Self-replicating cytoplasmic organelles of plant and algal cells that contain pigments and may synthesize and accumulate various substances. PLASTID GENOMES are used in phylogenetic studies.
The genetic complement of PLASTIDS as represented in their DNA.
Plant cell inclusion bodies that contain the photosynthetic pigment CHLOROPHYLL, which is associated with the membrane of THYLAKOIDS. Chloroplasts occur in cells of leaves and young stems of plants. They are also found in some forms of PHYTOPLANKTON such as HAPTOPHYTA; DINOFLAGELLATES; DIATOMS; and CRYPTOPHYTA.
Plants of the division Rhodophyta, commonly known as red algae, in which the red pigment (PHYCOERYTHRIN) predominates. However, if this pigment is destroyed, the algae can appear purple, brown, green, or yellow. Two important substances found in the cell walls of red algae are AGAR and CARRAGEENAN. Some rhodophyta are notable SEAWEED (macroalgae).
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of CHLOROPLASTS.
Proteins encoded by the CHLOROPLAST GENOME or proteins encoded by the nuclear genome that are imported to and resident in the CHOROPLASTS.
A class of EUKARYOTA (traditionally algae), characterized by biflagellated cells and found in both freshwater and marine environments. Pigmentation varies but only one CHLOROPLAST is present. Unique structures include a nucleomorph and ejectosomes.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.
A plant genus of the family BRASSICACEAE that contains ARABIDOPSIS PROTEINS and MADS DOMAIN PROTEINS. The species A. thaliana is used for experiments in classical plant genetics as well as molecular genetic studies in plant physiology, biochemistry, and development.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
Proteins found in plants (flowers, herbs, shrubs, trees, etc.). The concept does not include proteins found in vegetables for which VEGETABLE PROTEINS is available.
The genetic complement of CHLOROPLASTS as represented in their DNA.
Flagellate EUKARYOTES, found mainly in the oceans. They are characterized by the presence of transverse and longitudinal flagella which propel the organisms in a rotating manner through the water. Dinoflagellida were formerly members of the class Phytomastigophorea under the old five kingdom paradigm.
The functional hereditary units of PLANTS.
The synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, especially carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than from the oxidation of chemical compounds. Photosynthesis comprises two separate processes: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In higher plants; GREEN ALGAE; and CYANOBACTERIA; NADPH and ATP formed by the light reactions drive the dark reactions which result in the fixation of carbon dioxide. (from Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2001)
A plant genus of the family ONAGRACEAE. Members contain oenotheins.
A plant genus of the family SOLANACEAE. Members contain NICOTINE and other biologically active chemicals; its dried leaves are used for SMOKING.
A plant genus of the family Cuscutaceae. It is a threadlike climbing parasitic plant that is used in DRUGS, CHINESE HERBAL.
Proteins that originate from plants species belonging to the genus ARABIDOPSIS. The most intensely studied species of Arabidopsis, Arabidopsis thaliana, is commonly used in laboratory experiments.
A phylum of photosynthetic EUKARYOTA bearing double membrane-bound plastids containing chlorophyll a and b. They comprise the classical green algae, and represent over 7000 species that live in a variety of primarily aquatic habitats. Only about ten percent are marine species, most live in freshwater.
Proteins found in any species of algae.
Multicellular, eukaryotic life forms of kingdom Plantae (sensu lato), comprising the VIRIDIPLANTAE; RHODOPHYTA; and GLAUCOPHYTA; all of which acquired chloroplasts by direct endosymbiosis of CYANOBACTERIA. They are characterized by a mainly photosynthetic mode of nutrition; essentially unlimited growth at localized regions of cell divisions (MERISTEMS); cellulose within cells providing rigidity; the absence of organs of locomotion; absence of nervous and sensory systems; and an alternation of haploid and diploid generations.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
The relationship between two different species of organisms that are interdependent; each gains benefits from the other or a relationship between different species where both of the organisms in question benefit from the presence of the other.
PLANTS, or their progeny, whose GENOME has been altered by GENETIC ENGINEERING.
Expanded structures, usually green, of vascular plants, characteristically consisting of a bladelike expansion attached to a stem, and functioning as the principal organ of photosynthesis and transpiration. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2d ed)
Any of the processes by which nuclear, cytoplasmic, or intercellular factors influence the differential control of gene action in plants.
One of the three domains of life (the others being BACTERIA and ARCHAEA), also called Eukarya. These are organisms whose cells are enclosed in membranes and possess a nucleus. They comprise almost all multicellular and many unicellular organisms, and are traditionally divided into groups (sometimes called kingdoms) including ANIMALS; PLANTS; FUNGI; and various algae and other taxa that were previously part of the old kingdom Protista.
A group of amoeboid and flagellate EUKARYOTES in the supergroup RHIZARIA. They feed by means of threadlike pseudopods.
The common name for the phylum of microscopic unicellular STRAMENOPILES. Most are aquatic, being found in fresh, brackish, and salt water. Diatoms are noted for the symmetry and sculpturing of their siliceous cell walls. They account for 40% of PHYTOPLANKTON, but not all diatoms are planktonic.
Plants or plant parts which are harmful to man or other animals.
Those nucleic acid sequences that function as units of heredity which are located within the CHLOROPLAST DNA.
Porphyrin derivatives containing magnesium that act to convert light energy in photosynthetic organisms.
Ribonucleic acid in plants having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
Four PYRROLES joined by one-carbon units linking position 2 of one to position 5 of the next. The conjugated bond system results in PIGMENTATION.
The genetic complement of a plant (PLANTS) as represented in its DNA.
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of algae.
Members of the group of vascular plants which bear flowers. They are differentiated from GYMNOSPERMS by their production of seeds within a closed chamber (OVARY, PLANT). The Angiosperms division is composed of two classes, the monocotyledons (Liliopsida) and dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida). Angiosperms represent approximately 80% of all known living plants.
A group of three related eukaryotic phyla whose members possess an alveolar membrane system, consisting of flattened membrane-bound sacs lying beneath the outer cell membrane.
A photo-active pigment localized in prolamellar bodies occurring within the proplastids of dark-grown bean leaves. In the process of photoconversion, the highly fluorescent protochlorophyllide is converted to chlorophyll.
A phylum of unicellular parasitic EUKARYOTES characterized by the presence of complex apical organelles generally consisting of a conoid that aids in penetrating host cells, rhoptries that possibly secrete a proteolytic enzyme, and subpellicular microtubules that may be related to motility.
A genus of primitive plants in the family Cyanophoraceae, class GLAUCOPHYTA. They contain pigmented ORGANELLES (or PLASTIDS) called cyanelles, which have characteristics of both CYANOBACTERIA and CHLOROPLASTS.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
A phylum of unicellular flagellates of ancient eukaryotic lineage with unclear taxonomy. They lack a CELL WALL but are covered by a proteinaceous flexible coat, the pellicle, that allows the cell to change shape. Historically some authorities considered them to be an order of protozoa and others classed them as ALGAE (some members have CHLOROPLASTS and some don't).
A plant division. They are simple plants that lack vascular tissue and possess rudimentary rootlike organs (rhizoids). Like MOSSES, liverworts have alternation of generations between haploid gamete-bearing forms (gametophytes) and diploid spore-bearing forms (sporophytes).
Membranous cisternae of the CHLOROPLAST containing photosynthetic pigments, reaction centers, and the electron-transport chain. Each thylakoid consists of a flattened sac of membrane enclosing a narrow intra-thylakoid space (Lackie and Dow, Dictionary of Cell Biology, 2nd ed). Individual thylakoids are interconnected and tend to stack to form aggregates called grana. They are found in cyanobacteria and all plants.
The naturally occurring transmission of genetic information between organisms, related or unrelated, circumventing parent-to-offspring transmission. Horizontal gene transfer may occur via a variety of naturally occurring processes such as GENETIC CONJUGATION; GENETIC TRANSDUCTION; and TRANSFECTION. It may result in a change of the recipient organism's genetic composition (TRANSFORMATION, GENETIC).
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared range.
Specific particles of membrane-bound organized living substances present in eukaryotic cells, such as the MITOCHONDRIA; the GOLGI APPARATUS; ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM; LYSOSOMES; PLASTIDS; and VACUOLES.
Any of a group of polysaccharides of the general formula (C6-H10-O5)n, composed of a long-chain polymer of glucose in the form of amylose and amylopectin. It is the chief storage form of energy reserve (carbohydrates) in plants.
A carboxy-lyase that plays a key role in photosynthetic carbon assimilation in the CALVIN-BENSON CYCLE by catalyzing the formation of 3-phosphoglycerate from ribulose 1,5-biphosphate and CARBON DIOXIDE. It can also utilize OXYGEN as a substrate to catalyze the synthesis of 2-phosphoglycolate and 3-phosphoglycerate in a process referred to as photorespiration.
Ribonucleic acid in chloroplasts having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A plant family of the order Orchidales, subclass Liliidae, class Liliopsida (monocotyledons). All orchids have the same bilaterally symmetrical flower structure, with three sepals, but the flowers vary greatly in color and shape.
A plant genus of the family POACEAE. The EDIBLE GRAIN, barley, is widely used as food.
A process that changes the nucleotide sequence of mRNA from that of the DNA template encoding it. Some major classes of RNA editing are as follows: 1, the conversion of cytosine to uracil in mRNA; 2, the addition of variable number of guanines at pre-determined sites; and 3, the addition and deletion of uracils, templated by guide-RNAs (RNA, GUIDE).
A plant family of the order Geraniales, subclass Rosidae, class Magnoliopsida.
A genus of BROWN ALGAE in the family Fucaceae. It is found in temperate, marine intertidal areas along rocky coasts and is a source of ALGINATES. Some species of Fucus are referred to as KELP.
A variable annual leguminous vine (Pisum sativum) that is cultivated for its rounded smooth or wrinkled edible protein-rich seeds, the seed of the pea, and the immature pods with their included seeds. (From Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1973)
A group (or phylum) of unicellular EUKARYOTA (or algae) possessing CHLOROPLASTS and FLAGELLA.
A group of GLYCOLIPIDS in which the sugar group is GALACTOSE. They are distinguished from GLYCOSPHINGOLIPIDS in lacking nitrogen. They constitute the majority of MEMBRANE LIPIDS in PLANTS.
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
Basic functional unit of plants.
The process of moving proteins from one cellular compartment (including extracellular) to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms such as gated transport, protein translocation, and vesicular transport.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, determination of the DNA SEQUENCE, and information analysis.

