• DSB sites are preferentially located within chromatin loops, while several proteins that are required for DSB formation (Rec114, Mei4, and Mer2) localize on the chromosome axis (Blat et al. (springer.com)
  • All living organisms package their DNA with chromatin proteins. (biologists.com)
  • Over 200 different proteins are associated with chromatin [ 15 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • This family of proteins includes a wide variety of classes, including CYCLIN-DEPENDENT KINASES, mitogen-activated kinases, CYCLINS, and PHOSPHOPROTEIN PHOSPHATASES as well as their putative substrates such as chromatin-associated proteins, CYTOSKELETAL PROTEINS, and TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS. (lookformedical.com)
  • Phosphorylation can extend up to several thousand nucleosomes from the actual site of the DSB and may mark the surrounding chromatin for recruitment of proteins required for DNA damage signaling and repair. (affbiotech.com)
  • With the launch of the human proteome project (HPP), the association of Y chromosome proteins with pathological conditions has been increasingly explored. (biomedcentral.com)
  • If women used both X chromosomes, they would produce twice the amount of X-related proteins as compared to men. (drwile.com)
  • That way, when it comes to the proteins that are encoded on the X chromosome, men and women produce equal amounts. (drwile.com)
  • Well, both of the chromosomes in each autosome pair are fully active, producing proteins over and over again. (drwile.com)
  • Otherwise, the fact that both genders have only one active X chromosome would mean that both genders would produce only half of the needed X-related proteins. (drwile.com)
  • The protein structure that surrounds the DNA, chromatin, largely comprises histone proteins and can be open or closed and thus allow or prevent factors binding to the DNA. (lu.se)
  • Autosomes can be described as the non-sex chromosomes that play diverse roles in the human body like harboring genes for the body's metabolism, functioning, and growth. (biologyonline.com)
  • An important point to note here is that certain autosomes do play a role in phenotypic sex determination! (biologyonline.com)
  • So, we can't say that autosomes have no role in phenotypic sex determination in humans because they play an integral and indispensable role! (biologyonline.com)
  • Human autosomes , the non-sex human chromosomes, are integral components of the human genome . (biologyonline.com)
  • The human genome is composed of 23 pairs of chromosomes, with autosomes (22 pairs) comprising the majority. (biologyonline.com)
  • In each system, we focus on DNA methylation patterns on the autosomes versus the sex chromosomes. (edu.au)
  • X-degenerate sequences are single copy and broadly expressed genes which were evolved from ancestral autosomes to generate sex chromosomes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Gender is determined by sex chromosomes , while all the other chromosomes are called autosomes . (drwile.com)
  • Thus, your sex chromosomes are like your autosomes in the sense that they come in a pair, and the pair is perfectly matched. (drwile.com)
  • Later on, some evolutionary process had to eventually produce sex chromosomes from autosomes so that sexual reproduction could evolve. (drwile.com)
  • If sex chromosomes evolved from autosomes, then, something must have happened to make the the X chromosome genes expressed twice as much as the genes on any single autosome. (drwile.com)
  • These studies suggested that the genes on the only active X chromosome in both males and females were expressed as much as the genes on the autosomes. (drwile.com)
  • Why this does not result in an imbalance in the expression of important genes on the X chromosome is what Asifa Akhtar and her colleagues from the Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics in Freiburg have examined in collaboration with Nicholas Luscombe's laboratory at the European Bioinformatics Institute in Cambridge, UK. (mpg.de)
  • The scientists at the Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics have now shown that the crucial factor in the double expression is the amount of polymerase II that is loaded onto the promoters of the male X chromosome. (mpg.de)
  • Although the genome-wide histone modification landscapes of mouse in vivo germ cells and in vitro PGCLCs have been profiled and several germline-specific properties of epigenetic reprogramming have been revealed, the study of genome-scale chromatin states in human FGCs is still challenging, due to the scarcity of materials and technical difficulties. (nature.com)
