushing with a lithotriptor through a catheter. Focused percutaneous ultrasound and focused hydraulic shock waves may be used without surgery. Lithotripsy does not include the dissolving of stones by acids or litholysis. Lithotripsy by laser is LITHOTRIPSY, LASER.

Role of the angiotensin type 2 receptor gene in congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract, CAKUT, of mice and men. (1/444)

Angiotensin type 2 receptor gene null mutant mice display congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT). Various features of mouse CAKUT impressively mimic human CAKUT. Studies of the human type 2 receptor (AGTR2) gene in two independent cohorts found that a significant association exists between CAKUT and a nucleotide transition within the lariat branchpoint motif of intron 1, which perturbs AGTR2 mRNA splicing efficiency. AGTR2, therefore, has a significant ontogenic role for the kidney and urinary tract system. Studies revealed that the establishment of CAKUT is preceded by delayed apoptosis of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells surrounding the urinary tract during key ontogenic events, from the ureteral budding to the expansive growth of the kidney and ureter.  (+info)

Microbiological characteristics of yeasts isolated from urinary tracts of intensive care unit patients undergoing urinary catheterization. (2/444)

We studied 70 intensive care unit patients to determine the incidence of nosocomial candiduria associated with indwelling urinary catheters and to assess microbiological characteristics of the yeasts. The yeasts were isolated, 13 of 17 in urine cultures and 4 of 17 in blood cultures, and colonization had occurred 3 days after the insertion of indwelling urinary catheters. For four strains the MICs of the antifungal drugs were high.  (+info)

In vitro alpha1-adrenoceptor pharmacology of Ro 70-0004 and RS-100329, novel alpha1A-adrenoceptor selective antagonists. (3/444)

It has been hypothesized that in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia, selective antagonism of the alpha1A-adrenoceptor-mediated contraction of lower urinary tract tissues may, via a selective relief of outlet obstruction, lead to an improvement in symptoms. The present study describes the alpha1-adrenoceptor (alpha1-AR) subtype selectivities of two novel alpha1-AR antagonists, Ro 70-0004 (aka RS-100975) and a structurally-related compound RS-100329, and compares them with those of prazosin and tamsulosin. Radioligand binding and second-messenger studies in intact CHO-K1 cells expressing human cloned alpha1A-, alpha1B- and alpha1D-AR showed nanomolar affinity and significant alpha1A-AR subtype selectivity for both Ro 70-0004 (pKi 8.9: 60 and 50 fold selectivity) and RS-100329 (pKi 9.6: 126 and 50 fold selectivity) over the alpha1B- and alpha1D-AR subtypes respectively. In contrast, prazosin and tamsulosin showed little subtype selectivity. Noradrenaline-induced contractions of human lower urinary tract (LUT) tissues or rabbit bladder neck were competitively antagonized by Ro 70-0004 (pA2 8.8 and 8.9), RS-100329 (pA2 9.2 and 9.2), tamsulosin (pA2 10.4 and 9.8) and prazosin (pA2 8.7 and 8.3 respectively). Affinity estimates for tamsulosin and prazosin in antagonizing alpha1-AR-mediated contractions of human renal artery (HRA) and rat aorta (RA) were similar to those observed in LUT tissues, whereas Ro 70-0004 and RS-100329 were approximately 100 fold less potent (pA2 values of 6.8/6.8 and 7.3/7.9 in HRA/RA respectively). The alpha1A-AR subtype selectivity of Ro 70-0004 and RS-100329, demonstrated in both cloned and native systems, should allow for an evaluation of the clinical utility of a 'uroselective' agent for the treatment of symptoms associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia.  (+info)

Effect of K+ channel openers, KRN2391 and Ki1769, and nitroglycerin on the urinary tract of rats in vivo. (4/444)

The effects of KRN2391 (N-cyano-N'-(nitroxyethyl)-3-pyridine carboximidamide methane-sulfonate), which possesses ATP-sensitive potassium (K+) channel opening (KCO) activity and nitrate activity; Ki1769 (N-cyano-N'-(phenylethyl)-3-pyridinecarboximidamide methanesulfonate), which possesses only KCO activity; and nitroglycerin (NG) were determined on the motility of the ureter, urinary bladder and urethra of rats. Bladder contraction was induced by infusion of fluid into the bladder of conscious rats and recorded on a cystometrogram. KRN2391 and Ki1769 (both 0.3 mg/kg, i.v.) prolonged the micturition interval immediately after the injection, but NG (5 mg/kg, i.v.) did not. Peristaltic movement of the ureter, recorded in anesthetized rats, was inhibited by i.v. injection of KRN2391 and Ki1769 (both 0.03 mg/kg). However, when NG, NaNO2, N-nitro L-arginine methylester and methylene blue were applied directly to the ureter, no change in movement of the ureter was detected. KRN2391 (0.03 mg/kg, i.v.) and Ki1769 (0.3 mg/kg, i.v.) reduced the resistance to fluid infusion through the urethral lumen in anesthetized rats, whereas NG (0.5 mg/kg, i.v.) only reduced this resistance transiently. These results indicate that KCO activity had an inhibitory effect on the motility of the ureter, bladder and urethra. On the other hand, nitrate activity had an inhibitory effect on urethral tonus, corresponding to that induced by KCO activity.  (+info)

Identification of the cells underlying pacemaker activity in the guinea-pig upper urinary tract. (5/444)

1. The varying profile of cell types along the muscle wall of the guinea-pig upper urinary tract was examined electrophysiologically, using intracellular microelectrodes, and morphologically, using both electron and confocal microscopy. 2. Simple 'pacemaker' oscillations (frequency of 8 min-1) of the membrane potential were recorded in both the pelvi-calyceal junction (83 % of cells) and the proximal renal pelvis (15 % of cells), but never in the distal renal pelvis or ureter. When filled with the cell marker, neurobiotin, 'pacemaker' cells were spindle shaped and approximately 160 microm in length. 3. In most cells of the ureter (100 %) and in both the proximal (75 %) and distal (89 %) renal pelvis, spontaneous action potentials (frequency of 3-5 min-1) consisted of an initial spike, followed by a number of potential oscillations superimposed on a plateau phase. When filled with neurobiotin, cells firing these 'driven' action potentials, were spindle shaped and > 250 microm in length. 4. Greater than 80 % of smooth muscle cells in the pelvi-calyceal junction were 'atypical', having < 40 % of their sectional areas occupied by loosely packed contractile filaments. Most of the smooth muscle cells in the ureter (99.7 %) and both the proximal (83 %) and distal (97.5 %) renal pelvis were of 'typical' appearance in that they contained cytoskeletal and contractile elements occupying > 60 % of cross-sectional area. 5. A third type of spontaneously discharging cell fired 'intermediate' action potentials (3-4 min-1), consisting of a single spike followed by a quiescent plateau and an abrupt repolarization. These cells were morphologically similar to interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC). However, these 'ICC-like' cells were not immuno-reactive for c-Kit, the proto-oncogene for tyrosine kinase. 6. In summary, 'atypical' smooth muscle cells were predominant in the pelvi-calyceal junction and fired 'pacemaker' potentials at a frequency significantly higher than 'driven' action potentials recorded in 'typical' smooth muscle cells throughout the renal pelvis and ureter. 'Intermediate' action potentials were recorded in 'ICC-like' cells in both the pelvi-calyceal junction and renal pelvis. We suggest that these 'ICC-like' cells act as a preferential pathway, conducting and amplifying pacemaker signals to initiate action potential discharge in the driven areas of the upper urinary tract.  (+info)

How they begin and how they end: classic and new theories for the development and deterioration of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract, CAKUT. (6/444)

CAKUT are problems that often require surgical intervention or, in the worst case, lead to renal failure and the need for dialysis and/or renal transplantation. It is believed that these anomalies share a common genetic cause and to date there has been no good animal model with which to study these abnormalities. Although the abnormal interaction between the ureteral bud and metanephric blastema leads to renal hypodysplasia, vesicoureteral reflux, and ectopic ureters to name a few, the genetic and biochemical modulation of urinary tract development is not understood. Studies using the mouse strain mutant for angiotensin type 2 (AT2) receptors have given new insight into this mystery. The animals show defective apoptosis of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells in the area surrounding the developing kidney and urinary tract. This abnormal apoptosis may well interfere with the normal interaction between the ureteral bud and metanephric blastema resulting in CAKUT. This abnormal interaction would theoretically lead to preexisting intrinsic abnormalities of the kidney, which are programmed and take effect early in embryonic development. In the worst cases, the renal abnormalities would lead to progressive deterioration of renal function. Undoubtedly, there are more genes and biochemical modulators involved in this process other than the RAS and AT2 receptors. Our current animal model gives new and unique possibilities with which to study development of the kidney and urinary tract and ultimately seek ways of preventing an often debilitating disease process.  (+info)

Obstruction of the fetal urinary tract. (7/444)

Understanding the mechanisms of fetal obstructive uropathy will be essential for the specific management of the wide clinical spectrum of congenital obstructive conditions, including selecting observational therapy for mild cases and attempting to maximize renal function in severe cases. Recognition of the unique aspects of fetal renal obstruction is essential to formulate a useful research program, as the lessons of postnatal acquired obstruction are not directly transferable to congenital obstruction. Experimental studies of renal obstruction have demonstrated alterations in the developmental regulation of growth and differentiation in the fetal kidney. Depending on the gestational timing and severity of obstruction, growth may be impaired or accelerated. Similarly, patterns of altered differentiation may indicate immaturity or accelerated maturation, as well as aberrant differentiation. Concomitant with altered development, there is evidence that normal renal regulatory mechanisms, including the renin-angiotensin system and renal hemodynamics, may be affected by obstruction, possibly as compensatory responses. The mechanisms of these various alterations remain to be defined, but are likely to involve combinations of biomechanical signal transduction, growth factor expression, and responses of specific renal autoregulatory mechanisms. Fetal renal obstruction remains incompletely defined. The body of experimental evidence indicates that investigation of mechanisms regulating growth and differentiation is likely to yield important understanding of fetal renal obstruction to permit more accurate prognosis and management. Viewing fetal renal obstruction as a disorder of kidney development, with disordered growth and differentiation, suggests a definition of obstruction as a condition, that--if uncorrected--will lead to impairment in the ultimate functional potential of the kidney. Intervention should aim to maximize functional potential rather than to simply maintain the status quo.  (+info)

Infertility in adult hypodactyly mice is associated with hypoplasia of distal reproductive structures. (8/444)

Hypodactyly (Hoxa13(Hd)) mice have a 50-base-pair deletion in Hoxa13, and rare surviving homozygotes of both sexes are infertile. Heterozygous mutant mice are fertile; however, Hoxa13(Hd/+) females exhibit an anterior transformation of cervical tissue to a uterine stromal phenotype that is accentuated in the homozygote and occasionally includes uterine-specific glands in the transformed cervical region. The columnar-to-squamosal epithelial transition that characterizes mature cervical-vaginal tissue is positioned within uterine-like stroma rather than cervical tissue in these mutants, suggesting that this postnatal developmental transition occurs independent of the underlying stromal characteristics. Hoxa13(Hd/Hd) adult females produce apparently functional germ cells as determined by superovulation and ovarian histology, but they exhibit profound hypoplasia of the cervix and vaginal cavity. Using whole-mount in situ hybridization, we localized Hoxa13 expression to the cervical and vaginal tissues, consistent with the observed defects. In Hoxa13(Hd/Hd) males, the penian bone is severely hypoplastic and misshapen. The penian bone develops by a combination of endochondral and intramembranous ossification, but the defects observed in Hoxa13(Hd/Hd) males are limited to the region of endochondral bone formation. Our results indicate that infertility in Hypodactyly mutants is related to hypoplasia of the vaginal cavity and cervix in females and deficiency of the os penis in males.  (+info)

Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs) are defined as the presence of pathogenic microorganisms, typically bacteria, in any part of the urinary system, which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, resulting in infection and inflammation. The majority of UTIs are caused by Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria, but other organisms such as Klebsiella, Proteus, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, and Enterococcus can also cause UTIs.

UTIs can be classified into two types based on the location of the infection:

1. Lower UTI or bladder infection (cystitis): This type of UTI affects the bladder and urethra. Symptoms may include a frequent and urgent need to urinate, pain or burning during urination, cloudy or strong-smelling urine, and discomfort in the lower abdomen or back.

2. Upper UTI or kidney infection (pyelonephritis): This type of UTI affects the kidneys and can be more severe than a bladder infection. Symptoms may include fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, and pain in the flanks or back.

UTIs are more common in women than men due to their shorter urethra, which makes it easier for bacteria to reach the bladder. Other risk factors for UTIs include sexual activity, use of diaphragms or spermicides, urinary catheterization, diabetes, and weakened immune systems.

UTIs are typically diagnosed through a urinalysis and urine culture to identify the causative organism and determine the appropriate antibiotic treatment. In some cases, imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scan may be necessary to evaluate for any underlying abnormalities in the urinary tract.

The urinary tract is a system in the body responsible for producing, storing, and eliminating urine. It includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. The kidneys filter waste and excess fluids from the blood to produce urine, which then travels down the ureters into the bladder. When the bladder is full, urine is released through the urethra during urination. Any part of this system can become infected or inflamed, leading to conditions such as urinary tract infections (UTIs) or kidney stones.

The urinary bladder is a muscular, hollow organ in the pelvis that stores urine before it is released from the body. It expands as it fills with urine and contracts when emptying. The typical adult bladder can hold between 400 to 600 milliliters of urine for about 2-5 hours before the urge to urinate occurs. The wall of the bladder contains several layers, including a mucous membrane, a layer of smooth muscle (detrusor muscle), and an outer fibrous adventitia. The muscles of the bladder neck and urethra remain contracted to prevent leakage of urine during filling, and they relax during voiding to allow the urine to flow out through the urethra.

Urologic diseases refer to a variety of conditions that affect the urinary tract, which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra in both males and females, as well as the male reproductive system. These diseases can range from relatively common conditions such as urinary tract infections (UTIs) and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), to more complex diseases like kidney stones, bladder cancer, and prostate cancer.

Some of the common urologic diseases include:

1. Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): These are infections that occur in any part of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. UTIs are more common in women than men.
2. Kidney Stones: These are small, hard mineral deposits that form inside the kidneys and can cause pain, nausea, and blood in the urine when passed.
3. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): This is a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland that can cause difficulty urinating, frequent urination, and a weak urine stream.
4. Bladder Cancer: This is a type of cancer that begins in the bladder, usually in the lining of the bladder.
5. Prostate Cancer: This is a type of cancer that occurs in the prostate gland, which is a small walnut-shaped gland in men that produces seminal fluid.
6. Erectile Dysfunction (ED): This is a condition where a man has trouble achieving or maintaining an erection.
7. Overactive Bladder (OAB): This is a condition characterized by the sudden and strong need to urinate frequently, as well as involuntary loss of urine (incontinence).

Urologic diseases can affect people of all ages and genders, although some conditions are more common in certain age groups or among men or women. Treatment for urologic diseases varies depending on the specific condition and its severity, but may include medication, surgery, or lifestyle changes.

Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) refer to a group of clinical symptoms related to the lower urinary tract, including the bladder and urethra. These symptoms can be categorized into storage, voiding, and post-micturition symptoms. Storage symptoms include frequency, urgency, nocturia, and urinary incontinence. Voiding symptoms consist of hesitancy, slow stream, straining, and intermittent flow. Post-micturition symptoms include a feeling of incomplete bladder emptying and post-void dribbling. LUTS can be caused by various underlying conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), overactive bladder (OAB), urinary tract infection, neurogenic bladder dysfunction, or bladder cancer. The evaluation and management of LUTS require a comprehensive assessment of the patient's medical history, physical examination, and appropriate diagnostic tests to determine the underlying cause and develop an effective treatment plan.

Urinary catheterization is a medical procedure in which a flexible tube (catheter) is inserted into the bladder through the urethra to drain urine. This may be done to manage urinary retention, monitor urine output, or obtain a urine sample for laboratory testing. It can be performed as a clean, intermittent catheterization, or with an indwelling catheter (also known as Foley catheter) that remains in place for a longer period of time. The procedure should be performed using sterile technique to reduce the risk of urinary tract infection.

Anti-infective agents for the urinary tract are medications used to prevent or treat infections caused by microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses) in the urinary system. These agents can be administered locally (for example, via catheter instillation) or systemically (orally or intravenously).

Common classes of anti-infective agents used for urinary tract infections include:

1. Antibiotics: These are the most commonly prescribed class of anti-infectives for urinary tract infections. They target and kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria responsible for the infection. Common antibiotics used for this purpose include trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, nitrofurantoin, ciprofloxacin, and fosfomycin.
2. Antifungals: These medications are used to treat fungal urinary tract infections (UTIs). Common antifungal agents include fluconazole, amphotericin B, and nystatin.
3. Antivirals: Although rare, viral UTIs can occur, and antiviral medications may be prescribed to treat them. Examples of antiviral agents used for urinary tract infections include acyclovir and valacyclovir.

It is essential to consult a healthcare professional for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment for any suspected urinary tract infection. Improper use or misuse of anti-infective agents can lead to antibiotic resistance, making future treatments more challenging.

Urine is a physiological excretory product that is primarily composed of water, urea, and various ions (such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and others) that are the byproducts of protein metabolism. It also contains small amounts of other substances like uric acid, creatinine, ammonia, and various organic compounds. Urine is produced by the kidneys through a process called urination or micturition, where it is filtered from the blood and then stored in the bladder until it is excreted from the body through the urethra. The color, volume, and composition of urine can provide important diagnostic information about various medical conditions.

Bacteriuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of bacteria in the urine. The condition can be asymptomatic or symptomatic, and it can occur in various populations, including hospitalized patients, pregnant women, and individuals with underlying urologic abnormalities.

There are different types of bacteriuria, including:

1. Significant bacteriuria: This refers to the presence of a large number of bacteria in the urine (usually greater than 100,000 colony-forming units per milliliter or CFU/mL) and is often associated with urinary tract infection (UTI).
2. Contaminant bacteriuria: This occurs when bacteria from the skin or external environment enter the urine sample during collection, leading to a small number of bacteria present in the urine.
3. Asymptomatic bacteriuria: This refers to the presence of bacteria in the urine without any symptoms of UTI. It is more common in older adults, pregnant women, and individuals with diabetes or other underlying medical conditions.

The diagnosis of bacteriuria typically involves a urinalysis and urine culture to identify the type and quantity of bacteria present in the urine. Treatment depends on the type and severity of bacteriuria and may involve antibiotics to eliminate the infection. However, asymptomatic bacteriuria often does not require treatment unless it occurs in pregnant women or individuals undergoing urologic procedures.

Vesico-Ureteral Reflux (VUR) is a medical condition that affects the urinary system, specifically the junction where the ureters (tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder) connect with the bladder. In normal physiology, once the bladder fills up with urine and contracts during micturition (urination), the pressure within the bladder should prevent the backflow of urine into the ureters.

However, in VUR, the valve-like mechanism that prevents this backflow does not function properly, allowing urine to flow backward from the bladder into the ureters and potentially even into the kidneys. This reflux can lead to recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs), kidney damage, and other complications if left untreated. VUR is more commonly diagnosed in children but can also occur in adults.

Pyelonephritis is a type of urinary tract infection (UTI) that involves the renal pelvis and the kidney parenchyma. It's typically caused by bacterial invasion, often via the ascending route from the lower urinary tract. The most common causative agent is Escherichia coli (E. coli), but other bacteria such as Klebsiella, Proteus, and Pseudomonas can also be responsible.

Acute pyelonephritis can lead to symptoms like fever, chills, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, and frequent or painful urination. If left untreated, it can potentially cause permanent kidney damage, sepsis, or other complications. Chronic pyelonephritis, on the other hand, is usually associated with underlying structural or functional abnormalities of the urinary tract.

Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical evaluation, urinalysis, and imaging studies, while treatment often consists of antibiotics tailored to the identified pathogen and the patient's overall health status.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Urinary Tract Physiological Phenomena" is not a widely recognized or established medical term. However, I can provide information about the physiology of the urinary tract, which may be what you are looking for.

The urinary tract is a system responsible for producing, storing, and eliminating urine from the body. It includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, and the urethra. The physiological phenomena associated with the urinary tract include:

1. Glomerular filtration: In the kidneys, blood is filtered through structures called glomeruli, which remove waste products and excess fluids from the bloodstream to form urine.
2. Tubular reabsorption: As urine moves through the tubules of the nephron in the kidney, essential substances like water, glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes are actively reabsorbed back into the bloodstream.
3. Hormonal regulation: The urinary system plays a role in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance through hormonal mechanisms, such as the release of erythropoietin (regulates red blood cell production), renin (activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system to regulate blood pressure and fluid balance), and calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).
4. Urine storage: The bladder serves as a reservoir for urine, expanding as it fills and contracting during urination.
5. Micturition (urination): Once the bladder reaches a certain volume or pressure, nerve signals are sent to the brain, leading to the conscious decision to urinate. The sphincters of the urethra relax, allowing urine to flow out of the body through the urethral opening.

If you could provide more context about what specific information you're looking for, I would be happy to help further!

Urinary calculi, also known as kidney stones or nephrolithiasis, are hard deposits made of minerals and salts that form inside the urinary system. These calculi can develop in any part of the urinary system, which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

The formation of urinary calculi typically occurs when there is a concentration of certain substances, such as calcium, oxalate, uric acid, or struvite, in the urine. When these substances become highly concentrated, they can crystallize and form small seeds that gradually grow into larger stones over time.

The size of urinary calculi can vary from tiny, sand-like particles to large stones that can fill the entire renal pelvis. The symptoms associated with urinary calculi depend on the stone's size, location, and whether it is causing a blockage in the urinary tract. Common symptoms include severe pain in the flank, lower abdomen, or groin; nausea and vomiting; blood in the urine (hematuria); fever and chills; and frequent urge to urinate or painful urination.

Treatment for urinary calculi depends on the size and location of the stone, as well as the severity of symptoms. Small stones may pass spontaneously with increased fluid intake and pain management. Larger stones may require medical intervention, such as extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), ureteroscopy, or percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) to break up or remove the stone. Preventive measures include maintaining adequate hydration, modifying dietary habits, and taking medications to reduce the risk of stone formation.

Urination disorders, also known as lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS), refer to a range of clinical conditions that affect the bladder and urethra, resulting in abnormalities in the storage, transportation, and evacuation of urine. These disorders can be categorized into voiding symptoms, such as hesitancy, straining, slow stream, intermittency, and terminal dribble; and storage symptoms, including frequency, urgency, nocturia, and urge incontinence.

The causes of urination disorders are diverse, encompassing congenital abnormalities, neurological conditions, infections, inflammation, medications, and age-related changes. Common underlying pathologies include bladder overactivity, detrusor muscle instability, underactive bladder, and obstruction of the urethra.

Urination disorders can significantly impact an individual's quality of life, causing physical discomfort, sleep disturbances, emotional distress, and social isolation. Accurate diagnosis and appropriate management require a comprehensive assessment of the patient's medical history, physical examination, urinalysis, and urodynamic studies. Treatment options may include behavioral modifications, pelvic floor exercises, bladder training, medications, neuromodulation, and surgical interventions.

Urinary incontinence is defined as the involuntary loss or leakage of urine that is sufficient to be a social or hygienic problem. It can occur due to various reasons such as weak pelvic muscles, damage to nerves that control the bladder, certain medications, and underlying medical conditions like diabetes, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's disease.

There are different types of urinary incontinence, including stress incontinence (leakage of urine during physical activities like coughing, sneezing, or exercising), urge incontinence (a sudden and strong need to urinate that results in leakage), overflow incontinence (constant dribbling of urine due to a bladder that doesn't empty completely), functional incontinence (inability to reach the bathroom in time due to physical or mental impairments), and mixed incontinence (a combination of any two or more types of incontinence).

Urinary incontinence can significantly impact a person's quality of life, causing embarrassment, social isolation, and depression. However, it is a treatable condition, and various treatment options are available, including bladder training, pelvic floor exercises, medications, medical devices, and surgery.

Cystitis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the bladder, usually caused by a bacterial infection. The infection can occur when bacteria from the digestive tract or skin enter the urinary tract through the urethra and travel up to the bladder. This condition is more common in women than men due to their shorter urethras, which makes it easier for bacteria to reach the bladder.

Symptoms of cystitis may include a strong, frequent, or urgent need to urinate, pain or burning during urination, cloudy or strong-smelling urine, and discomfort in the lower abdomen or back. In some cases, there may be blood in the urine, fever, chills, or nausea and vomiting.

Cystitis can usually be treated with antibiotics to kill the bacteria causing the infection. Drinking plenty of water to flush out the bacteria and alleviating symptoms with over-the-counter pain medications may also help. Preventive measures include practicing good hygiene, wiping from front to back after using the toilet, urinating after sexual activity, and avoiding using douches or perfumes in the genital area.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) infections refer to illnesses caused by the bacterium E. coli, which can cause a range of symptoms depending on the specific strain and site of infection. The majority of E. coli strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals. However, some strains, particularly those that produce Shiga toxins, can cause severe illness.

E. coli infections can occur through various routes, including contaminated food or water, person-to-person contact, or direct contact with animals or their environments. Common symptoms of E. coli infections include diarrhea (often bloody), abdominal cramps, nausea, and vomiting. In severe cases, complications such as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) can occur, which may lead to kidney failure and other long-term health problems.

Preventing E. coli infections involves practicing good hygiene, cooking meats thoroughly, avoiding cross-contamination of food during preparation, washing fruits and vegetables before eating, and avoiding unpasteurized dairy products and juices. Prompt medical attention is necessary if symptoms of an E. coli infection are suspected to prevent potential complications.

A ureter is a thin, muscular tube that transports urine from the kidney to the bladder. In humans, there are two ureters, one for each kidney, and they are typically about 10-12 inches long. The ureters are lined with a special type of cells called transitional epithelium that can stretch and expand as urine passes through them. They are located in the retroperitoneal space, which is the area behind the peritoneum, the membrane that lines the abdominal cavity. The ureters play a critical role in the urinary system by ensuring that urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder for storage and eventual elimination from the body.

Urography is a medical imaging technique used to examine the urinary system, which includes the kidneys, ureters, and bladder. It involves the use of a contrast material that is injected into a vein or given orally, which then travels through the bloodstream to the kidneys and gets excreted in the urine. This allows the radiologist to visualize the structures and any abnormalities such as tumors, stones, or blockages. There are different types of urography, including intravenous urography (IVU), CT urography, and retrograde urography.

Proteus infections are caused by the bacterium Proteus mirabilis or other Proteus species. These bacteria are gram-negative, opportunistic pathogens that can cause various types of infections, including urinary tract infections (UTIs), wound infections, and bacteremia (bloodstream infections). Proteus infections are often associated with complicated UTIs, catheter-associated UTIs, and healthcare-associated infections. They can be difficult to treat due to their ability to produce enzymes that inactivate certain antibiotics and form biofilms.

Proteus infections can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, fatigue, and discomfort in the affected area. In UTIs, patients may experience symptoms like burning during urination, frequent urges to urinate, and cloudy or foul-smelling urine. Wound infections caused by Proteus can lead to delayed healing, increased pain, and pus formation. Bacteremia can cause sepsis, a life-threatening condition that requires immediate medical attention.

Treatment for Proteus infections typically involves antibiotics, such as fluoroquinolones, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, or carbapenems. The choice of antibiotic depends on the severity and location of the infection, as well as the patient's overall health status and any underlying medical conditions. In some cases, surgical intervention may be necessary to drain abscesses or remove infected devices like catheters.

Urinary bladder diseases refer to a range of conditions that affect the urinary bladder, a muscular sac located in the pelvis that stores urine before it is excreted from the body. These diseases can impair the bladder's ability to store or empty urine properly, leading to various symptoms and complications. Here are some common urinary bladder diseases with their medical definitions:

1. Cystitis: This is an inflammation of the bladder, often caused by bacterial infections (known as UTI - Urinary Tract Infection). However, it can also be triggered by irritants, radiation therapy, or chemical exposure.
2. Overactive Bladder (OAB): A group of symptoms that include urgency, frequency, and, in some cases, urge incontinence. The bladder muscle contracts excessively, causing a strong, sudden desire to urinate.
3. Interstitial Cystitis/Bladder Pain Syndrome (IC/BPS): A chronic bladder condition characterized by pain, pressure, or discomfort in the bladder and pelvic region, often accompanied by urinary frequency and urgency. Unlike cystitis, IC/BPS is not caused by infection, but its exact cause remains unknown.
4. Bladder Cancer: The abnormal growth of cancerous cells within the bladder lining or muscle. It can present as non-muscle-invasive (superficial) or muscle-invasive, depending on whether the tumor has grown into the bladder muscle.
5. Bladder Diverticula: Small sac-like pouches that form in the bladder lining and protrude outward through its wall. These may result from increased bladder pressure due to conditions like OAB or an enlarged prostate.
6. Neurogenic Bladder: A condition where nerve damage or dysfunction affects the bladder's ability to store or empty urine properly. This can lead to symptoms such as incontinence, urgency, and retention.
7. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): Although not a bladder disease itself, BPH is a common condition in older men where the prostate gland enlarges, putting pressure on the bladder and urethra, leading to urinary symptoms like frequency, urgency, and hesitancy.

Understanding these various bladder conditions can help individuals identify potential issues early on and seek appropriate medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Urinary retention is a medical condition in which the bladder cannot empty completely or at all, resulting in the accumulation of urine in the bladder. This can lead to discomfort, pain, and difficulty in passing urine. Urinary retention can be acute (sudden onset) or chronic (long-term). Acute urinary retention is a medical emergency that requires immediate attention, while chronic urinary retention may be managed with medications or surgery. The causes of urinary retention include nerve damage, bladder muscle weakness, prostate gland enlargement, and side effects of certain medications.

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) are a subgroup of E. coli bacteria that have developed the ability to cause urinary tract infections (UTIs). These infections can affect any part of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. UPEC are responsible for the majority of uncomplicated UTIs in otherwise healthy individuals.

UPEC possess various virulence factors that allow them to adhere to and colonize the urinary tract, evade host immune responses, and cause tissue damage. Some of these virulence factors include fimbriae, which are hair-like structures that help the bacteria attach to host cells; toxins such as hemolysin, which can damage host cells; and polysaccharide capsules, which protect the bacteria from phagocytosis by host immune cells.

UPEC can cause a range of UTI symptoms, including frequent urination, pain or burning during urination, strong-smelling or cloudy urine, and fever. If left untreated, UTIs caused by UPEC can lead to more serious complications, such as kidney damage or bloodstream infections. Treatment typically involves antibiotics that are effective against UPEC, such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, nitrofurantoin, or fluoroquinolones. However, the increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance among UPEC isolates is a growing concern and highlights the need for ongoing research into new treatment strategies.

The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body. In males, it also serves as the conduit for semen during ejaculation. The male urethra is longer than the female urethra and is divided into sections: the prostatic, membranous, and spongy (or penile) urethra. The female urethra extends from the bladder to the external urethral orifice, which is located just above the vaginal opening.

Urologic neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the urinary system, which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, prostate, and urethra. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Common types of urologic neoplasms include renal cell carcinoma, transitional cell carcinoma, bladder cancer, prostate cancer, and testicular cancer. It is important to note that early detection and treatment can significantly improve outcomes for patients with urologic neoplasms.

Urodynamics is a medical test that measures the function and performance of the lower urinary tract, which includes the bladder, urethra, and sphincters. It involves the use of specialized equipment to record measurements such as bladder pressure, urine flow rate, and residual urine volume. The test can help diagnose various urinary problems, including incontinence, urinary retention, and overactive bladder.

During the test, a small catheter is inserted into the bladder through the urethra to measure bladder pressure while filling it with sterile water or saline solution. Another catheter may be placed in the rectum to record abdominal pressure. The patient is then asked to urinate, and the flow rate and any leaks are recorded.

Urodynamics can help identify the underlying cause of urinary symptoms and guide treatment decisions. It is often recommended for patients with complex or persistent urinary problems that have not responded to initial treatments.

Pyuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of pus or purulent exudate (containing white blood cells) in the urine. It's typically indicative of a urinary tract infection (UTI), inflammation, or other conditions that cause an elevated number of leukocytes in the urine. The pus may come from the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or urethra. Other possible causes include sexually transmitted infections, kidney stones, trauma, or medical procedures involving the urinary tract. A healthcare professional will usually confirm pyuria through a urinalysis and might recommend further testing to determine the underlying cause and appropriate treatment.

Proteus mirabilis is a species of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, particularly in soil and water. In humans, P. mirabilis can be part of the normal gut flora but can also cause opportunistic infections, particularly in the urinary tract. It is known for its ability to produce urease, which can lead to the formation of urinary stones and blockages.

P. mirabilis infections are often associated with underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, kidney disease, or urinary catheterization. Symptoms of a P. mirabilis infection may include fever, cloudy or foul-smelling urine, and pain or burning during urination. Treatment typically involves antibiotics that are effective against Gram-negative bacteria, although resistance to certain antibiotics is not uncommon in P. mirabilis isolates.

Nitrofurantoin is an antibacterial medication used to treat urinary tract infections caused by susceptible strains of bacteria. According to the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) of the National Library of Medicine, its medical definition is: "Antibacterial agent with nitrofuran ring and furazan moiety. It is used to treat urinary tract infections and is also used for prophylaxis of recurrent urinary tract infections."

Nitrofurantoin works by inhibiting bacterial DNA synthesis, leading to bacterial death. It is typically administered orally and is available under various brand names, such as Macrobid® and Furadantin®. The medication is generally well-tolerated; however, potential side effects include gastrointestinal symptoms (nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or abdominal pain), headaches, dizziness, and pulmonary reactions. Rare but severe adverse events include peripheral neuropathy and hepatotoxicity.

It is essential to note that nitrofurantoin's effectiveness depends on the susceptibility of the infecting bacteria, and resistance has been reported in some cases. Therefore, it is crucial to consider local resistance patterns when prescribing this antibiotic.

Urinalysis is a medical examination and analysis of urine. It's used to detect and manage a wide range of disorders, such as diabetes, kidney disease, and liver problems. A urinalysis can also help monitor medications and drug compliance. The test typically involves checking the color, clarity, and specific gravity (concentration) of urine. It may also include chemical analysis to detect substances like glucose, protein, blood, and white blood cells, which could indicate various medical conditions. In some cases, a microscopic examination is performed to identify any abnormal cells, casts, or crystals present in the urine.

Hydronephrosis is a medical condition characterized by the swelling of one or both kidneys due to the accumulation of urine. This occurs when the flow of urine from the kidney to the bladder is obstructed, causing urine to back up into the kidney. The obstruction can be caused by various factors such as kidney stones, tumors, or congenital abnormalities. If left untreated, hydronephrosis can lead to serious complications including kidney damage and infection. It is typically diagnosed through imaging tests such as ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI.

Urethral obstruction is a medical condition that refers to a blockage in the urethra, which is the tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body. This blockage can be partial or complete and can be caused by various factors such as scar tissue, stones, tumors, or enlarged prostate gland in men. Symptoms may include difficulty in urinating, painful urination, frequent urination, and urinary retention. If left untreated, urethral obstruction can lead to serious complications such as kidney damage or infection.

The kidney pelvis, also known as the renal pelvis, is the funnel-shaped part of the upper end of the ureter in the kidney. It receives urine from the minor and major calyces, which are extensions of the renal collecting tubules, and then drains it into the ureter, which carries it to the bladder for storage and eventual elimination from the body. The kidney pelvis is lined with transitional epithelium, which is designed to stretch and accommodate changes in urine volume.

Urothelium is the specialized type of epithelial tissue that lines the urinary tract, including the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It is a type of transitional epithelium that can change its shape and size depending on the degree of distension or stretching of the organs it lines.

The main function of urothelium is to provide a barrier against urine, which contains various waste products and potential irritants, while also allowing the exchange of ions and water. The urothelial cells are joined together by tight junctions that prevent the passage of substances through the paracellular space, and they also have the ability to transport ions and water through their cell membranes.