The Arabidopsis photomorphogenic mutant hy1 is deficient in phytochrome chromophore biosynthesis as a result of a mutation in a plastid heme oxygenase. (1/1280)

The HY1 locus of Arabidopsis is necessary for phytochrome chromophore biosynthesis and is defined by mutants that show a long hypocotyl phenotype when grown in the light. We describe here the molecular cloning of the HY1 gene by using chromosome walking and mutant complementation. The product of the HY1 gene shows significant similarity to animal heme oxygenases and contains a possible transit peptide for transport to plastids. Heme oxygenase activity was detected in the HY1 protein expressed in Escherichia coli. Heme oxygenase catalyzes the oxygenation of heme to biliverdin, an activity that is necessary for phytochrome chromophore biosynthesis. The predicted transit peptide is sufficient to transport the green fluorescent protein into chloroplasts. The accumulation of the HY1 protein in plastids was detected by using immunoblot analysis with an anti-HY1 antiserum. These results indicate that the Arabidopsis HY1 gene encodes a plastid heme oxygenase necessary for phytochrome chromophore biosynthesis.  (+info)

Plastidic pathway of serine biosynthesis. Molecular cloning and expression of 3-phosphoserine phosphatase from Arabidopsis thaliana. (2/1280)

In plants, Ser is biosynthesized by two different pathways: a photorespiratory pathway via Gly and a plastidic pathway via the phosphorylated metabolites from 3-phosphoglycerate. In contrast to the better characterization of the photorespiratory pathway at a molecular level, the molecular regulation and significance of the plastidic pathway are not yet well understood. An Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA encoding 3-phosphoserine phosphatase, the enzyme that is responsible for the conversion of 3-phosphoserine to Ser in the final step of the plastidic pathway of Ser biosynthesis, was cloned by functional complementation of an Escherichia coli serB- mutant. The 1.1-kilobase pair full-length cDNA, encoding 295 amino acids in its open reading frame, contains a putative organelle targeting presequence. Chloroplastic targeting has been demonstrated by particle gun bombardment using an N-terminal 60-amino acid green fluorescence protein fusion protein. Southern hybridization suggested the existence of a single-copy gene that mapped to chromosome 1. 3-Phosphoserine phosphatase enzyme activity was detected in vitro in the overexpressed protein in E. coli. Northern analysis revealed preferential gene expression in leaf and root tissues of light-grown plants with an approximately 1.5-fold abundance in the root compared with the leaf tissues. This indicates the possible role of the plastidic pathway in supplying Ser to non-photosynthetic tissues, in contrast to the function of the photorespiratory pathway in photosynthetic tissues. This work completes the molecular cloning and characterization of the three genes involved in the plastidic pathway of Ser biosynthesis in higher plants.  (+info)

Plastid sedimentation kinetics in roots of wild-type and starch-deficient mutants of Arabidopsis. (3/1280)

Sedimentation and movement of plastids in columella cells of the root cap were measured in seedlings of wild-type, a reduced starch mutant, and a starchless mutant of Arabidopsis. To assay for sedimentation, we used both linear measurements and the change of angle from the cell center as indices in vertical and reoriented plants with the aid of computer-assisted image analysis. Seedlings were fixed at short periods after reorientation, and plastid sedimentation correlated with starch content in the three strains of Arabidopsis. Amyloplasts of wild-type seedlings showed the greatest sedimentation, whereas plastids of the starchless mutant showed no significant sedimentation in the vertically grown and reoriented seedlings. Because previous research has shown that a full complement of starch is needed for full gravitropic sensitivity, this study correlates increased sensitivity with plastid sedimentation. However, although plastid sedimentation contributed to gravisensitivity, it was not required, because the gravitropic starchless mutant had plastids that did not sediment. This is the first study, to our knowledge, to measure plastid sedimentation in Arabidopsis roots after reorientation of seedlings. Taken together, the results of this study are consistent with the classic plastid-based and protoplast-based models of graviperception and suggest that multiple systems of perception exist in plant cells.  (+info)