  • To test whether histone acetylation level regulates its replication dynamics, we induced either global hyperacetylation by pharmacological inhibition or by targeting a histone acetyltransferase to the heterochromatic region of the X chromosomes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our data reveal that histone acetylation level affects DNA replication dynamics of the sex chromosomes' heterochromatin and leads to a global reduction in replication fork rate genome wide. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Integrated cross-species molecular and transcriptomic analyses identified Y-chromosome gene histone demethylase KDM5D as a transcriptionally up-regulated gene driven by KRAS*-mediated activation of the STAT4 transcription factor in cancer cells. (tmc.edu)
  • A retinoblastoma-binding protein that is involved in CHROMATIN REMODELING, histone deacetylation, and repression of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION. (lookformedical.com)
  • The linker histone, H1, interacts with linker DNA between nucleosomes and functions in the compaction of chromatin into higher order structures. (nih.gov)
  • This gene is found in the large histone gene cluster on chromosome 6. (nih.gov)
  • Relaxed Chromatin Formation and Weak Suppression of Homologous Pairing by the Testis-Specific Linker Histone H1T. (nih.gov)
  • These results suggested that the testis-specific linker histone, H1T, possesses a specific function to produce the chromatin architecture required for proper chromosome regulation, such as homologous recombination. (nih.gov)
  • In humans, for example, women have two X chromosomes, whereas men have only one X chromosome, but also have an additional Y chromosome. (mpg.de)
  • After all, women have two X chromosomes, but men have only one. (drwile.com)
  • The Additional sex combs gene of Drosophila encodes a chromatin protein that binds to shared and unique Polycomb group sites on polytene chromosomes. (ox.ac.uk)
  • ASX binds to multiple sites on polytene chromosomes, 70% of which overlap those of Polycomb, polyhomeotic and Polycomblike, and 30% of which are unique. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Morgan, Sturtevant, Bridges and Muller constructed the first genetic linkage maps from recombination studies in crosses made in the fruit fly and from cytological preparations of its polytene salivary gland chromosomes [ 4 - 6 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • this is called X-inactivation), a two-fold increase in the transcription of a single male X chromosome (as observed in Drosophila melanogaster), and decreased transcription by half in both of the X chromosomes of a hermaphroditic organism (as observed in Caenorhabditis elegans). (wikipedia.org)
  • Somatic XIST activation and features of X chromosome inactivation in male human cancers. (harvard.edu)
  • DNA methylation is a key epigenetic modification in vertebrate genomes known to be involved in the regulation of gene expression, X chromosome inactivation, genomic imprinting, chromatin structure, and control of transposable elements. (edu.au)
  • Their X homologs excessively escape X chromosome inactivation, thus researchers classified them as dose-sensitive and haplolethal genes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Sex exerts a profound impact on cancer incidence, spectrum and outcomes, yet the molecular genetic bases of such sex differences are ill-defined and presumptively ascribed to X-chromosome genes and sex hormones. (tmc.edu)
  • Charlesworth, B. The evolution of sex chromosomes. (nature.com)
  • This dissertation is an empirical and theoretical examination of the evolution of sex, sex-determining mechanisms, and sexual selection. (harvard.edu)
  • As CXXC1 is orthologous to Saccharomyces cerevisiae Spp1 that links DSB sites to the DSB machinery on the chromosome axis, we propose that these molecular interactions involved in the regulation of meiotic DSB formation are conserved in mouse meiosis. (springer.com)
  • Daish, T. & Grützner, F. Evolution and meiotic organization of heteromorphic sex chromosomes. (nature.com)
  • It is also important for germ cell viability and meiotic chromosome synapsis. (rndsystems.com)
  • We showed that the BET family member BRDT is essential for proper chromatin remodeling and transcriptional regulation during meiotic prophase and also during spermiogenesis and that BRD2 is essential for embryonic survival and neural differentiation and function, in particular in the etiology of seizure susceptibility. (columbia.edu)
  • The review provides a brief account of the structure of somatic and meiotic chromosomes, stressing the high conservation of structure in plants and animals, with emphasis on aspects that require further research. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Ohno's studies of Barr bodies in female mammals with multiple X chromosomes revealed that such females used Barr bodies to inactivate all but one of their X chromosomes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Whereas mammals compensate by inactivating one of the two X chromosomes in females, what happens in fruit flies is that the genes on the X chromosomes of the males are doubly expressed. (mpg.de)