In addition to its barrier function, urothelium is also involved in sensory and immune functions. It contains specialized nerve endings that can detect mechanical and chemical stimuli, such as stretch or irritation, and it expresses various antimicrobial peptides and other defense mechanisms that help protect the urinary tract from infection.

Overall, urothelium plays a critical role in maintaining the health and function of the urinary tract, and its dysfunction has been implicated in various urinary tract disorders, such as interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome and bladder cancer.

Ureteral neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the ureters, which are the tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. These neoplasms can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Benign ureteral neoplasms are rare and usually do not pose a significant health risk, although they may need to be removed if they cause obstructions or other complications.

Malignant ureteral neoplasms, on the other hand, are more serious and can spread to other parts of the body. The most common type of malignant ureteral neoplasm is transitional cell carcinoma (TCC), which arises from the cells that line the inside of the ureters. Other types of malignant ureteral neoplasms include squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and sarcoma.

Symptoms of ureteral neoplasms may include hematuria (blood in the urine), flank pain, weight loss, and fatigue. Diagnosis typically involves imaging tests such as CT scans or MRIs, as well as urine cytology and biopsy to confirm the presence of cancer cells. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Urinary Bladder Neoplasms are abnormal growths or tumors in the urinary bladder, which can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). Malignant neoplasms can be further classified into various types of bladder cancer, such as urothelial carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma. These malignant tumors often invade surrounding tissues and organs, potentially spreading to other parts of the body (metastasis), which can lead to serious health consequences if not detected and treated promptly and effectively.

Urination, also known as micturition, is the physiological process of excreting urine from the urinary bladder through the urethra. It is a complex process that involves several systems in the body, including the urinary system, nervous system, and muscular system.

In medical terms, urination is defined as the voluntary or involuntary discharge of urine from the urethra, which is the final pathway for the elimination of waste products from the body. The process is regulated by a complex interplay between the detrusor muscle of the bladder, the internal and external sphincters of the urethra, and the nervous system.

During urination, the detrusor muscle contracts, causing the bladder to empty, while the sphincters relax to allow the urine to flow through the urethra and out of the body. The nervous system plays a crucial role in coordinating these actions, with sensory receptors in the bladder sending signals to the brain when it is time to urinate.

Urination is essential for maintaining the balance of fluids and electrolytes in the body, as well as eliminating waste products such as urea, creatinine, and other metabolic byproducts. Abnormalities in urination can indicate underlying medical conditions, such as urinary tract infections, bladder dysfunction, or neurological disorders.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

"Prostatism" is not a formal medical term, but it is often used informally to refer to lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) that are related to bladder outflow obstruction due to benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), which is a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland in older men.

The symptoms of prostatism may include:

* Frequency: The need to urinate more often than usual, especially at night.
* Urgency: A strong, sudden need to urinate immediately.
* Nocturia: Waking up frequently during the night to urinate.
* Hesitancy: Difficulty starting the flow of urine.
* Straining: Having to strain or push to start urinating.
* Weak stream: A weak or slow urinary stream.
* Dribbling: Dribbling or leaking after urination is finished.
* Incomplete emptying: Feeling that the bladder is not fully emptied after urination.

It's important to note that these symptoms can also be caused by other conditions, such as urinary tract infections, prostate cancer, or neurological disorders, so a proper medical evaluation is necessary to determine the underlying cause and appropriate treatment.

Anti-bacterial agents, also known as antibiotics, are a type of medication used to treat infections caused by bacteria. These agents work by either killing the bacteria or inhibiting their growth and reproduction. There are several different classes of anti-bacterial agents, including penicillins, cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones, macrolides, and tetracyclines, among others. Each class of antibiotic has a specific mechanism of action and is used to treat certain types of bacterial infections. It's important to note that anti-bacterial agents are not effective against viral infections, such as the common cold or flu. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, which is a significant global health concern.

Urinary bladder neck obstruction is a medical condition that refers to a partial or complete blockage at the bladder neck, which is the area where the bladder connects to the urethra. This obstruction can be caused by various factors such as prostate enlargement, bladder tumors, scar tissue, or nerve damage.

The bladder neck obstruction can lead to difficulty in urinating, a weak urine stream, and the need to strain while urinating. In severe cases, it can cause urinary retention, kidney failure, and other complications. Treatment for this condition depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or minimally invasive procedures.

Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI) is a type of urinary incontinence that occurs when physical activities or movements, such as coughing, sneezing, laughing, exercising, or lifting heavy objects, put pressure on the bladder, causing unintentional leakage of urine. It is caused by weakened pelvic floor muscles and/or a malfunctioning urethral sphincter, which normally help maintain urinary continence. SUI is more common in women than men, especially those who have gone through pregnancy, childbirth, or menopause, but it can also affect older men with prostate gland issues.

Urinary diversion is a surgical procedure that involves the creation of a new way for urine to leave the body, bypassing the native urinary system. This is typically performed in individuals who have damaged or removed urinary systems due to conditions such as cancer, severe trauma, or congenital abnormalities.

There are several types of urinary diversions, including:

1. Ileal Conduit: A segment of the small intestine (ileum) is used to create a passageway for urine to flow from the ureters to an external collection bag or pouch worn on the abdomen.
2. Continent Urinary Reservoir: A pouch-like reservoir is created using a segment of the intestine, which is then connected to the ureters. The patient periodically empties the reservoir through a stoma (opening) in the abdominal wall using a catheter.
3. Orthotopic Neobladder: A pouch-like reservoir is created using a segment of the intestine, which is then connected to the urethra, allowing for normal urination through the native urethral opening.

These procedures can significantly improve the quality of life for patients with severe urinary system damage or disease, although they do come with potential complications such as infections, stone formation, and electrolyte imbalances.

Trimethoprim is an antibiotic medication that is primarily used to treat bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the bacterial enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which is necessary for the synthesis of DNA and protein. This leads to bacterial cell death. Trimethoprim is often combined with sulfamethoxazole (a sulfonamide antibiotic) to create a more effective antibacterial therapy known as co-trimoxazole or TMP-SMX.

Medical Definition:
Trimethoprim is a synthetic antibacterial drug that selectively inhibits bacterial dihydrofolate reductase, an enzyme required for the synthesis of tetrahydrofolate, a cofactor involved in the biosynthesis of thymidine and purines. By blocking this essential pathway, trimethoprim disrupts bacterial DNA and protein synthesis, leading to bacteriostatic activity against many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Trimethoprim is often combined with sulfamethoxazole (a sulfonamide antibiotic) to create a more effective antibacterial therapy known as co-trimoxazole or TMP-SMX, which inhibits two consecutive steps in the bacterial folate synthesis pathway.

A kidney, in medical terms, is one of two bean-shaped organs located in the lower back region of the body. They are essential for maintaining homeostasis within the body by performing several crucial functions such as:

1. Regulation of water and electrolyte balance: Kidneys help regulate the amount of water and various electrolytes like sodium, potassium, and calcium in the bloodstream to maintain a stable internal environment.

2. Excretion of waste products: They filter waste products from the blood, including urea (a byproduct of protein metabolism), creatinine (a breakdown product of muscle tissue), and other harmful substances that result from normal cellular functions or external sources like medications and toxins.

3. Endocrine function: Kidneys produce several hormones with important roles in the body, such as erythropoietin (stimulates red blood cell production), renin (regulates blood pressure), and calcitriol (activated form of vitamin D that helps regulate calcium homeostasis).

4. pH balance regulation: Kidneys maintain the proper acid-base balance in the body by excreting either hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions, depending on whether the blood is too acidic or too alkaline.

5. Blood pressure control: The kidneys play a significant role in regulating blood pressure through the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), which constricts blood vessels and promotes sodium and water retention to increase blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

Anatomically, each kidney is approximately 10-12 cm long, 5-7 cm wide, and 3 cm thick, with a weight of about 120-170 grams. They are surrounded by a protective layer of fat and connected to the urinary system through the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract, also known as the digestive tract, is a continuous tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the anus. It is responsible for ingesting, digesting, absorbing, and excreting food and waste materials. The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (cecum, colon, rectum, anus), and accessory organs such as the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The primary function of this system is to process and extract nutrients from food while also protecting the body from harmful substances, pathogens, and toxins.

Prostatic hyperplasia, also known as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), is a noncancerous enlargement of the prostate gland. The prostate gland surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine and semen out of the body. When the prostate gland enlarges, it can squeeze or partially block the urethra, causing problems with urination, such as a weak stream, difficulty starting or stopping the flow, and more frequent urination, especially at night. Prostatic hyperplasia is a common condition as men age and does not necessarily lead to cancer. However, it can cause significant discomfort and decreased quality of life if left untreated. Treatment options include medications, minimally invasive procedures, and surgery.

Neurogenic bladder is a term used to describe bladder dysfunction due to neurological damage or disease. The condition can result in problems with bladder storage and emptying, leading to symptoms such as urinary frequency, urgency, hesitancy, incontinence, and retention.

Neurogenic bladder can occur due to various medical conditions, including spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, diabetic neuropathy, and stroke. The damage to the nerves that control bladder function can result in overactivity or underactivity of the bladder muscle, leading to urinary symptoms.

Management of neurogenic bladder typically involves a multidisciplinary approach, including medications, bladder training, catheterization, and surgery in some cases. The specific treatment plan depends on the underlying cause of the condition and the severity of the symptoms.

A urinary catheter is a flexible tube that is inserted into the bladder to drain urine. It can be made of rubber, plastic, or latex and comes in various sizes and lengths. The catheter can be inserted through the urethra (the tube that carries urine out of the body from the bladder) and is called a Foley catheter or an indwelling catheter. A straight catheter, on the other hand, is inserted through the urethra and removed after it has drained the urine.

Urinary catheters are used in various medical situations, such as when a person is unable to empty their bladder due to surgery, anesthesia, medication, or conditions that affect bladder function. They may also be used for long-term management of urinary incontinence or to drain the bladder during certain medical procedures.

It's important to note that the use of urinary catheters carries a risk of complications, such as urinary tract infections, bladder spasms, and injury to the urethra or bladder. Therefore, they should only be used when necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

"Vaccinium macrocarpon" is the scientific name for the American cranberry, a type of evergreen shrub that produces berries which are commonly used in food and also have potential health benefits. The active ingredients in cranberries, including proanthocyanidins, are thought to help prevent urinary tract infections by preventing bacteria from adhering to the walls of the urinary tract. However, it is important to note that consuming cranberry products should not be considered a substitute for medical treatment for UTIs or any other health conditions.

Adhesins in Escherichia coli (E. coli) refer to proteins or structures on the surface of E. coli bacteria that allow them to adhere to host cells or surfaces. These adhesins play a crucial role in the initial attachment and colonization of the bacterium to the host, which can lead to infection and disease.

There are several types of adhesins found in E. coli, including fimbrial and non-fimbrial adhesins. Fimbrial adhesins, also known as pili, are hair-like structures that extend from the surface of the bacterium and can bind to specific receptors on host cells. Non-fimbrial adhesins, on the other hand, are proteins located on the outer membrane of the bacterium that can mediate adherence to host cells or surfaces.

One well-known example of an E. coli adhesin is the P fimbriae, which is associated with urinary tract infections (UTIs). The P fimbriae bind to galabiose receptors on the surface of uroepithelial cells, allowing the bacterium to colonize and infect the urinary tract. Other types of E. coli adhesins have been implicated in various extraintestinal infections, such as meningitis, sepsis, and neonatal meningitis.

Understanding the mechanisms of E. coli adhesion is important for developing strategies to prevent and treat infections caused by this bacterium.

Technetium Tc 99m Dimercaptosuccinic Acid (DMSA) is a radiopharmaceutical agent used in nuclear medicine imaging procedures. The compound is made up of the radioisotope Technetium-99m, which emits gamma rays that can be detected by a gamma camera, and dimercaptosuccinic acid, which binds to certain types of metal ions in the body.

In medical imaging, Technetium Tc 99m DMSA is typically used to visualize the kidneys and detect any abnormalities such as inflammation, infection, or tumors. The compound is taken up by the renal tubules in the kidneys, allowing for detailed images of the kidney structure and function to be obtained.

It's important to note that the use of Technetium Tc 99m DMSA should be under the supervision of a trained medical professional, as with any radiopharmaceutical agent, due to the radiation exposure involved in its use.

Overactive bladder (OAB) is a urological condition characterized by the involuntary contraction of the detrusor muscle of the urinary bladder, leading to symptoms such as urgency, frequency, and nocturia (the need to wake up at night to urinate), with or without urge incontinence (the involuntary loss of urine associated with a strong desire to void). It is important to note that OAB is not necessarily related to bladder volume or age-related changes, and it can significantly impact an individual's quality of life. The exact cause of OAB is not fully understood, but it may be associated with neurological disorders, certain medications, infections, or other underlying medical conditions. Treatment options for OAB include behavioral modifications, pelvic floor exercises, bladder training, medications, and, in some cases, surgical interventions.

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination is an antibiotic medication used to treat various bacterial infections. It contains two active ingredients: trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole, which work together to inhibit the growth of bacteria by interfering with their ability to synthesize folic acid, a vital component for their survival.

Trimethoprim is a bacteriostatic agent that inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, an enzyme needed for bacterial growth, while sulfamethoxazole is a bacteriostatic sulfonamide that inhibits the synthesis of tetrahydrofolate by blocking the action of the enzyme bacterial dihydropteroate synthase. The combination of these two agents produces a synergistic effect, increasing the overall antibacterial activity of the medication.

Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole is commonly used to treat urinary tract infections, middle ear infections, bronchitis, traveler's diarrhea, and pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP), a severe lung infection that can occur in people with weakened immune systems. It is also used as a prophylactic treatment to prevent PCP in individuals with HIV/AIDS or other conditions that compromise the immune system.

As with any medication, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole combination can have side effects and potential risks, including allergic reactions, skin rashes, gastrointestinal symptoms, and blood disorders. It is essential to follow the prescribing physician's instructions carefully and report any adverse reactions promptly.

Respiratory tract infections (RTIs) are infections that affect the respiratory system, which includes the nose, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea), bronchi, and lungs. These infections can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or, less commonly, fungi.

RTIs are classified into two categories based on their location: upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs) and lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs). URTIs include infections of the nose, sinuses, throat, and larynx, such as the common cold, flu, laryngitis, and sinusitis. LRTIs involve the lower airways, including the bronchi and lungs, and can be more severe. Examples of LRTIs are pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis.

Symptoms of RTIs depend on the location and cause of the infection but may include cough, congestion, runny nose, sore throat, difficulty breathing, wheezing, fever, fatigue, and chest pain. Treatment for RTIs varies depending on the severity and underlying cause of the infection. For viral infections, treatment typically involves supportive care to manage symptoms, while antibiotics may be prescribed for bacterial infections.

Cystoscopy is a medical procedure that involves the insertion of a thin, flexible tube with a camera and light on the end (cystoscope) into the bladder through the urethra. This procedure allows healthcare professionals to examine the lining of the bladder and urethra for any abnormalities such as inflammation, tumors, or stones. Cystoscopy can be used for diagnostic purposes, as well as for therapeutic interventions like removing small bladder tumors or performing biopsies. It is typically performed under local or general anesthesia to minimize discomfort and pain.

Bacterial fimbriae are thin, hair-like protein appendages that extend from the surface of many types of bacteria. They are involved in the attachment of bacteria to surfaces, other cells, or extracellular structures. Fimbriae enable bacteria to adhere to host tissues and form biofilms, which contribute to bacterial pathogenicity and survival in various environments. These protein structures are composed of several thousand subunits of a specific protein called pilin. Some fimbriae can recognize and bind to specific receptors on host cells, initiating the process of infection and colonization.

Urinary bladder calculi, also known as bladder stones, refer to the formation of solid mineral deposits within the urinary bladder. These calculi develop when urine becomes concentrated, allowing minerals to crystallize and stick together, forming a stone. Bladder stones can vary in size, ranging from tiny sand-like particles to larger ones that can occupy a significant portion of the bladder's volume.

Bladder stones typically form as a result of underlying urinary tract issues, such as bladder infection, enlarged prostate, nerve damage, or urinary retention. Symptoms may include lower abdominal pain, difficulty urinating, frequent urination, blood in the urine, and sudden, strong urges to urinate. If left untreated, bladder stones can lead to complications like urinary tract infections and kidney damage. Treatment usually involves surgical removal of the stones or using other minimally invasive procedures to break them up and remove the fragments.

Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) is a type of cancer that develops in the transitional epithelium, which is the tissue that lines the inner surface of the urinary tract. This includes the renal pelvis, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Transitional cell carcinoma is the most common type of bladder cancer and can also occur in other parts of the urinary system.

Transitional cells are specialized epithelial cells that can stretch and change shape as the organs they line expand or contract. These cells normally have a flat, squamous appearance when at rest but become more cuboidal and columnar when the organ is full. Transitional cell carcinomas typically start in the urothelium, which is the innermost lining of the urinary tract.

Transitional cell carcinoma can be classified as non-invasive (also called papillary or superficial), invasive, or both. Non-invasive TCCs are confined to the urothelium and have not grown into the underlying connective tissue. Invasive TCCs have grown through the urothelium and invaded the lamina propria (a layer of connective tissue beneath the urothelium) or the muscle wall of the bladder.

Transitional cell carcinoma can also be categorized as low-grade or high-grade, depending on how abnormal the cancer cells look under a microscope and how likely they are to grow and spread. Low-grade TCCs tend to have a better prognosis than high-grade TCCs.

Treatment for transitional cell carcinoma depends on the stage and grade of the cancer, as well as other factors such as the patient's overall health. Treatment options may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or immunotherapy.

Urologic surgical procedures refer to various types of surgeries that are performed on the urinary system and male reproductive system. These surgeries can be invasive (requiring an incision) or minimally invasive (using small incisions or scopes). They may be performed to treat a range of conditions, including but not limited to:

1. Kidney stones: Procedures such as shock wave lithotripsy, ureteroscopy, and percutaneous nephrolithotomy are used to remove or break up kidney stones.
2. Urinary tract obstructions: Surgeries like pyeloplasty and urethral dilation can be done to correct blockages in the urinary tract.
3. Prostate gland issues: Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP), simple prostatectomy, and robotic-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy are some procedures used for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) or prostate cancer.
4. Bladder problems: Procedures such as cystectomy (removal of the bladder), bladder augmentation, and implantation of an artificial urinary sphincter can be done for conditions like bladder cancer or incontinence.
5. Kidney diseases: Nephrectomy (removal of a kidney) may be necessary for severe kidney damage or cancer.
6. Testicular issues: Orchiectomy (removal of one or both testicles) can be performed for testicular cancer.
7. Pelvic organ prolapse: Surgeries like sacrocolpopexy and vaginal vault suspension can help correct this condition in women.

These are just a few examples; there are many other urologic surgical procedures available to treat various conditions affecting the urinary and reproductive systems.

Catheter-related infections are infections that occur due to the presence of a catheter, a flexible tube that is inserted into the body to perform various medical functions such as draining urine or administering medication. These infections can affect any part of the body where a catheter is inserted, including the bladder, bloodstream, heart, and lungs.

The most common type of catheter-related infection is a catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI), which occurs when bacteria enter the urinary tract through the catheter and cause an infection. Symptoms of CAUTI may include fever, chills, pain or burning during urination, and cloudy or foul-smelling urine.

Other types of catheter-related infections include catheter-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI), which can occur when bacteria enter the bloodstream through the catheter, and catheter-related pulmonary infections, which can occur when secretions from the respiratory tract enter the lungs through a catheter.

Catheter-related infections are a significant concern in healthcare settings, as they can lead to serious complications such as sepsis, organ failure, and even death. Proper catheter insertion and maintenance techniques, as well as regular monitoring for signs of infection, can help prevent these types of infections.

Sulfamethoxazole is a type of antibiotic known as a sulfonamide. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to produce folic acid, which is necessary for their growth and survival. Sulfamethoxazole is often combined with trimethoprim (another antibiotic) in a single medication called co-trimoxazole, which is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and skin and soft tissue infections.

The medical definition of Sulfamethoxazole can be found in various pharmaceutical and medical resources, here are some examples:

* According to the Merck Manual, Sulfamethoxazole is a "synthetic antibacterial drug that inhibits bacterial synthesis of folic acid by competing with para-aminobenzoic acid for the enzyme dihydropteroate synthetase."
* According to the British National Formulary (BNF), Sulfamethoxazole is a "sulfonamide antibacterial agent, active against many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is often combined with trimethoprim in a 5:1 ratio as co-trimoxazole."
* According to the National Library of Medicine (NLM), Sulfamethoxazole is a "synthetic antibacterial agent that is used in combination with trimethoprim for the treatment of various bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the bacterial synthesis of folic acid."

It's important to note that, as any other medication, Sulfamethoxazole should be taken under medical supervision and following the instructions of a healthcare professional, as it can cause side effects and interact with other medications.

Dysuria is a medical term that describes painful or difficult urination. This symptom can be caused by various conditions, including urinary tract infections (UTIs), bladder infections, kidney stones, enlarged prostate, and certain sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Dysuria can also occur as a side effect of certain medications or medical procedures.

The pain or discomfort associated with dysuria can range from a burning sensation to a sharp stabbing pain, and it may occur during urination, immediately after urination, or throughout the day. Other symptoms that may accompany dysuria include frequent urination, urgency to urinate, cloudy or strong-smelling urine, blood in the urine, and lower abdominal or back pain.

If you are experiencing dysuria, it is important to seek medical attention promptly to determine the underlying cause and receive appropriate treatment. In many cases, dysuria can be treated effectively with antibiotics, medications, or other interventions.

Diagnostic techniques in urology are methods used to identify and diagnose various urological conditions affecting the urinary tract and male reproductive system. These techniques include:

1. Urinalysis: A laboratory examination of a urine sample to detect abnormalities such as infection, kidney stones, or other underlying medical conditions.
2. Urine Culture: A test used to identify and grow bacteria from the urine to determine the type of bacterial infection present in the urinary tract.
3. Imaging Studies: Various imaging techniques such as X-rays, ultrasound, CT scans, and MRI scans are used to visualize the internal structures of the urinary tract and identify any abnormalities.
4. Cystoscopy: A procedure that involves inserting a thin tube with a camera into the bladder through the urethra to examine the bladder and urethra for signs of disease or abnormality.
5. Urodynamics: A series of tests used to evaluate bladder function, including measuring bladder pressure and urine flow rate.
6. Biopsy: The removal and examination of tissue from the urinary tract or male reproductive system to diagnose conditions such as cancer.
7. Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test: A blood test used to screen for prostate cancer by measuring the level of PSA, a protein produced by the prostate gland.
8. Voiding Diary: A record of urinary habits, including the frequency and volume of urination, that can help diagnose conditions such as overactive bladder or urinary incontinence.

Hematuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of blood in urine. It can be visible to the naked eye, which is called gross hematuria, or detected only under a microscope, known as microscopic hematuria. The blood in urine may come from any site along the urinary tract, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or urethra. Hematuria can be a symptom of various medical conditions, such as urinary tract infections, kidney stones, kidney disease, or cancer of the urinary tract. It is essential to consult a healthcare professional if you notice blood in your urine to determine the underlying cause and receive appropriate treatment.

Bacterial infections are caused by the invasion and multiplication of bacteria in or on tissues of the body. These infections can range from mild, like a common cold, to severe, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or sepsis. The symptoms of a bacterial infection depend on the type of bacteria invading the body and the area of the body that is affected.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that can live in many different environments, including in the human body. While some bacteria are beneficial to humans and help with digestion or protect against harmful pathogens, others can cause illness and disease. When bacteria invade the body, they can release toxins and other harmful substances that damage tissues and trigger an immune response.

Bacterial infections can be treated with antibiotics, which work by killing or inhibiting the growth of bacteria. However, it is important to note that misuse or overuse of antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance, making treatment more difficult. It is also essential to complete the full course of antibiotics as prescribed, even if symptoms improve, to ensure that all bacteria are eliminated and reduce the risk of recurrence or development of antibiotic resistance.

Urolithiasis is the formation of stones (calculi) in the urinary system, which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. These stones can be composed of various substances such as calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, uric acid, or struvite. The presence of urolithiasis can cause symptoms like severe pain in the back or side, nausea, vomiting, fever, and blood in the urine. The condition can be managed with medications, increased fluid intake, and in some cases, surgical intervention may be required to remove the stones.

Ureteral obstruction is a medical condition characterized by the partial or complete blockage of the ureter, which is the tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder. This blockage can be caused by various factors such as kidney stones, tumors, blood clots, or scar tissue, leading to a backup of urine in the kidney (hydronephrosis). Ureteral obstruction can cause pain, infection, and potential kidney damage if not treated promptly.

The pyramidal tracts, also known as the corticospinal tracts, are bundles of nerve fibers that run through the brainstem and spinal cord, originating from the cerebral cortex. These tracts are responsible for transmitting motor signals from the brain to the muscles, enabling voluntary movement and control of the body.

The pyramidal tracts originate from the primary motor cortex in the frontal lobe of the brain and decussate (cross over) in the lower medulla oblongata before continuing down the spinal cord. The left pyramidal tract controls muscles on the right side of the body, while the right pyramidal tract controls muscles on the left side of the body.

Damage to the pyramidal tracts can result in various motor impairments, such as weakness or paralysis, spasticity, and loss of fine motor control, depending on the location and extent of the damage.

Reagent strips, also known as diagnostic or test strips, are narrow pieces of plastic material that have been impregnated with chemical reagents. They are used in the qualitative or semi-quantitative detection of various substances, such as glucose, proteins, ketones, blood, and white blood cells, in body fluids like urine or blood.

Reagent strips typically contain multiple pad areas, each with a different reagent that reacts to a specific substance. To perform the test, a small amount of the fluid is applied to the strip, and the reaction between the reagents and the target substance produces a visible color change. The resulting color can then be compared to a standardized color chart to determine the concentration or presence of the substance.

Reagent strips are widely used in point-of-care testing, providing quick and convenient results for healthcare professionals and patients alike. They are commonly used for monitoring conditions such as diabetes (urine or blood glucose levels), urinary tract infections (leukocytes and nitrites), and kidney function (protein and blood).

Kidney calculi, also known as kidney stones, are hard deposits made of minerals and salts that form inside your kidneys. They can range in size from a grain of sand to a golf ball. When they're small enough, they can be passed through your urine without causing too much discomfort. However, larger stones may block the flow of urine, causing severe pain and potentially leading to serious complications such as urinary tract infections or kidney damage if left untreated.

The formation of kidney calculi is often associated with factors like dehydration, high levels of certain minerals in your urine, family history, obesity, and certain medical conditions such as gout or inflammatory bowel disease. Symptoms of kidney stones typically include severe pain in the back, side, lower abdomen, or groin; nausea and vomiting; fever and chills if an infection is present; and blood in the urine. Treatment options depend on the size and location of the stone but may include medications to help pass the stone, shock wave lithotripsy to break up the stone, or surgical removal of the stone in severe cases.

Urogenital abnormalities refer to structural or functional anomalies that affect the urinary and genital systems. These two systems are closely linked during embryonic development, and sometimes they may not develop properly, leading to various types of congenital defects. Urogenital abnormalities can range from minor issues like a bifid scrotum (a condition where the scrotum is split into two parts) to more severe problems such as bladder exstrophy (where the bladder develops outside the body).

These conditions may affect urination, reproduction, and sexual function. They can also increase the risk of infections and other complications. Urogenital abnormalities can be diagnosed through physical examination, imaging tests, or genetic testing. Treatment options depend on the specific condition but may include surgery, medication, or lifestyle changes.

Urethral diseases refer to a range of conditions that affect the urethra, which is the tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body. These diseases can cause various symptoms such as pain or discomfort during urination, difficulty in urinating, blood in urine, and abnormal discharge. Some common urethral diseases include urethritis (inflammation of the urethra), urethral stricture (narrowing of the urethra due to scar tissue or inflammation), and urethral cancer. The causes of urethral diseases can vary, including infections, injuries, congenital abnormalities, and certain medical conditions. Proper diagnosis and treatment are essential for managing urethral diseases and preventing complications.

Ureteral diseases refer to a range of conditions that affect the ureters, which are the thin tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. These diseases can cause various symptoms such as pain in the side or back, fever, and changes in urinary patterns. Here are some examples of ureteral diseases:

1. Ureteral stricture: A narrowing of the ureter that can be caused by scarring, inflammation, or tumors. This can lead to a backup of urine, which can cause kidney damage or infection.
2. Ureteral stones: Small, hard mineral deposits that form in the ureters and can cause pain, nausea, and blood in the urine.
3. Ureteral cancer: A rare type of cancer that affects the ureters and can cause symptoms such as abdominal pain, weight loss, and bloody urine.
4. Ureteral reflux: A condition in which urine flows backward from the bladder into the ureters, causing infection and kidney damage.
5. Ureteral trauma: Injury to the ureters can occur due to accidents, surgeries, or other medical procedures. This can lead to bleeding, scarring, or blockages in the ureters.

Treatment for ureteral diseases depends on the specific condition and its severity. Treatment options may include medications, surgery, or minimally invasive procedures such as stenting or balloon dilation.

Kidney disease, also known as nephropathy or renal disease, refers to any functional or structural damage to the kidneys that impairs their ability to filter blood, regulate electrolytes, produce hormones, and maintain fluid balance. This damage can result from a wide range of causes, including diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disease, lupus, infections, drugs, toxins, and congenital or inherited disorders.

Depending on the severity and progression of the kidney damage, kidney diseases can be classified into two main categories: acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney disease (CKD). AKI is a sudden and often reversible loss of kidney function that occurs over hours to days, while CKD is a progressive and irreversible decline in kidney function that develops over months or years.

Symptoms of kidney diseases may include edema, proteinuria, hematuria, hypertension, electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, anemia, and decreased urine output. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause and severity of the disease and may include medications, dietary modifications, dialysis, or kidney transplantation.

Microbial sensitivity tests, also known as antibiotic susceptibility tests (ASTs) or bacterial susceptibility tests, are laboratory procedures used to determine the effectiveness of various antimicrobial agents against specific microorganisms isolated from a patient's infection. These tests help healthcare providers identify which antibiotics will be most effective in treating an infection and which ones should be avoided due to resistance. The results of these tests can guide appropriate antibiotic therapy, minimize the potential for antibiotic resistance, improve clinical outcomes, and reduce unnecessary side effects or toxicity from ineffective antimicrobials.

There are several methods for performing microbial sensitivity tests, including:

1. Disk diffusion method (Kirby-Bauer test): A standardized paper disk containing a predetermined amount of an antibiotic is placed on an agar plate that has been inoculated with the isolated microorganism. After incubation, the zone of inhibition around the disk is measured to determine the susceptibility or resistance of the organism to that particular antibiotic.
2. Broth dilution method: A series of tubes or wells containing decreasing concentrations of an antimicrobial agent are inoculated with a standardized microbial suspension. After incubation, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined by observing the lowest concentration of the antibiotic that prevents visible growth of the organism.
3. Automated systems: These use sophisticated technology to perform both disk diffusion and broth dilution methods automatically, providing rapid and accurate results for a wide range of microorganisms and antimicrobial agents.

The interpretation of microbial sensitivity test results should be done cautiously, considering factors such as the site of infection, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of the antibiotic, potential toxicity, and local resistance patterns. Regular monitoring of susceptibility patterns and ongoing antimicrobial stewardship programs are essential to ensure optimal use of these tests and to minimize the development of antibiotic resistance.

"Providencia" is a term that refers to a type of bacteria that can cause infections in humans. The scientific name for this bacterium is "Providencia stuartii." It is part of the Enterobacteriaceae family and is commonly found in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and animals.

Providencia stuartii can cause a variety of infections, including urinary tract infections, wound infections, and bloodstream infections. It is often resistant to many antibiotics, which can make it difficult to treat. People who are hospitalized, have weakened immune systems, or use catheters are at increased risk for Providencia infections.

It's important to note that while "Providencia" refers to a specific type of bacteria, the term is not typically used in medical diagnoses or treatment. Instead, healthcare providers would specify the type of infection and the name of the bacterium causing it.

Urge urinary incontinence is a type of urinary incontinence where there is a sudden, strong need to urinate that cannot be postponed, leading to an involuntary loss of urine. It is also known as overactive bladder (OAB) or detrusor instability. The underlying cause is often due to uninhibited contractions of the detrusor muscle, which is the main muscle in the bladder that helps with urination. This can be caused by various factors such as nerve damage, bladder infections, bladder stones, or certain medications. Treatment options may include behavioral modifications, pelvic floor exercises, medication, and in some cases, surgery.

Pyelitis is a medical term that refers to the inflammation of the renal pelvis, which is the part of the kidney where urine collects before flowing into the ureter. Pyelitis can occur as a result of a bacterial infection, and it is often associated with pyelonephritis, which is an inflammation of the kidney tissue itself.

The symptoms of pyelitis may include fever, chills, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, and frequent or painful urination. The condition can be diagnosed through a variety of tests, including urinalysis, urine culture, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to eliminate the underlying infection, as well as supportive care to manage any symptoms.

It is important to seek medical attention promptly if you experience symptoms of pyelitis, as untreated infections can lead to serious complications, including kidney damage and sepsis.

'Proteus' doesn't have a specific medical definition itself, but it is related to a syndrome in medicine. Proteus syndrome is a rare genetic disorder characterized by the overgrowth of various tissues and organs in the body. The name "Proteus" comes from the Greek god Proteus, who could change his form at will, reflecting the diverse and ever-changing nature of this condition's symptoms.

People with Proteus syndrome experience asymmetric overgrowth of bones, skin, and other tissues, leading to abnormalities in body shape and function. The disorder can also affect blood vessels, causing benign tumors called hamartomas to develop. Additionally, individuals with Proteus syndrome are at an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer.

The genetic mutation responsible for Proteus syndrome is found in the AKT1 gene, which plays a crucial role in cell growth and division. This disorder is typically not inherited but instead arises spontaneously as a new mutation in the affected individual. Early diagnosis and management of Proteus syndrome can help improve patients' quality of life and reduce complications associated with the condition.

Retrospective studies, also known as retrospective research or looking back studies, are a type of observational study that examines data from the past to draw conclusions about possible causal relationships between risk factors and outcomes. In these studies, researchers analyze existing records, medical charts, or previously collected data to test a hypothesis or answer a specific research question.

Retrospective studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying trends, but they have limitations compared to prospective studies, which follow participants forward in time from exposure to outcome. Retrospective studies are subject to biases such as recall bias, selection bias, and information bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, retrospective studies should be interpreted with caution and used primarily to generate hypotheses for further testing in prospective studies.

Klebsiella is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, encapsulated, non-motile, rod-shaped bacteria that are part of the family Enterobacteriaceae. They are commonly found in the normal microbiota of the mouth, skin, and intestines, but can also cause various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems.

Klebsiella pneumoniae is the most common species and can cause pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, and wound infections. Other Klebsiella species, such as K. oxytoca, can also cause similar types of infections. These bacteria are resistant to many antibiotics, making them difficult to treat and a significant public health concern.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

Prospective studies, also known as longitudinal studies, are a type of cohort study in which data is collected forward in time, following a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure over a period of time. The researchers clearly define the study population and exposure of interest at the beginning of the study and follow up with the participants to determine the outcomes that develop over time. This type of study design allows for the investigation of causal relationships between exposures and outcomes, as well as the identification of risk factors and the estimation of disease incidence rates. Prospective studies are particularly useful in epidemiology and medical research when studying diseases with long latency periods or rare outcomes.

Bacterial adhesion is the initial and crucial step in the process of bacterial colonization, where bacteria attach themselves to a surface or tissue. This process involves specific interactions between bacterial adhesins (proteins, fimbriae, or pili) and host receptors (glycoproteins, glycolipids, or extracellular matrix components). The attachment can be either reversible or irreversible, depending on the strength of interaction. Bacterial adhesion is a significant factor in initiating biofilm formation, which can lead to various infectious diseases and medical device-associated infections.

The Antibody-Coated Bacteria (ACB) test, also known as the Coated Bacteria test, is a urine test that detects the presence of bacteria coated with antibodies. This test is used to diagnose and monitor bacterial infections, particularly urinary tract infections (UTIs).