Homeologous plastid DNA transformation in tobacco is mediated by multiple recombination events. (4/1280)

Efficient plastid transformation has been achieved in Nicotiana tabacum using cloned plastid DNA of Solanum nigrum carrying mutations conferring spectinomycin and streptomycin resistance. The use of the incompletely homologous (homeologous) Solanum plastid DNA as donor resulted in a Nicotiana plastid transformation frequency comparable with that of other experiments where completely homologous plastid DNA was introduced. Physical mapping and nucleotide sequence analysis of the targeted plastid DNA region in the transformants demonstrated efficient site-specific integration of the 7.8-kb Solanum plastid DNA and the exclusion of the vector DNA. The integration of the cloned Solanum plastid DNA into the Nicotiana plastid genome involved multiple recombination events as revealed by the presence of discontinuous tracts of Solanum-specific sequences that were interspersed between Nicotiana-specific markers. Marked position effects resulted in very frequent cointegration of the nonselected peripheral donor markers located adjacent to the vector DNA. Data presented here on the efficiency and features of homeologous plastid DNA recombination are consistent with the existence of an active RecA-mediated, but a diminished mismatch, recombination/repair system in higher-plant plastids.  (+info)

A plastidial lysophosphatidic acid acyltransferase from oilseed rape. (5/1280)

The biosynthesis of phosphatidic acid, a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of lipids, is controlled by lysophosphatidic acid (LPA, or 1-acyl-glycerol-3-P) acyltransferase (LPAAT, EC 2.3.1.51). We have isolated a cDNA encoding a novel LPAAT by functional complementation of the Escherichia coli mutant plsC with an immature embryo cDNA library of oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Transformation of the acyltransferase-deficient E. coli strain JC201 with the cDNA sequence BAT2 alleviated the temperature-sensitive phenotype of the plsC mutant and conferred a palmitoyl-coenzyme A-preferring acyltransferase activity to membrane fractions. The BAT2 cDNA encoded a protein of 351 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 38 kD and an isoelectric point of 9.7. Chloroplast-import experiments showed processing of a BAT2 precursor protein to a mature protein of approximately 32 kD, which was localized in the membrane fraction. BAT2 is encoded by a minimum of two genes that may be expressed ubiquitously. These data are consistent with the identity of BAT2 as the plastidial enzyme of the prokaryotic glycerol-3-P pathway that uses a palmitoyl-ACP to produce phosphatidic acid with a prokaryotic-type acyl composition. The homologies between the deduced protein sequence of BAT2 with prokaryotic and eukaryotic microsomal LAP acytransferases suggest that seed microsomal forms may have evolved from the plastidial enzyme.  (+info)

Molecular phylogenetic analysis among bryophytes and tracheophytes based on combined data of plastid coded genes and the 18S rRNA gene. (6/1280)

The basal relationship of bryophytes and tracheophytes is problematic in land plant phylogeny. In addition to cladistic analyses of morphological data, molecular phylogenetic analyses of the nuclear small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene and the plastic gene rbcL have been performed, but no confident conclusions have been reached. Using the maximum-likelihood (ML) method, we analyzed 4,563 bp of aligned sequences from plastid protein-coding genes and 1,680 bp from the nuclear 18S rRNA gene. In the ML tree of deduced amino acid sequences of the plastid genes, hornworts were basal among the land plants, while mosses and liverworts each formed a clade and were sister to each other. Total-evidence evaluation of rRNA data and plastid protein-coding genes by TOTALML had an almost identical result.  (+info)

Comparative analysis of splicing of the complete set of chloroplast group II introns in three higher plant mutants. (7/1280)

The barley mutant albostrians and the maize mutants crs1 and crs2 are defective in the splicing of various plastid group II introns. By analysing tRNA precursors and several mRNAs not previously examined, the investigation of in vivo splicing defects in these mutants has been completed. The albostrians mutation causes the loss of plastid ribosomes resulting secondarily in a disruption of splicing of all subgroup IIA introns in the chloroplast. Thus MatK, the only putative chloroplast intron-specific maturase of higher plants, might have evolved to function in splicing of multiple introns. We show that in the case of tRNA-Ala(UGC)the first step of splicing is affected, as suggested by the absence of lariat molecules. Thus the plastid-encoded splicing factor lacking in albostrians must participate in the formation of the catalytically active structure. In contrast, a mutation in the nuclear gene crs1 prevents splicing of only one intron but causes specific additional effects as precursor transcripts for tRNA-Ile(GAU), tRNA-Ala(UGC), tRNA-Lys(UUU)and tRNA-Val(UAC), but not tRNA-Gly(UCC), have significantly enhanced steady-state levels in this mutant. Our data provide evidence for a variety of splicing factors and pathways in the chloroplast, some encoded by nuclear and some by chloroplast genes, and possibly for a dual function of some of these factors.  (+info)

The phosphoenolpyruvate/phosphate translocator is required for phenolic metabolism, palisade cell development, and plastid-dependent nuclear gene expression. (8/1280)

The Arabidopsis chlorophyll a/b binding protein (CAB) gene underexpressed 1 (cue1) mutant underexpresses light-regulated nuclear genes encoding chloroplast-localized proteins. cue1 also exhibits mesophyll-specific chloroplast and cellular defects, resulting in reticulate leaves. Both the gene underexpression and the leaf cell morphology phenotypes are dependent on light intensity. In this study, we determine that CUE1 encodes the plastid inner envelope phosphoenolpyruvate/phosphate translocator (PPT) and define amino acid residues that are critical for translocator function. The biosynthesis of aromatics is compromised in cue1, and the reticulate phenotype can be rescued by feeding aromatic amino acids. Determining that CUE1 encodes PPT indicates the in vivo role of the translocator in metabolic partitioning and reveals a mesophyll cell-specific requirement for the translocator in Arabidopsis leaves. The nuclear gene expression defects in cue1 suggest that a light intensity-dependent interorganellar signal is modulated through metabolites dependent on a plastid supply of phosphoenolpyruvate.  (+info)

Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of plants and algae. They are responsible for various cellular functions, including photosynthesis, storage of starch, lipids, and proteins, and the production of pigments that give plants their color. The most common types of plastids are chloroplasts (which contain chlorophyll and are involved in photosynthesis), chromoplasts (which contain pigments such as carotenoids and are responsible for the yellow, orange, and red colors of fruits and flowers), and leucoplasts (which do not contain pigments and serve mainly as storage organelles). Plastids have their own DNA and can replicate themselves within the cell.