  • Here, we profile eight genomes of the bivalve mollusc family of Pectinidae in a phylogenetic context and show 350 million years sex-chromosome homomorphy, which is the oldest known sex-chromosome homomorphy in the animal kingdom, far exceeding the ages of well-known heteromorphic sex chromosomes such as 130-200 million years in mammals, birds and flies. (nature.com)
  • A gene deriving from the ancestral sex chromosomes was lost from the X and retained on the Y chromosome in eutherian mammals. (harvard.edu)
  • In mammals, constitutive heterochromatin is mostly arranged at pericentromeric regions of the chromosomes, whereas vole rodents (subfamily Arvicolinae ) are a remarkable exception. (biomedcentral.com)
  • To better understand sex chromosome DNA methylation patterns between different amniote vertebrates, we review literature that has analyzed the genome-wide distribution of DNA methylation in mammals and birds. (edu.au)
  • Cells are normally diploid - this means that they have a pair - two sets of homologous chromosomes, and hence two copies of each gene or genetic locus. (topperone.com)
  • Polyploid: Contains more than two sets of homologous chromosomes. (topperone.com)
  • Thus, human females have the same number of expressed X-linked genes per cell as do human males (XY), both sexes having essentially one X chromosome per cell, from which to transcribe and express genes. (wikipedia.org)
  • In this system gene expression of sex-specific loci is reduced in the heterogametic sex i.e. the females in ZZ/ZW systems and males in XX/XY systems. (wikipedia.org)
  • One logical way to equalize gene expression amongst males and females that follow a XX/XY sex differentiation scheme would be to decrease or altogether eliminate the expression of one of the X chromosomes in an XX, or female, homogametic individual, such that both males and females then express only one X chromosome. (wikipedia.org)
  • Figure 1: A diagrammatic representation of a total of 46 chromosomes in human beings (females: 44+XX and males: 44+XY). (biologyonline.com)
  • The role of MSY genes in important cellular processes such as transcription regulation, translation, and protein stability in males is vital not only in sex determination but also in sex-dependent organ development [ 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • According to this view, individuals with XX chromosomes are classified as women or females, while those with XY chromosomes are categorized as men or males. (liberalcurrents.com)
  • In males (who have only one X chromosome), one altered copy of the gene in each cell is sufficient to cause the condition. (medlineplus.gov)
  • The genome of some vole rodents exhibit large blocks of heterochromatin coupled to their sex chromosomes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • While the X chromosomes are hypoacetylated and cytosine hypomethylated, they are either enriched for macroH2A and H3K27me3 typical for facultative heterochromatin or for H3K9me3 and HP1 beta typical for constitutive heterochromatin. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In conclusion, we mapped major epigenetic modifications controlling the structure of the sex chromosome-associated heterochromatin and demonstrated the occurrence of differences in the molecular mechanisms controlling the replication timing of the heterochromatic blocks at the sex chromosomes in female Microtus cabrerae cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In some vole species, a bulk of constitutive heterochromatin is coupled to both sex chromosomes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Long before the identification of its molecular nature, it was recognized that chromatin exists in two main states: the densely stained heterochromatin contrasting with euchromatin ( Heitz, 1928 ). (biologists.com)
  • The future of molecular cytogenetics is likely to depend on a better knowledge of chromosome structure and function. (biomedcentral.com)
  • One of the purposes of this review is to encourage research into chromosome structure as this could help advance molecular cytogenetics. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying Y chromosome-related diseases can have a significant impact on the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We now recognize that, following DNA replication, the metaphase chromosome consists of two chromatids held together by a centromere and by cohesin. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We are now excited to further investigate how loading twice the amount of polymerase leads to doubling expression of the male X chromosome" says Akhtar. (mpg.de)
  • For example, 'female' is occasionally used to describe a type of USB port, while 'female' can also refer to the sex of an organism. (liberalcurrents.com)
  • Dosage compensation is the process by which organisms equalize the expression of genes between members of different biological sexes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Because sex chromosomes contain different numbers of genes, different species of organisms have developed different mechanisms to cope with this inequality. (wikipedia.org)