In this test, a sample of urine is treated with fluorescein-labeled antibodies that bind specifically to the FimH adhesion protein found on the surface of many gram-negative bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, that commonly cause UTIs. If these bacteria are present in the urine sample, the labeled antibodies will bind to them, forming antibody-coated bacteria.

The urine sample is then analyzed under a fluorescence microscope, which can detect the presence of fluorescing bacteria. The number of antibody-coated bacteria is expressed as a percentage of the total number of bacteria present in the sample. A high percentage of antibody-coated bacteria indicates an ongoing immune response to a bacterial infection.

The ACB test is useful for diagnosing UTIs, particularly in cases where standard urine culture methods may fail to detect the presence of bacteria, such as in patients with chronic or recurrent UTIs, or those who have recently received antibiotic therapy. The test can also be used to monitor the effectiveness of antibiotic treatment and to identify patients who may benefit from longer courses of therapy or alternative treatments.

Cross infection, also known as cross-contamination, is the transmission of infectious agents or diseases between patients in a healthcare setting. This can occur through various means such as contaminated equipment, surfaces, hands of healthcare workers, or the air. It is an important concern in medical settings and measures are taken to prevent its occurrence, including proper hand hygiene, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), environmental cleaning and disinfection, and safe injection practices.

Medical Definition:

"Risk factors" are any attribute, characteristic or exposure of an individual that increases the likelihood of developing a disease or injury. They can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors. Modifiable risk factors are those that can be changed through lifestyle choices or medical treatment, while non-modifiable risk factors are inherent traits such as age, gender, or genetic predisposition. Examples of modifiable risk factors include smoking, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, and unhealthy diet, while non-modifiable risk factors include age, sex, and family history. It is important to note that having a risk factor does not guarantee that a person will develop the disease, but rather indicates an increased susceptibility.

A newborn infant is a baby who is within the first 28 days of life. This period is also referred to as the neonatal period. Newborns require specialized care and attention due to their immature bodily systems and increased vulnerability to various health issues. They are closely monitored for signs of well-being, growth, and development during this critical time.

The urogenital system is a part of the human body that includes the urinary and genital systems. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, which work together to produce, store, and eliminate urine. On the other hand, the genital system, also known as the reproductive system, is responsible for the production, development, and reproduction of offspring. In males, this includes the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, and penis. In females, it includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands, and external genitalia.

The urogenital system is closely related anatomically and functionally. For example, in males, the urethra serves as a shared conduit for both urine and semen, while in females, the urethra and vagina are separate but adjacent structures. Additionally, some organs, such as the prostate gland in males and the Skene's glands in females, have functions that overlap between the urinary and genital systems.

Disorders of the urogenital system can affect both the urinary and reproductive functions, leading to a range of symptoms such as pain, discomfort, infection, and difficulty with urination or sexual activity. Proper care and maintenance of the urogenital system are essential for overall health and well-being.

Creatinine is a waste product that's produced by your muscles and removed from your body by your kidneys. Creatinine is a breakdown product of creatine, a compound found in meat and fish, as well as in the muscles of vertebrates, including humans.

In healthy individuals, the kidneys filter out most of the creatinine and eliminate it through urine. However, when the kidneys are not functioning properly, creatinine levels in the blood can rise. Therefore, measuring the amount of creatinine in the blood or urine is a common way to test how well the kidneys are working. High creatinine levels in the blood may indicate kidney damage or kidney disease.

Virulence factors are characteristics or components of a microorganism, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites, that contribute to its ability to cause damage or disease in a host organism. These factors can include various structures, enzymes, or toxins that allow the pathogen to evade the host's immune system, attach to and invade host tissues, obtain nutrients from the host, or damage host cells directly.

Examples of virulence factors in bacteria include:

1. Endotoxins: lipopolysaccharides found in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria that can trigger a strong immune response and inflammation.
2. Exotoxins: proteins secreted by some bacteria that have toxic effects on host cells, such as botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum or diphtheria toxin produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae.
3. Adhesins: structures that help the bacterium attach to host tissues, such as fimbriae or pili in Escherichia coli.
4. Capsules: thick layers of polysaccharides or proteins that surround some bacteria and protect them from the host's immune system, like those found in Streptococcus pneumoniae or Klebsiella pneumoniae.
5. Invasins: proteins that enable bacteria to invade and enter host cells, such as internalins in Listeria monocytogenes.
6. Enzymes: proteins that help bacteria obtain nutrients from the host by breaking down various molecules, like hemolysins that lyse red blood cells to release iron or hyaluronidases that degrade connective tissue.

Understanding virulence factors is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases caused by these microorganisms.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Schistosomiasis haematobia" is not a recognized medical term. Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by several species of blood flukes (schistosomes). The two main forms that affect humans are Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium, but the term "haematobia" itself refers to the presence of blood in urine.

So, when we talk about Schistosoma haematobium, it's a specific species of schistosome that causes an infection known as urogenital schistosomiasis, which is characterized by the presence of blood in the urine (haematuria) and other symptoms.

If you have any questions about tropical diseases or parasitic infections, feel free to ask!

Ureteroscopy is a medical procedure that involves the use of a ureteroscope, which is a thin, flexible or rigid fiber-optic tube with a light and camera at the end, to visualize the inside of the ureters and kidneys. The ureteroscope is inserted through the urethra and bladder, and then up into the ureter to examine it for any abnormalities such as stones, tumors, or structural issues.

During the procedure, the doctor can also remove any small stones or take a biopsy of any suspicious tissue. Ureteroscopy is typically performed under general or regional anesthesia and may require hospitalization depending on the complexity of the procedure. It is a minimally invasive alternative to traditional open surgery for diagnosing and treating ureteral and kidney conditions.

Virulence, in the context of medicine and microbiology, refers to the degree or severity of damage or harm that a pathogen (like a bacterium, virus, fungus, or parasite) can cause to its host. It is often associated with the ability of the pathogen to invade and damage host tissues, evade or suppress the host's immune response, replicate within the host, and spread between hosts.

Virulence factors are the specific components or mechanisms that contribute to a pathogen's virulence, such as toxins, enzymes, adhesins, and capsules. These factors enable the pathogen to establish an infection, cause tissue damage, and facilitate its transmission between hosts. The overall virulence of a pathogen can be influenced by various factors, including host susceptibility, environmental conditions, and the specific strain or species of the pathogen.

Recurrence, in a medical context, refers to the return of symptoms or signs of a disease after a period of improvement or remission. It indicates that the condition has not been fully eradicated and may require further treatment. Recurrence is often used to describe situations where a disease such as cancer comes back after initial treatment, but it can also apply to other medical conditions. The likelihood of recurrence varies depending on the type of disease and individual patient factors.

Community-acquired infections are those that are acquired outside of a healthcare setting, such as in one's own home or community. These infections are typically contracted through close contact with an infected person, contaminated food or water, or animals. Examples of community-acquired infections include the common cold, flu, strep throat, and many types of viral and bacterial gastrointestinal infections.

These infections are different from healthcare-associated infections (HAIs), which are infections that patients acquire while they are receiving treatment for another condition in a healthcare setting, such as a hospital or long-term care facility. HAIs can be caused by a variety of factors, including contact with contaminated surfaces or equipment, invasive medical procedures, and the use of certain medications.

It is important to note that community-acquired infections can also occur in healthcare settings if proper infection control measures are not in place. Healthcare providers must take steps to prevent the spread of these infections, such as washing their hands regularly, using personal protective equipment (PPE), and implementing isolation precautions for patients with known or suspected infectious diseases.

Nocturia is a common symptom characterized by the need to wake up during the night one or more times to urinate. While it's normal to urinate a few times during the night, nocturia is defined as having to urinate more than twice per night, which can disrupt sleep and lead to daytime fatigue and sleepiness.

Nocturia can be caused by various factors, including underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, bladder infections, enlarged prostate, or sleep disorders like sleep apnea. It can also be a side effect of certain medications. In some cases, nocturia may be a symptom of more serious conditions, so it's important to speak with a healthcare provider if you experience frequent nighttime urination.

Fosfomycin is an antibiotic that is primarily used to treat uncomplicated lower urinary tract infections. It works by inhibiting the bacterial enzyme responsible for the synthesis of the cell wall. The chemical name for fosfomycin is (E)-1,2-epoxypropylphosphonic acid.

Fosfomycin is available as an oral tablet and as a granule that can be dissolved in water for oral administration. It has a broad spectrum of activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including some strains that are resistant to other antibiotics.

Common side effects of fosfomycin include diarrhea, nausea, and headache. It is generally well tolerated and can be used in patients with impaired renal function. However, it should be avoided in people who have a history of allergic reactions to fosfomycin or any of its components.

It's important to note that the use of antibiotics like fosfomycin can lead to the development of bacterial resistance, so they should only be used when necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Bacterial drug resistance is a type of antimicrobial resistance that occurs when bacteria evolve the ability to survive and reproduce in the presence of drugs (such as antibiotics) that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth. This can happen due to various mechanisms, including genetic mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes from other bacteria.

As a result, bacterial infections may become more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of medication, alternative drugs, or longer treatment courses. In some cases, drug-resistant infections can lead to serious health complications, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates.

Examples of bacterial drug resistance include methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), and multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Preventing the spread of bacterial drug resistance is crucial for maintaining effective treatments for infectious diseases.

Enterobacteriaceae is a family of gram-negative, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the intestines of humans and animals. Many species within this family are capable of causing various types of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems. Some common examples of Enterobacteriaceae include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, and Salmonella enterica.

These bacteria are typically characterized by their ability to ferment various sugars and produce acid and gas as byproducts. They can also be distinguished by their biochemical reactions, such as their ability to produce certain enzymes or resist specific antibiotics. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can range from mild to severe, depending on the species involved and the overall health of the infected individual.

Some infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae include urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and foodborne illnesses. Proper hygiene, such as handwashing and safe food handling practices, can help prevent the spread of these bacteria and reduce the risk of infection.

Treatment outcome is a term used to describe the result or effect of medical treatment on a patient's health status. It can be measured in various ways, such as through symptoms improvement, disease remission, reduced disability, improved quality of life, or survival rates. The treatment outcome helps healthcare providers evaluate the effectiveness of a particular treatment plan and make informed decisions about future care. It is also used in clinical research to compare the efficacy of different treatments and improve patient care.

Ciprofloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic that is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including respiratory, urinary, and skin infections. It works by inhibiting the bacterial DNA gyrase, which is an enzyme necessary for bacterial replication and transcription. This leads to bacterial cell death. Ciprofloxacin is available in oral and injectable forms and is usually prescribed to be taken twice a day. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, and headache. It may also cause serious adverse reactions such as tendinitis, tendon rupture, peripheral neuropathy, and central nervous system effects. It is important to note that ciprofloxacin should not be used in patients with a history of hypersensitivity to fluoroquinolones and should be used with caution in patients with a history of seizures, brain injury, or other neurological conditions.

Succimer is an medication, specifically a chelating agent, that is used to treat heavy metal poisoning, such as lead or mercury. It works by binding to the metal ions in the body and allowing them to be excreted through urine. The chemical name for succimer is dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). It is available in the form of oral capsules and is typically prescribed by a healthcare professional.

Fimbriae proteins are specialized protein structures found on the surface of certain bacteria, including some pathogenic species. Fimbriae, also known as pili, are thin, hair-like appendages that extend from the bacterial cell wall and play a role in the attachment of the bacterium to host cells or surfaces.

Fimbrial proteins are responsible for the assembly and structure of these fimbriae. They are produced by the bacterial cell and then self-assemble into long, thin fibers that extend from the surface of the bacterium. The proteins have a highly conserved sequence at their carboxy-terminal end, which is important for their polymerization and assembly into fimbriae.

Fimbrial proteins can vary widely between different species of bacteria, and even between strains of the same species. Some fimbrial proteins are adhesins, meaning they bind to specific receptors on host cells, allowing the bacterium to attach to and colonize tissues. Other fimbrial proteins may play a role in biofilm formation or other aspects of bacterial pathogenesis.

Understanding the structure and function of fimbrial proteins is important for developing new strategies to prevent or treat bacterial infections, as these proteins can be potential targets for vaccines or therapeutic agents.

Sulfisoxazole is an antibacterial drug, specifically a sulfonamide. It is defined as a synthetic, short-acting, bacteriostatic antibiotic that inhibits the growth of certain bacteria by interfering with their ability to synthesize folic acid, an essential component for their survival. Sulfisoxazole is used to treat various infections caused by susceptible bacteria, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and skin infections.

It's important to note that the use of sulfonamides like sulfisoxazole has declined over time due to the emergence of bacterial resistance and the availability of alternative antibiotics with better safety profiles. Additionally, adverse reactions such as rashes, allergies, and blood disorders have been associated with their use, so they should be prescribed with caution and only when necessary.

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that are among the earliest known life forms on Earth. They are typically characterized as having a cell wall and no membrane-bound organelles. The majority of bacteria have a prokaryotic organization, meaning they lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Bacteria exist in diverse environments and can be found in every habitat on Earth, including soil, water, and the bodies of plants and animals. Some bacteria are beneficial to their hosts, while others can cause disease. Beneficial bacteria play important roles in processes such as digestion, nitrogen fixation, and biogeochemical cycling.

Bacteria reproduce asexually through binary fission or budding, and some species can also exchange genetic material through conjugation. They have a wide range of metabolic capabilities, with many using organic compounds as their source of energy, while others are capable of photosynthesis or chemosynthesis.

Bacteria are highly adaptable and can evolve rapidly in response to environmental changes. This has led to the development of antibiotic resistance in some species, which poses a significant public health challenge. Understanding the biology and behavior of bacteria is essential for developing strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections and diseases.

Indwelling catheters, also known as Foley catheters, are medical devices that are inserted into the bladder to drain urine. They have a small balloon at the tip that is inflated with water once the catheter is in the correct position in the bladder, allowing it to remain in place and continuously drain urine. Indwelling catheters are typically used for patients who are unable to empty their bladders on their own, such as those who are bedridden or have nerve damage that affects bladder function. They are also used during and after certain surgical procedures. Prolonged use of indwelling catheters can increase the risk of urinary tract infections and other complications.

Staphylococcus saprophyticus is a type of gram-positive bacterium that is commonly found on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and animals. It is a coagulase-negative staphylococci, which means it does not produce the enzyme coagulase, unlike Staphylococcus aureus.

S. saprophyticus is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause urinary tract infections (UTIs) in sexually active young women. It is responsible for approximately 5-15% of uncomplicated UTIs in this population. S. saprophyticus UTIs are typically associated with sexual activity, and the bacteria may be introduced into the urinary tract through contamination from fecal flora or during intercourse.

S. saprophyticus is also known to cause other types of infections, such as skin and soft tissue infections, pneumonia, and bacteremia, although these are less common than UTIs. The bacterium is generally resistant to penicillin and ampicillin but can be treated with a variety of other antibiotics, including trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, fluoroquinolones, and nitrofurantoin.

"CBA" is an abbreviation for a specific strain of inbred mice that were developed at the Cancer Research Institute in London. The "Inbred CBA" mice are genetically identical individuals within the same strain, due to many generations of brother-sister matings. This results in a homozygous population, making them valuable tools for research because they reduce variability and increase reproducibility in experimental outcomes.

The CBA strain is known for its susceptibility to certain diseases, such as autoimmune disorders and cancer, which makes it a popular choice for researchers studying those conditions. Additionally, the CBA strain has been widely used in studies related to transplantation immunology, infectious diseases, and genetic research.

It's important to note that while "Inbred CBA" mice are a well-established and useful tool in biomedical research, they represent only one of many inbred strains available for scientific investigation. Each strain has its own unique characteristics and advantages, depending on the specific research question being asked.

Enterococcus faecalis is a species of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria that are part of the normal gut microbiota in humans and animals. It is a type of enterococci that can cause a variety of infections, including urinary tract infections, bacteremia, endocarditis, and meningitis, particularly in hospitalized patients or those with compromised immune systems.

E. faecalis is known for its ability to survive in a wide range of environments and resist various antibiotics, making it difficult to treat infections caused by this organism. It can also form biofilms, which further increase its resistance to antimicrobial agents and host immune responses. Accurate identification and appropriate treatment of E. faecalis infections are essential to prevent complications and ensure positive patient outcomes.

Gram-positive bacterial infections refer to illnesses or diseases caused by Gram-positive bacteria, which are a group of bacteria that turn purple when stained using the Gram stain method. This staining technique is used in microbiology to differentiate between two main types of bacteria based on their cell wall composition.

Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which retains the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining process. Some common examples of Gram-positive bacteria include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Enterococcus faecalis.

Gram-positive bacterial infections can range from mild skin infections to severe and life-threatening conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, and sepsis. The symptoms of these infections depend on the type of bacteria involved and the location of the infection in the body. Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics that are effective against Gram-positive bacteria, such as penicillin, vancomycin, or clindamycin. However, the emergence of antibiotic resistance among Gram-positive bacteria is a growing concern and can complicate treatment in some cases.

Gram-negative bacteria are a type of bacteria that do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method, a standard technique used in microbiology to classify and identify different types of bacteria based on their structural differences. This method was developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884.

The primary characteristic distinguishing Gram-negative bacteria from Gram-positive bacteria is the composition and structure of their cell walls:

1. Cell wall: Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer, making it more susceptible to damage and less rigid compared to Gram-positive bacteria.
2. Outer membrane: They possess an additional outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides (LPS), which are endotoxins that can trigger strong immune responses in humans and animals. The outer membrane also contains proteins, known as porins, which form channels for the passage of molecules into and out of the cell.
3. Periplasm: Between the inner and outer membranes lies a compartment called the periplasm, where various enzymes and other molecules are located.

Some examples of Gram-negative bacteria include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella enterica, Shigella spp., and Neisseria meningitidis. These bacteria are often associated with various infections, such as urinary tract infections, pneumonia, sepsis, and meningitis. Due to their complex cell wall structure, Gram-negative bacteria can be more resistant to certain antibiotics, making them a significant concern in healthcare settings.

Continent urinary reservoirs refer to an artificial bladder or storage system that is created to store urine in individuals with bladder dysfunction or those who have undergone bladder removal. These reservoirs are implanted inside the body and are designed to provide continence, which means they prevent leakage of urine until a patient decides to empty it.

Continent urinary reservoirs can be created using different techniques and materials, such as small intestine or stomach tissue, which are fashioned into a pouch-like structure. A stoma or opening is created in the abdominal wall through which the reservoir can be periodically drained using a catheter.

These types of urinary diversions are typically recommended for patients who cannot undergo more conventional forms of urinary reconstruction, such as bladder augmentation or neobladder construction, due to various medical reasons. Continent urinary reservoirs offer several advantages over incontinent urinary diversions, including improved quality of life, greater social acceptance, and reduced risk of skin irritation and dehydration. However, they also require regular catheterization and careful monitoring to ensure proper functioning and prevent complications such as infection or stone formation.

The digestive system is a complex group of organs and glands that process food. It converts the food we eat into nutrients, which the body uses for energy, growth, and cell repair. The digestive system also eliminates waste from the body. It is made up of the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract) and other organs that help the body break down and absorb food.

The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Other organs that are part of the digestive system include the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands.

The process of digestion begins in the mouth, where food is chewed and mixed with saliva. The food then travels down the esophagus and into the stomach, where it is broken down further by stomach acids. The digested food then moves into the small intestine, where nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream. The remaining waste material passes into the large intestine, where it is stored until it is eliminated through the anus.

The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder play important roles in the digestive process as well. The liver produces bile, a substance that helps break down fats in the small intestine. The pancreas produces enzymes that help digest proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The gallbladder stores bile until it is needed in the small intestine.

Overall, the digestive system is responsible for breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste. It plays a critical role in maintaining our health and well-being.

Uromodulin, also known as Tamm-Horsfall protein, is a glycoprotein that is primarily produced in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle in the kidney. It is the most abundant protein found in normal urine. Uromodulin plays a role in the protection of the urinary tract by preventing the formation of calcium oxalate and brushite crystals, which can lead to kidney stones. Additionally, it has been implicated in various renal diseases, including chronic kidney disease and kidney transplant rejection.

A urinary fistula is an abnormal connection or passage between the urinary tract and another organ or tissue, such as the bladder, ureter, or kidney, and the skin, vagina, or intestine. This condition can lead to urine leakage through the abnormal opening, causing discomfort, infection, and other complications if not treated promptly and effectively. Urinary fistulas can be caused by various factors, including surgery, injury, radiation therapy, inflammation, or cancer. The type and location of the fistula will determine the specific symptoms and treatment options.

A biological marker, often referred to as a biomarker, is a measurable indicator that reflects the presence or severity of a disease state, or a response to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers can be found in various materials such as blood, tissues, or bodily fluids, and they can take many forms, including molecular, histologic, radiographic, or physiological measurements.

In the context of medical research and clinical practice, biomarkers are used for a variety of purposes, such as:

1. Diagnosis: Biomarkers can help diagnose a disease by indicating the presence or absence of a particular condition. For example, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used to detect prostate cancer.
2. Monitoring: Biomarkers can be used to monitor the progression or regression of a disease over time. For instance, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels are monitored in diabetes patients to assess long-term blood glucose control.
3. Predicting: Biomarkers can help predict the likelihood of developing a particular disease or the risk of a negative outcome. For example, the presence of certain genetic mutations can indicate an increased risk for breast cancer.
4. Response to treatment: Biomarkers can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific treatment by measuring changes in the biomarker levels before and after the intervention. This is particularly useful in personalized medicine, where treatments are tailored to individual patients based on their unique biomarker profiles.

It's important to note that for a biomarker to be considered clinically valid and useful, it must undergo rigorous validation through well-designed studies, including demonstrating sensitivity, specificity, reproducibility, and clinical relevance.

Anti-infective agents are a class of medications that are used to treat infections caused by various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites. These agents work by either killing the microorganism or inhibiting its growth, thereby helping to control the infection and alleviate symptoms.

There are several types of anti-infective agents, including:

1. Antibiotics: These are medications that are used to treat bacterial infections. They work by either killing bacteria (bactericidal) or inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic).
2. Antivirals: These are medications that are used to treat viral infections. They work by interfering with the replication of the virus, preventing it from spreading and causing further damage.
3. Antifungals: These are medications that are used to treat fungal infections. They work by disrupting the cell membrane of the fungus, killing it or inhibiting its growth.
4. Antiparasitics: These are medications that are used to treat parasitic infections. They work by either killing the parasite or inhibiting its growth and reproduction.

It is important to note that anti-infective agents are not effective against all types of infections, and it is essential to use them appropriately to avoid the development of drug-resistant strains of microorganisms.

Hemagglutination is a medical term that refers to the agglutination or clumping together of red blood cells (RBCs) in the presence of an agglutinin, which is typically a protein or a polysaccharide found on the surface of certain viruses, bacteria, or incompatible blood types.

In simpler terms, hemagglutination occurs when the agglutinin binds to specific antigens on the surface of RBCs, causing them to clump together and form visible clumps or aggregates. This reaction is often used in diagnostic tests to identify the presence of certain viruses or bacteria, such as influenza or HIV, by mixing a sample of blood or other bodily fluid with a known agglutinin and observing whether hemagglutination occurs.

Hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assays are also commonly used to measure the titer or concentration of antibodies in a serum sample, by adding serial dilutions of the serum to a fixed amount of agglutinin and observing the highest dilution that still prevents hemagglutination. This can help determine whether a person has been previously exposed to a particular pathogen and has developed immunity to it.

Nitrofurazone is a medication that belongs to the class of antimicrobials known as nitrofurans. It is primarily used for its antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. Medically, it is often applied topically (on the skin) to treat various types of wounds, burns, ulcers, and infections caused by susceptible strains of bacteria. Nitrofurazone works by inhibiting bacterial DNA synthesis, which ultimately leads to bacterial death.

Please note that nitrofurazone is not typically used for systemic infections (infections inside the body) due to its poor distribution and limited action beyond the skin. It should be used under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as with any medication, to ensure appropriate use and minimize the risk of adverse effects or antibiotic resistance.

Norfloxacin is a fluoroquinolone antibiotic that is primarily used to treat bacterial infections of the urinary tract, prostate, and skin. It works by inhibiting the bacterial DNA gyrase, which is an essential enzyme involved in DNA replication. This leads to bacterial cell death. Norfloxacin is available as a generic medication and is usually prescribed in oral form, such as tablets or suspension.

Here's the medical definition of Norfloxacin:

Norfloxacin (norfloxacinum) - A synthetic fluoroquinolone antibiotic with a broad spectrum of activity against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa. It is used to treat urinary tract infections, prostatitis, and skin infections. Norfloxacin inhibits bacterial DNA gyrase, which results in bacterial cell death. The drug is available as a generic medication and is usually prescribed in oral form, such as tablets or suspension. Common side effects include nausea, diarrhea, headache, and dizziness. Norfloxacin may also cause serious adverse reactions, including tendinitis, tendon rupture, peripheral neuropathy, and central nervous system effects. It is contraindicated in patients with a history of hypersensitivity to quinolones or fluoroquinolones.

Ureteral calculi, also known as ureteric stones or ureteral stones, refer to the presence of solid mineral deposits (calculi) within the ureters, the tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder. These calculi can vary in size and composition, and their formation is often associated with conditions such as dehydration, urinary tract infections, or metabolic disorders. Ureteral calculi may cause symptoms like severe pain, hematuria (blood in the urine), and obstruction of urine flow, potentially leading to serious complications if left untreated.

Amoxicillin pivoxil is not a commonly used medical term, but I believe you are referring to Amoxicillin, which is an antibiotic used to treat various bacterial infections. Pivoxil is a form of esterification that is used to improve the absorption and bioavailability of Amoxicillin when administered orally.

Amoxicillin pivoxil is a prodrug, which means it is converted into its active form (Amoxicillin) in the body after ingestion. The pivoxil ester is rapidly hydrolyzed in the intestinal mucosa and liver to release Amoxicillin, making it easier to absorb and more effective at treating bacterial infections.

The medical definition of Amoxicillin is:

A semi-synthetic antibiotic derived from Penicillin, used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, and dental infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, leading to bacterial death. Amoxicillin is available in various formulations, including tablets, capsules, chewable tablets, and oral suspensions.

Therefore, Amoxicillin pivoxil can be considered a specific formulation of Amoxicillin that has been modified to improve its absorption and bioavailability.

The vagina is the canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of the uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as the birth canal because babies pass through it during childbirth. The vagina is where sexual intercourse occurs and where menstrual blood exits the body. It has a flexible wall that can expand and retract. During sexual arousal, the vaginal walls swell with blood to become more elastic in order to accommodate penetration.

It's important to note that sometimes people use the term "vagina" to refer to the entire female genital area, including the external structures like the labia and clitoris. But technically, these are considered part of the vulva, not the vagina.

Antibiotic prophylaxis refers to the use of antibiotics to prevent infection from occurring in the first place, rather than treating an existing infection. This practice is commonly used before certain medical procedures or surgeries that have a high risk of infection, such as joint replacements, heart valve surgery, or organ transplants. The goal of antibiotic prophylaxis is to reduce the risk of infection by introducing antibiotics into the body before bacteria have a chance to multiply and cause an infection.

The choice of antibiotic for prophylaxis depends on several factors, including the type of procedure being performed, the patient's medical history and allergies, and the most common types of bacteria that can cause infection in that particular situation. The antibiotic is typically given within one hour before the start of the procedure, and may be continued for up to 24 hours afterward, depending on the specific guidelines for that procedure.

It's important to note that antibiotic prophylaxis should only be used when it is truly necessary, as overuse of antibiotics can contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Therefore, the decision to use antibiotic prophylaxis should be made carefully and in consultation with a healthcare provider.

A cicatrix is a medical term that refers to a scar or the process of scar formation. It is the result of the healing process following damage to body tissues, such as from an injury, wound, or surgery. During the healing process, specialized cells called fibroblasts produce collagen, which helps to reconnect and strengthen the damaged tissue. The resulting scar tissue may have a different texture, color, or appearance compared to the surrounding healthy tissue.

Cicatrix formation is a natural part of the body's healing response, but excessive scarring can sometimes cause functional impairment, pain, or cosmetic concerns. In such cases, various treatments may be used to minimize or improve the appearance of scars, including topical creams, steroid injections, laser therapy, and surgical revision.

A ureterocele is a congenital abnormality of the urinary system, specifically involving the ureter. It is characterized by a sac-like dilation or expansion of the distal end of the ureter as it enters the bladder. Ureters are tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. When a ureterocele occurs, the affected ureter's opening into the bladder is narrowed or obstructed, leading to the dilation of its terminal portion.

Ureteroceles are more commonly found in females than males and can be associated with other urological anomalies such as duplex kidneys (having two separate ureters draining a single kidney). Ureteroceles may cause various symptoms, including urinary tract infections, incontinence, or kidney problems, depending on their size and location. Treatment typically involves surgical correction to alleviate the obstruction and prevent further complications.

Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of gram-negative bacteria that are commonly found in the human gut and surrounding environment. Infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae can occur when these bacteria enter parts of the body where they are not normally present, such as the bloodstream, urinary tract, or abdominal cavity.

Enterobacteriaceae infections can cause a range of symptoms depending on the site of infection. For example:

* Urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by Enterobacteriaceae may cause symptoms such as frequent urination, pain or burning during urination, and lower abdominal pain.
* Bloodstream infections (bacteremia) caused by Enterobacteriaceae can cause fever, chills, and sepsis, a potentially life-threatening condition characterized by a whole-body inflammatory response to infection.
* Pneumonia caused by Enterobacteriaceae may cause cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Intra-abdominal infections (such as appendicitis or diverticulitis) caused by Enterobacteriaceae can cause abdominal pain, fever, and changes in bowel habits.

Enterobacteriaceae infections are typically treated with antibiotics, but the increasing prevalence of antibiotic-resistant strains of these bacteria has made treatment more challenging in recent years. Preventing the spread of Enterobacteriaceae in healthcare settings and promoting good hygiene practices can help reduce the risk of infection.

Cephalexin is a type of antibiotic known as a first-generation cephalosporin. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is essential for its survival. Without a functional cell wall, the bacterial cells become unstable and eventually die.

Cephalexin is effective against a wide range of gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria, making it a useful antibiotic for treating various types of infections, such as respiratory tract infections, skin and soft tissue infections, bone and joint infections, and urinary tract infections.

Like all antibiotics, cephalexin should be used only to treat bacterial infections, as it has no effect on viral infections. It is important to take the full course of treatment as directed by a healthcare professional, even if symptoms improve before the medication is finished, to ensure that the infection is fully treated and to reduce the risk of antibiotic resistance.

Common side effects of cephalexin include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach pain. In rare cases, more serious side effects such as allergic reactions, severe skin rashes, or liver damage may occur. It is important to seek medical attention immediately if any signs of an allergic reaction or serious side effect are experienced while taking cephalexin.

Female urogenital diseases refer to a range of medical conditions that affect the female urinary and genital systems. These systems include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, vulva, vagina, and reproductive organs such as the ovaries and uterus.

Some common female urogenital diseases include:

1. Urinary tract infections (UTIs): These are infections that occur in any part of the urinary system, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, or urethra.
2. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID): This is an infection of the reproductive organs, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries.
3. Endometriosis: This is a condition in which tissue similar to the lining of the uterus grows outside of the uterus, often on the ovaries, fallopian tubes, or other pelvic structures.
4. Ovarian cysts: These are fluid-filled sacs that form on the ovaries.
5. Uterine fibroids: These are noncancerous growths that develop in the muscular wall of the uterus.
6. Interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS): This is a chronic bladder condition characterized by pain, pressure, and discomfort in the bladder and pelvic area.
7. Sexually transmitted infections (STIs): These are infections that are passed from person to person during sexual contact. Common STIs include chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV.
8. Vulvodynia: This is chronic pain or discomfort of the vulva, the external female genital area.
9. Cancers of the reproductive system, such as ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, and uterine cancer.

These are just a few examples of female urogenital diseases. It's important for women to receive regular medical care and screenings to detect and treat these conditions early, when they are often easier to manage and have better outcomes.

Prevalence, in medical terms, refers to the total number of people in a given population who have a particular disease or condition at a specific point in time, or over a specified period. It is typically expressed as a percentage or a ratio of the number of cases to the size of the population. Prevalence differs from incidence, which measures the number of new cases that develop during a certain period.

Gram-negative bacterial infections refer to illnesses or diseases caused by Gram-negative bacteria, which are a group of bacteria that do not retain crystal violet dye during the Gram staining procedure used in microbiology. This characteristic is due to the structure of their cell walls, which contain a thin layer of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane composed of lipopolysaccharides (LPS), proteins, and phospholipids.

The LPS component of the outer membrane is responsible for the endotoxic properties of Gram-negative bacteria, which can lead to severe inflammatory responses in the host. Common Gram-negative bacterial pathogens include Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Proteus mirabilis, among others.

Gram-negative bacterial infections can cause a wide range of clinical syndromes, such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, meningitis, and soft tissue infections. The severity of these infections can vary from mild to life-threatening, depending on the patient's immune status, the site of infection, and the virulence of the bacterial strain.

Effective antibiotic therapy is crucial for treating Gram-negative bacterial infections, but the increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant strains has become a significant global health concern. Therefore, accurate diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial stewardship are essential to ensure optimal patient outcomes and prevent further spread of resistance.

"Klebsiella pneumoniae" is a medical term that refers to a type of bacteria belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It's a gram-negative, encapsulated, non-motile, rod-shaped bacterium that can be found in various environments, including soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals.

"Klebsiella pneumoniae" is an opportunistic pathogen that can cause a range of infections, particularly in individuals with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions. It's a common cause of healthcare-associated infections, such as pneumonia, urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections, and wound infections.

The bacterium is known for its ability to produce a polysaccharide capsule that makes it resistant to phagocytosis by white blood cells, allowing it to evade the host's immune system. Additionally, "Klebsiella pneumoniae" has developed resistance to many antibiotics, making infections caused by this bacterium difficult to treat and a growing public health concern.

Microbial drug resistance is a significant medical issue that refers to the ability of microorganisms (such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites) to withstand or survive exposure to drugs or medications designed to kill them or limit their growth. This phenomenon has become a major global health concern, particularly in the context of bacterial infections, where it is also known as antibiotic resistance.

Drug resistance arises due to genetic changes in microorganisms that enable them to modify or bypass the effects of antimicrobial agents. These genetic alterations can be caused by mutations or the acquisition of resistance genes through horizontal gene transfer. The resistant microbes then replicate and multiply, forming populations that are increasingly difficult to eradicate with conventional treatments.

The consequences of drug-resistant infections include increased morbidity, mortality, healthcare costs, and the potential for widespread outbreaks. Factors contributing to the emergence and spread of microbial drug resistance include the overuse or misuse of antimicrobials, poor infection control practices, and inadequate surveillance systems.

To address this challenge, it is crucial to promote prudent antibiotic use, strengthen infection prevention and control measures, develop new antimicrobial agents, and invest in research to better understand the mechanisms underlying drug resistance.

Sensitivity and specificity are statistical measures used to describe the performance of a diagnostic test or screening tool in identifying true positive and true negative results.

* Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people who have a particular condition (true positives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true positive rate" or "recall." A highly sensitive test will identify most or all of the people with the condition, but may also produce more false positives.
* Specificity refers to the proportion of people who do not have a particular condition (true negatives) who are correctly identified by the test. It is also known as the "true negative rate." A highly specific test will identify most or all of the people without the condition, but may also produce more false negatives.

In medical testing, both sensitivity and specificity are important considerations when evaluating a diagnostic test. High sensitivity is desirable for screening tests that aim to identify as many cases of a condition as possible, while high specificity is desirable for confirmatory tests that aim to rule out the condition in people who do not have it.

It's worth noting that sensitivity and specificity are often influenced by factors such as the prevalence of the condition in the population being tested, the threshold used to define a positive result, and the reliability and validity of the test itself. Therefore, it's important to consider these factors when interpreting the results of a diagnostic test.