A genome is the complete set of genetic material present within an organism. In eukaryotic cells, which include plants, animals, and other complex life forms, the genome is divided into several compartments, including the nucleus (where most of the genetic material is housed) and the plastids (which include chloroplasts in plant cells).

A plastid genome, also known as a plastome, is the genetic material found within a plastid. Plastids are organelles found in the cells of plants, algae, and some protists that are involved in various metabolic processes, including photosynthesis. The plastid genome is typically a circular molecule of DNA that contains genes encoding for proteins, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA) that are necessary for the function and maintenance of the plastid.

The plastid genome is relatively small compared to the nuclear genome, typically ranging from 120-160 kilobases in length. The gene content and organization of plastid genomes are highly conserved across different plant species, making them useful tools for studying evolutionary relationships among plants. Additionally, because plastids are maternally inherited in many plant species, the plastid genome has been used to study patterns of maternal inheritance and hybridization in plants.

Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in the cells of green plants, algae, and some protists. They are responsible for carrying out photosynthesis, which is the process by which these organisms convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, such as glucose.

Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy from the sun. They also contain a system of membranes and enzymes that convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen through a series of chemical reactions known as the Calvin cycle. This process not only provides energy for the organism but also releases oxygen as a byproduct, which is essential for the survival of most life forms on Earth.

Chloroplasts are believed to have originated from ancient cyanobacteria that were engulfed by early eukaryotic cells and eventually became integrated into their host's cellular machinery through a process called endosymbiosis. Over time, chloroplasts evolved to become an essential component of plant and algal cells, contributing to their ability to carry out photosynthesis and thrive in a wide range of environments.

Rhodophyta, also known as red algae, is a division of simple, multicellular and complex marine algae. These organisms are characterized by their red pigmentation due to the presence of phycobiliproteins, specifically R-phycoerythrin and phycocyanin. They lack flagella and centrioles at any stage of their life cycle. The cell walls of Rhodophyta contain cellulose and various sulphated polysaccharides. Some species have calcium carbonate deposits in their cell walls, which contribute to the formation of coral reefs. Reproduction in these organisms is typically alternation of generations with a dominant gametophyte generation. They are an important source of food for many marine animals and have commercial value as well, particularly for the production of agar, carrageenan, and other products used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries.

Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) refers to the genetic material present in the chloroplasts, which are organelles found in the cells of photosynthetic organisms such as plants, algae, and some bacteria. Chloroplasts are responsible for capturing sunlight energy and converting it into chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis.

Chloroplast DNA is circular and contains a small number of genes compared to the nuclear genome. It encodes for some of the essential components required for chloroplast function, including proteins involved in photosynthesis, transcription, and translation. The majority of chloroplast proteins are encoded by the nuclear genome and are imported into the chloroplast after being synthesized in the cytoplasm.

Chloroplast DNA is inherited maternally in most plants, meaning that it is passed down from the maternal parent to their offspring through the egg cell. This mode of inheritance has been used in plant breeding and genetic engineering to introduce desirable traits into crops.

Chloroplasts are organelles found in the cells of plants, algae, and some protists. They are responsible for carrying out photosynthesis, which is the process by which these organisms convert light energy into chemical energy. Chloroplast proteins are the various proteins that are located within the chloroplasts and play a crucial role in the process of photosynthesis.

Chloroplasts contain several types of proteins, including:

1. Structural proteins: These proteins help to maintain the structure and integrity of the chloroplast.
2. Photosynthetic proteins: These are involved in capturing light energy and converting it into chemical energy during photosynthesis. They include proteins such as photosystem I, photosystem II, cytochrome b6f complex, and ATP synthase.
3. Regulatory proteins: These proteins help to regulate the various processes that occur within the chloroplast, including gene expression, protein synthesis, and energy metabolism.
4. Metabolic proteins: These proteins are involved in various metabolic pathways within the chloroplast, such as carbon fixation, amino acid synthesis, and lipid metabolism.
5. Protective proteins: These proteins help to protect the chloroplast from damage caused by reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are produced during photosynthesis.

Overall, chloroplast proteins play a critical role in maintaining the health and function of chloroplasts, and by extension, the overall health and survival of plants and other organisms that contain them.

Cryptophyta is a taxonomic division that refers to a group of unicellular algae called cryptomonads. These organisms are characterized by the presence of unique organelles called ejectisomes, which they use for defense and prey capture. They are also known for having two flagella and distinctive eyespot structures. Cryptophytes are widely distributed in aquatic environments and can be found in both freshwater and marine habitats. Some species are capable of carrying out photosynthesis, while others are heterotrophic, obtaining nutrients by consuming other organisms. The study of cryptomonads is important for understanding the evolution of eukaryotic cells and their complex organelles.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material present in the cells of all living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell, as well as in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA contains the instructions for the development, growth, and function of the plant, and is passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

The structure of DNA is a double helix, formed by two strands of nucleotides that are linked together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming the rungs of the ladder that make up the double helix.

The genetic information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nitrogenous bases. Large sequences of bases form genes, which provide the instructions for the production of proteins. The process of gene expression involves transcribing the DNA sequence into a complementary RNA molecule, which is then translated into a protein.

Plant DNA is similar to animal DNA in many ways, but there are also some differences. For example, plant DNA contains a higher proportion of repetitive sequences and transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move around the genome and cause mutations. Additionally, plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts, which are not present in animal cells, and these structures contain their own DNA.

'Arabidopsis' is a genus of small flowering plants that are part of the mustard family (Brassicaceae). The most commonly studied species within this genus is 'Arabidopsis thaliana', which is often used as a model organism in plant biology and genetics research. This plant is native to Eurasia and Africa, and it has a small genome that has been fully sequenced. It is known for its short life cycle, self-fertilization, and ease of growth, making it an ideal subject for studying various aspects of plant biology, including development, metabolism, and response to environmental stresses.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

"Plant proteins" refer to the proteins that are derived from plant sources. These can include proteins from legumes such as beans, lentils, and peas, as well as proteins from grains like wheat, rice, and corn. Other sources of plant proteins include nuts, seeds, and vegetables.

Plant proteins are made up of individual amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. While animal-based proteins typically contain all of the essential amino acids that the body needs to function properly, many plant-based proteins may be lacking in one or more of these essential amino acids. However, by consuming a variety of plant-based foods throughout the day, it is possible to get all of the essential amino acids that the body needs from plant sources alone.

Plant proteins are often lower in calories and saturated fat than animal proteins, making them a popular choice for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as well as those looking to maintain a healthy weight or reduce their risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Additionally, plant proteins have been shown to have a number of health benefits, including improving gut health, reducing inflammation, and supporting muscle growth and repair.

A chloroplast genome is the entire genetic material that is present in the chloroplasts, which are organelles found in plant cells and some protists. The chloroplast genome is circular in shape and contains about 120-160 kilobases (kb) of DNA. It encodes for a small number of proteins, ribosomal RNAs, and transfer RNAs that are required for the function of the chloroplasts, particularly in photosynthesis. The chloroplast genome is usually inherited maternally, meaning it is passed down from the mother to her offspring.