  • The sex of many organisms is determined by the number of X chromosomes. (mpg.de)
  • Most organisms have developed a strategy for making sure that the X chromosomal genes, which are important for both sexes, are properly transcribed. (mpg.de)
  • Since the genetic code was deciphered much has been learnt about the chromosome structure shared by all organisms from yeast to human. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Many organisms have two different kinds of chromosomes. (drwile.com)
  • However, how exactly this change in the chromatin structure facilitates the expression of X chromosomal genes by just a factor of two remains poorly understood. (mpg.de)
  • Heterochromatinized elements, such as B chromosomes and other supernumerary chromosomal DNA fragments have long been known to be associated with asexuality in both plants and animals, and are prime candidate regions for the evolution of multiple apomixis factors controlling the individual elements of apomixis. (plantcytogenomics.org)
  • The mechanisms effecting establishment, maintenance, and modification of that specific physical conformation of CHROMATIN determining the transcriptional accessibility or inaccessibility of the DNA. (lookformedical.com)
  • Sex alleles are found only in some of the sexual accessions, have higher nucleotide divergence and lower transcriptional activity compared to apo alleles. (plantcytogenomics.org)
  • Here we use nucleosome occupancy and methylation sequencing method to analyze both the genome-wide chromatin accessibility and DNA methylome at a series of crucial time points during fetal germ cell development in both human and mouse. (nature.com)
  • In higher eukaryotes, the nuclear genome is compartmentalized into distinct chromatin territories to facilitate the regulation of complex processes such as DNA repair, transcription and replication. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We revealed the origin of the gene in the apomixis genome on an apomixis-specific, supernumerary heterochromatic Boechera chromosome (Boe1). (plantcytogenomics.org)
  • One pathway, which has been extensively studied in yeast, is mainly guided by chromatin structure and the other, analyzed in detail in mice, is driven by the sequence-specific DNA-binding PR domain-containing protein 9 (PRDM9). (springer.com)
  • In 1944 it was realized that genetic transformation in bacteria was due to DNA and not protein and that DNA was the molecule responsible for heredity in genes and chromosomes [ 8 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The 48 kDa subunit, RETINOBLASTOMA-BINDING PROTEIN 4, is also a component of several other protein complexes involved in chromatin remodeling. (lookformedical.com)
  • Although initially discovered as a retinoblastoma binding protein it has an affinity for core HISTONES and is a subunit of chromatin assembly factor-1 and polycomb repressive complex 2. (lookformedical.com)
  • The repeating structural units of chromatin, each consisting of approximately 200 base pairs of DNA wound around a protein core. (lookformedical.com)
  • Now if you think about it, this could cause a problem when it comes to the amount of protein each gender produces from its sex chromosomes. (drwile.com)
  • This, of course, would indicate that the single active X chromosome is producing twice as much protein as any single autosome. (drwile.com)
  • Chromatin is the network of DNA and protein that packages DNA into chromosomes. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Binding with the PHF8 protein is part of the process that changes the structure of chromatin (chromatin remodeling) to alter how tightly regions of DNA are packaged. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Outside of the nucleus, the PHF8 protein cannot interact with chromatin to regulate gene expression. (medlineplus.gov)
  • While the exact disease mechanism is unknown, it is likely that a lack of PHF8 protein in the nucleus of brain cells before birth prevents chromatin remodeling, altering the normal expression of genes involved in intellectual function and formation of structures along the midline of the skull. (medlineplus.gov)
  • Because of this, Ohno suggested that during evolution, the expression of genes on the X chromosome was boosted by a factor of 2. (drwile.com)
  • They show that the expression of genes coming from the X chromosome in mice and people is (on average) half as much as the expression of genes coming from any autosome pair. (drwile.com)
  • For example, in humans, female (XX) cells randomly silence the transcription of one X chromosome, and transcribe all information from the other, expressed X chromosome. (wikipedia.org)
  • Then, in 1959 Susumu Ohno proved that these satellite-like structures found exclusively in female cells were actually derived from female X chromosomes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Chromatin remodeling is important for the epigenetic reprogramming of human primordial germ cells. (nature.com)