Urology is a surgical specialty that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases and conditions related to the male and female urinary tract system and the male reproductive organs. This includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, prostate gland, and testicles. Urologists are medical doctors who have completed specialized training in this field, and they may perform various surgical procedures such as cystoscopy, lithotripsy, and radical prostatectomy to treat conditions like kidney stones, urinary tract infections, bladder cancer, enlarged prostate, and infertility.

Trimethoprim resistance refers to the ability of certain bacteria to survive and grow in the presence of trimethoprim, a synthetic antibiotic that inhibits bacterial DNA synthesis. This occurs due to genetic changes in the bacteria that make them resistant to the effects of trimethoprim. These genetic changes can include mutations in the target site of the drug or the acquisition of genes that encode for enzymes capable of modifying or degrading the antibiotic.

Trimethoprim resistance is often associated with resistance to sulfamethoxazole, another antibiotic that targets bacterial folate synthesis, as these two drugs are commonly used together in clinical practice. The development and spread of trimethoprim resistance can significantly limit the effectiveness of this antibiotic combination therapy and pose a challenge in the treatment of various bacterial infections.

Fever, also known as pyrexia or febrile response, is a common medical sign characterized by an elevation in core body temperature above the normal range of 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) due to a dysregulation of the body's thermoregulatory system. It is often a response to an infection, inflammation, or other underlying medical conditions, and it serves as a part of the immune system's effort to combat the invading pathogens or to repair damaged tissues.

Fevers can be classified based on their magnitude:

* Low-grade fever: 37.5-38°C (99.5-100.4°F)
* Moderate fever: 38-39°C (100.4-102.2°F)
* High-grade or severe fever: above 39°C (102.2°F)

It is important to note that a single elevated temperature reading does not necessarily indicate the presence of a fever, as body temperature can fluctuate throughout the day and can be influenced by various factors such as physical activity, environmental conditions, and the menstrual cycle in females. The diagnosis of fever typically requires the confirmation of an elevated core body temperature on at least two occasions or a consistently high temperature over a period of time.

While fevers are generally considered beneficial in fighting off infections and promoting recovery, extremely high temperatures or prolonged febrile states may necessitate medical intervention to prevent potential complications such as dehydration, seizures, or damage to vital organs.

Aristolochic acids are a group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that are found in certain plants of the Aristolochiaceae family, including Aristolochia and Asarum species. These compounds have been identified as nephrotoxic (kidney-damaging) and carcinogenic (cancer-causing) agents in humans and animals.

Aristolochic acids are present in the roots, rhizomes, and fruits of these plants, and they have been used in traditional medicine for various purposes, such as treating inflammation, pain, and gastrointestinal disorders. However, their use has been linked to severe kidney damage and upper urinary tract urothelial carcinoma (a type of kidney cancer) in humans.

The nephrotoxicity and carcinogenicity of aristolochic acids are believed to be due to their ability to form DNA adducts, which can lead to mutations and chromosomal damage in the kidneys and other organs. As a result, the use of products containing aristolochic acids has been banned or restricted in many countries, and they are considered to be unsafe for human consumption.

Proteinuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of excess proteins, particularly albumin, in the urine. Under normal circumstances, only small amounts of proteins should be found in the urine because the majority of proteins are too large to pass through the glomeruli, which are the filtering units of the kidneys.

However, when the glomeruli become damaged or diseased, they may allow larger molecules such as proteins to leak into the urine. Persistent proteinuria is often a sign of kidney disease and can indicate damage to the glomeruli. It is usually detected through a routine urinalysis and may be confirmed with further testing.

The severity of proteinuria can vary, and it can be a symptom of various underlying conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, glomerulonephritis, and other kidney diseases. Treatment for proteinuria depends on the underlying cause and may include medications to control blood pressure, manage diabetes, or reduce protein loss in the urine.

Follow-up studies are a type of longitudinal research that involve repeated observations or measurements of the same variables over a period of time, in order to understand their long-term effects or outcomes. In medical context, follow-up studies are often used to evaluate the safety and efficacy of medical treatments, interventions, or procedures.

In a typical follow-up study, a group of individuals (called a cohort) who have received a particular treatment or intervention are identified and then followed over time through periodic assessments or data collection. The data collected may include information on clinical outcomes, adverse events, changes in symptoms or functional status, and other relevant measures.

The results of follow-up studies can provide important insights into the long-term benefits and risks of medical interventions, as well as help to identify factors that may influence treatment effectiveness or patient outcomes. However, it is important to note that follow-up studies can be subject to various biases and limitations, such as loss to follow-up, recall bias, and changes in clinical practice over time, which must be carefully considered when interpreting the results.

Urethral neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the urethra, which is the tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).

Benign urethral neoplasms may include conditions such as urethral polyps or papillomas, which are usually not life-threatening and can often be removed with surgery.

Malignant urethral neoplasms, on the other hand, are cancerous tumors that can invade surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body. These include urethral carcinomas, which can be further classified into different types such as squamous cell carcinoma, transitional cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma, depending on the type of cells involved.

Urethral neoplasms are relatively rare, but when they do occur, they can cause a variety of symptoms such as difficulty urinating, blood in the urine, pain during urination or sexual intercourse, and discharge from the urethra. Treatment options depend on the type, location, and stage of the neoplasm, and may include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of these approaches.

Klebsiella infections are caused by bacteria called Klebsiella spp., with the most common species being Klebsiella pneumoniae. These gram-negative, encapsulated bacilli are normal inhabitants of the human gastrointestinal tract and upper respiratory tract but can cause various types of infections when they spread to other body sites.

Commonly, Klebsiella infections include:

1. Pneumonia: This is a lung infection that can lead to symptoms like cough, chest pain, difficulty breathing, and fever. It often affects people with weakened immune systems, chronic lung diseases, or those who are hospitalized.

2. Urinary tract infections (UTIs): Klebsiella can cause UTIs, particularly in individuals with compromised urinary tracts, such as catheterized patients or those with structural abnormalities. Symptoms may include pain, burning during urination, frequent urges to urinate, and lower abdominal or back pain.

3. Bloodstream infections (bacteremia/septicemia): When Klebsiella enters the bloodstream, it can cause bacteremia or septicemia, which can lead to sepsis, a life-threatening condition characterized by an overwhelming immune response to infection. Symptoms may include fever, chills, rapid heart rate, and rapid breathing.

4. Wound infections: Klebsiella can infect wounds, particularly in patients with open surgical wounds or traumatic injuries. Infected wounds may display redness, swelling, pain, pus discharge, and warmth.

5. Soft tissue infections: These include infections of the skin and underlying soft tissues, such as cellulitis and abscesses. Symptoms can range from localized redness, swelling, and pain to systemic symptoms like fever and malaise.

Klebsiella infections are increasingly becoming difficult to treat due to their resistance to multiple antibiotics, including carbapenems, which has led to the term "carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae" (CRE) or "carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae" (CRKP). These infections often require the use of last-resort antibiotics like colistin and tigecycline. Infection prevention measures, such as contact precautions, hand hygiene, and environmental cleaning, are crucial to controlling the spread of Klebsiella in healthcare settings.

Flank pain is defined as discomfort or pain located in the area of the body between the lower ribcage and the pelvis, specifically in the region of the abdomen that lies posterior to the axillary line (the line drawn from the underarm down the side of the body). This region contains several vital organs such as the kidneys, ureters, pancreas, colon, and parts of the reproductive system. Flank pain can be a symptom of various medical conditions affecting these organs, including but not limited to kidney stones, pyelonephritis (kidney infection), musculoskeletal issues, or irritable bowel syndrome. The intensity and character of flank pain may vary depending on the underlying cause, ranging from a dull ache to sharp stabbing sensations.

Biofilms are defined as complex communities of microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, that adhere to surfaces and are enclosed in a matrix made up of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). The EPS matrix is composed of polysaccharides, proteins, DNA, and other molecules that provide structural support and protection to the microorganisms within.

Biofilms can form on both living and non-living surfaces, including medical devices, implants, and biological tissues. They are resistant to antibiotics, disinfectants, and host immune responses, making them difficult to eradicate and a significant cause of persistent infections. Biofilms have been implicated in a wide range of medical conditions, including chronic wounds, urinary tract infections, middle ear infections, and device-related infections.

The formation of biofilms typically involves several stages, including initial attachment, microcolony formation, maturation, and dispersion. Understanding the mechanisms underlying biofilm formation and development is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat biofilm-associated infections.

Spinal cord injuries (SCI) refer to damage to the spinal cord that results in a loss of function, such as mobility or feeling. This injury can be caused by direct trauma to the spine or by indirect damage resulting from disease or degeneration of surrounding bones, tissues, or blood vessels. The location and severity of the injury on the spinal cord will determine which parts of the body are affected and to what extent.

The effects of SCI can range from mild sensory changes to severe paralysis, including loss of motor function, autonomic dysfunction, and possible changes in sensation, strength, and reflexes below the level of injury. These injuries are typically classified as complete or incomplete, depending on whether there is any remaining function below the level of injury.

Immediate medical attention is crucial for spinal cord injuries to prevent further damage and improve the chances of recovery. Treatment usually involves immobilization of the spine, medications to reduce swelling and pressure, surgery to stabilize the spine, and rehabilitation to help regain lost function. Despite advances in treatment, SCI can have a significant impact on a person's quality of life and ability to perform daily activities.

Mannosides are glycosylated compounds that consist of a mannose sugar molecule (a type of monosaccharide) linked to another compound, often a protein or lipid. They are formed when an enzyme called a glycosyltransferase transfers a mannose molecule from a donor substrate, such as a nucleotide sugar (like GDP-mannose), to an acceptor molecule.

Mannosides can be found on the surface of many types of cells and play important roles in various biological processes, including cell recognition, signaling, and protein folding. They are also involved in the immune response and have been studied as potential therapeutic targets for a variety of diseases, including infectious diseases and cancer.

It's worth noting that mannosides can be further classified based on the specific linkage between the mannose molecule and the acceptor compound. For example, an N-linked mannoside is one in which the mannose is linked to a nitrogen atom on the acceptor protein, while an O-linked mannoside is one in which the mannose is linked to an oxygen atom on the acceptor protein.

Prostatitis is a medical condition that refers to inflammation of the prostate gland, which can be caused by bacterial or non-bacterial factors. It can present with various symptoms such as pain in the lower abdomen, pelvis, or genital area, difficulty and/or painful urination, ejaculation pain, and flu-like symptoms. Prostatitis can be acute or chronic, and it is important to seek medical attention for proper diagnosis and treatment.

In epidemiology, the incidence of a disease is defined as the number of new cases of that disease within a specific population over a certain period of time. It is typically expressed as a rate, with the number of new cases in the numerator and the size of the population at risk in the denominator. Incidence provides information about the risk of developing a disease during a given time period and can be used to compare disease rates between different populations or to monitor trends in disease occurrence over time.

A "colony count" is a method used to estimate the number of viable microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi, in a sample. In this technique, a known volume of the sample is spread onto the surface of a solid nutrient medium in a petri dish and then incubated under conditions that allow the microorganisms to grow and form visible colonies. Each colony that grows on the plate represents an individual cell (or small cluster of cells) from the original sample that was able to divide and grow under the given conditions. By counting the number of colonies that form, researchers can make a rough estimate of the concentration of microorganisms in the original sample.

The term "microbial" simply refers to microscopic organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, or viruses. Therefore, a "colony count, microbial" is a general term that encompasses the use of colony counting techniques to estimate the number of any type of microorganism in a sample.

Colony counts are used in various fields, including medical research, food safety testing, and environmental monitoring, to assess the levels of contamination or the effectiveness of disinfection procedures. However, it is important to note that colony counts may not always provide an accurate measure of the total number of microorganisms present in a sample, as some cells may be injured or unable to grow under the conditions used for counting. Additionally, some microorganisms may form clusters or chains that can appear as single colonies, leading to an overestimation of the true cell count.

The Amoxicillin-Potassium Clavulanate Combination is an antibiotic medication used to treat various infections caused by bacteria. This combination therapy combines the antibiotic amoxicillin with potassium clavulanate, which is a beta-lactamase inhibitor. The addition of potassium clavulanate helps protect amoxicillin from being broken down by certain types of bacteria that produce beta-lactamases, thus increasing the effectiveness of the antibiotic against a broader range of bacterial infections.

Amoxicillin is a type of penicillin antibiotic that works by inhibiting the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, ultimately leading to bacterial death. However, some bacteria have developed enzymes called beta-lactamases, which can break down and inactivate certain antibiotics like amoxicillin. Potassium clavulanate is added to the combination to inhibit these beta-lactamase enzymes, allowing amoxicillin to maintain its effectiveness against a wider range of bacteria.

This combination medication is used to treat various infections, including skin and soft tissue infections, respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and dental infections. It's essential to follow the prescribed dosage and duration as directed by a healthcare professional to ensure effective treatment and prevent antibiotic resistance.

Common brand names for this combination include Augmentin and Amoxiclav.

Uroplakin Ia is not a medical term itself, but it is a component of uroplakins which are a group of proteins found in the urothelium, the tissue that lines the urinary tract. Uroplakins are involved in the formation of the asymmetric unit membrane (AUM) of the urothelial plaques, which are specialized structures on the apical surface of the superficial urothelial cells. These plaques provide a barrier function and protect the underlying tissues from various harmful substances in urine.

Uroplakin Ia is one of the four major uroplakins (UPIa, UPIb, UPII, and UPIII) that form heterodimers and then assemble into larger complexes to form the urothelial plaques. Specifically, Uroplakin Ia combines with Uroplakin Ib to form a heterodimer, which then associates with UPII and UPIII heterodimers to form a tetraspanin complex. These complexes are then incorporated into the AUM of the urothelial plaques.

Abnormalities in uroplakins have been associated with various urological disorders, including bladder cancer, interstitial cystitis, and chronic pelvic pain syndrome.

Pregnancy is a physiological state or condition where a fertilized egg (zygote) successfully implants and grows in the uterus of a woman, leading to the development of an embryo and finally a fetus. This process typically spans approximately 40 weeks, divided into three trimesters, and culminates in childbirth. Throughout this period, numerous hormonal and physical changes occur to support the growing offspring, including uterine enlargement, breast development, and various maternal adaptations to ensure the fetus's optimal growth and well-being.

A urinary bladder fistula is an abnormal connection or passage between the urinary bladder and another organ or structure, such as the skin, intestine, or vagina. This condition can result from various factors, including surgery, injury, infection, inflammation, radiation therapy, or malignancy.

Bladder fistulas may lead to symptoms like continuous leakage of urine through the skin, frequent urinary tract infections, and fecal matter in the urine (when the fistula involves the intestine). The diagnosis typically involves imaging tests, such as a CT scan or cystogram, while treatment often requires surgical repair of the fistula.

Feces are the solid or semisolid remains of food that could not be digested or absorbed in the small intestine, along with bacteria and other waste products. After being stored in the colon, feces are eliminated from the body through the rectum and anus during defecation. Feces can vary in color, consistency, and odor depending on a person's diet, health status, and other factors.

Spermatocidal agents are substances or chemicals that have the ability to destroy or inhibit sperm cells, making them non-functional. These agents are often used in spermicides, which are a type of contraceptive method. Spermicides work by physically blocking the cervix and killing any sperm that come into contact with the spermicidal agent. Common spermatocidal agents include Nonoxynol-9, Benzalkonium chloride, and Chlorhexidine gluconate. It's important to note that while spermicides can provide some protection against pregnancy, they are not considered a highly effective form of birth control when used alone.

Transurethral Resection of Prostate (TURP) is a surgical procedure that involves the removal of the inner part of an enlarged prostate gland using a resectoscope, a tool with a tiny loop of wire at its end that is inserted into the urethra through the penis. The loop of wire is used to cut and remove the excess tissue, which is then washed out of the body. This procedure is typically performed to relieve moderate to severe urinary symptoms caused by an enlarged prostate, such as difficulty in beginning the flow of urine, a weak stream, and frequent urination, especially at night. It is one of the most common surgical procedures for treating benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

Prostatic diseases refer to a range of medical conditions that affect the prostate gland, a small gland that is part of the male reproductive system. The prostate is located below the bladder and surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine and semen out of the body. Some common prostatic diseases include:

1. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): This is a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate gland that can cause difficulties with urination, such as a weak stream, frequent urination, and a feeling of incomplete bladder emptying.
2. Prostatitis: This is an inflammation or infection of the prostate gland that can cause pain, fever, difficulty urinating, and sexual dysfunction.
3. Prostate Cancer: This is a malignant tumor that develops in the prostate gland and can spread to other parts of the body. It is one of the most common types of cancer in men and can often be treated successfully if detected early.
4. Acute Bacterial Prostatitis: This is a sudden and severe infection of the prostate gland that can cause fever, chills, pain in the lower back and genital area, and difficulty urinating.
5. Chronic Bacterial Prostatitis: This is a recurring or persistent bacterial infection of the prostate gland that can cause symptoms similar to chronic pelvic pain syndrome.
6. Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome (CPPS): Also known as chronic nonbacterial prostatitis, this condition is characterized by ongoing pain in the pelvic area, often accompanied by urinary and sexual dysfunction. The exact cause of CPPS is not well understood, but it is thought to be related to inflammation or nerve damage in the prostate gland.

Bacteremia is the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream. It is a medical condition that occurs when bacteria from another source, such as an infection in another part of the body, enter the bloodstream. Bacteremia can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and rapid heart rate, and it can lead to serious complications such as sepsis if not treated promptly with antibiotics.

Bacteremia is often a result of an infection elsewhere in the body that allows bacteria to enter the bloodstream. This can happen through various routes, such as during medical procedures, intravenous (IV) drug use, or from infected wounds or devices that come into contact with the bloodstream. In some cases, bacteremia may also occur without any obvious source of infection.

It is important to note that not all bacteria in the bloodstream cause harm, and some people may have bacteria in their blood without showing any symptoms. However, if bacteria in the bloodstream multiply and cause an immune response, it can lead to bacteremia and potentially serious complications.

Female genitalia refer to the reproductive and sexual organs located in the female pelvic region. They are primarily involved in reproduction, menstruation, and sexual activity. The external female genitalia, also known as the vulva, include the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and the external openings of the urethra and vagina. The internal female genitalia consist of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. These structures work together to facilitate menstruation, fertilization, pregnancy, and childbirth.

The pelvic floor is a group of muscles, ligaments, and connective tissues that form a sling or hammock across the bottom of the pelvis. It supports the organs in the pelvic cavity, including the bladder, rectum, and uterus or prostate. The pelvic floor helps control urination, defecation, and sexual function by relaxing and contracting to allow for the release of waste and during sexual activity. It also contributes to postural stability and balance. Weakness or damage to the pelvic floor can lead to various health issues such as incontinence, pelvic organ prolapse, and sexual dysfunction.

'Escherichia coli (E. coli) proteins' refer to the various types of proteins that are produced and expressed by the bacterium Escherichia coli. These proteins play a critical role in the growth, development, and survival of the organism. They are involved in various cellular processes such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, translation, repair, and regulation.

E. coli is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobe that is commonly found in the intestines of warm-blooded organisms. It is widely used as a model organism in scientific research due to its well-studied genetics, rapid growth, and ability to be easily manipulated in the laboratory. As a result, many E. coli proteins have been identified, characterized, and studied in great detail.

Some examples of E. coli proteins include enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism such as lactase, sucrase, and maltose; proteins involved in DNA replication such as the polymerases, single-stranded binding proteins, and helicases; proteins involved in transcription such as RNA polymerase and sigma factors; proteins involved in translation such as ribosomal proteins, tRNAs, and aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases; and regulatory proteins such as global regulators, two-component systems, and transcription factors.

Understanding the structure, function, and regulation of E. coli proteins is essential for understanding the basic biology of this important organism, as well as for developing new strategies for combating bacterial infections and improving industrial processes involving bacteria.

"Age factors" refer to the effects, changes, or differences that age can have on various aspects of health, disease, and medical care. These factors can encompass a wide range of issues, including:

1. Physiological changes: As people age, their bodies undergo numerous physical changes that can affect how they respond to medications, illnesses, and medical procedures. For example, older adults may be more sensitive to certain drugs or have weaker immune systems, making them more susceptible to infections.
2. Chronic conditions: Age is a significant risk factor for many chronic diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis. As a result, age-related medical issues are common and can impact treatment decisions and outcomes.
3. Cognitive decline: Aging can also lead to cognitive changes, including memory loss and decreased decision-making abilities. These changes can affect a person's ability to understand and comply with medical instructions, leading to potential complications in their care.
4. Functional limitations: Older adults may experience physical limitations that impact their mobility, strength, and balance, increasing the risk of falls and other injuries. These limitations can also make it more challenging for them to perform daily activities, such as bathing, dressing, or cooking.
5. Social determinants: Age-related factors, such as social isolation, poverty, and lack of access to transportation, can impact a person's ability to obtain necessary medical care and affect their overall health outcomes.

Understanding age factors is critical for healthcare providers to deliver high-quality, patient-centered care that addresses the unique needs and challenges of older adults. By taking these factors into account, healthcare providers can develop personalized treatment plans that consider a person's age, physical condition, cognitive abilities, and social circumstances.

A cystostomy is a surgical procedure that creates an opening through the wall of the bladder to allow urine to drain out. This opening, or stoma, is usually connected to a external collection device, such as a bag or a tube. The purpose of a cystostomy is to provide a stable and reliable way for urine to leave the body when a person is unable to urinate naturally due to injury, illness, or other medical conditions that affect bladder function.

There are several types of cystostomies, including temporary and permanent procedures. A temporary cystostomy may be performed as a short-term solution while a patient recovers from surgery or an injury, or when a person is unable to urinate temporarily due to an obstruction in the urinary tract. In these cases, the cystostomy can be closed once the underlying issue has been resolved.

A permanent cystostomy may be recommended for individuals who have irreversible bladder damage or dysfunction, such as those with spinal cord injuries, neurological disorders, or certain types of cancer. In these cases, a cystostomy can help improve quality of life by allowing for regular and reliable urinary drainage, reducing the risk of complications like urinary tract infections and kidney damage.

It's important to note that a cystostomy is a significant surgical procedure that carries risks and potential complications, such as bleeding, infection, and injury to surrounding tissues. As with any surgery, it's essential to discuss the benefits and risks of a cystostomy with a healthcare provider to determine whether it's the right option for an individual's specific medical needs.

Sulfamethizole is an antibacterial drug, specifically a sulfonamide. It is defined as a synthetic antibacterial agent that is chemically related to sulfanilamide and is used to treat various infections caused by susceptible bacteria. Sulfamethizole works by inhibiting the growth of bacteria through interfering with the synthesis of bacterial folic acid.

Here's a brief medical definition:

Sulfamethizole (sul-fa-meth-i-zole): A synthetic antibacterial agent, chemically related to sulfanilamide, used to treat various infections caused by susceptible bacteria. It functions as a folic acid antagonist, preventing bacterial growth by interfering with the synthesis of bacterial folic acid.

Please note that this definition is intended to be concise and informative for educational purposes. For more detailed information or medical advice, consult a healthcare professional.

Uroplakin III is a protein that is a component of urothelial plaques, which are specialized structures found on the surface of urothelial cells in the urinary bladder. Urothelial plaques play an important role in maintaining the barrier function and permeability properties of the urothelium.

Uroplakin III is a member of the uroplakin family of proteins, which includes UPIa, UPII, UPIII, and UPIIIA. These proteins are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum and transported to the Golgi apparatus, where they form heterodimers that are then transported to the plasma membrane. At the plasma membrane, the heterodimers assemble into larger complexes called urothelial plaques.

Uroplakin III is a transmembrane protein with a molecular weight of approximately 27 kDa. It has been shown to play a role in the formation and stability of urothelial plaques, as well as in the regulation of ion transport across the urothelium. Mutations in the gene encoding Uroplakin III have been associated with certain bladder diseases, including interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome and bladder cancer.

The Urology Department in a hospital is a specialized unit that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and management of benign and malignant medical and surgical disorders of the male and female urinary tract (kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra) and the male reproductive system. Urologists are the physicians who typically work in this department and have completed additional training and fellowship focused on subspecialties such as endourology, laparoscopy, pediatric urology, urologic oncology, reconstructive urology, and female urology. The Urology Department may also include specialized nurses, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, and other healthcare professionals who work together to provide comprehensive care for patients with urological conditions.

Animal disease models are specialized animals, typically rodents such as mice or rats, that have been genetically engineered or exposed to certain conditions to develop symptoms and physiological changes similar to those seen in human diseases. These models are used in medical research to study the pathophysiology of diseases, identify potential therapeutic targets, test drug efficacy and safety, and understand disease mechanisms.

The genetic modifications can include knockout or knock-in mutations, transgenic expression of specific genes, or RNA interference techniques. The animals may also be exposed to environmental factors such as chemicals, radiation, or infectious agents to induce the disease state.

Examples of animal disease models include:

1. Mouse models of cancer: Genetically engineered mice that develop various types of tumors, allowing researchers to study cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis.
2. Alzheimer's disease models: Transgenic mice expressing mutant human genes associated with Alzheimer's disease, which exhibit amyloid plaque formation and cognitive decline.
3. Diabetes models: Obese and diabetic mouse strains like the NOD (non-obese diabetic) or db/db mice, used to study the development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, respectively.
4. Cardiovascular disease models: Atherosclerosis-prone mice, such as ApoE-deficient or LDLR-deficient mice, that develop plaque buildup in their arteries when fed a high-fat diet.
5. Inflammatory bowel disease models: Mice with genetic mutations affecting intestinal barrier function and immune response, such as IL-10 knockout or SAMP1/YitFc mice, which develop colitis.

Animal disease models are essential tools in preclinical research, but it is important to recognize their limitations. Differences between species can affect the translatability of results from animal studies to human patients. Therefore, researchers must carefully consider the choice of model and interpret findings cautiously when applying them to human diseases.

Erectile dysfunction (ED) is the inability to achieve or maintain an erection sufficient for satisfactory sexual performance. It can have physical and psychological causes, such as underlying health conditions like diabetes, heart disease, obesity, and mental health issues like stress, anxiety, and depression. ED can also be a side effect of certain medications. Treatment options include lifestyle changes, medication, counseling, and in some cases, surgery.

Magnesium compounds refer to substances that contain magnesium (an essential mineral) combined with other elements. These compounds are formed when magnesium atoms chemically bond with atoms of other elements. Magnesium is an alkaline earth metal and it readily forms stable compounds with various elements due to its electron configuration.

Examples of magnesium compounds include:

1. Magnesium oxide (MgO): Also known as magnesia, it is formed by combining magnesium with oxygen. It has a high melting point and is used in various applications such as refractory materials, chemical production, and agricultural purposes.
2. Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2): Often called milk of magnesia, it is a common antacid and laxative. It is formed by combining magnesium with hydroxide ions.
3. Magnesium chloride (MgCl2): This compound is formed when magnesium reacts with chlorine gas. It has various uses, including as a de-icing agent, a component in fertilizers, and a mineral supplement.
4. Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4): Also known as Epsom salts, it is formed by combining magnesium with sulfur and oxygen. It is used as a bath salt, a laxative, and a fertilizer.
5. Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3): This compound is formed when magnesium reacts with carbon dioxide. It has various uses, including as a fire retardant, a food additive, and a dietary supplement.

These are just a few examples of the many different magnesium compounds that exist. Each compound has its unique properties and applications based on the elements it is combined with.

The prostate is a small gland that is part of the male reproductive system. Its main function is to produce a fluid that, together with sperm cells from the testicles and fluids from other glands, makes up semen. This fluid nourishes and protects the sperm, helping it to survive and facilitating its movement.

The prostate is located below the bladder and in front of the rectum. It surrounds part of the urethra, the tube that carries urine and semen out of the body. This means that prostate problems can affect urination and sexual function. The prostate gland is about the size of a walnut in adult men.

Prostate health is an important aspect of male health, particularly as men age. Common prostate issues include benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), which is an enlarged prostate not caused by cancer, and prostate cancer, which is one of the most common types of cancer in men. Regular check-ups with a healthcare provider can help to detect any potential problems early and improve outcomes.

Albuminuria is a medical condition that refers to the presence of albumin in the urine. Albumin is a type of protein normally found in the blood, but not in the urine. When the kidneys are functioning properly, they prevent large proteins like albumin from passing through into the urine. However, when the kidneys are damaged or not working correctly, such as in nephrotic syndrome or other kidney diseases, small amounts of albumin can leak into the urine.

The amount of albumin in the urine is often measured in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or in a spot urine sample, as the albumin-to-creatinine ratio (ACR). A small amount of albumin in the urine is called microalbuminuria, while a larger amount is called macroalbuminuria or proteinuria. The presence of albuminuria can indicate kidney damage and may be a sign of underlying medical conditions such as diabetes or high blood pressure. It is important to monitor and manage albuminuria to prevent further kidney damage and potential complications.

Acetylglucosaminidase (ACG) is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of N-acetyl-beta-D-glucosaminides, which are found in glycoproteins and glycolipids. This enzyme plays a crucial role in the degradation and recycling of these complex carbohydrates within the body.

Deficiency or malfunction of Acetylglucosaminidase can lead to various genetic disorders, such as mucolipidosis II (I-cell disease) and mucolipidosis III (pseudo-Hurler polydystrophy), which are characterized by the accumulation of glycoproteins and glycolipids in lysosomes, resulting in cellular dysfunction and progressive damage to multiple organs.

Glycosuria is a medical term that refers to the presence of glucose in the urine. Under normal circumstances, the kidneys are able to reabsorb all of the filtered glucose back into the bloodstream. However, when the blood glucose levels become excessively high, such as in uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, the kidneys may not be able to reabsorb all of the glucose, and some of it will spill over into the urine.

Glycosuria can also occur in other conditions that affect glucose metabolism or renal function, such as impaired kidney function, certain medications, pregnancy, and rare genetic disorders. It is important to note that glycosuria alone does not necessarily indicate diabetes, but it may be a sign of an underlying medical condition that requires further evaluation by a healthcare professional.

A cohort study is a type of observational study in which a group of individuals who share a common characteristic or exposure are followed up over time to determine the incidence of a specific outcome or outcomes. The cohort, or group, is defined based on the exposure status (e.g., exposed vs. unexposed) and then monitored prospectively to assess for the development of new health events or conditions.

Cohort studies can be either prospective or retrospective in design. In a prospective cohort study, participants are enrolled and followed forward in time from the beginning of the study. In contrast, in a retrospective cohort study, researchers identify a cohort that has already been assembled through medical records, insurance claims, or other sources and then look back in time to assess exposure status and health outcomes.

Cohort studies are useful for establishing causality between an exposure and an outcome because they allow researchers to observe the temporal relationship between the two. They can also provide information on the incidence of a disease or condition in different populations, which can be used to inform public health policy and interventions. However, cohort studies can be expensive and time-consuming to conduct, and they may be subject to bias if participants are not representative of the population or if there is loss to follow-up.

Methenamine is a medication that is used as a urinary antiseptic. It's a chemical compound that, when ingested and enters the urine, releases formaldehyde, which helps to kill bacteria in the urinary tract. Methenamine is often combined with other medications, such as sodium phosphate or hydroxyzine, to make it more effective.

It's important to note that methenamine is not typically used as a first-line treatment for urinary tract infections (UTIs) and is usually reserved for preventing recurrent UTIs in people who are prone to them. Additionally, methenamine should be taken in adequate amounts and under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as excessive formaldehyde release can cause adverse effects.

Multiple bacterial drug resistance (MDR) is a medical term that refers to the resistance of multiple strains of bacteria to several antibiotics or antimicrobial agents. This means that these bacteria have developed mechanisms that enable them to survive and multiply despite being exposed to drugs that were previously effective in treating infections caused by them.

MDR is a significant public health concern because it limits the treatment options available for bacterial infections, making them more difficult and expensive to treat. In some cases, MDR bacteria may cause severe or life-threatening infections that are resistant to all available antibiotics, leaving doctors with few or no effective therapeutic options.

MDR can arise due to various mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that inactivate antibiotics, changes in bacterial cell membrane permeability that prevent antibiotics from entering the bacteria, and the development of efflux pumps that expel antibiotics out of the bacteria. The misuse or overuse of antibiotics is a significant contributor to the emergence and spread of MDR bacteria.

Preventing and controlling the spread of MDR bacteria requires a multifaceted approach, including the judicious use of antibiotics, infection control measures, surveillance, and research into new antimicrobial agents.

Oral administration is a route of giving medications or other substances by mouth. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, liquids, pastes, or other forms that can be swallowed. Once ingested, the substance is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and enters the bloodstream to reach its intended target site in the body. Oral administration is a common and convenient route of medication delivery, but it may not be appropriate for all substances or in certain situations, such as when rapid onset of action is required or when the patient has difficulty swallowing.

An acute disease is a medical condition that has a rapid onset, develops quickly, and tends to be short in duration. Acute diseases can range from minor illnesses such as a common cold or flu, to more severe conditions such as pneumonia, meningitis, or a heart attack. These types of diseases often have clear symptoms that are easy to identify, and they may require immediate medical attention or treatment.

Acute diseases are typically caused by an external agent or factor, such as a bacterial or viral infection, a toxin, or an injury. They can also be the result of a sudden worsening of an existing chronic condition. In general, acute diseases are distinct from chronic diseases, which are long-term medical conditions that develop slowly over time and may require ongoing management and treatment.

Examples of acute diseases include:

* Acute bronchitis: a sudden inflammation of the airways in the lungs, often caused by a viral infection.
* Appendicitis: an inflammation of the appendix that can cause severe pain and requires surgical removal.
* Gastroenteritis: an inflammation of the stomach and intestines, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.
* Migraine headaches: intense headaches that can last for hours or days, and are often accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound.
* Myocardial infarction (heart attack): a sudden blockage of blood flow to the heart muscle, often caused by a buildup of plaque in the coronary arteries.
* Pneumonia: an infection of the lungs that can cause coughing, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
* Sinusitis: an inflammation of the sinuses, often caused by a viral or bacterial infection.

It's important to note that while some acute diseases may resolve on their own with rest and supportive care, others may require medical intervention or treatment to prevent complications and promote recovery. If you are experiencing symptoms of an acute disease, it is always best to seek medical attention to ensure proper diagnosis and treatment.

I'm not aware of any medical definition for the term "Boston." It is a city in the state of Massachusetts, USA, and is widely known for its cultural institutions, such as Boston Symphony Orchestra, Boston Ballet, and The Museum of Fine Arts. Additionally, it is home to many renowned medical institutions, including Massachusetts General Hospital, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and Dana-Farber Cancer Institute. However, "Boston" does not have a specific meaning or definition in the medical field.

Multicystic Dysplastic Kidney (MCDK) is a congenital kidney disorder, which means it is present at birth. It occurs when the kidney doesn't develop properly and forms one or more non-functioning cysts. The kidney with MCDK is usually small and has abnormally shaped cysts that can be seen on an ultrasound.

In a normal kidney, the renal pelvis (the central part of the kidney where urine collects) and the calyces (the smaller cups that receive urine from the renal tubules) are shaped like funnels to help direct urine into the ureter and then to the bladder. However, in a dysplastic kidney, these structures don't form correctly and instead develop as cysts of various sizes.

MCDK is usually unilateral (occurring in one kidney), but it can be bilateral (occurring in both kidneys), which is a more serious condition because it can lead to kidney failure. Most cases of MCDK are discovered prenatally during routine ultrasounds, and if the other kidney is normal, no treatment is necessary. The affected kidney will shrink over time and may disappear entirely. However, regular follow-ups with a healthcare provider are essential to monitor kidney function and overall health.

Fluoroquinolones are a class of antibiotics that are widely used to treat various types of bacterial infections. They work by interfering with the bacteria's ability to replicate its DNA, which ultimately leads to the death of the bacterial cells. Fluoroquinolones are known for their broad-spectrum activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Some common fluoroquinolones include ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and ofloxacin. These antibiotics are often used to treat respiratory infections, urinary tract infections, skin infections, and gastrointestinal infections, among others.