The chloroplast genome is relatively simple compared to the nuclear genome, which contains many more genes and regulatory elements. However, most of the proteins required for chloroplast function are actually encoded in the nucleus and imported into the chloroplasts. The study of chloroplast genomes can provide insights into the evolutionary history of plants and their photosynthetic ancestors.

Dinoflagellida is a large group of mostly marine planktonic protists, many of which are bioluminescent. Some dinoflagellates are responsible for harmful algal blooms (HABs), also known as "red tides," which can produce toxins that affect marine life and human health.

Dinoflagellates are characterized by two flagella, or whip-like structures, that they use for movement. They have complex cell structures, including a unique structure called the nucleomorph, which is the remnant of a former endosymbiotic event where another eukaryotic cell was engulfed and became part of the dinoflagellate's cell.

Dinoflagellates are important contributors to the marine food chain, serving as both primary producers and consumers. Some species form symbiotic relationships with other marine organisms, such as corals, providing them with nutrients in exchange for protection and other benefits.

A gene in plants, like in other organisms, is a hereditary unit that carries genetic information from one generation to the next. It is a segment of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism. Genes in plants determine various traits such as flower color, plant height, resistance to diseases, and many others. They are responsible for encoding proteins and RNA molecules that play crucial roles in the growth, development, and reproduction of plants. Plant genes can be manipulated through traditional breeding methods or genetic engineering techniques to improve crop yield, enhance disease resistance, and increase nutritional value.

Photosynthesis is not strictly a medical term, but it is a fundamental biological process with significant implications for medicine, particularly in understanding energy production in cells and the role of oxygen in sustaining life. Here's a general biological definition:

Photosynthesis is a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy, usually from the sun, into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, such as glucose (or sugar), using water and carbon dioxide. This process primarily takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells, specifically in structures called thylakoids. The overall reaction can be summarized as:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

In this equation, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are the reactants, while glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2) are the products. Photosynthesis has two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle). The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane and involve the conversion of light energy into ATP and NADPH, which are used to power the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts and involves the synthesis of glucose from CO2 and water using the ATP and NADPH generated during the light-dependent reactions.

Understanding photosynthesis is crucial for understanding various biological processes, including cellular respiration, plant metabolism, and the global carbon cycle. Additionally, research into artificial photosynthesis has potential applications in renewable energy production and environmental remediation.

"Oenothera" is a botanical term for a genus of plants commonly known as evening primroses. It's not typically used in a medical context, but the plants do have some medicinal uses. For instance, certain species of Oenothera are used in herbal medicine for their soothing properties, particularly for skin irritations and digestive issues. However, it's important to note that the use of these plants in a medical context should be under the guidance of a healthcare professional, as they can also have side effects and interact with other medications.

Tobacco is not a medical term, but it refers to the leaves of the plant Nicotiana tabacum that are dried and fermented before being used in a variety of ways. Medically speaking, tobacco is often referred to in the context of its health effects. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "tobacco" can also refer to any product prepared from the leaf of the tobacco plant for smoking, sucking, chewing or snuffing.

Tobacco use is a major risk factor for a number of diseases, including cancer, heart disease, stroke, lung disease, and various other medical conditions. The smoke produced by burning tobacco contains thousands of chemicals, many of which are toxic and can cause serious health problems. Nicotine, one of the primary active constituents in tobacco, is highly addictive and can lead to dependence.

'Cuscuta' is a genus of parasitic plants in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Commonly known as dodder, these plants have reduced leaves and stems that are twining tendrils, which coil around the stems of other plants to draw nutrients from them. Cuscuta species can cause significant damage to crops and are considered pests in agriculture.

In a medical context, 'Cuscuta' is not commonly used as a term. However, some species of Cuscuta have been used in traditional medicine in various parts of the world. For example, Cuscuta chinensis and Cuscuta europaea are sometimes used in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) for their supposed benefits to the kidneys, liver, and eyesight. However, it is important to note that the scientific evidence supporting these claims is limited, and more research is needed before any firm conclusions can be drawn about their safety and efficacy as medical treatments.

Arabidopsis proteins refer to the proteins that are encoded by the genes in the Arabidopsis thaliana plant, which is a model organism commonly used in plant biology research. This small flowering plant has a compact genome and a short life cycle, making it an ideal subject for studying various biological processes in plants.

Arabidopsis proteins play crucial roles in many cellular functions, such as metabolism, signaling, regulation of gene expression, response to environmental stresses, and developmental processes. Research on Arabidopsis proteins has contributed significantly to our understanding of plant biology and has provided valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying various agronomic traits.

Some examples of Arabidopsis proteins include transcription factors, kinases, phosphatases, receptors, enzymes, and structural proteins. These proteins can be studied using a variety of techniques, such as biochemical assays, protein-protein interaction studies, and genetic approaches, to understand their functions and regulatory mechanisms in plants.

Chlorophyta is a division of green algae, also known as green plants. This group includes a wide variety of simple, aquatic organisms that contain chlorophylls a and b, which gives them their characteristic green color. They are a diverse group, ranging from unicellular forms to complex multicellular seaweeds. Chlorophyta is a large and varied division with approximately 7,00

Algal proteins are a type of protein that are derived from algae, which are simple, plant-like organisms that live in water. These proteins can be extracted and isolated from the algae through various processing methods and can then be used as a source of nutrition for both humans and animals.

Algal proteins are considered to be a complete protein source because they contain all of the essential amino acids that the body cannot produce on its own. They are also rich in other nutrients, such as vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Some species of algae, such as spirulina and chlorella, have particularly high protein contents, making them a popular choice for use in dietary supplements and functional foods.

In addition to their nutritional benefits, algal proteins are also being studied for their potential therapeutic uses. For example, some research suggests that they may have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immune-boosting properties. However, more research is needed to confirm these potential health benefits and to determine the optimal dosages and methods of use.

I apologize for any confusion, but "plants" is not a term that has a medical definition. The term "plants" refers to a large and diverse group of organisms that obtain their energy through photosynthesis, which is the process of converting sunlight into chemical energy. Plants are typically characterized by having cells with cell walls containing cellulose, chloroplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll, and the ability to synthesize their own food through photosynthesis.

In a medical or biological context, you might be thinking of "plant-based" or "phytomedicine," which refer to the use of plants or plant extracts as a form of medicine or treatment. Phytomedicines have been used for thousands of years in many traditional systems of medicine, and some plant-derived compounds have been found to have therapeutic benefits in modern medicine as well. However, "plants" itself does not have a medical definition.

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

In the context of medicine and biology, symbiosis is a type of close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms. Generally, one organism, called the symbiont, lives inside or on another organism, called the host. This interaction can be mutually beneficial (mutualistic), harmful to the host organism (parasitic), or have no effect on either organism (commensal).

Examples of mutualistic symbiotic relationships in humans include the bacteria that live in our gut and help us digest food, as well as the algae that live inside corals and provide them with nutrients. Parasitic symbioses, on the other hand, involve organisms like viruses or parasitic worms that live inside a host and cause harm to it.