  • However, the comprehensive chromatin state has not yet been analyzed for human fetal germ cells (FGCs). (nature.com)
  • These chromosomes exist in pairs in the somatic cells in contrast to their solo presence in germinal or sex cells , i.e. gametes . (biologyonline.com)
  • Here, we show prominent epigenetic marks of the heterochromatic blocks in the giant sex chromosomes of female Microtus cabrerae cells. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We are studying the role that normal chromatin structure plays in gene regulation in hematopoietic cells and how its disruption leads to altered development and cancer. (stanford.edu)
  • This technique separates sperm into X and Y chromosome bearing cells, so that only sperm carrying the sex of interest are used for fertilization. (allbigbusiness.com)
  • The mechanisms of transmission of both discontinuous and continuous characteristics across the generations were unknown before Mendel's laws were explained at the turn of the 20th Century by the behavior of chromosomes in germ cells [ 2 , 3 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • One study finds that the loss of the entire Y chromosome in some cells - which occurs naturally as men age - raises the risk of aggressive bladder cancer and could allow bladder tumours to evade detection by the immune system2. (cdc.gov)
  • The Additional sex combs (Asx) gene of Drosophila is a member of the Polycomb group of genes, which are required for maintenance of stable repression of homeotic and other loci. (ox.ac.uk)
  • Y chromosome-linked variation affects locomotor activity in male Drosophila melanogaster and is robust to differences in thermal environment. (harvard.edu)
  • It allows couples to identify embryos with abnormal chromosomes that are unlikely to result in successful implantation and to avoid the transfer of diseased embryos. (allbigbusiness.com)
  • In order to neutralize the large difference in gene dosage produced by differing numbers of sex chromosomes among the sexes, various evolutionary branches have acquired various methods to equalize gene expression among the sexes. (wikipedia.org)
  • The evolutionary dynamics of sex chromosomes suggest a mechanism for 'inheritance' turnover of sex-determining genes that is mediated by translocation of a sex-determining enhancer. (nature.com)
  • On the basis of these findings, we propose an evolutionary model for the long-term preservation of homomorphic sex chromosomes. (nature.com)
  • Fig. 6: Evolutionary model for homomorphy maintenance and heteromorphy transition of sex chromosome. (nature.com)
  • Different lineages have evolved different mechanisms to cope with the differences in gene copy numbers between the sexes that are observed on sex chromosomes. (wikipedia.org)
  • In addition to classical gene regulatory networks noted above, we have recently identified a central role for additional biologic mechanisms, namely gene regulation by chromatin regulators and by noncoding RNAs. (stanford.edu)
  • Cyril Darlington pioneered plant cytogenetics in 1920-30 and made important advances in our understanding of mechanisms of chiasma formation and the behavior of sex chromosomes in meiosis [ 7 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • It has also been proposed that a third category of chromatin organisation exists, which nests within TADs, these 'sub-TADs', are formed by the same mechanisms as TADs but have weaker insulation and are more likely to vary depending on the cell type [ 11 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Y chromosome harbors male‑specific genes, which either solely or in cooperation with their X-counterpart, and independent or in conjunction with sex hormones have a considerable impact on basic physiology and disease mechanisms in most or all tissues development. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Furthermore, loss of Y chromosome and/or aberrant expression of Y chromosome genes cause sex differences in disease mechanisms. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Across species, different sexes are often characterized by different types and numbers of sex chromosomes. (wikipedia.org)
  • Building on work done by Ohno and his colleagues, Lyon eventually proved that either the maternal or paternal X chromosome is randomly inactivated in every cell of the female body in the species she was studying, which explained the heterogeneous fur patterns she observed in her mosaic mice. (wikipedia.org)
  • The female sex chromosome, being the differential sex chromosome carried by half the male gametes and all female gametes in human and other male-heterogametic species. (harvard.edu)
  • Phylogenomic studies using chromosome painting confirms the high conservation of DNA between even distantly related species [ 13 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • DNA methylation is common to all eukaryote genomes, but we still lack a complete understanding of the variation in DNA methylation patterns on sex chromosomes and between the sexes in diverse species. (edu.au)