While fluoroquinolones are generally well-tolerated, they can cause serious side effects in some people, including tendonitis, nerve damage, and changes in mood or behavior. As with all antibiotics, it's important to use fluoroquinolones only when necessary and under the guidance of a healthcare provider.

Urogenital neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors that occur in the urinary and genital organs. These can include various types of cancer, such as bladder cancer, kidney cancer, prostate cancer, testicular cancer, cervical cancer, ovarian cancer, and others. Some urogenital neoplasms may be benign (non-cancerous), while others are malignant (cancerous) and can spread to other parts of the body.

The term "urogenital" refers to the combined urinary and genital systems in the human body. The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, which are responsible for filtering waste from the blood and eliminating it as urine. The genital system includes the reproductive organs such as the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, prostate gland, testicles, and penis.

Urogenital neoplasms can cause various symptoms depending on their location and size. Common symptoms include blood in urine, pain during urination, difficulty urinating, abnormal discharge, lumps or swelling in the genital area, and unexplained weight loss. If you experience any of these symptoms, it is important to consult a healthcare professional for further evaluation and treatment.

Staphylococcus is a genus of Gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria that are commonly found on the skin and mucous membranes of humans and other animals. Many species of Staphylococcus can cause infections in humans, but the most notable is Staphylococcus aureus, which is responsible for a wide range of illnesses, from minor skin infections to life-threatening conditions such as pneumonia, endocarditis, and sepsis.

Staphylococcus species are non-motile, non-spore forming, and typically occur in grape-like clusters when viewed under a microscope. They can be coagulase-positive or coagulase-negative, with S. aureus being the most well-known coagulase-positive species. Coagulase is an enzyme that causes the clotting of plasma, and its presence is often used to differentiate S. aureus from other Staphylococcus species.

These bacteria are resistant to many commonly used antibiotics, including penicillin, due to the production of beta-lactamases. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a particularly problematic strain that has developed resistance to multiple antibiotics and can cause severe, difficult-to-treat infections.

Proper hand hygiene, use of personal protective equipment, and environmental cleaning are crucial measures for preventing the spread of Staphylococcus in healthcare settings and the community.

Ampicillin is a penicillin-type antibiotic used to treat a wide range of bacterial infections. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which are essential for their survival. This causes the bacterial cells to become unstable and eventually die.

The medical definition of Ampicillin is:

"A semi-synthetic penicillin antibiotic, derived from the Penicillium mold. It is used to treat a variety of infections caused by susceptible gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Ampicillin is effective against both aerobic and anaerobic organisms. It is commonly used to treat respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, and endocarditis."

It's important to note that Ampicillin is not effective against infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or other bacteria that have developed resistance to penicillins. Additionally, overuse of antibiotics like Ampicillin can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance, which is a significant public health concern.

A catheter is a flexible tube that can be inserted into the body to treat various medical conditions or to perform certain medical procedures. Catheters are used to drain fluids, deliver medications, or provide access to different parts of the body for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes. They come in various sizes and materials, depending on their intended use.

In a general sense, catheters can be classified into two main categories:

1. **External catheters:** These are applied to the outside of the body and are commonly used for urinary drainage. For example, a condom catheter is an external collection device that fits over the penis to drain urine into a bag. Similarly, a Texas or Foley catheter can be used in females, where a small tube is inserted into the urethra and inflated with a balloon to keep it in place.
2. **Internal catheters:** These are inserted into the body through various openings or surgical incisions. They have different applications based on their placement:
* **Urinary catheters:** Used for bladder drainage, similar to external catheters but inserted through the urethra.
* **Vascular catheters:** Inserted into veins or arteries to administer medication, fluids, or to perform diagnostic tests like angiography.
* **Cardiovascular catheters:** Used in procedures such as cardiac catheterization to diagnose and treat heart conditions.
* **Neurological catheters:** Placed in the cerebrospinal fluid spaces of the brain or spinal cord for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, like draining excess fluid or delivering medication.
* **Gastrointestinal catheters:** Used to provide enteral nutrition, drain fluids, or perform procedures within the gastrointestinal tract.

Proper care and maintenance of catheters are crucial to prevent infection and other complications. Patients with indwelling catheters should follow their healthcare provider's instructions for cleaning, handling, and monitoring the catheter site.

A case-control study is an observational research design used to identify risk factors or causes of a disease or health outcome. In this type of study, individuals with the disease or condition (cases) are compared with similar individuals who do not have the disease or condition (controls). The exposure history or other characteristics of interest are then compared between the two groups to determine if there is an association between the exposure and the disease.

Case-control studies are often used when it is not feasible or ethical to conduct a randomized controlled trial, as they can provide valuable insights into potential causes of diseases or health outcomes in a relatively short period of time and at a lower cost than other study designs. However, because case-control studies rely on retrospective data collection, they are subject to biases such as recall bias and selection bias, which can affect the validity of the results. Therefore, it is important to carefully design and conduct case-control studies to minimize these potential sources of bias.

A percutaneous nephrostomy is a medical procedure in which a tube (catheter) is inserted through the skin into the kidney to drain urine. "Percutaneous" means that the procedure is performed through the skin. The term "nephrostomy" refers specifically to the creation of an opening into the kidney.

This procedure is typically performed under local anesthesia and imaging guidance, such as ultrasound or fluoroscopy, to ensure accurate placement of the catheter. It may be used in cases where there is a blockage in the urinary tract that prevents the normal flow of urine, such as a kidney stone or tumor. By creating a nephrostomy, urine can be drained from the kidney, helping to alleviate pressure and prevent further complications.

Percutaneous nephrostomy is generally a safe procedure, but like any medical intervention, it carries some risks. These may include bleeding, infection, injury to surrounding organs, or failure to properly place the catheter. Patients who undergo this procedure will typically require follow-up care to manage the catheter and monitor their kidney function.

Indigo Carmine is not a medical term, but it is a chemical compound that is sometimes used in medical settings. Indigo Carmine is a type of dye that is often used as a marker in various medical tests and procedures. It can be used during surgeries to help identify structures or tissues within the body, such as the urinary tract or the gastrointestinal tract.

Indigo Carmine is also sometimes used as a diagnostic aid in urological procedures, such as cystoscopy, to help visualize the flow of urine and detect any abnormalities in the urinary tract. The dye is usually introduced into the body through a catheter or other medical device, and it is excreted in the urine, turning it blue or green.

It's important to note that Indigo Carmine should only be used under the supervision of a healthcare professional, as improper use can lead to adverse effects.

Cefaclor is a type of antibiotic known as a second-generation cephalosporin. It works by interfering with the bacteria's ability to form a cell wall, which is necessary for its survival. Without a functional cell wall, the bacteria eventually die. Cefaclor is effective against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, making it a broad-spectrum antibiotic.

Cefaclor is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections (such as bronchitis and pneumonia), ear infections, skin infections, and urinary tract infections. It is available in both oral and intravenous forms.

Like all antibiotics, cefaclor should be used only to treat bacterial infections, as it is not effective against viral infections such as the common cold or flu. Overuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which can make future infections more difficult to treat. It is important to take cefaclor exactly as directed by a healthcare professional and to complete the full course of treatment, even if symptoms improve before all of the medication has been taken.

Prune Belly Syndrome, also known as Eagle-Barrett syndrome, is a rare congenital disorder that primarily affects the urinary and digestive systems, as well as the abdominal wall. The condition is named for its most distinctive feature - a wrinkled, shrunken appearance of the abdomen, similar to a prune.

The medical definition of Prune Belly Syndrome includes the following major characteristics:

1. Absence or severe deficiency of the abdominal muscles: This results in the characteristic "prune belly" appearance and may also lead to respiratory issues due to weakened breathing muscles.
2. Urinary tract abnormalities: These can include dilated urinary tracts, undescended testes, and various kidney defects such as dysplastic (abnormally developed) or hypoplastic (underdeveloped) kidneys. Approximately 1 in 3 patients with Prune Belly Syndrome will develop chronic kidney disease.
3. Gastrointestinal abnormalities: These may include intestinal malrotation, constipation, and a higher risk of developing inguinal hernias.

Prune Belly Syndrome occurs almost exclusively in males, with an estimated incidence of 1 in 30,000 to 40,000 live births. The exact cause of the condition is unknown, but it is believed to result from a combination of genetic and environmental factors during fetal development. Treatment typically involves a multidisciplinary approach, addressing both surgical interventions for urinary tract abnormalities and supportive care for respiratory and gastrointestinal issues.

Adrenergic alpha-1 receptor antagonists, also known as alpha-blockers, are a class of medications that block the effects of the neurotransmitter norepinephrine at alpha-1 receptors. These receptors are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the smooth muscle of blood vessels, the bladder, and the eye.

When norepinephrine binds to alpha-1 receptors, it causes smooth muscle to contract, leading to vasoconstriction (constriction of blood vessels), increased blood pressure, and other effects. By blocking these receptors, alpha-blockers can cause relaxation of smooth muscle, leading to vasodilation (expansion of blood vessels), decreased blood pressure, and other effects.

Alpha-blockers are used in the treatment of various medical conditions, including hypertension (high blood pressure), benign prostatic hyperplasia (enlarged prostate), and pheochromocytoma (a rare tumor of the adrenal gland). Examples of alpha-blockers include doxazosin, prazosin, and terazosin.

It's important to note that while alpha-blockers can be effective in treating certain medical conditions, they can also have side effects, such as dizziness, lightheadedness, and orthostatic hypotension (a sudden drop in blood pressure when standing up). As with any medication, it's important to use alpha-blockers under the guidance of a healthcare provider.

Urease is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea into ammonia and carbon dioxide. It is found in various organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and plants. In medicine, urease is often associated with certain bacterial infections, such as those caused by Helicobacter pylori, which can produce large amounts of this enzyme. The presence of urease in these infections can lead to increased ammonia production, contributing to the development of gastritis and peptic ulcers.

Enterococcus is a genus of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria that are commonly found in the intestinal tracts of humans and animals. They are part of the normal gut microbiota but can also cause a variety of infections, particularly in hospital settings. Enterococci are known for their ability to survive in harsh environments and can be resistant to many antibiotics, making them difficult to treat. Some species, such as Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium, are more commonly associated with human infections.

In medical terms, an "Enterococcus infection" refers to an infection caused by any species of the Enterococcus genus. These infections can occur in various parts of the body, including the urinary tract, bloodstream, and abdominal cavity. They can cause symptoms such as fever, chills, and pain, depending on the location of the infection. Treatment typically involves the use of antibiotics that are effective against Enterococcus species, although resistance to multiple antibiotics is a growing concern.

Streptococcaceae is a family of coccoid gram-positive bacteria, many of which are part of the normal human microbiota. They are facultatively anaerobic and generally non-spore forming. Some species are pathogenic and can cause various infections in humans, such as strep throat, pneumonia, and meningitis. Members of this family are characterized by their ability to form chains during cell division and may be beta-hemolytic, alpha-hemolytic, or non-hemolytic on blood agar plates. The genera in Streptococcaceae include Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Lactococcus, and Vagococcus, among others.

Uterine prolapse is a condition where the uterus descends or slips down from its normal position in the pelvic cavity into or through the cervix and sometimes even outside the vaginal opening. This occurs due to the weakening of the muscles and ligaments that support the uterus, often as a result of childbirth, aging, menopause, obesity, or prior hysterectomy. Uterine prolapse can lead to various symptoms such as a feeling of heaviness in the pelvis, difficulty in urinating or having bowel movements, and uncomfortable sexual intercourse. The severity of the condition may vary from mild to severe, and treatment options range from lifestyle changes and physical therapy to surgery.

Nephrectomy is a surgical procedure in which all or part of a kidney is removed. It may be performed due to various reasons such as severe kidney damage, kidney cancer, or living donor transplantation. The type of nephrectomy depends on the reason for the surgery - a simple nephrectomy involves removing only the affected portion of the kidney, while a radical nephrectomy includes removal of the whole kidney along with its surrounding tissues like the adrenal gland and lymph nodes.

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that arises when the body's response to an infection injures its own tissues and organs. It is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (systemic inflammation) that can lead to blood clotting issues, tissue damage, and multiple organ failure.

Sepsis happens when an infection you already have triggers a chain reaction throughout your body. Infections that lead to sepsis most often start in the lungs, urinary tract, skin, or gastrointestinal tract.

Sepsis is a medical emergency. If you suspect sepsis, seek immediate medical attention. Early recognition and treatment of sepsis are crucial to improve outcomes. Treatment usually involves antibiotics, intravenous fluids, and may require oxygen, medication to raise blood pressure, and corticosteroids. In severe cases, surgery may be required to clear the infection.

"Male urogenital diseases" refer to a range of medical conditions that affect the urinary and reproductive systems in males. This can include:

1. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH): An enlarged prostate gland that can cause difficulties with urination.

2. Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate gland, which can cause pain, urinary frequency and difficulty, and sexual dysfunction.

3. Erectile Dysfunction (ED): The inability to achieve or maintain an erection sufficient for sexual activity.

4. Peyronie's Disease: A condition where scar tissue causes the penis to bend or curve during an erection.

5. Testicular Cancer: A malignant tumor that develops in the testicle.

6. Epididymitis: Inflammation of the epididymis, a coiled tube at the back of the testicle where sperm matures.

7. Orchitis: Inflammation of the testicle, often caused by an infection.

8. Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Bacterial infections that can occur anywhere along the urinary tract.

9. Kidney Stones: Small, hard mineral deposits that form in the kidneys and can cause severe pain when passed.

10. Bladder Cancer: A malignant tumor that develops in the bladder.

These conditions can vary greatly in severity and treatment, so it's important for individuals to seek medical advice if they suspect they may have a urogenital disease.

Postoperative complications refer to any unfavorable condition or event that occurs during the recovery period after a surgical procedure. These complications can vary in severity and may include, but are not limited to:

1. Infection: This can occur at the site of the incision or inside the body, such as pneumonia or urinary tract infection.
2. Bleeding: Excessive bleeding (hemorrhage) can lead to a drop in blood pressure and may require further surgical intervention.
3. Blood clots: These can form in the deep veins of the legs (deep vein thrombosis) and can potentially travel to the lungs (pulmonary embolism).
4. Wound dehiscence: This is when the surgical wound opens up, which can lead to infection and further complications.
5. Pulmonary issues: These include atelectasis (collapsed lung), pneumonia, or respiratory failure.
6. Cardiovascular problems: These include abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias), heart attack, or stroke.
7. Renal failure: This can occur due to various reasons such as dehydration, blood loss, or the use of certain medications.
8. Pain management issues: Inadequate pain control can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and decreased mobility.
9. Nausea and vomiting: These can be caused by anesthesia, opioid pain medication, or other factors.
10. Delirium: This is a state of confusion and disorientation that can occur in the elderly or those with certain medical conditions.

Prompt identification and management of these complications are crucial to ensure the best possible outcome for the patient.

Lithotripsy is a medical procedure that uses shock waves or other high-energy sound waves to break down and remove calculi (stones) in the body, particularly in the kidneys, ureters, or gallbladder. The procedure is typically performed on an outpatient basis and does not require any incisions.

During lithotripsy, the patient lies on a cushioned table while a lithotripter, a device that generates shock waves, is positioned around the area of the stone. As the shock waves pass through the body, they break the stone into tiny fragments that can then be easily passed out of the body in urine.

Lithotripsy is generally a safe and effective procedure, but it may not be suitable for everyone. Patients with certain medical conditions, such as bleeding disorders or pregnancy, may not be able to undergo lithotripsy. Additionally, some stones may be too large or too dense to be effectively treated with lithotripsy. In these cases, other treatment options, such as surgery, may be necessary.

Pathologic dilatation refers to an abnormal and excessive widening or enlargement of a body cavity or organ, which can result from various medical conditions. This abnormal dilation can occur in different parts of the body, including the blood vessels, digestive tract, airways, or heart chambers.

In the context of the cardiovascular system, pathologic dilatation may indicate a weakening or thinning of the heart muscle, leading to an enlarged chamber that can no longer pump blood efficiently. This condition is often associated with various heart diseases, such as cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, or long-standing high blood pressure.

In the gastrointestinal tract, pathologic dilatation may occur due to mechanical obstruction, neuromuscular disorders, or inflammatory conditions that affect the normal motility of the intestines. Examples include megacolon in Hirschsprung's disease, toxic megacolon in ulcerative colitis, or volvulus (twisting) of the bowel.

Pathologic dilatation can lead to various complications, such as reduced organ function, impaired circulation, and increased risk of infection or perforation. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may involve medications, surgery, or other interventions to address the root problem and prevent further enlargement.

Kidney neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors in the kidney tissues that can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). These growths can originate from various types of kidney cells, including the renal tubules, glomeruli, and the renal pelvis.

Malignant kidney neoplasms are also known as kidney cancers, with renal cell carcinoma being the most common type. Benign kidney neoplasms include renal adenomas, oncocytomas, and angiomyolipomas. While benign neoplasms are generally not life-threatening, they can still cause problems if they grow large enough to compromise kidney function or if they undergo malignant transformation.

Early detection and appropriate management of kidney neoplasms are crucial for improving patient outcomes and overall prognosis. Regular medical check-ups, imaging studies, and urinalysis can help in the early identification of these growths, allowing for timely intervention and treatment.

Hypercalciuria is a medical condition characterized by an excessive amount of calcium in the urine. It can occur when the body absorbs too much calcium from food, or when the bones release more calcium than usual. In some cases, it may be caused by certain medications, kidney disorders, or genetic factors.

Hypercalciuria can increase the risk of developing kidney stones and other kidney problems. It is often diagnosed through a 24-hour urine collection test that measures the amount of calcium in the urine. Treatment may include changes in diet, increased fluid intake, and medications to help reduce the amount of calcium in the urine.

A cross-sectional study is a type of observational research design that examines the relationship between variables at one point in time. It provides a snapshot or a "cross-section" of the population at a particular moment, allowing researchers to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition and identify potential risk factors or associations.

In a cross-sectional study, data is collected from a sample of participants at a single time point, and the variables of interest are measured simultaneously. This design can be used to investigate the association between exposure and outcome, but it cannot establish causality because it does not follow changes over time.

Cross-sectional studies can be conducted using various data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, or medical examinations. They are often used in epidemiology to estimate the prevalence of a disease or condition in a population and to identify potential risk factors that may contribute to its development. However, because cross-sectional studies only provide a snapshot of the population at one point in time, they cannot account for changes over time or determine whether exposure preceded the outcome.

Therefore, while cross-sectional studies can be useful for generating hypotheses and identifying potential associations between variables, further research using other study designs, such as cohort or case-control studies, is necessary to establish causality and confirm any findings.

Cystectomy is a surgical procedure in which all or part of the urinary bladder is removed. This procedure is often used to treat bladder cancer, but it may also be necessary in cases of severe bladder damage, infection, or inflammation that do not respond to other treatments.

There are several types of cystectomy, including:

1. Radical cystectomy: This is the most common type of cystectomy performed for bladder cancer. It involves removing the entire bladder, as well as nearby lymph nodes, the prostate gland in men, and the uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and a portion of the vagina in women.
2. Partial cystectomy: In this procedure, only a part of the bladder is removed. This may be an option for patients with early-stage bladder cancer that has not spread deeply into the bladder muscle or to other parts of the body.
3. Urinary diversion: After a cystectomy, the surgeon must create a new way for urine to leave the body. This may involve creating a urostomy, in which a piece of intestine is used to form a stoma (an opening) on the abdominal wall, through which urine can be collected in a bag. Alternatively, the surgeon may create an internal pouch using a segment of intestine, which can then be connected to the ureters and allowed to drain into the rectum or vagina.

As with any surgical procedure, cystectomy carries risks such as bleeding, infection, and reactions to anesthesia. Patients may also experience long-term complications such as urinary incontinence, sexual dysfunction, and changes in bowel habits. However, for many patients with bladder cancer or other severe bladder conditions, cystectomy can be a life-saving procedure.

Beta-lactamases are enzymes produced by certain bacteria that can break down and inactivate beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillins, cephalosporins, and carbapenems. This enzymatic activity makes the bacteria resistant to these antibiotics, limiting their effectiveness in treating infections caused by these organisms.

Beta-lactamases work by hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring, a structural component of these antibiotics that is essential for their antimicrobial activity. By breaking down this ring, the enzyme renders the antibiotic ineffective against the bacterium, allowing it to continue growing and potentially causing harm.

There are different classes of beta-lactamases (e.g., Ambler Class A, B, C, and D), each with distinct characteristics and mechanisms for breaking down various beta-lactam antibiotics. The emergence and spread of bacteria producing these enzymes have contributed to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, making it increasingly challenging to treat infections caused by these organisms.

To overcome this issue, researchers have developed beta-lactamase inhibitors, which are drugs that can bind to and inhibit the activity of these enzymes, thus restoring the effectiveness of certain beta-lactam antibiotics. Examples of such combinations include amoxicillin/clavulanate (Augmentin) and piperacillin/tazobactam (Zosyn).

"Schistosoma haematobium" is a species of parasitic flatworm, also known as a blood fluke, that causes the disease schistosomiasis (also known as bilharzia). This specific species is the most common cause of urogenital schistosomiasis.

The life cycle of Schistosoma haematobium involves freshwater snails as intermediate hosts. The parasite's eggs are released in the urine of an infected person and hatch in fresh water, releasing miracidia that infect the snail. After several developmental stages, the parasites emerge from the snail as free-swimming cercariae, which then infect the human host by penetrating the skin during contact with infested water.

Once inside the human body, the cercariae transform into schistosomula and migrate to the venous plexus around the bladder, where they mature into adult worms. The female worms lay eggs that can cause inflammation and damage to the urinary tract and, in some cases, other organs. Symptoms of infection can include blood in the urine, frequent urination, and pain during urination. Chronic infection can lead to more serious complications, such as bladder cancer and kidney damage.

Diuresis is a medical term that refers to an increased production of urine by the kidneys. It can occur as a result of various factors, including certain medications, medical conditions, or as a response to a physiological need, such as in the case of dehydration. Diuretics are a class of drugs that promote diuresis and are often used to treat conditions such as high blood pressure, heart failure, and edema.

Diuresis can be classified into several types based on its underlying cause or mechanism, including:

1. Osmotic diuresis: This occurs when the kidneys excrete large amounts of urine in response to a high concentration of solutes (such as glucose) in the tubular fluid. The high osmolarity of the tubular fluid causes water to be drawn out of the bloodstream and into the urine, leading to an increase in urine output.
2. Forced diuresis: This is a medical procedure in which large amounts of intravenous fluids are administered to promote diuresis. It is used in certain clinical situations, such as to enhance the excretion of toxic substances or to prevent kidney damage.
3. Natriuretic diuresis: This occurs when the kidneys excrete large amounts of sodium and water in response to the release of natriuretic peptides, which are hormones that regulate sodium balance and blood pressure.
4. Aquaresis: This is a type of diuresis that occurs in response to the ingestion of large amounts of water, leading to dilute urine production.
5. Pathological diuresis: This refers to increased urine production due to underlying medical conditions such as diabetes insipidus or pyelonephritis.

It is important to note that excessive diuresis can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances, so it should be monitored carefully in clinical settings.

A drug combination refers to the use of two or more drugs in combination for the treatment of a single medical condition or disease. The rationale behind using drug combinations is to achieve a therapeutic effect that is superior to that obtained with any single agent alone, through various mechanisms such as:

* Complementary modes of action: When different drugs target different aspects of the disease process, their combined effects may be greater than either drug used alone.
* Synergistic interactions: In some cases, the combination of two or more drugs can result in a greater-than-additive effect, where the total response is greater than the sum of the individual responses to each drug.
* Antagonism of adverse effects: Sometimes, the use of one drug can mitigate the side effects of another, allowing for higher doses or longer durations of therapy.

Examples of drug combinations include:

* Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) for HIV infection, which typically involves a combination of three or more antiretroviral drugs to suppress viral replication and prevent the development of drug resistance.
* Chemotherapy regimens for cancer treatment, where combinations of cytotoxic agents are used to target different stages of the cell cycle and increase the likelihood of tumor cell death.
* Fixed-dose combination products, such as those used in the treatment of hypertension or type 2 diabetes, which combine two or more active ingredients into a single formulation for ease of administration and improved adherence to therapy.

However, it's important to note that drug combinations can also increase the risk of adverse effects, drug-drug interactions, and medication errors. Therefore, careful consideration should be given to the selection of appropriate drugs, dosing regimens, and monitoring parameters when using drug combinations in clinical practice.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

Bacteriological techniques refer to the various methods and procedures used in the laboratory for the cultivation, identification, and study of bacteria. These techniques are essential in fields such as medicine, biotechnology, and research. Here are some common bacteriological techniques:

1. **Sterilization**: This is a process that eliminates or kills all forms of life, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores. Common sterilization methods include autoclaving (using steam under pressure), dry heat (in an oven), chemical sterilants, and radiation.

2. **Aseptic Technique**: This refers to practices used to prevent contamination of sterile materials or environments with microorganisms. It includes the use of sterile equipment, gloves, and lab coats, as well as techniques such as flaming, alcohol swabbing, and using aseptic transfer devices.

3. **Media Preparation**: This involves the preparation of nutrient-rich substances that support bacterial growth. There are various types of media, including solid (agar), liquid (broth), and semi-solid (e.g., stab agar). The choice of medium depends on the type of bacteria being cultured and the purpose of the investigation.

4. **Inoculation**: This is the process of introducing a bacterial culture into a medium. It can be done using a loop, swab, or needle. The inoculum should be taken from a pure culture to avoid contamination.

5. **Incubation**: After inoculation, the bacteria are allowed to grow under controlled conditions of temperature, humidity, and atmospheric composition. This process is called incubation.

6. **Staining and Microscopy**: Bacteria are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Therefore, they need to be stained and observed under a microscope. Gram staining is a common method used to differentiate between two major groups of bacteria based on their cell wall composition.

7. **Biochemical Tests**: These are tests used to identify specific bacterial species based on their biochemical characteristics, such as their ability to ferment certain sugars, produce particular enzymes, or resist certain antibiotics.

8. **Molecular Techniques**: Advanced techniques like PCR and DNA sequencing can provide more precise identification of bacteria. They can also be used for genetic analysis and epidemiological studies.

Remember, handling microorganisms requires careful attention to biosafety procedures to prevent accidental infection or environmental contamination.

A Severity of Illness Index is a measurement tool used in healthcare to assess the severity of a patient's condition and the risk of mortality or other adverse outcomes. These indices typically take into account various physiological and clinical variables, such as vital signs, laboratory values, and co-morbidities, to generate a score that reflects the patient's overall illness severity.

Examples of Severity of Illness Indices include the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) system, the Simplified Acute Physiology Score (SAPS), and the Mortality Probability Model (MPM). These indices are often used in critical care settings to guide clinical decision-making, inform prognosis, and compare outcomes across different patient populations.

It is important to note that while these indices can provide valuable information about a patient's condition, they should not be used as the sole basis for clinical decision-making. Rather, they should be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the patient's overall clinical presentation, treatment preferences, and goals of care.

A suburethral sling is a type of surgical mesh used in the treatment of stress urinary incontinence (SUI) in women. It is a narrow strip of synthetic material or tissue that is placed under the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder out of the body, to provide support and restore normal function.

The sling helps to keep the urethra in its proper position during physical activities, such as coughing, sneezing, or exercising, which can put pressure on the bladder and cause urine leakage in women with SUI. Suburethral slings are typically made of non-absorbable synthetic materials, such as polypropylene or polyester, and can be attached to surrounding tissue or bone for added support.

The procedure to implant a suburethral sling is usually performed on an outpatient basis, and most women are able to return to their normal activities within a few weeks. While suburethral slings have been shown to be effective in treating SUI, they are not without risks, including infection, bleeding, pain during sexual intercourse, and in rare cases, erosion of the mesh into surrounding tissues.

Urological agents are a category of pharmaceuticals that are used to treat various conditions related to the urinary system. These medications can be used to manage symptoms or to treat underlying causes of urological disorders. The specific type of urological agent used will depend on the particular condition being treated, and may include:

* Anticholinergic agents: Used to treat overactive bladder by relaxing the muscles of the bladder.
* Alpha-blockers: Used to treat an enlarged prostate (benign prostatic hyperplasia) by relaxing the muscles around the urethra, making it easier to urinate.
* 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors: Also used to treat an enlarged prostate, these medications work by shrinking the prostate gland over time.
* Antibiotics: Used to treat urinary tract infections and other types of bacterial infections that can affect the urinary system.
* Analgesics: Used to relieve pain associated with urological conditions such as kidney stones or interstitial cystitis.
* Botulinum toxin (Botox): Injected into the bladder muscle to treat overactive bladder and reduce urinary incontinence.

It's important to note that these are just a few examples of urological agents, and there are many other medications available depending on the specific condition being treated. It is essential to consult with a healthcare provider for proper diagnosis and treatment.

Ultrasonography, also known as sonography, is a diagnostic medical procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves (ultrasound) to produce dynamic images of organs, tissues, or blood flow inside the body. These images are captured in real-time and can be used to assess the size, shape, and structure of various internal structures, as well as detect any abnormalities such as tumors, cysts, or inflammation.

During an ultrasonography procedure, a small handheld device called a transducer is placed on the patient's skin, which emits and receives sound waves. The transducer sends high-frequency sound waves into the body, and these waves bounce back off internal structures and are recorded by the transducer. The recorded data is then processed and transformed into visual images that can be interpreted by a medical professional.

Ultrasonography is a non-invasive, painless, and safe procedure that does not use radiation like other imaging techniques such as CT scans or X-rays. It is commonly used to diagnose and monitor conditions in various parts of the body, including the abdomen, pelvis, heart, blood vessels, and musculoskeletal system.

"Serenoa" is the medical term for a type of palm tree, also known as Saw Palmetto. The fruit of this plant, Serenoa repens, is commonly used in herbal medicine, particularly for treating symptoms associated with an enlarged prostate gland, such as reducing difficulty in urinating. It contains compounds that are thought to have anti-inflammatory and hormonal effects. However, it's important to note that the effectiveness of Serenoa repbs for treating medical conditions is still a subject of ongoing research and debate.

Pseudomonas infections are infections caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa or other species of the Pseudomonas genus. These bacteria are gram-negative, opportunistic pathogens that can cause various types of infections, including respiratory, urinary tract, gastrointestinal, dermatological, and bloodstream infections.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common cause of healthcare-associated infections, particularly in patients with weakened immune systems, chronic lung diseases, or those who are hospitalized for extended periods. The bacteria can also infect wounds, burns, and medical devices such as catheters and ventilators.

Pseudomonas infections can be difficult to treat due to the bacteria's resistance to many antibiotics. Treatment typically involves the use of multiple antibiotics that are effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In severe cases, intravenous antibiotics or even hospitalization may be necessary.

Prevention measures include good hand hygiene, contact precautions for patients with known Pseudomonas infections, and proper cleaning and maintenance of medical equipment.

Enuresis is a medical term that refers to the involuntary or unconscious release of urine, especially at night during sleep, in children who are at least 5 years old. It's commonly known as bedwetting. Enuresis can be classified into two types: primary and secondary. Primary enuresis occurs when a child has never achieved consistent dryness during sleep, while secondary enuresis happens when a child starts wetting the bed again after having been dry for at least six months.

Enuresis can have various causes, including developmental delays, small bladder capacity, urinary tract infections, constipation, sleep disorders, and emotional stress. In some cases, it may also be associated with genetic factors. Treatment options depend on the underlying cause and may include behavioral interventions, bladder training, alarm systems, medication, or a combination of these approaches.

Fetal diseases are medical conditions or abnormalities that affect a fetus during pregnancy. These diseases can be caused by genetic factors, environmental influences, or a combination of both. They can range from mild to severe and may impact various organ systems in the developing fetus. Examples of fetal diseases include congenital heart defects, neural tube defects, chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome, and infectious diseases such as toxoplasmosis or rubella. Fetal diseases can be diagnosed through prenatal testing, including ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling. Treatment options may include medication, surgery, or delivery of the fetus, depending on the nature and severity of the disease.

Urinary tract physiological processes refer to the normal functioning and activities that occur in the urinary system, which includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. These processes involve the filtration of blood in the kidneys to produce urine, the transport of urine through the ureters to the bladder, and the storage and elimination of urine from the body through the urethra.

The kidneys filter waste and excess fluids from the blood and regulate electrolyte levels to maintain balance in the body. The filtrate then becomes urine, which flows through the ureters into the bladder, where it is stored until a sufficient amount accumulates to trigger the urge to urinate. During urination, the sphincters of the bladder contract, and the urine is released through the urethra and out of the body.

These physiological processes are regulated by various hormonal and nervous mechanisms that ensure the proper functioning of the urinary system and maintain homeostasis in the body.

Smooth muscle, also known as involuntary muscle, is a type of muscle that is controlled by the autonomic nervous system and functions without conscious effort. These muscles are found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, intestines, bladder, and blood vessels, as well as in the eyes, skin, and other areas of the body.

Smooth muscle fibers are shorter and narrower than skeletal muscle fibers and do not have striations or sarcomeres, which give skeletal muscle its striped appearance. Smooth muscle is controlled by the autonomic nervous system through the release of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and norepinephrine, which bind to receptors on the smooth muscle cells and cause them to contract or relax.

Smooth muscle plays an important role in many physiological processes, including digestion, circulation, respiration, and elimination. It can also contribute to various medical conditions, such as hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, and genitourinary dysfunction, when it becomes overactive or underactive.

Nitrofurans are a group of synthetic antibacterial agents that have been widely used in the medical field for their antimicrobial properties. The primary use of nitrofurans is to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) caused by susceptible strains of bacteria. Nitrofurantoin is the most commonly prescribed nitrofuran and is available under various brand names, such as Macrobid and Furadantin.

Nitrofurans have a unique mechanism of action that distinguishes them from other antibiotics. They require an aerobic environment with an adequate concentration of oxygen to be effective. Once inside the body, nitrofurans are rapidly metabolized and concentrated in urine, where they exhibit bactericidal activity against various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, and Enterococci.

The antibacterial action of nitrofurans is attributed to their ability to inhibit essential bacterial enzymes involved in nucleic acid synthesis, energy production, and cell wall biosynthesis. This multifaceted mechanism of action makes it difficult for bacteria to develop resistance against nitrofurans.

Common side effects associated with nitrofurantoin include gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Less frequently, patients may experience headaches, dizziness, or skin rashes. In rare cases, nitrofurantoin can cause pulmonary reactions, hepatotoxicity, or peripheral neuropathy.

Due to the potential for adverse effects and the risk of developing drug-resistant bacteria, nitrofurans should only be prescribed when there is a strong clinical indication and susceptibility testing has been performed. Patients with impaired renal function, pregnant women in their third trimester, or those with a history of liver or lung disease may not be suitable candidates for nitrofuran therapy due to the increased risk of adverse reactions.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

Pseudohypoaldosteronism is a group of disorders that are characterized by resistance to aldosterone, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands. Aldosterone plays a key role in regulating sodium and potassium balance in the body. In pseudohypoaldosteronism, the kidneys fail to respond to aldosterone, leading to an imbalance of electrolytes in the body.

There are two types of pseudohypoaldosteronism: type I and type II. Type I is further divided into two subtypes: severe neonatal or infantile forms, which are usually caused by genetic mutations that affect the function of the sodium-potassium pump in the kidney; and milder forms, which can be inherited or acquired and may be associated with other medical conditions.

Type II pseudohypoaldosteronism is a rare disorder that typically affects older children and adults. It is caused by genetic mutations that affect the function of the mineralocorticoid receptor in the kidney, which binds to aldosterone and triggers a response.

Symptoms of pseudohypoaldosteronism may include low sodium levels, high potassium levels, and metabolic acidosis (a buildup of acid in the body). Treatment typically involves supplementation with sodium and/or medications to help regulate electrolyte balance.

Epithelium is the tissue that covers the outer surface of the body, lines the internal cavities and organs, and forms various glands. It is composed of one or more layers of tightly packed cells that have a uniform shape and size, and rest on a basement membrane. Epithelial tissues are avascular, meaning they do not contain blood vessels, and are supplied with nutrients by diffusion from the underlying connective tissue.