It's worth noting that while the term "symbiosis" is often used in popular culture to refer to any close relationship between two organisms, in scientific contexts it has a more specific meaning related to long-term biological interactions.

Genetically modified plants (GMPs) are plants that have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering techniques to exhibit desired traits. These modifications can be made to enhance certain characteristics such as increased resistance to pests, improved tolerance to environmental stresses like drought or salinity, or enhanced nutritional content. The process often involves introducing genes from other organisms, such as bacteria or viruses, into the plant's genome. Examples of GMPs include Bt cotton, which has a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis that makes it resistant to certain pests, and golden rice, which is engineered to contain higher levels of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. It's important to note that genetically modified plants are subject to rigorous testing and regulation to ensure their safety for human consumption and environmental impact before they are approved for commercial use.

I believe there may be a slight misunderstanding in your question. "Plant leaves" are not a medical term, but rather a general biological term referring to a specific organ found in plants.

Leaves are organs that are typically flat and broad, and they are the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants. They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is essential for capturing sunlight and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

While leaves do not have a direct medical definition, understanding their structure and function can be important in various medical fields, such as pharmacognosy (the study of medicinal plants) or environmental health. For example, certain plant leaves may contain bioactive compounds that have therapeutic potential, while others may produce allergens or toxins that can impact human health.

Gene expression regulation in plants refers to the processes that control the production of proteins and RNA from the genes present in the plant's DNA. This regulation is crucial for normal growth, development, and response to environmental stimuli in plants. It can occur at various levels, including transcription (the first step in gene expression, where the DNA sequence is copied into RNA), RNA processing (such as alternative splicing, which generates different mRNA molecules from a single gene), translation (where the information in the mRNA is used to produce a protein), and post-translational modification (where proteins are chemically modified after they have been synthesized).

In plants, gene expression regulation can be influenced by various factors such as hormones, light, temperature, and stress. Plants use complex networks of transcription factors, chromatin remodeling complexes, and small RNAs to regulate gene expression in response to these signals. Understanding the mechanisms of gene expression regulation in plants is important for basic research, as well as for developing crops with improved traits such as increased yield, stress tolerance, and disease resistance.

Eukaryota is a domain that consists of organisms whose cells have a true nucleus and complex organelles. This domain includes animals, plants, fungi, and protists. The term "eukaryote" comes from the Greek words "eu," meaning true or good, and "karyon," meaning nut or kernel. In eukaryotic cells, the genetic material is housed within a membrane-bound nucleus, and the DNA is organized into chromosomes. This is in contrast to prokaryotic cells, which do not have a true nucleus and have their genetic material dispersed throughout the cytoplasm.

Eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells. They have many different organelles, including mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus, that perform specific functions to support the cell's metabolism and survival. Eukaryotic cells also have a cytoskeleton made up of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments, which provide structure and shape to the cell and allow for movement of organelles and other cellular components.

Eukaryotes are diverse and can be found in many different environments, ranging from single-celled organisms that live in water or soil to multicellular organisms that live on land or in aquatic habitats. Some eukaryotes are unicellular, meaning they consist of a single cell, while others are multicellular, meaning they consist of many cells that work together to form tissues and organs.

In summary, Eukaryota is a domain of organisms whose cells have a true nucleus and complex organelles. This domain includes animals, plants, fungi, and protists, and the eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells.

Cercozoa is a major group of predominantly heterotrophic protists that are characterized by the presence of unique feeding structures called "cercomonads" or "filose pseudopodia." These pseudopods are thin, filamentous extensions used for capturing and engulfing prey. Cercozoa includes a wide variety of species, many of which are important decomposers and contributors to nutrient cycling in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Some members of this group can form symbiotic relationships with other organisms or have the ability to photosynthesize through endosymbiosis with algae. Due to their diverse morphology, ecological roles, and molecular characteristics, Cercozoa has been challenging to define and classify precisely, but recent advances in molecular phylogeny have helped clarify its position within the eukaryotic tree of life.

Diatoms are a major group of microscopic algae (single-celled organisms) that are widely distributed in both marine and freshwater environments. They are an important part of the aquatic food chain, serving as primary producers that convert sunlight and nutrients into organic matter through photosynthesis.

Diatoms have unique cell walls made of biogenic silica, which gives them a glass-like appearance. These cell walls often have intricate patterns and structures, making diatoms an important group in the study of nanotechnology and materials science. Additionally, diatomaceous earth, a sedimentary rock formed from fossilized diatom shells, has various industrial uses such as filtration, abrasives, and insecticides.

Diatoms are also significant in the Earth's carbon cycle, contributing to the sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide through their photosynthetic activities. They play a crucial role in the ocean's biological pump, which helps regulate the global climate by transporting carbon from the surface ocean to the deep sea.

'Toxic plants' refer to those species of plants that contain toxic substances capable of causing harmful effects or adverse health reactions in humans and animals when ingested, touched, or inhaled. These toxins can cause a range of symptoms from mild irritation to serious conditions such as organ failure, paralysis, or even death depending on the plant, the amount consumed, and the individual's sensitivity to the toxin.

Toxic plants may contain various types of toxins, including alkaloids, glycosides, proteins, resinous substances, and essential oils. Some common examples of toxic plants include poison ivy, poison oak, nightshade, hemlock, oleander, castor bean, and foxglove. It is important to note that some parts of a plant may be toxic while others are not, and the toxicity can also vary depending on the stage of growth or environmental conditions.

If you suspect exposure to a toxic plant, it is essential to seek medical attention immediately and, if possible, bring a sample of the plant for identification.

Chloroplast genes refer to the genetic material present within chloroplasts, which are specialized organelles in plant and algal cells that conduct photosynthesis. Chloroplasts have their own DNA, separate from the nuclear DNA of the cell, and can replicate independently. The chloroplast genome is relatively small and contains codes for some of the essential proteins required for photosynthesis and chloroplast function.

The chloroplast genome typically includes genes for components of the photosystems, such as Psa and Psb genes that encode for subunits of Photosystem I and II respectively, as well as genes for the large and small ribosomal RNAs (rRNA) and transfer RNAs (tRNA) required for protein synthesis within the chloroplast. However, many chloroplast proteins are actually encoded by nuclear genes and are imported into the chloroplast after their synthesis in the cytoplasm.

It is believed that chloroplasts originated from ancient photosynthetic bacteria through endosymbiosis, where the bacterial cells were engulfed by a eukaryotic cell and eventually became permanent organelles within the host cell. Over time, much of the bacterial genome was either lost or transferred to the host cell's nucleus, resulting in the modern-day chloroplast genome.

Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of photosynthetic plants, algae, and some bacteria. It plays an essential role in light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis by absorbing light energy, primarily from the blue and red parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and converting it into chemical energy to fuel the synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. The structure of chlorophyll includes a porphyrin ring, which binds a central magnesium ion, and a long phytol tail. There are several types of chlorophyll, including chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, which have distinct absorption spectra and slightly different structures. Chlorophyll is crucial for the process of photosynthesis, enabling the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy and the release of oxygen as a byproduct.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) in plants refers to the long, single-stranded molecules that are essential for the translation of genetic information from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into proteins. RNA is a nucleic acid, like DNA, and it is composed of a ribose sugar backbone with attached nitrogenous bases (adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine).

In plants, there are several types of RNA that play specific roles in the gene expression process:

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): This type of RNA carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a sequence of three-base code units called codons. These codons specify the order of amino acids in a protein.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA): tRNAs are small RNA molecules that serve as adaptors between the mRNA and the amino acids during protein synthesis. Each tRNA has a specific anticodon sequence that base-pairs with a complementary codon on the mRNA, and it carries a specific amino acid that corresponds to that codon.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): rRNAs are structural components of ribosomes, which are large macromolecular complexes where protein synthesis occurs. In plants, there are several types of rRNAs, including the 18S, 5.8S, and 25S/28S rRNAs, that form the core of the ribosome and help catalyze peptide bond formation during protein synthesis.
4. Small nuclear RNA (snRNA): These are small RNA molecules that play a role in RNA processing, such as splicing, where introns (non-coding sequences) are removed from pre-mRNA and exons (coding sequences) are joined together to form mature mRNAs.
5. MicroRNA (miRNA): These are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by binding to complementary sequences in target mRNAs, leading to their degradation or translation inhibition.

Overall, these different types of RNAs play crucial roles in various aspects of RNA metabolism, gene regulation, and protein synthesis in plants.

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

Tetrapyrroles are a class of organic compounds that contain four pyrrole rings joined together in a macrocyclic structure. They are important in biology because they form the core structure of many essential cofactors and prosthetic groups in proteins, including heme, chlorophyll, and cobalamin (vitamin B12).

Heme is a tetrapyrrole that contains iron and is a crucial component of hemoglobin, the protein responsible for oxygen transport in red blood cells. Chlorophyll is another tetrapyrrole that contains magnesium and plays a vital role in photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy. Cobalamin contains cobalt and is essential for DNA synthesis, fatty acid metabolism, and neurotransmitter synthesis.

Abnormalities in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis can lead to various diseases, such as porphyrias, which are characterized by the accumulation of toxic intermediates in the heme biosynthetic pathway.

A plant genome refers to the complete set of genetic material or DNA present in the cells of a plant. It contains all the hereditary information necessary for the development and functioning of the plant, including its structural and functional characteristics. The plant genome includes both coding regions that contain instructions for producing proteins and non-coding regions that have various regulatory functions.

The plant genome is composed of several types of DNA molecules, including chromosomes, which are located in the nucleus of the cell. Each chromosome contains one or more genes, which are segments of DNA that code for specific proteins or RNA molecules. Plants typically have multiple sets of chromosomes, with each set containing a complete copy of the genome.

The study of plant genomes is an active area of research in modern biology, with important applications in areas such as crop improvement, evolutionary biology, and medical research. Advances in DNA sequencing technologies have made it possible to determine the complete sequences of many plant genomes, providing valuable insights into their structure, function, and evolution.

I'm not a medical expert, but I can provide you with some information about algal DNA.

Algal DNA refers to the genetic material found in algae, which are simple, photosynthetic organisms that live in various aquatic environments. The DNA of algae is similar to that of other living organisms, as it carries the genetic instructions necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of these single-celled or multicellular life forms.

Algal DNA can be found in different types of algae, including:

1. Chlorophyta (green algae)
2. Rhodophyta (red algae)
3. Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
4. Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae or cyanoprokaryotes, which are actually bacteria with photosynthetic capabilities)

These different groups of algae have unique characteristics and ecological roles in their environments. Studying the DNA of algae can help researchers understand their evolutionary relationships, genetic diversity, and potential applications in various fields such as biotechnology, bioenergy, and environmental science.

Angiosperms, also known as flowering plants, are a group of plants that produce seeds enclosed within an ovary. The term "angiosperm" comes from the Greek words "angeion," meaning "case" or "capsule," and "sperma," meaning "seed." This group includes the majority of plant species, with over 300,000 known species.

Angiosperms are characterized by their reproductive structures, which consist of flowers. The flower contains male and female reproductive organs, including stamens (which produce pollen) and carpels (which contain the ovules). After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed, while the ovary matures into a fruit, which provides protection and nutrition for the developing embryo.

Angiosperms are further divided into two main groups: monocots and eudicots. Monocots have one cotyledon or embryonic leaf, while eudicots have two. Examples of monocots include grasses, lilies, and orchids, while examples of eudicots include roses, sunflowers, and legumes.

Angiosperms are ecologically and economically important, providing food, shelter, and other resources for many organisms, including humans. They have evolved a wide range of adaptations to different environments, from the desert to the ocean floor, making them one of the most diverse and successful groups of plants on Earth.

Alveolata is a group of predominantly unicellular eukaryotes that includes dinoflagellates, apicomplexans (such as Plasmodium, the causative agent of malaria), and ciliates. This grouping is based on the presence of unique organelles called alveoli, which are membrane-bound sacs or vesicles located just beneath the cell membrane. These alveoli provide structural support and may also be involved in various cellular processes such as osmoregulation, nutrient uptake, and attachment to surfaces.

The medical significance of Alveolata lies primarily within the Apicomplexa, which contains many important parasites that infect humans and animals. These include Plasmodium spp., which cause malaria; Toxoplasma gondii, which causes toxoplasmosis; and Cryptosporidium parvum, which is responsible for cryptosporidiosis. Understanding the biology and behavior of these parasites at the cellular level can provide valuable insights into their pathogenesis, transmission, and potential treatment strategies.

Protochlorophyllide is a pigment involved in the process of photosynthesis. It is a precursor to chlorophyll, which is the main pigment responsible for light absorption during photosynthesis. Protochlorophyllide is present in the chloroplasts of plant cells and certain types of algae. It is converted to chlorophyllide by the action of light during the process of photoactivation, which is the activation of a chemical reaction by light. Defects in the biosynthesis of protochlorophyllide can lead to certain types of genetic disorders that affect photosynthesis and plant growth.

Apicomplexa is a phylum of single-celled, parasitic organisms that includes several medically important genera, such as Plasmodium (which causes malaria), Toxoplasma (which causes toxoplasmosis), and Cryptosporidium (which causes cryptosporidiosis). These organisms are characterized by the presence of a unique apical complex, which is a group of specialized structures at one end of the cell that are used during invasion and infection of host cells. They have a complex life cycle involving multiple stages, including sexual and asexual reproduction, often in different hosts. Many Apicomplexa are intracellular parasites, meaning they live and multiply inside the cells of their hosts.

Cyanophora is a genus of photosynthetic organisms belonging to the kingdom Protista. More specifically, it belongs to the group Glaucophyta, which are often referred to as glaucophyte algae. These organisms are characterized by having a unique type of chloroplast called a cyanelle, which is surrounded by two membranes and contains chlorophyll a and phycobiliproteins for photosynthesis. The cyanelles of Cyanophora are thought to have originated from an endosymbiotic event involving a cyanobacterium, making them interesting models for studying the evolution of photosynthesis in eukaryotes.