  • Using pulse-chase replication labeling and time-lapse microscopy, we found that the heterochromatic block enriched for macroH2A/H3K27me3 of the X chromosome is replicated during mid-S-phase, prior to the heterochromatic block enriched for H3K9me3/HP1 beta, which is replicated during late S-phase. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The major event of MBT was the activation of a large group of histones and other genes that modify chromatin structure preceding massive gene expression changes. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The long-term undifferentiation of molluscan sex chromosomes is potentially sustained by the unexpected intertwined regulation of reversible sex-biased genes, together with the lack of sexual dimorphism and occasional sex chromosome turnover. (nature.com)
  • The pleiotropic constraint of regulation of reversible sex-biased genes is widely present in ancient homomorphic sex chromosomes and might be resolved in heteromorphic sex chromosomes through gene duplication followed by subfunctionalization. (nature.com)
  • Cohesin controls X chromosome structure remodeling and X-reactivation during mouse iPSC-reprogramming. (harvard.edu)
  • The large membrance enclosed organelle which contains the genetic material in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules with the structure of chromosome is called cell nucleus. (topperone.com)
  • These studies reaffirmed that chromosome structure and behavior in somatic and germ cell divisions were common to all plants and animals. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Some lineages have evolved dosage compensation, an epigenetic mechanism which restores expression of X or Z specific genes in the heterogametic sex to the same levels observed in the ancestor prior to the evolution of the sex chromosome. (wikipedia.org)
  • Eukaryotic DNA replication initiates at multiple origin sites along each chromosome and terminates when replication forks (RFs) from adjacent origins converge. (elifesciences.org)
  • Our work offers a comprehensive and high-resolution roadmap for dissecting chromatin state transition dynamics during the epigenomic reprogramming of human and mouse FGCs. (nature.com)
  • Another definition simplifies sex as the biological quality that categorizes individuals as either 'male' or 'female', often relying on physical attributes such as genitalia, reproductive organs, and secondary sexual characteristics. (liberalcurrents.com)
  • This has led to the speculation that genes which are required for similar processes may fall within the same TADs, allowing them to share regulatory programs and efficiently switch between chromatin compartments. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Knowledge on the prevalence of sex chromosome abnormalities (SCAs) is limited, and delayed diagnosis or non-diagnosis of SCAs are a continuous concern. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The portion of chromosome material that remains condensed and is transcriptionally inactive during INTERPHASE. (lookformedical.com)
  • The common belief is that they don't have any role to play in sex determination. (biologyonline.com)
  • Figure 2: SOX9 gene on the autosome 17 (long arm) plays an integral role in gonadal sex determination. (biologyonline.com)
  • Cbx2 is required for male sex determination by activating expression of the Sry gene. (rndsystems.com)
  • Such sex differences are particularly prominent in colorectal cancer (CRC) where men experience higher metastases and mortality. (tmc.edu)
  • Although sex hormones play a key role in sex differences in susceptibility, severity, outcomes, and response to therapy of different diseases, sex chromosomes are also increasingly recognized as an important factor. (biomedcentral.com)
  • 2009 ). At a larger scale, DSB formation occurs in the context of a specific chromosome architecture that consists of chromatin loops anchored to a proteinaceous axis (Zickler and Kleckner 1999 ). (springer.com)
  • Contrary to classic theory prediction, sex-chromosome homomorphy is prevalent in the animal kingdom but it is unclear how ancient homomorphic sex chromosomes avoid chromosome-scale degeneration. (nature.com)
  • In this review, the involvement of Y chromosome genes in male-specific diseases such as prostate cancer and the cases that are more prevalent in men, such as cardiovascular disease, neurological disease, and cancers, has been highlighted. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Simultaneously, Mary F. Lyon began investigating manipulations of X-linked traits that had phenotypically visible consequences, particularly in mice, whose fur color is a trait intimately linked to the X chromosome. (wikipedia.org)
  • The other finds that a particular Y-chromosome gene in mice raises the risk of some colorectal cancers spreading to other parts of the body. (cdc.gov)
  • Nucleosomes wrap and compact DNA into chromatin, limiting DNA accessibility to the cellular machineries which require DNA as a template. (affbiotech.com)