Epithelial cells perform a variety of functions, including protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, and sensation. They can be classified based on their shape and the number of cell layers they contain. The main types of epithelium are:

1. Squamous epithelium: composed of flat, scalelike cells that fit together like tiles on a roof. It forms the lining of blood vessels, air sacs in the lungs, and the outermost layer of the skin.
2. Cuboidal epithelium: composed of cube-shaped cells with equal height and width. It is found in glands, tubules, and ducts.
3. Columnar epithelium: composed of tall, rectangular cells that are taller than they are wide. It lines the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
4. Pseudostratified epithelium: appears stratified or layered but is actually made up of a single layer of cells that vary in height. The nuclei of these cells appear at different levels, giving the tissue a stratified appearance. It lines the respiratory and reproductive tracts.
5. Transitional epithelium: composed of several layers of cells that can stretch and change shape to accommodate changes in volume. It is found in the urinary bladder and ureters.

Epithelial tissue provides a barrier between the internal and external environments, protecting the body from physical, chemical, and biological damage. It also plays a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis by regulating the exchange of substances between the body and its environment.

Urea is not a medical condition but it is a medically relevant substance. Here's the definition:

Urea is a colorless, odorless solid that is the primary nitrogen-containing compound in the urine of mammals. It is a normal metabolic end product that is excreted by the kidneys and is also used as a fertilizer and in various industrial applications. Chemically, urea is a carbamide, consisting of two amino groups (NH2) joined by a carbon atom and having a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group (OH) attached to the carbon atom. Urea is produced in the liver as an end product of protein metabolism and is then eliminated from the body by the kidneys through urination. Abnormal levels of urea in the blood, known as uremia, can indicate impaired kidney function or other medical conditions.

"Sex factors" is a term used in medicine and epidemiology to refer to the differences in disease incidence, prevalence, or response to treatment that are observed between males and females. These differences can be attributed to biological differences such as genetics, hormones, and anatomy, as well as social and cultural factors related to gender.

For example, some conditions such as autoimmune diseases, depression, and osteoporosis are more common in women, while others such as cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer are more prevalent in men. Additionally, sex differences have been observed in the effectiveness and side effects of various medications and treatments.

It is important to consider sex factors in medical research and clinical practice to ensure that patients receive appropriate and effective care.

"Pseudomonas aeruginosa" is a medically important, gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium that is widely found in the environment, such as in soil, water, and on plants. It's an opportunistic pathogen, meaning it usually doesn't cause infection in healthy individuals but can cause severe and sometimes life-threatening infections in people with weakened immune systems, burns, or chronic lung diseases like cystic fibrosis.

P. aeruginosa is known for its remarkable ability to resist many antibiotics and disinfectants due to its intrinsic resistance mechanisms and the acquisition of additional resistance determinants. It can cause various types of infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, gastrointestinal infections, dermatitis, and severe bloodstream infections known as sepsis.

The bacterium produces a variety of virulence factors that contribute to its pathogenicity, such as exotoxins, proteases, and pigments like pyocyanin and pyoverdine, which aid in iron acquisition and help the organism evade host immune responses. Effective infection control measures, appropriate use of antibiotics, and close monitoring of high-risk patients are crucial for managing P. aeruginosa infections.

Kidney tubules are the structural and functional units of the kidney responsible for reabsorption, secretion, and excretion of various substances. They are part of the nephron, which is the basic unit of the kidney's filtration and reabsorption process.

There are three main types of kidney tubules:

1. Proximal tubule: This is the initial segment of the kidney tubule that receives the filtrate from the glomerulus. It is responsible for reabsorbing approximately 65% of the filtrate, including water, glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes.
2. Loop of Henle: This U-shaped segment of the tubule consists of a thin descending limb, a thin ascending limb, and a thick ascending limb. The loop of Henle helps to concentrate urine by creating an osmotic gradient that allows water to be reabsorbed in the collecting ducts.
3. Distal tubule: This is the final segment of the kidney tubule before it empties into the collecting duct. It is responsible for fine-tuning the concentration of electrolytes and pH balance in the urine by selectively reabsorbing or secreting substances such as sodium, potassium, chloride, and hydrogen ions.

Overall, kidney tubules play a critical role in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, regulating acid-base balance, and removing waste products from the body.

Gram-positive bacteria are a type of bacteria that stain dark purple or blue when subjected to the Gram staining method, which is a common technique used in microbiology to classify and identify different types of bacteria based on their structural differences. This staining method was developed by Hans Christian Gram in 1884.

The key characteristic that distinguishes Gram-positive bacteria from other types, such as Gram-negative bacteria, is the presence of a thick layer of peptidoglycan in their cell walls, which retains the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining process. Additionally, Gram-positive bacteria lack an outer membrane found in Gram-negative bacteria.

Examples of Gram-positive bacteria include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Bacillus subtilis. Some Gram-positive bacteria can cause various human diseases, while others are beneficial or harmless.

Cephalosporins are a class of antibiotics that are derived from the fungus Acremonium, originally isolated from seawater and cow dung. They have a similar chemical structure to penicillin and share a common four-membered beta-lactam ring in their molecular structure.

Cephalosporins work by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, which ultimately leads to bacterial death. They are broad-spectrum antibiotics, meaning they are effective against a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms.

There are several generations of cephalosporins, each with different spectra of activity and pharmacokinetic properties. The first generation cephalosporins have a narrow spectrum of activity and are primarily used to treat infections caused by susceptible Gram-positive bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae.

Second-generation cephalosporins have an expanded spectrum of activity that includes some Gram-negative organisms, such as Escherichia coli and Haemophilus influenzae. Third-generation cephalosporins have even broader spectra of activity and are effective against many resistant Gram-negative bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Fourth-generation cephalosporins have activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, including some that are resistant to other antibiotics. They are often reserved for the treatment of serious infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Cephalosporins are generally well tolerated, but like penicillin, they can cause allergic reactions in some individuals. Cross-reactivity between cephalosporins and penicillin is estimated to occur in 5-10% of patients with a history of penicillin allergy. Other potential adverse effects include gastrointestinal symptoms (such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea), neurotoxicity, and nephrotoxicity.

The biliary tract is a system of ducts that transport bile from the liver to the gallbladder and then to the small intestine. Bile is a digestive fluid produced by the liver that helps in the breakdown and absorption of fats in the small intestine. The main components of the biliary tract are:

1. Intrahepatic bile ducts: These are the smaller branches of bile ducts located within the liver that collect bile from the liver cells or hepatocytes.
2. Gallbladder: A small pear-shaped organ located beneath the liver, which stores and concentrates bile received from the intrahepatic bile ducts. The gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine when food is ingested, particularly fats, to aid digestion.
3. Common hepatic duct: This is a duct that forms by the union of the right and left hepatic ducts, which carry bile from the right and left lobes of the liver, respectively.
4. Cystic duct: A short duct that connects the gallbladder to the common hepatic duct, forming the beginning of the common bile duct.
5. Common bile duct: This is a larger duct formed by the union of the common hepatic duct and the cystic duct. It carries bile from the liver and gallbladder into the small intestine.
6. Pancreatic duct: A separate duct that originates from the pancreas, a gland located near the liver and stomach. The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct just before they both enter the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine.
7. Ampulla of Vater: This is the dilated portion where the common bile duct and the pancreatic duct join together and empty their contents into the duodenum through a shared opening called the papilla of Vater.

Disorders related to the biliary tract include gallstones, cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder), bile duct stones, bile duct strictures or obstructions, and primary sclerosing cholangitis, among others.

The Predictive Value of Tests, specifically the Positive Predictive Value (PPV) and Negative Predictive Value (NPV), are measures used in diagnostic tests to determine the probability that a positive or negative test result is correct.

Positive Predictive Value (PPV) is the proportion of patients with a positive test result who actually have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true positives divided by the total number of positive results (true positives + false positives). A higher PPV indicates that a positive test result is more likely to be a true positive, and therefore the disease is more likely to be present.

Negative Predictive Value (NPV) is the proportion of patients with a negative test result who do not have the disease. It is calculated as the number of true negatives divided by the total number of negative results (true negatives + false negatives). A higher NPV indicates that a negative test result is more likely to be a true negative, and therefore the disease is less likely to be present.

The predictive value of tests depends on the prevalence of the disease in the population being tested, as well as the sensitivity and specificity of the test. A test with high sensitivity and specificity will generally have higher predictive values than a test with low sensitivity and specificity. However, even a highly sensitive and specific test can have low predictive values if the prevalence of the disease is low in the population being tested.

I believe there might be a misunderstanding in your question. "Dogs" is not a medical term or condition. It is the common name for a domesticated carnivore of the family Canidae, specifically the genus Canis, which includes wolves, foxes, and other extant and extinct species of mammals. Dogs are often kept as pets and companions, and they have been bred in a wide variety of forms and sizes for different purposes, such as hunting, herding, guarding, assisting police and military forces, and providing companionship and emotional support.

If you meant to ask about a specific medical condition or term related to dogs, please provide more context so I can give you an accurate answer.

Gentamicin is an antibiotic that belongs to the class of aminoglycosides. It is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, including:

* Gram-negative bacterial infections, such as those caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Proteus mirabilis
* Certain Gram-positive bacterial infections, such as those caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes

Gentamicin works by binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, which inhibits protein synthesis and ultimately leads to bacterial cell death. It is typically given via injection (intramuscularly or intravenously) and is often used in combination with other antibiotics to treat serious infections.

Like all aminoglycosides, gentamicin can cause kidney damage and hearing loss, especially when used for long periods of time or at high doses. Therefore, monitoring of drug levels and renal function is recommended during treatment.

The double-blind method is a study design commonly used in research, including clinical trials, to minimize bias and ensure the objectivity of results. In this approach, both the participants and the researchers are unaware of which group the participants are assigned to, whether it be the experimental group or the control group. This means that neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving a particular treatment or placebo, thus reducing the potential for bias in the evaluation of outcomes. The assignment of participants to groups is typically done by a third party not involved in the study, and the codes are only revealed after all data have been collected and analyzed.

5-alpha Reductase Inhibitors are a class of drugs that block the action of the enzyme 5-alpha reductase, which is responsible for converting testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT). DHT is a more potent form of testosterone that plays a key role in the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics and is involved in the pathogenesis of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and androgenetic alopecia (male pattern baldness).

By inhibiting the action of 5-alpha reductase, these drugs reduce the levels of DHT in the body, which can help to shrink the prostate gland and improve symptoms of BPH such as difficulty urinating, frequent urination, and weak urine stream. They are also used off-label to treat hair loss in men.

Examples of 5-alpha reductase inhibitors include finasteride (Proscar, Propecia) and dutasteride (Avodart). Common side effects of these drugs may include decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, and breast tenderness or enlargement.

Hemolysins are a type of protein toxin produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and plants that have the ability to damage and destroy red blood cells (erythrocytes), leading to their lysis or hemolysis. This results in the release of hemoglobin into the surrounding environment. Hemolysins can be classified into two main categories:

1. Exotoxins: These are secreted by bacteria and directly damage host cells. They can be further divided into two types:
* Membrane attack complex/perforin-like proteins (MACPF): These hemolysins create pores in the membrane of red blood cells, disrupting their integrity and causing lysis. Examples include alpha-hemolysin from Staphylococcus aureus and streptolysin O from Streptococcus pyogenes.
* Enzymatic hemolysins: These hemolysins are enzymes that degrade specific components of the red blood cell membrane, ultimately leading to lysis. An example is streptolysin S from Streptococcus pyogenes, which is a thiol-activated, oxygen-labile hemolysin.
2. Endotoxins: These are part of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and can cause indirect hemolysis by activating the complement system or by stimulating the release of inflammatory mediators from host cells.

Hemolysins play a significant role in bacterial pathogenesis, contributing to tissue damage, impaired immune responses, and disease progression.

A mucous membrane is a type of moist, protective lining that covers various body surfaces inside the body, including the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urogenital tracts, as well as the inner surface of the eyelids and the nasal cavity. These membranes are composed of epithelial cells that produce mucus, a slippery secretion that helps trap particles, microorganisms, and other foreign substances, preventing them from entering the body or causing damage to tissues. The mucous membrane functions as a barrier against infection and irritation while also facilitating the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between the body and its environment.

Balkan nephropathy is a type of chronic tubulointerstitial kidney disease that is named after the Balkan region in southeastern Europe where it is most commonly found. It is characterized by progressive scarring and damage to the renal tubules and interstitium, which can lead to decreased kidney function and eventually end-stage renal disease.

The exact cause of Balkan nephropathy is not fully understood, but it is believed to be related to environmental factors such as exposure to aristolochic acid, a toxin found in certain plants that are native to the region. Other possible contributing factors may include genetic susceptibility and infection with certain viruses or bacteria.

Symptoms of Balkan nephropathy can include proteinuria (protein in the urine), hematuria (blood in the urine), hypertension (high blood pressure), and decreased kidney function. Diagnosis is typically made based on a combination of clinical symptoms, laboratory tests, and imaging studies such as ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment may include medications to manage high blood pressure and proteinuria, as well as supportive care to address any complications that arise from decreased kidney function. In severe cases, dialysis or kidney transplantation may be necessary.

Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs) refer to infections that are localized in the reproductive organs, including the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and prostate gland. These infections can be caused by various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites.

RTIs can lead to a range of complications, including pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), ectopic pregnancy, infertility, and increased risk of HIV transmission. They can also cause symptoms such as abnormal vaginal discharge, pain during sexual intercourse, irregular menstrual bleeding, and lower abdominal pain.

RTIs are often sexually transmitted but can also be caused by other factors such as poor hygiene, use of intrauterine devices (IUDs), and invasive gynecological procedures. Prevention measures include safe sexual practices, good personal hygiene, and timely treatment of infections.

'C3H' is the name of an inbred strain of laboratory mice that was developed at the Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine. The mice are characterized by their uniform genetic background and have been widely used in biomedical research for many decades.

The C3H strain is particularly notable for its susceptibility to certain types of cancer, including mammary tumors and lymphomas. It also has a high incidence of age-related macular degeneration and other eye diseases. The strain is often used in studies of immunology, genetics, and carcinogenesis.

Like all inbred strains, the C3H mice are the result of many generations of brother-sister matings, which leads to a high degree of genetic uniformity within the strain. This makes them useful for studying the effects of specific genes or environmental factors on disease susceptibility and other traits. However, it also means that they may not always be representative of the genetic diversity found in outbred populations, including humans.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Uroplakin Ib is not a recognized medical term or concept in and of itself. However, Uroplakins are a group of proteins found on the surface of urothelial cells, which make up the lining of the urinary tract. These proteins play an important role in maintaining the barrier function and integrity of the urothelium.

Uroplakin Ib is one of four major uroplakins (Ia, Ib, II, and III) that form complexes called uroplakins plaques on the apical surface of superficial urothelial cells. These plaques are thought to provide a protective barrier against urinary constituents, as well as contribute to the low permeability of the urothelium.

Therefore, while "Uroplakin Ib" may not have its own medical definition, it is an important component of the larger structure and function of uroplakins in the urinary tract.

Kidney transplantation is a surgical procedure where a healthy kidney from a deceased or living donor is implanted into a patient with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) or permanent kidney failure. The new kidney takes over the functions of filtering waste and excess fluids from the blood, producing urine, and maintaining the body's electrolyte balance.

The transplanted kidney is typically placed in the lower abdomen, with its blood vessels connected to the recipient's iliac artery and vein. The ureter of the new kidney is then attached to the recipient's bladder to ensure proper urine flow. Following the surgery, the patient will require lifelong immunosuppressive therapy to prevent rejection of the transplanted organ by their immune system.

Kidney papillary necrosis is a medical condition characterized by the death (necrosis) of the renal papillae, which are the small conical projections at the ends of the renal tubules in the kidneys. This condition typically occurs due to reduced blood flow to the kidneys or as a result of toxic injury from certain medications, chronic infections, diabetes, sickle cell disease, and systemic vasculitides.

The necrosis of the papillae can lead to the formation of small stones or debris that can obstruct the flow of urine, causing further damage to the kidneys. Symptoms of kidney papillary necrosis may include fever, flank pain, nausea, vomiting, and bloody or foul-smelling urine. The diagnosis is typically made through imaging studies such as CT scans or MRI, and treatment may involve addressing the underlying cause, administering antibiotics to prevent infection, and providing supportive care to maintain kidney function.

There is no medical definition for "dog diseases" as it is too broad a term. However, dogs can suffer from various health conditions and illnesses that are specific to their species or similar to those found in humans. Some common categories of dog diseases include:

1. Infectious Diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites. Examples include distemper, parvovirus, kennel cough, Lyme disease, and heartworms.
2. Hereditary/Genetic Disorders: Some dogs may inherit certain genetic disorders from their parents. Examples include hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), and degenerative myelopathy.
3. Age-Related Diseases: As dogs age, they become more susceptible to various health issues. Common age-related diseases in dogs include arthritis, dental disease, cancer, and cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS).
4. Nutritional Disorders: Malnutrition or improper feeding can lead to various health problems in dogs. Examples include obesity, malnutrition, and vitamin deficiencies.
5. Environmental Diseases: These are caused by exposure to environmental factors such as toxins, allergens, or extreme temperatures. Examples include heatstroke, frostbite, and toxicities from ingesting harmful substances.
6. Neurological Disorders: Dogs can suffer from various neurological conditions that affect their nervous system. Examples include epilepsy, intervertebral disc disease (IVDD), and vestibular disease.
7. Behavioral Disorders: Some dogs may develop behavioral issues due to various factors such as anxiety, fear, or aggression. Examples include separation anxiety, noise phobias, and resource guarding.

It's important to note that regular veterinary care, proper nutrition, exercise, and preventative measures can help reduce the risk of many dog diseases.

Epididymitis is defined as the inflammation of the epididymis, a curved tube-like structure located at the back of the testicle that stores and transports sperm. The inflammation can result from infection, trauma, or other causes, and may cause symptoms such as pain, swelling, and tenderness in the scrotum. In some cases, epididymitis may also be associated with urinary tract infections, sexually transmitted infections, or other medical conditions. Treatment typically involves antibiotics to treat any underlying infection, as well as pain relief measures and supportive care to help reduce symptoms and promote healing.

The Wolffian ducts, also known as the mesonephric ducts, are a pair of embryological structures present in the developing urinary system of male fetuses. They originate from the intermediate mesoderm and descend towards the posterior end of the developing kidney, or the metanephros.

The Wolffian ducts play a crucial role in the formation of the male reproductive system. In males, these ducts give rise to the vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory ducts. They also contribute to the development of the kidneys, specifically the pronephros and mesonephros, which are transient structures that eventually give way to the permanent kidney, or metanephros.

In females, the Wolffian ducts regress due to the absence of testicular hormones, as they do not contribute to the formation of female reproductive organs. Instead, the paramesonephric ducts, also known as the Mullerian ducts, develop into the female reproductive structures such as the fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina.

The Respiratory System is a complex network of organs and tissues that work together to facilitate the process of breathing, which involves the intake of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide. This system primarily includes the nose, throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx), windpipe (trachea), bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and diaphragm.

The nostrils or mouth take in air that travels through the pharynx, larynx, and trachea into the lungs. Within the lungs, the trachea divides into two bronchi, one for each lung, which further divide into smaller tubes called bronchioles. At the end of these bronchioles are tiny air sacs known as alveoli where the exchange of gases occurs. Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the bloodstream, while carbon dioxide, a waste product, moves from the blood to the alveoli and is exhaled out of the body.

The diaphragm, a large muscle that separates the chest from the abdomen, plays a crucial role in breathing by contracting and relaxing to change the volume of the chest cavity, thereby allowing air to flow in and out of the lungs. Overall, the Respiratory System is essential for maintaining life by providing the body's cells with the oxygen needed for metabolism and removing waste products like carbon dioxide.

A diet, in medical terms, refers to the planned and regular consumption of food and drinks. It is a balanced selection of nutrient-rich foods that an individual eats on a daily or periodic basis to meet their energy needs and maintain good health. A well-balanced diet typically includes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and low-fat dairy products.

A diet may also be prescribed for therapeutic purposes, such as in the management of certain medical conditions like diabetes, hypertension, or obesity. In these cases, a healthcare professional may recommend specific restrictions or modifications to an individual's regular diet to help manage their condition and improve their overall health.

It is important to note that a healthy and balanced diet should be tailored to an individual's age, gender, body size, activity level, and any underlying medical conditions. Consulting with a healthcare professional, such as a registered dietitian or nutritionist, can help ensure that an individual's dietary needs are being met in a safe and effective way.

A questionnaire in the medical context is a standardized, systematic, and structured tool used to gather information from individuals regarding their symptoms, medical history, lifestyle, or other health-related factors. It typically consists of a series of written questions that can be either self-administered or administered by an interviewer. Questionnaires are widely used in various areas of healthcare, including clinical research, epidemiological studies, patient care, and health services evaluation to collect data that can inform diagnosis, treatment planning, and population health management. They provide a consistent and organized method for obtaining information from large groups or individual patients, helping to ensure accurate and comprehensive data collection while minimizing bias and variability in the information gathered.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a technique used in pathology and laboratory medicine to identify specific proteins or antigens in tissue sections. It combines the principles of immunology and histology to detect the presence and location of these target molecules within cells and tissues. This technique utilizes antibodies that are specific to the protein or antigen of interest, which are then tagged with a detection system such as a chromogen or fluorophore. The stained tissue sections can be examined under a microscope, allowing for the visualization and analysis of the distribution and expression patterns of the target molecule in the context of the tissue architecture. Immunohistochemistry is widely used in diagnostic pathology to help identify various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and immune-mediated disorders.

Clavulanic acid is not a medical condition, but rather an antibacterial compound that is often combined with certain antibiotics to increase their effectiveness against bacteria that have become resistant to the antibiotic alone. It works by inhibiting certain enzymes produced by bacteria that help them to resist the antibiotic, allowing the antibiotic to work more effectively.

Clavulanic acid is typically combined with antibiotics such as amoxicillin or ticarcillin to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, and skin and soft tissue infections. It is important to note that clavulanate-containing medications should only be used under the direction of a healthcare provider, as misuse or overuse can contribute to antibiotic resistance.

Calcium oxalate is a chemical compound with the formula CaC2O4. It is the most common type of stone found in kidneys, also known as kidney stones. Calcium oxalate forms when there is too much calcium or oxalate in the urine. This can occur due to various reasons such as dietary habits, dehydration, medical conditions like hyperparathyroidism, or genetic factors.

Calcium oxalate stones are hard and crystalline and can cause severe pain during urination or while passing through the urinary tract. They may also lead to other symptoms like blood in the urine, nausea, vomiting, or fever. Prevention strategies for calcium oxalate stones include staying hydrated, following a balanced diet, and taking prescribed medications to control the levels of calcium and oxalate in the body.

Specimen handling is a set of procedures and practices followed in the collection, storage, transportation, and processing of medical samples or specimens (e.g., blood, tissue, urine, etc.) for laboratory analysis. Proper specimen handling ensures accurate test results, patient safety, and data integrity. It includes:

1. Correct labeling of the specimen container with required patient information.
2. Using appropriate containers and materials to collect, store, and transport the specimen.
3. Following proper collection techniques to avoid contamination or damage to the specimen.
4. Adhering to specific storage conditions (temperature, time, etc.) before testing.
5. Ensuring secure and timely transportation of the specimen to the laboratory.
6. Properly documenting all steps in the handling process for traceability and quality assurance.

"Serratia" is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, motile bacilli that are commonly found in the environment, such as in water and soil. Some species, particularly "Serratia marcescens," can cause healthcare-associated infections, including pneumonia, urinary tract infections, wound infections, and bloodstream infections. These infections often occur in patients with compromised immune systems or who have been hospitalized for extended periods of time. Serratia species are resistant to multiple antibiotics, which can make treatment challenging.

Reference values, also known as reference ranges or reference intervals, are the set of values that are considered normal or typical for a particular population or group of people. These values are often used in laboratory tests to help interpret test results and determine whether a patient's value falls within the expected range.

The process of establishing reference values typically involves measuring a particular biomarker or parameter in a large, healthy population and then calculating the mean and standard deviation of the measurements. Based on these statistics, a range is established that includes a certain percentage of the population (often 95%) and excludes extreme outliers.

It's important to note that reference values can vary depending on factors such as age, sex, race, and other demographic characteristics. Therefore, it's essential to use reference values that are specific to the relevant population when interpreting laboratory test results. Additionally, reference values may change over time due to advances in measurement technology or changes in the population being studied.

An artificial urinary sphincter (AUS) is not a living tissue but a surgically implanted medical device used to help manage urinary incontinence, particularly for individuals with stress incontinence or overflow incontinence. The device consists of three main components: a cuff that encircles the urethra, a balloon regulator placed in the abdomen, and a control pump located in the scrotum (in men) or labia (in women).

The cuff is inflated with fluid, which constricts the urethra and prevents urine leakage. When the individual wants to urinate, they manually compress the control pump, which transfers the fluid from the cuff to the balloon regulator, allowing the urethra to open and enabling urination. After a short period, the fluid automatically flows back from the balloon to the cuff, re-establishing continence.

It is essential to note that an artificial urinary sphincter is not a native or biological tissue but a prosthetic device designed to mimic the function of the natural urinary sphincter.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

Radioisotope renography is a type of nuclear medicine test used to evaluate the function and anatomy of the kidneys. It involves the intravenous administration of a small amount of radioactive material, called a radiopharmaceutical or radioisotope, which is taken up by the kidneys and emits gamma rays that can be detected by a special camera.

The most commonly used radiopharmaceutical for renography is technetium-99m mercaptoacetyltriglycine (Tc-99m MAG3). The patient is positioned under the gamma camera, and images are taken at various intervals after the injection of the radioisotope.

The test provides information about the blood flow to the kidneys, the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which measures how well the kidneys filter waste products from the blood, and the drainage of urine from the kidneys into the bladder. Renography can help diagnose conditions such as renal artery stenosis, hydronephrosis, and kidney obstruction.

It is important to note that while radioisotope renography involves exposure to a small amount of radiation, the benefits of the test in terms of diagnostic accuracy and patient management often outweigh the risks associated with the radiation exposure.

Netilmicin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic, which is used to treat various types of bacterial infections. According to the medical definition, Netilmicin is a sterile, pyrogen-free, pale yellow to light brown, clear solution, available for intramuscular and intravenous administration. It is a semisynthetic antibiotic derived from sisomicin that is used against severe infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria, including Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae.

The mechanism of action for Netilmicin involves binding to the 30S subunit of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis and causing bacterial cell death. Similar to other aminoglycosides, Netilmicin is not absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and is excreted unchanged by glomerular filtration in the kidneys.

It's important to note that Netilmicin can cause nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) and ototoxicity (hearing loss or balance problems), so it should be used with caution, particularly in patients with pre-existing renal impairment or hearing issues. Regular monitoring of renal function and auditory function is recommended during treatment with Netilmicin.

Sprague-Dawley rats are a strain of albino laboratory rats that are widely used in scientific research. They were first developed by researchers H.H. Sprague and R.C. Dawley in the early 20th century, and have since become one of the most commonly used rat strains in biomedical research due to their relatively large size, ease of handling, and consistent genetic background.

Sprague-Dawley rats are outbred, which means that they are genetically diverse and do not suffer from the same limitations as inbred strains, which can have reduced fertility and increased susceptibility to certain diseases. They are also characterized by their docile nature and low levels of aggression, making them easier to handle and study than some other rat strains.

These rats are used in a wide variety of research areas, including toxicology, pharmacology, nutrition, cancer, and behavioral studies. Because they are genetically diverse, Sprague-Dawley rats can be used to model a range of human diseases and conditions, making them an important tool in the development of new drugs and therapies.

Reproducibility of results in a medical context refers to the ability to obtain consistent and comparable findings when a particular experiment or study is repeated, either by the same researcher or by different researchers, following the same experimental protocol. It is an essential principle in scientific research that helps to ensure the validity and reliability of research findings.

In medical research, reproducibility of results is crucial for establishing the effectiveness and safety of new treatments, interventions, or diagnostic tools. It involves conducting well-designed studies with adequate sample sizes, appropriate statistical analyses, and transparent reporting of methods and findings to allow other researchers to replicate the study and confirm or refute the results.

The lack of reproducibility in medical research has become a significant concern in recent years, as several high-profile studies have failed to produce consistent findings when replicated by other researchers. This has led to increased scrutiny of research practices and a call for greater transparency, rigor, and standardization in the conduct and reporting of medical research.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Paraplegia is a medical condition characterized by partial or complete loss of motor function and sensation in the lower extremities, typically affecting both legs. This results from damage to the spinal cord, often due to trauma such as accidents, falls, or gunshot wounds, or from diseases like spina bifida, polio, or tumors. The specific area and extent of the injury on the spinal cord determine the severity and location of paralysis. Individuals with paraplegia may require assistive devices for mobility, such as wheelchairs, and may face various health challenges, including pressure sores, urinary tract infections, and chronic pain.

A dose-response relationship in the context of drugs refers to the changes in the effects or symptoms that occur as the dose of a drug is increased or decreased. Generally, as the dose of a drug is increased, the severity or intensity of its effects also increases. Conversely, as the dose is decreased, the effects of the drug become less severe or may disappear altogether.

The dose-response relationship is an important concept in pharmacology and toxicology because it helps to establish the safe and effective dosage range for a drug. By understanding how changes in the dose of a drug affect its therapeutic and adverse effects, healthcare providers can optimize treatment plans for their patients while minimizing the risk of harm.

The dose-response relationship is typically depicted as a curve that shows the relationship between the dose of a drug and its effect. The shape of the curve may vary depending on the drug and the specific effect being measured. Some drugs may have a steep dose-response curve, meaning that small changes in the dose can result in large differences in the effect. Other drugs may have a more gradual dose-response curve, where larger changes in the dose are needed to produce significant effects.

In addition to helping establish safe and effective dosages, the dose-response relationship is also used to evaluate the potential therapeutic benefits and risks of new drugs during clinical trials. By systematically testing different doses of a drug in controlled studies, researchers can identify the optimal dosage range for the drug and assess its safety and efficacy.

Biliary tract diseases refer to a group of medical conditions that affect the biliary system, which includes the gallbladder, bile ducts, and liver. Bile is a digestive juice produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and released into the small intestine through the bile ducts to help digest fats.

Biliary tract diseases can cause various symptoms such as abdominal pain, jaundice, fever, nausea, vomiting, and changes in stool color. Some of the common biliary tract diseases include:

1. Gallstones: Small, hard deposits that form in the gallbladder or bile ducts made up of cholesterol or bilirubin.
2. Cholecystitis: Inflammation of the gallbladder, often caused by gallstones.
3. Cholangitis: Infection or inflammation of the bile ducts.
4. Biliary dyskinesia: A motility disorder that affects the contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the biliary system.
5. Primary sclerosing cholangitis: A chronic autoimmune disease that causes scarring and narrowing of the bile ducts.
6. Biliary tract cancer: Rare cancers that affect the gallbladder, bile ducts, or liver.

Treatment for biliary tract diseases varies depending on the specific condition and severity but may include medications, surgery, or a combination of both.

Nephrocalcinosis is a medical condition characterized by the deposition of calcium salts in the renal parenchyma, specifically within the tubular epithelial cells and interstitium of the kidneys. This process can lead to chronic inflammation, tissue damage, and ultimately impaired renal function if left untreated.

The condition is often associated with metabolic disorders such as hyperparathyroidism, distal renal tubular acidosis, or hyperoxaluria; medications like loop diuretics, corticosteroids, or calcineurin inhibitors; and chronic kidney diseases. The diagnosis of nephrocalcinosis is typically made through imaging studies such as ultrasound, CT scan, or X-ray. Treatment usually involves addressing the underlying cause, modifying dietary habits, and administering medications to control calcium levels in the body.

Amoxicillin is a type of antibiotic known as a penicillin. It works by interfering with the ability of bacteria to form cell walls, which is necessary for their growth and survival. By disrupting this process, amoxicillin can kill bacteria and help to clear up infections.

Amoxicillin is used to treat a variety of bacterial infections, including respiratory tract infections, ear infections, skin infections, and urinary tract infections. It is available as a tablet, capsule, chewable tablet, or liquid suspension, and is typically taken two to three times a day.

Like all antibiotics, amoxicillin should be used only under the direction of a healthcare provider, and it is important to take the full course of treatment as prescribed, even if symptoms improve before the medication is finished. Misuse of antibiotics can lead to the development of drug-resistant bacteria, which can make infections more difficult to treat in the future.

A beverage is a drink intended for human consumption. The term is often used to refer to any drink that is not alcoholic or, in other words, non-alcoholic beverages. This includes drinks such as water, juice, tea, coffee, and soda. However, it can also include alcoholic drinks like beer, wine, and spirits.

In a medical context, beverages are often discussed in relation to their impact on health. For example, sugary drinks like soda and energy drinks have been linked to obesity, diabetes, and other health problems. On the other hand, drinks like water and unsweetened tea can help to keep people hydrated and may have other health benefits.

It's important for individuals to be mindful of their beverage choices and to choose options that are healthy and support their overall well-being. This may involve limiting sugary drinks, choosing water or unsweetened tea instead of soda, and avoiding excessive caffeine intake.

Serratia infections are caused by bacteria named Serratia marcescens, which belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. These gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic bacilli can be found in various environments, including water, soil, and food. While they are a part of the normal gut flora in humans and animals, Serratia species can cause infections under certain circumstances, such as impaired immune function or when introduced into sterile sites like the bloodstream, urinary tract, or lungs.

Serratia infections can manifest as:

1. Pneumonia: A lower respiratory tract infection that causes cough, chest pain, and difficulty breathing.
2. Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs): Bacterial invasion of the urinary system, leading to symptoms like dysuria, frequency, urgency, and cloudy or foul-smelling urine.
3. Bloodstream infections (Bacteremia/Septicemia): Invasion of the bloodstream by Serratia species, which can result in fever, chills, and sepsis.
4. Wound infections: Localized infection of wounds or surgical sites, causing pain, redness, swelling, and pus discharge.
5. Eye infections (Conjunctivitis/Keratitis): Bacterial invasion of the eye, leading to symptoms like redness, pain, tearing, and discharge.
6. Central Nervous System (CNS) infections: Rare but severe complications include meningitis or brain abscesses.

Serratia infections can be challenging to treat due to their resistance to multiple antibiotics, including first-line agents like ampicillin and cephalosporins. Therefore, healthcare providers often rely on carbapenems, fluoroquinolones, or aminoglycosides for treatment. Prompt diagnosis and appropriate antimicrobial therapy are crucial to ensure favorable outcomes in patients with Serratia infections.

Infectious skin diseases are conditions characterized by an infection or infestation of the skin caused by various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. These organisms invade the skin, causing inflammation, redness, itching, pain, and other symptoms. Examples of infectious skin diseases include:

1. Bacterial infections: Cellulitis, impetigo, folliculitis, and MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) infections are examples of bacterial skin infections.
2. Viral infections: Herpes simplex virus (HSV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), human papillomavirus (HPV), and molluscum contagiosum are common viruses that can cause skin infections.
3. Fungal infections: Tinea pedis (athlete's foot), tinea corporis (ringworm), candidiasis (yeast infection), and pityriasis versicolor are examples of fungal skin infections.
4. Parasitic infestations: Scabies, lice, and bed bugs are examples of parasites that can cause infectious skin diseases.

Treatment for infectious skin diseases depends on the underlying cause and may include topical or oral antibiotics, antiviral medications, antifungal treatments, or insecticides to eliminate parasitic infestations. Proper hygiene, wound care, and avoiding contact with infected individuals can help prevent the spread of infectious skin diseases.

Congenital abnormalities, also known as birth defects, are structural or functional anomalies that are present at birth. These abnormalities can develop at any point during fetal development, and they can affect any part of the body. They can be caused by genetic factors, environmental influences, or a combination of both.

Congenital abnormalities can range from mild to severe and may include structural defects such as heart defects, neural tube defects, and cleft lip and palate, as well as functional defects such as intellectual disabilities and sensory impairments. Some congenital abnormalities may be visible at birth, while others may not become apparent until later in life.

In some cases, congenital abnormalities may be detected through prenatal testing, such as ultrasound or amniocentesis. In other cases, they may not be diagnosed until after the baby is born. Treatment for congenital abnormalities varies depending on the type and severity of the defect, and may include surgery, therapy, medication, or a combination of these approaches.

Mannose is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) that is similar in structure to glucose. It is a hexose, meaning it contains six carbon atoms. Mannose is a stereoisomer of glucose, meaning it has the same chemical formula but a different structural arrangement of its atoms.

Mannose is not as commonly found in foods as other simple sugars, but it can be found in some fruits, such as cranberries, blueberries, and peaches, as well as in certain vegetables, like sweet potatoes and turnips. It is also found in some dietary fibers, such as those found in beans and whole grains.

In the body, mannose can be metabolized and used for energy, but it is also an important component of various glycoproteins and glycolipids, which are molecules that play critical roles in many biological processes, including cell recognition, signaling, and adhesion.

Mannose has been studied as a potential therapeutic agent for various medical conditions, including urinary tract infections (UTIs), because it can inhibit the attachment of certain bacteria to the cells lining the urinary tract. Additionally, mannose-binding lectins have been investigated for their potential role in the immune response to viral and bacterial infections.

Bacterial adhesins are proteins or structures on the surface of bacterial cells that allow them to attach to other cells or surfaces. This ability to adhere to host tissues is an important first step in the process of bacterial infection and colonization. Adhesins can recognize and bind to specific receptors on host cells, such as proteins or sugars, enabling the bacteria to establish a close relationship with the host and evade immune responses.

There are several types of bacterial adhesins, including fimbriae, pili, and non-fimbrial adhesins. Fimbriae and pili are thin, hair-like structures that extend from the bacterial surface and can bind to a variety of host cell receptors. Non-fimbrial adhesins are proteins that are directly embedded in the bacterial cell wall and can also mediate attachment to host cells.

Bacterial adhesins play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of many bacterial infections, including urinary tract infections, respiratory tract infections, and gastrointestinal infections. Understanding the mechanisms of bacterial adhesion is important for developing new strategies to prevent and treat bacterial infections.

A Radioimmunosorbent Test (RIST) is a type of radioimmunoassay (RIA) that uses a radioactively labeled antigen and an immunosorbent to measure the amount of antibodies in a sample. In this test, the patient's serum or plasma is incubated with a solid-phase immunosorbent, such as beads coated with a specific antigen. After washing to remove unbound proteins, a radioactively labeled antigen is added and allowed to bind to any available antibody binding sites on the immunosorbent. The amount of radioactivity that binds to the immunosorbent is then measured and is proportional to the amount of antibodies present in the sample.

RIST is a sensitive and specific method for measuring antibodies, and it has been widely used in clinical laboratories for the diagnosis of various autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and Sjogren's syndrome. However, due to concerns about radiation exposure and the availability of non-radioactive alternatives, RIST has largely been replaced by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) in many clinical settings.

Muscle contraction is the physiological process in which muscle fibers shorten and generate force, leading to movement or stability of a body part. This process involves the sliding filament theory where thick and thin filaments within the sarcomeres (the functional units of muscles) slide past each other, facilitated by the interaction between myosin heads and actin filaments. The energy required for this action is provided by the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Muscle contractions can be voluntary or involuntary, and they play a crucial role in various bodily functions such as locomotion, circulation, respiration, and posture maintenance.

Adrenergic alpha-antagonists, also known as alpha-blockers, are a class of medications that block the effects of adrenaline and noradrenaline at alpha-adrenergic receptors. These receptors are found in various tissues throughout the body, including the smooth muscle of blood vessels, the heart, the genitourinary system, and the eyes.

When alpha-blockers bind to these receptors, they prevent the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which is responsible for the "fight or flight" response. This results in a relaxation of the smooth muscle, leading to vasodilation (widening of blood vessels), decreased blood pressure, and increased blood flow.

Alpha-blockers are used to treat various medical conditions, such as hypertension (high blood pressure), benign prostatic hyperplasia (enlarged prostate), pheochromocytoma (a rare tumor of the adrenal gland), and certain types of glaucoma.

Examples of alpha-blockers include doxazosin, prazosin, terazosin, and tamsulosin. Side effects of alpha-blockers may include dizziness, lightheadedness, headache, weakness, and orthostatic hypotension (a sudden drop in blood pressure upon standing).

'Adhesiveness' is a term used in medicine and biology to describe the ability of two surfaces to stick or adhere to each other. In medical terms, it often refers to the property of tissues or cells to adhere to one another, as in the case of scar tissue formation where healing tissue adheres to adjacent structures.

In the context of microbiology, adhesiveness can refer to the ability of bacteria or other microorganisms to attach themselves to surfaces, such as medical devices or human tissues, which can lead to infection and other health problems. Adhesives used in medical devices, such as bandages or wound dressings, also have adhesiveness properties that allow them to stick to the skin or other surfaces.

Overall, adhesiveness is an important property in many areas of medicine and biology, with implications for wound healing, infection control, and the design and function of medical devices.

The rectum is the lower end of the digestive tract, located between the sigmoid colon and the anus. It serves as a storage area for feces before they are eliminated from the body. The rectum is about 12 cm long in adults and is surrounded by layers of muscle that help control defecation. The mucous membrane lining the rectum allows for the detection of stool, which triggers the reflex to have a bowel movement.

Nephritis is a medical term that refers to inflammation of the kidneys, specifically affecting the glomeruli - the tiny filtering units inside the kidneys. The condition can cause damage to the glomeruli, leading to impaired kidney function and the leakage of protein and blood into the urine.

Nephritis can result from a variety of causes, including infections, autoimmune disorders, and exposure to certain medications or toxins. Depending on the severity and underlying cause, nephritis may be treated with medications, dietary modifications, or other therapies aimed at reducing inflammation and preserving kidney function. In severe cases, hospitalization and more intensive treatments may be necessary.

Pelvic neoplasms refer to abnormal growths or tumors located in the pelvic region. These growths can be benign (non-cancerous) or malignant (cancerous). They can originate from various tissues within the pelvis, including the reproductive organs (such as ovaries, uterus, cervix, vagina, and vulva in women; and prostate, testicles, and penis in men), the urinary system (kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra), the gastrointestinal tract (colon, rectum, and anus), as well as the muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other connective tissues.

Malignant pelvic neoplasms can invade surrounding tissues and spread to distant parts of the body (metastasize). The symptoms of pelvic neoplasms may vary depending on their location, size, and type but often include abdominal or pelvic pain, bloating, changes in bowel or bladder habits, unusual vaginal bleeding or discharge, and unintentional weight loss. Early detection and prompt treatment are crucial for improving the prognosis of malignant pelvic neoplasms.

Drug utilization refers to the use of medications by patients or healthcare professionals in a real-world setting. It involves analyzing and evaluating patterns of medication use, including prescribing practices, adherence to treatment guidelines, potential duplications or interactions, and outcomes associated with drug therapy. The goal of drug utilization is to optimize medication use, improve patient safety, and minimize costs while achieving the best possible health outcomes. It can be studied through various methods such as prescription claims data analysis, surveys, and clinical audits.

Prognosis is a medical term that refers to the prediction of the likely outcome or course of a disease, including the chances of recovery or recurrence, based on the patient's symptoms, medical history, physical examination, and diagnostic tests. It is an important aspect of clinical decision-making and patient communication, as it helps doctors and patients make informed decisions about treatment options, set realistic expectations, and plan for future care.

Prognosis can be expressed in various ways, such as percentages, categories (e.g., good, fair, poor), or survival rates, depending on the nature of the disease and the available evidence. However, it is important to note that prognosis is not an exact science and may vary depending on individual factors, such as age, overall health status, and response to treatment. Therefore, it should be used as a guide rather than a definitive forecast.

The intestines, also known as the bowel, are a part of the digestive system that extends from the stomach to the anus. They are responsible for the further breakdown and absorption of nutrients from food, as well as the elimination of waste products. The intestines can be divided into two main sections: the small intestine and the large intestine.

The small intestine is a long, coiled tube that measures about 20 feet in length and is lined with tiny finger-like projections called villi, which increase its surface area and enhance nutrient absorption. The small intestine is where most of the digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place.

The large intestine, also known as the colon, is a wider tube that measures about 5 feet in length and is responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes from digested food, forming stool, and eliminating waste products from the body. The large intestine includes several regions, including the cecum, colon, rectum, and anus.

Together, the intestines play a critical role in maintaining overall health and well-being by ensuring that the body receives the nutrients it needs to function properly.

Enterobacter is a genus of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that are commonly found in the environment, including in soil, water, and the gastrointestinal tracts of humans and animals. These bacteria are members of the family Enterobacteriaceae and are known to cause a variety of infections in humans, particularly in healthcare settings.

Enterobacter species are capable of causing a range of infections, including urinary tract infections, pneumonia, bacteremia, and wound infections. They are often resistant to multiple antibiotics, which can make treatment challenging. Infections with Enterobacter are typically treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics that are effective against gram-negative bacteria.

It's worth noting that while Enterobacter species can cause infections, they are also a normal part of the microbiota found in the human gut and usually do not cause harm in healthy individuals. However, if the bacterium enters the bloodstream or other sterile sites in the body, it can cause infection and illness.

Logistic models, specifically logistic regression models, are a type of statistical analysis used in medical and epidemiological research to identify the relationship between the risk of a certain health outcome or disease (dependent variable) and one or more independent variables, such as demographic factors, exposure variables, or other clinical measurements.

In contrast to linear regression models, logistic regression models are used when the dependent variable is binary or dichotomous in nature, meaning it can only take on two values, such as "disease present" or "disease absent." The model uses a logistic function to estimate the probability of the outcome based on the independent variables.

Logistic regression models are useful for identifying risk factors and estimating the strength of associations between exposures and health outcomes, adjusting for potential confounders, and predicting the probability of an outcome given certain values of the independent variables. They can also be used to develop clinical prediction rules or scores that can aid in decision-making and patient care.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a test used to check how well the kidneys are working. Specifically, it estimates how much blood passes through the glomeruli each minute. The glomeruli are the tiny fibers in the kidneys that filter waste from the blood. A lower GFR number means that the kidneys aren't working properly and may indicate kidney disease.

The GFR is typically calculated using a formula that takes into account the patient's serum creatinine level, age, sex, and race. The most commonly used formula is the CKD-EPI (Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration) equation. A normal GFR is usually above 90 mL/min/1.73m2, but this can vary depending on the individual's age and other factors.

A surgical wound infection, also known as a surgical site infection (SSI), is defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as an infection that occurs within 30 days after surgery (or within one year if an implant is left in place) and involves either:

1. Purulent drainage from the incision;
2. Organisms isolated from an aseptically obtained culture of fluid or tissue from the incision;
3. At least one of the following signs or symptoms of infection: pain or tenderness, localized swelling, redness, or heat; and
4. Diagnosis of surgical site infection by the surgeon or attending physician.

SSIs can be classified as superficial incisional, deep incisional, or organ/space infections, depending on the depth and extent of tissue involvement. They are a common healthcare-associated infection and can lead to increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs.

There are many diseases that can affect cats, and the specific medical definitions for these conditions can be quite detailed and complex. However, here are some common categories of feline diseases and examples of each:

1. Infectious diseases: These are caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites. Examples include:
* Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), also known as feline parvovirus, which can cause severe gastrointestinal symptoms and death in kittens.
* Feline calicivirus (FCV), which can cause upper respiratory symptoms such as sneezing and nasal discharge.
* Feline leukemia virus (FeLV), which can suppress the immune system and lead to a variety of secondary infections and diseases.
* Bacterial infections, such as those caused by Pasteurella multocida or Bartonella henselae, which can cause abscesses or other symptoms.
2. Neoplastic diseases: These are cancerous conditions that can affect various organs and tissues in cats. Examples include:
* Lymphoma, which is a common type of cancer in cats that can affect the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, and other organs.
* Fibrosarcoma, which is a type of soft tissue cancer that can arise from fibrous connective tissue.
* Squamous cell carcinoma, which is a type of skin cancer that can be caused by exposure to sunlight or tobacco smoke.
3. Degenerative diseases: These are conditions that result from the normal wear and tear of aging or other factors. Examples include:
* Osteoarthritis, which is a degenerative joint disease that can cause pain and stiffness in older cats.
* Dental disease, which is a common condition in cats that can lead to tooth loss, gum inflammation, and other problems.
* Heart disease, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), which is a thickening of the heart muscle that can lead to congestive heart failure.
4. Hereditary diseases: These are conditions that are inherited from a cat's parents and are present at birth or develop early in life. Examples include:
* Polycystic kidney disease (PKD), which is a genetic disorder that causes cysts to form in the kidneys and can lead to kidney failure.
* Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), which can be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait in some cats.
* Progressive retinal atrophy (PRA), which is a group of genetic disorders that cause degeneration of the retina and can lead to blindness.

Nephrolithiasis is a medical term that refers to the presence of stones or calculi in the kidney. These stones can form anywhere in the urinary tract, including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Nephrolithiasis is also commonly known as kidney stones.

Kidney stones are hard deposits made up of minerals and salts that crystallize in the urine. They can vary in size from tiny sand-like particles to larger pebble or even golf ball-sized masses. Kidney stones can cause pain, bleeding, and infection if they block the flow of urine through the urinary tract.

The formation of kidney stones is often associated with a variety of factors such as dehydration, high levels of calcium, oxalate, or uric acid in the urine, family history, obesity, and certain medical conditions like gout or inflammatory bowel disease. Treatment for nephrolithiasis depends on the size and location of the stone, as well as the severity of symptoms. Small stones may pass spontaneously with increased fluid intake, while larger stones may require medication, shock wave lithotripsy, or surgical removal.

Lactobacillus is a genus of gram-positive, rod-shaped, facultatively anaerobic or microaerophilic, non-spore-forming bacteria. They are part of the normal flora found in the intestinal, urinary, and genital tracts of humans and other animals. Lactobacilli are also commonly found in some fermented foods, such as yogurt, sauerkraut, and sourdough bread.

Lactobacilli are known for their ability to produce lactic acid through the fermentation of sugars, which contributes to their role in maintaining a healthy microbiota and lowering the pH in various environments. Some species of Lactobacillus have been shown to provide health benefits, such as improving digestion, enhancing immune function, and preventing infections, particularly in the urogenital and intestinal tracts. They are often used as probiotics, either in food or supplement form, to promote a balanced microbiome and support overall health.

Mucoproteins are a type of complex protein that contain covalently bound carbohydrate chains, also known as glycoproteins. They are found in various biological tissues and fluids, including mucous secretions, blood, and connective tissue. In mucous secretions, mucoproteins help to form a protective layer over epithelial surfaces, such as the lining of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, by providing lubrication, hydration, and protection against pathogens and environmental insults.

The carbohydrate chains in mucoproteins are composed of various sugars, including hexoses, hexosamines, and sialic acids, which can vary in length and composition depending on the specific protein. These carbohydrate chains play important roles in the structure and function of mucoproteins, such as modulating their solubility, stability, and interactions with other molecules.

Mucoproteins have been implicated in various physiological and pathological processes, including inflammation, immune response, and tissue repair. Abnormalities in the structure or function of mucoproteins have been associated with several diseases, such as mucopolysaccharidoses, a group of inherited metabolic disorders caused by deficiencies in enzymes that break down glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which are long, unbranched carbohydrate chains found in mucoproteins.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

Multivariate analysis is a statistical method used to examine the relationship between multiple independent variables and a dependent variable. It allows for the simultaneous examination of the effects of two or more independent variables on an outcome, while controlling for the effects of other variables in the model. This technique can be used to identify patterns, associations, and interactions among multiple variables, and is commonly used in medical research to understand complex health outcomes and disease processes. Examples of multivariate analysis methods include multiple regression, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and discriminant analysis.

Pregnanediol is a steroid hormone that is produced as a metabolite of progesterone. It is primarily used as a biomarker to measure the exposure to progesterone, particularly in cases where progesterone levels need to be monitored, such as during pregnancy or in certain medical conditions. Pregnanediol can be measured in urine, blood, or other bodily fluids and is often used in clinical and research settings to assess hormonal status. It is important to note that pregnanediol itself does not have any known physiological effects on the body, but rather serves as an indicator of progesterone levels.

Infectious pregnancy complications refer to infections that occur during pregnancy and can affect the mother, fetus, or both. These infections can lead to serious consequences such as preterm labor, low birth weight, birth defects, stillbirth, or even death. Some common infectious agents that can cause pregnancy complications include:

1. Bacteria: Examples include group B streptococcus, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes, which can cause sepsis, meningitis, or pneumonia in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.
2. Viruses: Examples include cytomegalovirus, rubella, varicella-zoster, and HIV, which can cause congenital anomalies, developmental delays, or transmission of the virus to the fetus.
3. Parasites: Examples include Toxoplasma gondii, which can cause severe neurological damage in the fetus if transmitted during pregnancy.
4. Fungi: Examples include Candida albicans, which can cause fungal infections in the mother and lead to preterm labor or stillbirth.

Preventive measures such as vaccination, good hygiene practices, and avoiding high-risk behaviors can help reduce the risk of infectious pregnancy complications. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of infections during pregnancy are also crucial to prevent adverse outcomes.

Epithelial cells are types of cells that cover the outer surfaces of the body, line the inner surfaces of organs and glands, and form the lining of blood vessels and body cavities. They provide a protective barrier against the external environment, regulate the movement of materials between the internal and external environments, and are involved in the sense of touch, temperature, and pain. Epithelial cells can be squamous (flat and thin), cuboidal (square-shaped and of equal height), or columnar (tall and narrow) in shape and are classified based on their location and function.

It is a cause of urinary retention. Complete obstruction of the urinary tract requires prompt treatment for renal preservation ... Urinary tract obstruction is a urologic disease consisting of a decrease in the free passage of urine through one or both ... Urinary tract obstruction as a congenital disorder results in oligohydramnios which in turn can lead to the Potter sequence of ... Urinary Tract Obstruction. Essentials for the Canadian Medical Licensing Exam: Review and Prep for MCCQE Part I. 2nd edition. ...
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection that affects part of the urinary tract. When it affects the lower urinary tract ... Cystitis refers to a urinary tract infection that involves the lower urinary tract (bladder). An upper urinary tract infection ... In children when a urinary tract infection is associated with a fever, it is deemed to be an upper urinary tract infection. To ... Urinary tract infections may affect 10% of people during childhood. Among children, urinary tract infections are most common in ...
Ultrasound of the urinary tract involves the use of an ultrasound probe to image parts of the urinary tract. The urinary tract ... For imaging of the urinary tract it may involve: Assessment of the urinary tract for abnormalities such as blockage or ... Ultrasound of the urinary tract is performed by a probe placed on the abdominal wall, called a transducer. This occurs while a ... It is then moved around to better visualise different parts of the urinary tract. Gel is used on the abdominal wall, allowing ...
January 2016). "Clinical Guideline for Female Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms". Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms. 8 (1): 5-29. doi: ... Lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) refer to a group of clinical symptoms involving the bladder, urinary sphincter, urethra and ... "Worldwide prevalence estimates of lower urinary tract symptoms, overactive bladder, urinary incontinence and bladder outlet ... Khasriya R, Barcella W, De Iorio M, Swamy S, Gill K, Kupelian A, Malone-Lee J (July 2018). "Lower urinary tract symptoms that ...
Urinary tract disorders have a high rate of recurrence, and some cats seem to be more susceptible to urinary problems than ... Other FLUTD conditions include physical trauma, tumors of the urinary tract, voluntary urinary retention (a common behaviour ... Feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD) is a generic category term to describe any disorder affecting the bladder or urethra ... However uroliths that have already formed and are not small enough to pass through the urinary tract may have to be removed ...
... , or CAUTI, is a urinary tract infection associated with urinary catheter use. A ... "Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections (CAUTI)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health & ... This leads to infection in the bladder, kidneys, and other organs connected to the urinary tract. CAUTI can lead to ... Nicolle LE (2014). "Catheter associated urinary tract infections". Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control. 3: 23. doi: ...
The urinary system, also known as the urinary tract or renal system, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra ... As an example, urinary tract obstruction is a urologic disease that can cause urinary retention. Diseases of the kidney tissue ... while diseases of the urinary tract are treated by urologists. Gynecologists may also treat female urinary incontinence. ... The urinary tract including the ureters, as well as their function to drain urine from the kidneys, has been described by Galen ...
Selvaraj V, Govindarajan P, Deepak M, Sivaraj M. "The creeping tumor:" An unusual presentation of upper urinary tract ... Andersson, Karl-Erik (2011). Urinary Tract. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-16498-9. Urothelium at the U.S. National Library of ... It is a type of cancer that develops in the urinary system: the kidney, urinary bladder, and accessory organs. Transitional ... March 2009). "Prognostic Accuracy of Individual Uropathologists in Noninvasive Urinary Bladder Carcinoma: A Multicentre Study ...
Because of its importance in acting as an osmotic barrier between the contents of the urinary tract and the surrounding organs ... Andersson, Karl-Erik (2011). Urinary Tract. Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-16498-9. Histology at utmb.edu Histology image: 36_02 at ... Urinary frequency and urgency are the most common symptoms associated with the disease. The exact causes of IC/BPS are unknown ... Transitional epithelium lines the organs of the urinary system and is known here as urothelium (PL: urothelia). The bladder, ...
Uncomplicated urinary tract infections (including cystitis) Complicated urinary tract infections (restricted use) Uncomplicated ... Mayrer AR, Andriole VT (January 1982). "Urinary tract antiseptics". The Medical Clinics of North America. 66 (1): 199-208. doi: ... It is used to treat urinary tract infections, gynecological infections, inflammation of the prostate gland, gonorrhea and ... The urinary pH may affect the solubility of norfloxacin. Norfloxacin is least soluble at urinary pH of 7.5 with greater ...
"Urinary Tract Infection". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 17 April 2015. Archived from the original on 22 ... PPD 1-2: urinary tract infections risk factors include multiple catheterization during labor, multiple vaginal examinations ... Other causes of fever following delivery include breast engorgement, urinary tract infections, infections of an abdominal ... A number of other conditions can cause fevers following delivery including: urinary tract infections, breast engorgement, ...
Meyrier A (1999). "Urinary Tract Infection". In Schrier RW, Cohen AH, Glassock RJ, Grünfeld JP (eds.). Atlas of diseases of the ... It is a virulence factor enabling E. coli to sequester iron in iron-poor environments such as the urinary tract. Aerobactin is ...
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are infections that affect part of the urinary tract. When it affects the lower urinary tract ... It is a cause of urinary retention. Complete obstruction of the urinary tract requires prompt treatment for renal preservation ... and when it affects the upper urinary tract it is known as a kidney infection (pyelonephritis). Symptoms from a lower urinary ... Urinary tract obstruction is a urologic disease consisting of a decrease in the free passage of urine through one or both ...
The bacteria can also cause pneumonia, other respiratory illnesses and urinary tract infections. An easy way to differentiate ... Citrobacter species inhabit intestinal flora without causing harm, but can lead to urinary tract infections, bacteremia, brain ... Chart H (2012-01-01). "27 - Klebsiella, enterobacter, proteus and other enterobacteria: Pneumonia; urinary tract infection; ... urinary tract infections, infections of areas where surgery occurred, and in extreme cases meningitis, sinusitis and ...
"Urinary Tract Infections". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires ,journal= (help) Medscape.org. "Urinary Tract Infections ...
... or urgency caused by urinary tract infections, surgery, or injury to the urinary tract. Phenazopyridine was discovered by ... or urinary bladder surgery which may result in irritation of the epithelial lining of the urinary tract. This medication is not ... It is known that the chemical has a direct topical analgesic effect on the mucosa lining of the urinary tract. It is rapidly ... It provides symptom relief during a UTI, following surgery, or injury to the urinary tract. UTI therapy should be limited to 1- ...
Urinary tract infection is predominantly caused by bacteria. Symptoms include the strong and frequent sensation or urge to ... "Urinary Tract Infections". Retrieved 2010-02-04. Roxe DM. Urinalysis. In: Walker HK, Hall WD, Hurst JW, editors. Clinical ... These pathogens can cause pneumonia or urinary tract infection and may be involved in coronary heart disease. Other groups of ... "The challenge of urinary tract infections in renal transplant recipients". Transplant Infectious Disease. 20 (2): e12828. doi: ...
Furthermore, infections can cause further inflammation of the lining of the urinary tract; enough to cause blood to appear in ... "Urinary tract obstruction , pathology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-12-13. "Hydronephrosis - Overview - Mayo Clinic ...
Transitional cell carcinoma is "a common cause of ureter cancer and other urinary (renal pelvic) tract cancers." Because the ... the tissue layer that lines much of the urinary tract, including the renal pelvis, the ureters, the bladder, and parts of the ... recurrent urinary tract infection; urethral discharge and swelling". Other common symptoms associated with ureteral cancer may ... Ureteral cancer is cancer of the ureters, muscular tubes that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. It is also ...
Foulds, Leslie (December 1937). "The Genito-Urinary Tract". Abstracts. The American Journal of Cancer. Philadelphia: American ...
This can be avoided with use of ultrasound.[citation needed] Clinical Urine Tests Urinary catheterization Urinary tract ... In infants or young children with fever, laboratory analysis of the child's urine is needed to diagnose urinary tract infection ... "Pediatric urinary tract infections". Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. 29 (3): 637-53. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2011.04.004 ... to collect urine in child less than 2 years of age who is not yet toilet trained in an effort to diagnose a urinary tract ...
The cat's lower urinary tract is inflamed and the urethral passage may have narrowed due to swelling but it remains open and he ... Whereas primary feline urinary tract infections are rare in younger male cats, when a cat suffers an obstructive episode of FIC ... "Cat Urinary Tract Problems". Purina. Longstaff L, Gruffydd-Jones TJ, Buffington CT, Casey RA, Murray JK (June 2017). "Owner- ... "Feline Lower Urinary Tract Disease (FLUTD) , International Cat Care". icatcare.org. Retrieved 2020-10-11. Buffington, C. A.; ...
Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms. 11 (4): 182-188. doi:10.1111/luts.12264. ISSN 1757-5672. PMID 30989795. S2CID 116863494. ... Urinary bladder disorders, Inflammations, All stub articles, Disease stubs, Genitourinary system stubs). ...
Wang Y, Bao Y, Liu J, Duan L, Cui Y (January 2018). "Tadalafil 5 mg Once Daily Improves Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms and ... A meta‐analysis found that tadalafil is an effective treatment for lower urinary tract symptoms due to prostatic hyperplasia ... Tadalafil was found to have similar benefits for lower urinary tract symptoms as the usually prescribed tamsulosin. Tadalafil ... Also common are dizziness, peripheral edema, fatigue, and urinary or respiratory tract infection; both diarrhea and ...
Rao, Nagarja (2011). Urinary Tract Stone Disease. Springer London. p. 183. ISBN 9781848003620. PubChem. "Sodium citrate". ... Goodman, Jeffrey W.; Asplin, John R.; Goldfarb, David S. (2009). "Effect of two sports drinks on urinary lithogenicity". ...
In those with a long term indwelling urinary catheter rates are 100%. Up to 10% of women have a urinary tract infection in a ... Urinary Catheters and Symptomatic Urinary Tract Infections in Patients Undergoing Surgery for Joint Replacement: A Position ... "Bacterial Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs)". Merck Manuals Professional Edition. May 2016. Archived from the original on 7 ... Salvatore S, Salvatore S, Cattoni E, Siesto G, Serati M, Sorice P, Torella M (June 2011). "Urinary tract infections in women". ...
Surgical repositioning of the distal urethra to prevent recurrent post-coital urinary tract infections has been employed with ... Clinical Management of Complicated Urinary Tract Infection. doi:10.5772/22301. ISBN 978-953-307-393-4. S2CID 44044908. Cunha, ... causing a partial or total urinary blockage or the bifurcation of the urinary stream. A urethral blockage can also be caused by ... A photo of male urinary meatus viewed externally The female urinary meatus viewed externally, with surrounding structures ...
Litster, A. L.; Moss, S. M.; Trott, D. J. (October 1, 2008). "Urinary Tract Infections in Cats". Journal of Small Animal ... "Prevalence of bacterial species in cats with clinical signs of lower urinary tract disease: Recognition of Staphylococcus felis ... as a possible feline urinary tract pathogen". Veterinary Microbiology. 121 (1-2): 182-188. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.11.025. ...
It may occur in the case of diseases of the urinary tract, reproductive system and diseases of the abdominal organs. ... Bagga (2009). Urinary Tract Infections And Anomalies. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 4. ISBN 9788131223710. Hofmann, Walter; ... Leukocyturia is mostly a sign of urinary tract infection, especially if significant bacteriuria is found (for most people, the ... it can be a sign of a bacterial urinary tract infection. Pyuria may be present in people with sepsis, or in older people with ...
It is defined as recurrent urinary tract infections in men originating from a chronic infection in the prostate. Symptoms may ... Chronic bacterial prostatitis occurs in less than 5% of patients with prostate-related non-BPH lower urinary tract symptoms ( ... Najar MS, Saldanha CL, Banday KA (October 2009). "Approach to urinary tract infections". Indian J Nephrol. 19 (4): 129-39. doi: ... Large prostatic stones was shown to be related with the presence of bacteria, a higher urinary symptoms and pain score, a ...
Risk factors include sexual intercourse, prior urinary tract infections, diabetes, structural problems of the urinary tract, ... close family members with frequent urinary tract infections) Analysis of the urine may show signs of urinary tract infection. ... "Urinary Tract Infection Common Clinical and Laboratory Features of Acute Pyelonephritis". netterimages.com. Retrieved 14 July ... Most cases of community-acquired pyelonephritis are due to bowel organisms that enter the urinary tract. Common organisms are E ...
Find out about urinary tract infections (UTIs), including what the symptoms are, when to get medical advice, how theyre ... Urinary tract infections (UTIs) affect your urinary tract, including your bladder (cystitis), urethra (urethritis) or kidneys ( ... How to prevent urinary tract infections (UTIs). There are some things you can try to help prevent a urinary tract infection ( ... Causes of urinary tract infections (UTIs). Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are usually caused by bacteria from poo entering the ...
Health Information on Urinary Tract Infections: MedlinePlus Multiple Languages Collection ... Urinary Tract Infections: MedlinePlus Health Topic - English Infecciones de las vías urinarias: Tema de salud de MedlinePlus - ... UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) - 简体中文 (Chinese, Simplified (Mandarin dialect)) Bilingual PDF ... UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) - 繁體中文 (Chinese, Traditional (Cantonese dialect)) Bilingual PDF ...
A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection involving any part of the urinary system, including urethra, bladder, ureters, ... Guideline for Prevention of Catheter-associated Urinary Tract Infections 2009. Prevention. Facilities can monitor the rates of ... Strategies to Prevent Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections in Acute Care Hospitals: 2014 Updateexternal icon ... Among UTIs acquired in the hospital, approximately 75% are associated with a urinary catheter, which is a tube inserted into ...
It is a cause of urinary retention. Complete obstruction of the urinary tract requires prompt treatment for renal preservation ... Urinary tract obstruction is a urologic disease consisting of a decrease in the free passage of urine through one or both ... Urinary tract obstruction as a congenital disorder results in oligohydramnios which in turn can lead to the Potter sequence of ... Urinary Tract Obstruction. Essentials for the Canadian Medical Licensing Exam: Review and Prep for MCCQE Part I. 2nd edition. ...
Urinary tract obstruction can occur at any point in the urinary tract, from the kidneys to the urethral meatus. ... Urinary tract obstruction is a common problem encountered by urologists, primary care physicians, and emergency medicine ... In addition, urinary stasis in an obstructed urinary tract may predispose to urinary tract infection. ... Dividing the urinary tract into the upper urinary tract, defined as the kidney and ureter to the hiatus with the bladder, and ...
In the general adult population, urinary tract infections (UTIs) are 30 times more common in women than in men. The female ... makes it easy for bacteria to travel from the outside of your body into your urinary tract (which includes your kidneys, ... The urethra is the tube connecting your urinary system to the outside of your body. Bacteria can easily travel from the vagina ... Some women with mobility impairments also have neurogenic bladder or have urinary incontinence. Both of these place a woman at ...
The cost of treating urinary tract infections in the United States alone is about 3.5 billion dollars a year.[2] ... Recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) are defined as two episodes of acute bacterial cystitis, along with associated ... Review Urinary tract infections in older women: a clinical review.[JAMA. 2014]. Review Urinary tract infections in older women ... Preventing Urinary Tract Infections: Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are extremely common, especially in women. About 50% of ...
... is an infection in any part of your urinary system: kidneys, bladder, ureters, and urethra. Learn about the symptoms, causes, ... What Is a Urinary Tract Infection?. A urinary tract infection, or UTI, is an infection in any part of your urinary system, ... American Urological Association: "Urinary Tract Infections in Adults." WebMD Medical Reference: "Home Test for Urinary Tract ... Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs). Medically Reviewed by Nazia Q Bandukwala, DO. on October 31, 2021 ...
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common in kids. Theyre easy to treat and usually clear up in a week or so. ... a problem in the urinary tract (for example, a malformed kidney or a blockage somewhere along the tract of normal urine flow) ... Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common in kids. They happen when bacteria (germs) get into the bladder or kidneys. ... Most UTIs happen in the lower part of the urinary tract - the urethra and bladder. This type of UTI is called cystitis. A child ...
Cranberry shows urinary tract benefits for children: Study 02-Feb-2012. By Stephen Daniells ... A glass of cranberry juice per day may reduce the recurrence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in children by 43%, suggests a ... Cranberry carbohydrates show urinary tract benefits: Study 28-Oct-2015. By Stephen DANIELLS ... Consuming cranberry products may reduce the risk of urinary tract infections (UTIs) by about 40%, says a new meta-analysis that ...
... urinary tract infections from complicated urinary tract infections (Table 65-1 and Table 65-2). ... and proteinuria suggest inflammatory urinary tract disease, but do not indicate its cause or location within the urinary tract ... Urinary tract infections may be classified on the basis of 1) anatomic location (i.e., kidney, ureter, bladder, and/or urethra ... Why is it Important to Recognize that Bacterial Urinary Tract Infection is not a Primary Diagnostic Entity?. Although the ...
What Are the Kidneys and Urinary Tract?. The urinary tract is one of the systems that our bodies use to get rid of waste ... What Can Help Keep the Kidneys and Urinary Tract Healthy?. To help keep your childs kidneys and urinary tract healthy:. * ... What Are the Parts of the Urinary Tract?. People usually have two kidneys, but can live a normal, healthy life with just one. ... How Do the Kidneys and Urinary Tract Work?. Blood travels to each kidney through the renal artery. The artery enters the kidney ...
Hormonal and mechanical changes increase the risk of urinary stasis and vesicoureteral reflux. ... encoded search term (Urinary Tract Infections in Pregnancy) and Urinary Tract Infections in Pregnancy What to Read Next on ... Urinary Tract Infections in Pregnancy Treatment & Management. Updated: Jul 13, 2023 * Author: Raisa O Platte, MD, PhD; Chief ... Urinary Tract Infection and Bacteriuria in Pregnancy. Urol Clin North Am. 2015 Nov. 42 (4):547-60. [QxMD MEDLINE Link]. ...
Urinary Tract & Pelvic Reconstruction Fellowship. MD Andersons Urology department offers a unique program for urologists ... Director, Urinary Tract and Pelvic Reconstruction Fellowship. Associate Professor. Department of Urology. The University of ... Additionally, the complexities of managing structural and functional urinary tract disorders after surgery and/or radiation are ... Research is a critical component of the fellowship program with a focus on characterization of urinary sequelae resulting from ...
... especially if you begin them at the first hint of a urinary infection. May your relief be rapid! Disclaimer: Information ...
Urinary tract infections are more common in women than in men. It mainly affects the urinary tract, but may also affect the ... Bladder infection, also called acute cystitis or urinary tract infection affects the lower urinary tract or the bladder. The ... Urinary Tract Infection also known as UTI or Bladder Infections affects not only the bladder, but the urethra and kidneys as ... Urinary tract infection, colloquially termed as UTI, is one of the most persistent and crippling diseases afflicting our daily ...
Another PVA member David stated that he is a D-mannose fan. He notes I ve had numerous urinary tract infections for 25 years ... Essentially, D-mannose represents the molecular lint that makes the bacterial burrs fall away from your urinary-tract lining. ... that fight urinary tract infections (UTI) and, by so doing, help preserve the future effectiveness of life-saving antibiotics. ... enhance urinary tract health, such as cranberries, blueberries, or D-mannose. Who knows? You may lose your UTI chill on ...
What is the urinary tract? The urinary system (also called the ... Urinary tract infections are responsible for nearly 10 million ... What is the urinary tract?. The urinary system (also called the "urinary tract") is the part of your body that makes urine. It ... What is a urinary tract infection?. A urinary tract infection (also called a "UTI") is what happens when bacteria (germs) get ... Urinary tract infections are responsible for nearly 10 million healthcare visits each year. Heres what you need to know. ...
Stock Photo of Bacteria In Urinary Tract Infections (Image ID 100475104). Royalty free stock photo for instant download. ... HomePeopleHealthcareBacteria In Urinary Tract Infections. Bacteria In Urinary Tract Infections Stock Photo. Photo by Toeytoey. ... This royalty free photo, "Bacteria In Urinary Tract Infections", can be used in business, personal, charitable and educational ... tract, urethra, urethritis, urinalysis, urinary, urine, uti, vagina, vaginal, yeast, cells, people ...
Urinary Tract Infections (UTIs). Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common in kids. They happen when bacteria (germs) get into ... a problem in the urinary tract (for example, a malformed kidney or a blockage somewhere along the tract of normal urine flow) ... Most UTIs happen in the lower part of the urinary tract - the urethra and bladder. This type of UTI is called cystitis. A child ... If a child has severe pain when peeing, the doctor may also prescribe medicine that numbs the lining of the urinary tract. ( ...
Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection Surveillance *National Healthcare Safety Network Data Reporting Web site. The ... Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection-Related Data Collection Tool (Excel, 74.1 KB; Text Version). A spreadsheet that ... Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection Case Review Form (Word, 299.4 KB; Text Version). A performance improvement look- ... Quantitative Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection-Related Data Definitions Tool (PDF, 373 KB; Text Version). A visual ...
... was first used to treat neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD) 30 years ago. Recently, application of BoNT-A in LUTD ... urinary incontinence, in the absence of urinary tract infection (UTI), or other obvious pathology [18]. According to a recent ... Lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD) is a condition presented by patients suffering from LUTD linked to one or more ... Wang, Y.; Hu, H.; Xu, K.; Wang, X.; Na, Y.; Kang, X. Prevalence, risk factors and the bother of lower urinary tract symptoms in ...
... guidelines to provide urologists with evidence-based information and recommendations for the management of upper urinary tract ... Upper Urinary Tract Urothelial Cell Carcinoma Want to read the guideline in your own time? Download the PDF ... The main prognostic factors are tumour stage and grade [24,104,114,143]. Upper urinary tract UCs that invade the muscle wall ... CT = computed tomography; URS = ureteroscopy; UTUC = upper urinary tract urothelial carcinoma.. * All these factors need to be ...
Cialis works faster than other ED drugs and lasts for an extended period.S does augmentin work for urinary tract infections. ... Shop with us today to enjoy our . nuestro does augmentin work for urinary tract infections. Cialis works faster than other ED ... 4 Mar 2015 does augmentin work for urinary tract infections. We also supply weight loss pills and several other medications ... Does augmentin work for urinary tract infections. APSIA:Phenazopyridine without a prescription�Spotting during depo provera� ...
... - ABC Homeopathy Forum. Bioplasma is discussed. 2 replies to 2006-06-13. ... How do I treat my diagnosed urinary tract infection?. Hi I am 51 Caucasian woman who has diabetes 2 for two months. I have ... My Doctor has tested my urine and has diagnosed urinary tract infection and offered Trisul. I cant take medicines because of a ... I dont have signs of symptoms apart from a very slight uncomfortableness intermittantly inside presumably my tract, but have ...
5 Trevino et al. Perceptions and behaviours of infectious diseases physicians when managing urinary tract infections due to MDR ... Sequoias vaccine is designed to create an immune response preventing bacteria from colonizing the urinary tract, and it ... Our pipeline includes a vaccine for the treatment and prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections and compounds targeting ... Sequoia Sciences Receives FDA Fast Track Designation for Vaccine for Urinary Tract Infections Caused by Multidrug-Resistant ...
Feline lower urinary tract disorders are one of the more common areas of cat health concern including bladder infections, ... 9 Lives urinary tract is what they eat. Hope you caught this in time. Sounds like she has an urinary tract infection. ... Bladder Control Problems, Kidney Failure, and Urinary Cat Health. Feline lower urinary tract disorders (FLUTD) are among the ... Holistic Health for Urinary Tract Disorders in Cats. Reduced magnesium intake and lowering your cats pH levels (more acidic ...
... and causes of urinary tract infection in adults? Test your knowledge of UTIs and learn how to prevent them. ... What is the most common cause of a urinary tract infection (UTI)?. The most common cause of a urinary tract infection (UTI) is ... How can women prevent urinary tract infections?. Women can take steps to prevent urinary tract infections. *Urinate when you ... Urinary stone. Enlarged prostate. Which of the following may provide some relief from UTI pain?. Urinary tract infections can ...
  • Urinary tract infections (UTIs) affect your urinary tract, including your bladder (cystitis), urethra (urethritis) or kidneys (kidney infection). (www.nhs.uk)
  • In the general adult population, urinary tract infections (UTIs) are 30 times more common in women than in men. (bcm.edu)
  • Recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a common cause of morbidity, especially in young women. (nih.gov)
  • Describe the etiology of recurrent urinary tract infections. (nih.gov)
  • Review the presentation of a patient with recurrent urinary tract infections. (nih.gov)
  • Summarize the management considerations for patients with recurrent urinary tract infections. (nih.gov)
  • Explain the importance of improving care coordination among the interprofessional team to enhance the delivery of care for patients affected by recurrent urinary tract infections. (nih.gov)
  • Recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs) are defined as two episodes of acute bacterial cystitis, along with associated symptoms within the last six months or three episodes within the last year. (nih.gov)
  • The cost of treating urinary tract infections in the United States alone is about 3.5 billion dollars a year. (nih.gov)
  • Anatomical defects that lead to stasis, obstruction, urinary reflux all result in an increased predisposition to recurrent urinary tract infections. (nih.gov)
  • Functional defects, like overactive bladder and urinary incontinence, tend to lead to recurrent infections. (nih.gov)
  • Recurrent urinary tract infections may be commonly seen in sexually active women without any identifiable structural abnormality or another predisposing condition. (nih.gov)
  • Older men can often develop urinary tract infections due to outflow obstruction or neurogenic bladder resulting in urinary stasis and an increased risk of recurrent infection. (nih.gov)
  • Recurrent urinary tract infections are usually new infections with different bacterial organisms. (nih.gov)
  • If your physician thinks you need them, antibiotics are the most common treatment for urinary tract infections. (webmd.com)
  • The red berry contains a tannin that might prevent E. coli bacteria -- the most common cause of urinary tract infections -- from sticking to the walls of your bladder, where they can cause an infection. (webmd.com)
  • Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are common in kids. (kidshealth.org)
  • The potential health benefits of North American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) and its unique nutrition profile extend beyond reducing the risk of urinary tract infections to include multiples heart health activities and temper inflammation, says a. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • Consuming cranberry products may reduce the risk of urinary tract infections (UTIs) by about 40%, says a new meta-analysis that also indicates that certain groups may benefit more than others. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • A glass of cranberry juice per day may reduce the recurrence of urinary tract infections (UTIs) in children by 43%, suggests a new study funded by Ocean Spray. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • Adequate vitamin D levels may boost the body's immune response and protect against urinary tract infections, says a new study from Sweden. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • Decas Botanical Synergies has introduced a cranberry proanthocyanidin-standardized powder it claims is particularly high in the compound used for urinary tract infections - allowing formulators to target uses of the product more effectively. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • In context of surgery, conceptual understanding of alterations in interactions between host defenses and pathogenic microbes that result in bacterial urinary tract infections (UTI) are important for at least two reasons. (ivis.org)
  • Bladder Infections as the name suggests is the infection of the urinary bladder. (ayurvediccure.com)
  • Urinary tract infections are more common in women than in men. (ayurvediccure.com)
  • Urinary Tract Infection also known as UTI or Bladder Infections affects not only the bladder, but the urethra and kidneys as well causi. (ayurvediccure.com)
  • This article discusses various natural alternatives, such as cranberries, blueberries, and the sugar D-mannose , that fight urinary tract infections (UTI) and, by so doing, help preserve the future effectiveness of life-saving antibiotics. (healingtherapies.info)
  • Urinary tract infections are responsible for nearly 10 million healthcare visits each year. (kidney.org)
  • People with diabetes may have changes in their body's defense system, making it easier to get urinary infections. (kidney.org)
  • This royalty free photo, "Bacteria In Urinary Tract Infections", can be used in business, personal, charitable and educational design projects: it may be used in web design, printed media, advertising, book covers and pages, music artwork, software applications and much more. (freedigitalphotos.net)
  • Bacteria in Urinary Tract Infections find with microscope. (freedigitalphotos.net)
  • Pharmacie online france does augmentin work for urinary tract infections . (apsia.org)
  • 18 Jun 2013 does augmentin work for urinary tract infections . (apsia.org)
  • Viagra is indicated for the treatment of erectile dysfunction in men does augmentin work for urinary tract infections . (apsia.org)
  • ST. LOUIS , July 26, 2017 /PRNewswire/ -- Sequoia Sciences announced it has received Fast Track Designation from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for its novel, investigational vaccine designed to treat recurrent urinary tract infections (UTI) caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria. (prnewswire.com)
  • Many of my patients with multidrug-resistant recurrent urinary tract infections have tried multiple antibiotics for years without success," said Liz D'Antonio, CRNP, director of clinical research Anne Arundel Urology. (prnewswire.com)
  • Our pipeline includes a vaccine for the treatment and prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections and compounds targeting infection and cancer. (prnewswire.com)
  • Infections and dietary issues can result in blockages of the urinary tract or poor kidney function that can affect your pet's overall health and comfort. (earthclinic.com)
  • Urinary tract infections are infections that involve the bladder (most common) or the kidneys. (emedicinehealth.com)
  • To prevent urinary tract infections, some doctors recommend that people drink which liquid? (emedicinehealth.com)
  • Cranberry juice has long been touted as a home remedy of choice to prevent urinary tract infections. (emedicinehealth.com)
  • The treatment of choice for urinary tract infections is antibiotics. (emedicinehealth.com)
  • How can women prevent urinary tract infections? (emedicinehealth.com)
  • Women can take steps to prevent urinary tract infections. (emedicinehealth.com)
  • This can lead to recurrent urinary tract infections and subsequent renal function decline if not properly managed. (lww.com)
  • Urinary tract infections as well as including bladder and kidney stones are pretty common in cats and, while most are not serious and easy to treat, your pet's diet can influence their recovery and overall long-term urinary health. (petside.com)
  • Objectives: Aerococcus urinae and Aerococcus sanguinicola cause urinary tract infections (UTIs) and antibiotic treatment recommendations are solely based on in vitro findings and limited clinical experience. (lu.se)
  • Urinary infections in children usually go away quickly if you treat them right away. (stlukesonline.org)
  • If your cat frequently gets infections you might want to consider a natural remedy that contributes to urinary system balance. (cat-health-guide.org)
  • One product that is made specifically for this purpose is PetAlive UTI-Free Formula for Pet Urinary Tract Infections . (cat-health-guide.org)
  • Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are infections of the kidney, bladder, and urethra. (peacehealth.org)
  • Work with a knowledgeable health practitioner to find out if you have allergies to foods that increase your susceptibility to urinary tract infections. (peacehealth.org)
  • Objective To test and compare the efficacy of methenamine hippurate for prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections with the current standard prophylaxis of daily low dose antibiotics. (bmj.com)
  • Participants Women aged ≥18 years with recurrent urinary tract infections, requiring prophylactic treatment. (bmj.com)
  • Main outcome measure Absolute difference in incidence of symptomatic, antibiotic treated, urinary tract infections during treatment. (bmj.com)
  • Incidence of antibiotic treated urinary tract infections during the 12 month treatment period was 0.89 episodes per person year (95% confidence interval 0.65 to 1.12) in the antibiotics group and 1.38 (1.05 to 1.72) in the methenamine hippurate group, with an absolute difference of 0.49 (90% confidence interval 0.15 to 0.84) confirming non-inferiority. (bmj.com)
  • Conclusion Non-antibiotic prophylactic treatment with methenamine hippurate might be appropriate for women with a history of recurrent episodes of urinary tract infections, informed by patient preferences and antibiotic stewardship initiatives, given the demonstration of non-inferiority to daily antibiotic prophylaxis seen in this trial. (bmj.com)
  • To compare the clinical impact of a prophylactic treatment with sublingual immunostimulation in the prevention of recurrent urinary tract infections (rUTIs) with the use of antibiotics. (frontiersin.org)
  • Twenty two percent will have recurrent urinary tract infections (rUTIs). (frontiersin.org)
  • Three groups were compared in terms of colonization of stent and urine, stent related symptoms and febrile urinary tract infections (UTIs) during the period of indwelling stent and until 1 week after removal.RESULTS: In Group A, 9 (19.5%) patients had significant bacterial growth on the stents. (cranberryinstitute.org)
  • Anthocran R Phytosome R: Prevention of Recurring Urinary Infections and Symptoms after Catheterization. (cranberryinstitute.org)
  • In this preliminary pilot registry study, we investigated the effects of the oral supplementation of a standardized cranberry extract (Anthocran R Phytosome R, Indena) delivered by a lecithin-based system, for the prophylactic management of recurrent-urinary tract infections (R-UTIs). (cranberryinstitute.org)
  • Cranberry preparations reduce chronic recurrent urinary tract infections and may be a solution for the growing rates of antibiotic resistance. (naturalmedicinejournal.com)
  • Consumption of cranberry as adjuvant therapy for urinary tract infections in susceptible populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis. (naturalmedicinejournal.com)
  • Bladder infections are the most common type of urinary tract infection (UTI), but any part of your child's urinary tract can become infected including the urethra, bladder, ureters, or kidneys. (nih.gov)
  • Treatments for bladder infections and other UTIs may include antibiotics and drinking plenty of liquids to help flush bacteria from your child's urinary tract. (nih.gov)
  • Cranberry is by far the most popular natural supplement taken for urinary tract infections (UTI's) and is commonly used to promote optimal kidney and urinary tract health. (anabolicminds.com)
  • Urinary tract infections or UTIs are typically caused by bacteria. (askdocweb.com)
  • The infection is less likely to cause gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea than other Campylobacter infections but is prone to causing infection in other parts of the body such as the appendix, abdominal cavity, central nervous system (meningitis), gallbladder, urinary tract and blood stream. (askdocweb.com)
  • Background: Urinary tract infections are associated with substantial morbidity and recurrent infections. (medscimonit.com)
  • Genetic risk for recurrent urinary tract infections in humans: a systematic review. (medscape.com)
  • Newborn circumcision decreases incidence and costs of urinary tract infections during the first year of life. (medscape.com)
  • Technical report: urinary tract infections in febrile infants and young children. (medscape.com)
  • The evaluation was requested by employees to determine the cause of excess of urinary tract infections among female staff members. (cdc.gov)
  • Twelve of the 40 were reported to have had urinary tract infections while employed. (cdc.gov)
  • The authors conclude that there is no reported direct causal association between the chemicals used in the dental office and urinary infections. (cdc.gov)
  • They recommend frequent voiding as a measure for the reduction of the incidence of urinary infections and that employees have adequate bathroom facilities available to use. (cdc.gov)
  • If a GP thinks you may have a urinary tract infection (UTI), they may do a urine test, although this is not always needed. (www.nhs.uk)
  • A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an infection involving any part of the urinary system, including urethra, bladder, ureters, and kidney. (cdc.gov)
  • In addition, urinary stasis in an obstructed urinary tract may predispose to urinary tract infection. (medscape.com)
  • Urinary stasis along any portion of the urinary tract increases the risk of stone formation and infection, and, ultimately, upper urinary tract injury. (medscape.com)
  • With a superimposed urinary infection, as often occurs in chronic obstruction, the loss of muscle tone is even more dramatic and progressive dilation occurs with no further increase or decrease in wall tension. (medscape.com)
  • obtained on the island of Tahiti, French Polynesia, from this process yielded 66.4% guanine-cytosine content, a urine specimen collected from a patient experiencing a 0.23% gap ratio, and a 6,673,592-bp sequence distrib- urinary tract infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Approximately one in three women suffers an uncomplicated urinary tract infection (UTI) before the age of 24. (nih.gov)
  • If the organism continues to be the same, this is a relapsing infection and suggests an inadequately treated source such as an abscess, urinary stone, or prostatitis. (nih.gov)
  • What Is a Urinary Tract Infection? (webmd.com)
  • A urinary tract infection , or UTI, is an infection in any part of your urinary system, which includes your kidneys , bladder , ureters, and urethra. (webmd.com)
  • If you're a woman, your chance of getting a urinary tract infection is high. (webmd.com)
  • An infection can happen in different parts of your urinary tract. (webmd.com)
  • If you suspect that you have a urinary tract infection, go to the doctor. (webmd.com)
  • About 1 in 5 women have a second urinary tract infection, and some have them again and again. (webmd.com)
  • Why is it Important to Recognize that Bacterial Urinary Tract Infection is not a Primary Diagnostic Entity? (ivis.org)
  • Although the urinary tract communicates with an external environment loaded with bacteria and other potentially pathogenic agents, most of it is normally sterile and all of it is normally resistant to infection. (ivis.org)
  • Therefore, in context of diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy, a bacterial urinary tract infection (UTI) may be viewed as a secondary (or complicating) rather than a primary (or definitive) diagnostic entity. (ivis.org)
  • ABSTRACT Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common problem in pregnant woman. (who.int)
  • Des prélèvements d'urine ont fait l'objet d'un examen microbi- ologique (examen au microscope et mise en culture) à la recherche d'une infection urinaire, et des tests de sensibilité ont été réalisés avec divers antibiotiques pour les germes isolés. (who.int)
  • Urinary tract infection, colloquially termed as UTI, is one of the most persistent and crippling diseases afflicting our daily lives. (ayurvediccure.com)
  • Bladder infection, also called acute cystitis or urinary tract infection affects the lower urinary tract or the bladder. (ayurvediccure.com)
  • Popularly known as UTI, the urinary tract infection is one of the most troublesome and painful experiences. (ayurvediccure.com)
  • A urinary tract infection (also called a "UTI") is what happens when bacteria (germs) get into the urinary system and multiply. (kidney.org)
  • How Do I Treat My Diagnosed Urinary Tract Infection? (abchomeopathy.com)
  • My Doctor has tested my urine and has diagnosed urinary tract infection and offered Trisul. (abchomeopathy.com)
  • What is the most common cause of a urinary tract infection (UTI)? (emedicinehealth.com)
  • The most common cause of a urinary tract infection (UTI) is the bacterium Escherichia coli ( E. coli ), which is typically found in the colon. (emedicinehealth.com)
  • In women, sexual intercourse can cause these bacteria to be introduced into the urinary tract and lead to a bladder infection (cystitis). (emedicinehealth.com)
  • Each year, about 8.1 million people see a doctor about a urinary tract infection. (emedicinehealth.com)
  • About 1.5% of women in the U.S. develop a urinary tract infection during pregnancy. (emedicinehealth.com)
  • Pharmacology: Spina Bifida and Urinary Tract Infection Manag. (lww.com)
  • The result is an everyday, affordable urinary tract infection cat food that also prioritizes their immune system as they age. (petside.com)
  • Urinary tract infection and neoplasia were rare. (vin.com)
  • The incidence of urinary tract infection increases with age above 10 years. (vin.com)
  • Also, cats with a perineal urethrostomy are prone to urinary tract infection. (vin.com)
  • When germs (bacteria) get into the urinary tract, they can cause an infection. (stlukesonline.org)
  • Cat urinary tract infection symptoms all involve problems urinating. (cat-health-guide.org)
  • It is possible that your cat has a urinary tract infection without symptoms. (cat-health-guide.org)
  • If you suspect a cat urinary tract infection you should see your veterinarian since not treating the problem could lead to stones which could block the urinary tract (uroliths), inflammation of the prostate gland (chronic prostatitis), and kidney failure. (cat-health-guide.org)
  • If your cat has a urinary tract infection there may or may not be symptoms (asymptomatic). (cat-health-guide.org)
  • A patient and public involvement group predefined the non-inferiority margin as one episode of urinary tract infection per person year. (bmj.com)
  • With age, these components of normal micturition and barriers to infection can break down and increase the likelihood of lower urinary tract infection. (mspca.org)
  • In rare cases the infection can spread to other parts of the body such as the appendix, abdominal cavity, central nervous system (meningitis), gallbladder, urinary tract and blood stream. (askdocweb.com)
  • Chlamydia is a bacterial infection of the genital tract by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. (askdocweb.com)
  • Identification of Children and Adolescents at Risk for Renal Scarring After a First Urinary Tract Infection: A Meta-analysis With Individual Patient Data. (medscape.com)
  • Urinary Tract Infection: Clinical Practice Guideline for the Diagnosis and Management of the Initial UTI in Febrile Infants and Children 2 to 24 Months. (medscape.com)
  • Prevalence of urinary tract infection in childhood: a meta-analysis. (medscape.com)
  • Clinical and demographic factors associated with urinary tract infection in young febrile infants. (medscape.com)
  • Perform urinalysis to exclude urinary tract infection. (medscape.com)
  • Urinary infection : insights and prospects / edited by Bernard François and Paul Perrin. (who.int)
  • Mercury (7439976), nitrous-oxide (10024972), and Cidex (111308) were used in the dental office but did not cause urinary infection. (cdc.gov)
  • The authors note that the incidence of urinary infection in this population is not greater than expected in a population with a history of recurrent urinary tract infection. (cdc.gov)
  • Among UTIs acquired in the hospital, approximately 75% are associated with a urinary catheter, which is a tube inserted into the bladder through the urethra to drain urine. (cdc.gov)
  • [3] However, more than 100 CFU of E. coli with typical acute urinary symptoms has a positive predictive value of about 90%, suggesting that a lower CFU threshold may be more appropriate in diagnosing simple and recurrent UTIs. (nih.gov)
  • If you get frequent UTIs and your doctor suspects a problem in your urinary tract, they might take a closer look with an ultrasound , a CT scan , or an MRI scan. (webmd.com)
  • Most UTIs happen in the lower part of the urinary tract - the urethra and bladder. (kidshealth.org)
  • In the general population, about 90% of UTIs are caused by E. coli bacteria, which although a normal part of our intestinal miroflora, do not belong in our urinary system. (healingtherapies.info)
  • People with blockages in their urinary tract, such as a kidney stone, are more likely to get UTIs. (kidney.org)
  • If you have a cat that prefers dry kibble but still needs dietary support for UTIs, then check out Hill's Science Diet urinary hairball control. (petside.com)
  • UTIs are generally triggered by bacteria and are more common when there is partial blockage of the urinary tract. (peacehealth.org)
  • We included 64 otherwise healthy subjects who underwent a surgical procedure and required post-surgical urinary catheterization for high-risk UTIs or a previous history of R-UTIs. (cranberryinstitute.org)
  • Urinary tract obstruction is a urologic disease consisting of a decrease in the free passage of urine through one or both ureters and/or the urethra. (wikipedia.org)
  • Dividing the urinary tract into the upper urinary tract, defined as the kidney and ureter to the hiatus with the bladder, and the lower urinary tract, defined as the bladder and urethra to the urethral meatus, allows for further delineation of the cause of obstruction. (medscape.com)
  • The female anatomy, especially that of the pelvic floor, makes it easy for bacteria to travel from the outside of your body into your urinary tract (which includes your kidneys, bladder, and urethra). (bcm.edu)
  • The urethra is the tube connecting your urinary system to the outside of your body. (bcm.edu)
  • One theory is that bacteria-laden urine in the distal urethra may be milked back into the urinary bladder (urethrovesical reflux). (medscape.com)
  • Having sex can introduce bacteria into your urinary tract, too. (webmd.com)
  • Sequoia's vaccine is designed to create an immune response preventing bacteria from colonizing the urinary tract, and it recently completed its first clinical trial in women. (prnewswire.com)
  • When urinary tract obstruction develops, subsequent accumulation of urine distends the urinary tract proximal to the point of obstruction and can result in pain, which may be the first symptom of obstruction. (medscape.com)
  • Urinary tract obstruction can have long-lasting effects on the physiology of the kidney, including its ability to concentrate urine. (medscape.com)
  • The kidneys are the part of the urinary tract that makes urine (pee). (kidshealth.org)
  • After the kidneys make urine, it leaves the body using the rest of the urinary tract as a pathway. (kidshealth.org)
  • The urinary system (also called the "urinary tract") is the part of your body that makes urine. (kidney.org)
  • A spreadsheet that auto-calculates the indwelling urinary catheter utilization ratio, CAUTI rate, and urine culture collection rate based on resident days, catheter days, CAUTIs identified, and urine culture data you input into the tool. (ahrq.gov)
  • I don't have signs of symptoms apart from a very slight uncomfortableness intermittantly inside presumably my tract, but have cloudy urine. (abchomeopathy.com)
  • Choosing a cat food that has high moisture levels and promotes the right urinary PH, as well as lower levels of the minerals that can cause urine crystal build-up, is a proactive way to keep your feline healthy and UTI free. (petside.com)
  • And, as it's a dry formula, the all-essential moisture levels are low, so this is a urinary tract cat food that is best served with a wet or raw food topper and plenty of access to fresh water to keep their urine healthily diluted. (petside.com)
  • The urinary tract is the part of the body that makes urine and carries it out of the body. (stlukesonline.org)
  • The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for removing urine, which is composed of wastes and extra fluid. (nih.gov)
  • Elevated postvoid residual urine volume may indicate a bladder-emptying abnormality or incontinence associated with chronic urinary retention. (medscape.com)
  • Obstruction to urinary flow can occur at any point in the urinary tract, from the kidneys to the urethral meatus, but certain sites are more susceptible to obstruction. (medscape.com)
  • Obstruction of urinary flow can occur anywhere from the kidneys to the urethral meatus. (medscape.com)
  • What Are the Kidneys and Urinary Tract? (kidshealth.org)
  • How Do the Kidneys and Urinary Tract Work? (kidshealth.org)
  • What Can Help Keep the Kidneys and Urinary Tract Healthy? (kidshealth.org)
  • Click through this slideshow to learn more about the kidneys and urinary tract. (childrensdayton.org)
  • The most important risk factor for developing a catheter-associated UTI (CAUTI) is prolonged use of the urinary catheter. (cdc.gov)
  • Use of the urethral catheter to relieve urinary tract obstruction dates back to the time of Hippocrates. (medscape.com)
  • Complete obstruction of the urinary tract requires prompt treatment for renal preservation. (wikipedia.org)
  • Causes of urinary tract obstruction include: Bladder stone and renal stone Benign prostatic hyperplasia Obstruction as a congenital disorder. (wikipedia.org)
  • Urinary tract obstruction as a congenital disorder results in oligohydramnios which in turn can lead to the Potter sequence of atypical physical appearance. (wikipedia.org)
  • Pulmonary hypoplasia is by far the main cause of death in the early neonatal period for children with congenital lower urinary tract obstruction. (wikipedia.org)
  • Fetal surgery of congenital lower urinary tract obstruction seems to improve survival, according to a randomized yet small study. (wikipedia.org)
  • Urinary tract obstruction is a common problem encountered by urologists, primary care physicians, and emergency medicine physicians. (medscape.com)
  • As time goes on, new procedures emerge and old procedures are modified to relieve urinary tract obstruction. (medscape.com)
  • At present, it is a fairly common mode for relief of lower urinary tract obstruction. (medscape.com)
  • Chronic urinary tract obstruction can lead to permanent damage to the urinary tract. (medscape.com)
  • In the setting of an acute urinary tract obstruction, an increase in intraluminal pressure causes smooth muscle cells to increase contractions and ureteral wall pressure. (medscape.com)
  • The management of upper urinary tract obstruction in the absence of modern facilities presents a major challenge to Urologic practice in developing countries . (bvsalud.org)
  • 19 females ) with a mean age of 35.5 years (range 3-55) who were managed for upper urinary tract obstruction at our department between January 2001 and December 2005. (bvsalud.org)
  • Upper urinary tract obstruction is not uncommon in our environment . (bvsalud.org)
  • French botanicals firm Naturex launched a cranberry powder extract aimed at older men with the lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) often associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • Multiple sclerosis (MS) can lead to lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD) and symptoms (LUTS). (medpagetoday.com)
  • The Management of uncomplicated lower urinary tract symptoms in men. (who.int)
  • Relationship between lower urinary tract symptoms and frailty. (bvsalud.org)
  • To elucidate the relationship between frailty and lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS). (bvsalud.org)
  • The sensitivity of the or- prostatic secretion, pregnancy and easy ganisms isolated to various antibiotics was contamination of the urinary tract with fae- also studied. (who.int)
  • In addition to wonderful ACV and for 30 years before i discovered vinegar, i had MANY cats, especially males, who had urinary blockage. (earthclinic.com)
  • Left untreated and your kit can suffer from inflammation and pain, as well as the risk of a urinary blockage, which has more serious health implications. (petside.com)
  • Some women with mobility impairments also have neurogenic bladder or have urinary incontinence. (bcm.edu)
  • While age is not a cause of incontinence, changes to the function of the urinary tract and comorbidities, especially those causing polyuria, can increase the chances of incontinence in older dogs. (mspca.org)
  • The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists has issued first-time guidelines regarding the evaluation of uncomplicated stress urinary incontinence (SUI) before surgical treatment in women. (medscape.com)
  • Cite this: Stress Urinary Incontinence: ‏New ACOG Guidelines - Medscape - May 21, 2014. (medscape.com)
  • Botanical extract giant Naturex-DBS has launched a USDA NOP certified organic cranberry powder to the US market, stating it is a logical extension of its cranberry powders range targeting urinary tract health. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • OnabotulinumtoxinA (BoNT-A) was first used to treat neurogenic lower urinary tract dysfunction (LUTD) 30 years ago. (mdpi.com)
  • Voiding dysfunction is not usually encountered in a child without neurogenic or anatomic abnormality of the bladder until the child is in the process of achieving daytime urinary control. (medscape.com)
  • First, many surgical procedures designed to correct noninfectious disorders of the urinary tract may partially or totally interfere with local host defenses that normally prevent or impair development of UTI. (ivis.org)
  • Additionally, the complexities of managing structural and functional urinary tract disorders after surgery and/or radiation are emphasized. (mdanderson.org)
  • and urinary-system disorders are the fifth most common primary or secondary cause of death. (healingtherapies.info)
  • Feline lower urinary tract disorders (FLUTD) are among the more common areas of cat health concern. (earthclinic.com)
  • Feline lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD) includes inflammatory diseases of the lower urinary tract and non-inflammatory conditions that cause urination in inappropriate places. (vin.com)
  • The senior dog with lower urinary tract (LUT) signs presents a unique challenge. (mspca.org)
  • In MS, What is the Role of Ileal Conduit in Patients with Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction? (medpagetoday.com)
  • The prostate is a walnut sized gland located in the lower urinary system, both in front and in back of the penis. (easygiftstore.net)
  • Skill and sensitivity in managing your child's urinary health and conditions such as voiding problems, vesicoureteral reflux, and urinary birth defects. (stlukesonline.org)
  • Proper management may include pharmacological care that aims to prevent improper drainage of the bladder directly by utilizing agents such as anticholinergics, urinary antispasmodics, and botulism toxins. (lww.com)
  • The formula helps to cleanse the urinary tract of toxins. (easygiftstore.net)
  • This theme was emphasized in a March 28, 2003 Science magazine article (Gilmore & Ferretti), which stated that 'Not only does the highly evolved gut flora community extend the processing of undigested food to the benefit of the host, but it also contributes to host defense by limiting colonization of the gastrointestinal tract by pathogens. (healingtherapies.info)
  • occur as urinary tract pathogens and under what circumstances one should actively perform cultures for them. (medscape.com)
  • Upper urinary tract UCs that invade the muscle wall have a poor prognosis. (uroweb.org)
  • Urinary sepsis is frequently seen in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) complicated with upper urinary tract calculi (UUTCs). (wjgnet.com)
  • Between 15-25% of hospitalized patients receive urinary catheters during their hospital stay. (cdc.gov)
  • Oligosaccharides from cranberries may inhibit the formation of E. coli biofilms and help support healthy urinary tract health, suggests a new study. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • The protective effects of cranberries toward urinary tract health may also extend to men's prostates, according to a new study from the Czech Republic - the first of its kind to report such benefits. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • Research is a critical component of the fellowship program with a focus on characterization of urinary sequelae resulting from treatment for non-urologic cancers and reduction of genitourinary complications in patients with pelvic malignancies. (mdanderson.org)
  • There are no definitive recommendations for how to proceed with treatment when conservative strategies fail to prevent complications and improve quality of life by restoring urinary continence and maintaining self-management of urinary function. (medpagetoday.com)
  • Naturex's launch of a new cranberry extract sees the company moving beyond proanthocyanidins (PACs) as a marker of efficacy towards anti-adhesion activity (AAA), something it sees as a more relevant biological marker of benefits to urinary tract health. (nutraingredients-usa.com)
  • To reduce your vulnerability to the seemingly inevitable erosion of antibiotic power, use when feasible and prudent various alternatives for enhancing urinary-tract health and attempt to hold in reserve the heavy-duty antibiotic artillery for major medical crises. (healingtherapies.info)
  • We take a look at the best urinary tract health cat food products you can currently buy as well as offer an in-depth guide on what you need to do to ensure your cat can always go with the flow. (petside.com)
  • With all the key dietary adaptations for a UTI-prone cat, this wet formula from Purina certainly doesn't scrimp on quality ingredients to support urinary health. (petside.com)
  • With natural fiber to reduce hairball formation, the whole recipe is designed to support all-round urinary health so, if hairballs are also an issue, then this is a cat food double-whammy! (petside.com)
  • The product uses natural ingredients that work together to promote urinary health. (easygiftstore.net)
  • Kidney Assist XT is a comprehensive multi-faceted supplement designed to help support optimal kidney, urinary tract, and bladder health. (anabolicminds.com)
  • Astragalus has been shown in numerous clinical studies to support healthy kidney function and detoxification and is one or the most commonly used herbs in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for a wide variety of uses including to help support kidney and urinary health. (anabolicminds.com)
  • Cranberry extracts and d-mannose have been shown to prevent colonization of the urinary tract. (cranberryinstitute.org)
  • Cranberry extract may reduce the colonization of urinary tract, but its clinical significance needs further evaluation. (cranberryinstitute.org)
  • In order for normal urination to occur, all body parts in the urinary tract need to work together in the correct order. (nih.gov)
  • Of the available PGI-I scores in 42.7% of patients at the time of last analysis, median PGI-I score on the impact of surgery was 2 (much better) for improvement in urinary problems and 1 (a bit better) for improvement in everyday life. (medpagetoday.com)
  • In this study, the resistance patterns of urinary isolates to commonly used antimicrobials were determined in order to evaluate the options for empirical antibiotic therapy of UTI in out- and in- patients. (medscimonit.com)
  • A clinical isolate recovered from a respiratory BLAST hit M. angelicum isolate with 99.73% genome tract sample taken from a patient in Northern Ireland similarity, whereas further genome sequence simi- was also tentatively identified as M. angelicum on the larity values were 93.25% with M. szulgai , 93.01% basis of 16S rRNA gene sequencing ( 4 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Clinical evaluation of cats with nonobstructive urinary tract diseases. (vin.com)