Cyanophora is typically found in freshwater environments and can be identified by its distinctive morphology, which includes two flagella and a characteristic "eyespot" structure that helps it detect light. It is also notable for having a complex cell wall that contains both cellulose and pectin, making it an important subject of study for researchers interested in the evolution of plant cells.

Overall, Cyanophora is an important genus of protists that provides valuable insights into the origins and evolution of photosynthesis and eukaryotic cell structure.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

Euglenida is a group of unicellular organisms that are characterized by having a flexible, elongated shape and a pair of flagella used for movement. They belong to the kingdom Protista and can be found in various aquatic environments. Some members of this group have chloroplasts and can perform photosynthesis, while others are heterotrophic and obtain their nutrients by consuming other organisms or organic matter.

Euglenids are known for their ability to change their shape and movement patterns in response to environmental stimuli, such as light and chemicals. They have a unique eyespot that detects light and helps them to navigate towards sources of light. Some euglenids also have the ability to form temporary cysts to survive unfavorable conditions.

Euglenida is a diverse group with over 700 species, some of which are important members of the plankton community in aquatic ecosystems. While they are generally harmless to humans and other animals, some species can produce toxins that can be harmful to other organisms in their environment.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hepatophyta" is not a valid medical or scientific term in modern usage. It appears to be a combination of the Greek word "hepar" meaning "liver" and the suffix "-phyta" which is used to denote a plant or group of plants in taxonomy. However, it is not a term that is recognized or used in modern biology or medicine.

It's possible that you may be thinking of "Hepatica," which is a genus of flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae. These plants are also known as liverworts, although they should not be confused with actual liverworts, which are non-vascular plants in the division Marchantiophyta.

If you have any further questions or if there is another term you would like me to define, please let me know!

Thylakoids are membrane-bound structures located in the chloroplasts of plant cells and some protists. They are the site of the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate). Thylakoids have a characteristic stacked or disc-like structure, called grana, and are interconnected by unstacked regions called stroma lamellae. The arrangement of thylakoids in grana increases the surface area for absorption of light energy, allowing for more efficient photosynthesis.

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT), also known as lateral gene transfer, is the movement of genetic material between organisms in a manner other than from parent to offspring (vertical gene transfer). In horizontal gene transfer, an organism can take up genetic material directly from its environment and incorporate it into its own genome. This process is common in bacteria and archaea, but has also been observed in eukaryotes including plants and animals.

Horizontal gene transfer can occur through several mechanisms, including:

1. Transformation: the uptake of free DNA from the environment by a cell.
2. Transduction: the transfer of genetic material between cells by a virus (bacteriophage).
3. Conjugation: the direct transfer of genetic material between two cells in physical contact, often facilitated by a conjugative plasmid or other mobile genetic element.

Horizontal gene transfer can play an important role in the evolution and adaptation of organisms, allowing them to acquire new traits and functions rapidly. It is also of concern in the context of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and antibiotic resistance, as it can facilitate the spread of genes that confer resistance or other undesirable traits.

In the context of medical terminology, "light" doesn't have a specific or standardized definition on its own. However, it can be used in various medical terms and phrases. For example, it could refer to:

1. Visible light: The range of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye, typically between wavelengths of 400-700 nanometers. This is relevant in fields such as ophthalmology and optometry.
2. Therapeutic use of light: In some therapies, light is used to treat certain conditions. An example is phototherapy, which uses various wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) or visible light for conditions like newborn jaundice, skin disorders, or seasonal affective disorder.
3. Light anesthesia: A state of reduced consciousness in which the patient remains responsive to verbal commands and physical stimulation. This is different from general anesthesia where the patient is completely unconscious.
4. Pain relief using light: Certain devices like transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units have a 'light' setting, indicating lower intensity or frequency of electrical impulses used for pain management.

Without more context, it's hard to provide a precise medical definition of 'light'.

Organelles are specialized structures within cells that perform specific functions essential for the cell's survival and proper functioning. They can be thought of as the "organs" of the cell, and they are typically membrane-bound to separate them from the rest of the cellular cytoplasm. Examples of organelles include the nucleus (which contains the genetic material), mitochondria (which generate energy for the cell), ribosomes (which synthesize proteins), endoplasmic reticulum (which is involved in protein and lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (which modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport), lysosomes (which break down waste materials and cellular debris), peroxisomes (which detoxify harmful substances and produce certain organic compounds), and vacuoles (which store nutrients and waste products). The specific organelles present in a cell can vary depending on the type of cell and its function.

I'm happy to help! However, it seems there might be a bit of confusion here. Starch is not typically considered a medical term, but rather a nutritional and biochemical concept. Here's a brief explanation:

Starch is a complex carbohydrate that serves as the primary form of energy storage in plants. It is made up of long chains of glucose molecules and can be found in various foods such as grains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables. Amylase, an enzyme present in our saliva and digestive system, helps break down starch into simpler sugars during the digestion process so that our bodies can absorb them for energy.

I hope this clarifies any confusion! If you have any other questions or need further information on a medical topic, please don't hesitate to ask.

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) is a crucial enzyme in the Calvin cycle, which is a process that plants use to convert carbon dioxide into glucose during photosynthesis. RuBisCO catalyzes the reaction between ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate and carbon dioxide, resulting in the formation of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, which can then be converted into glucose.

RuBisCO is considered to be the most abundant enzyme on Earth, making up as much as 50% of the soluble protein found in leaves. It is a large and complex enzyme, consisting of eight small subunits and eight large subunits that are arranged in a barrel-shaped structure. The active site of the enzyme, where the reaction between ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate and carbon dioxide takes place, is located at the interface between two large subunits.

RuBisCO also has a secondary function as an oxygenase, which can lead to the production of glycolate, a toxic compound for plants. This reaction occurs when the enzyme binds with oxygen instead of carbon dioxide and is more prevalent in environments with low carbon dioxide concentrations and high oxygen concentrations. The glycolate produced during this process needs to be recycled through a series of reactions known as photorespiration, which can result in significant energy loss for the plant.

I'm happy to help! However, I believe there might be a slight confusion in your question. RNA and chloroplasts are two different biological concepts. Let me clarify:

1. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): It is a type of nucleic acid that plays several crucial roles in the process of translation, decoding the genetic information stored in DNA into proteins. There are three main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).

2. Chloroplasts: They are specialized organelles found in the cells of green plants, algae, and some protists. Chloroplasts are responsible for capturing sunlight's energy and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis, which is used to produce glucose and oxygen.

There is no medical definition directly related to 'RNA, chloroplast' as they are separate concepts in biology. However, RNA does play a role in the expression of genes found within the chloroplast genome during photosynthesis. If you have any further questions or need more information about either concept, please let me know!

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

"Orchidaceae" is not a medical term. It is the scientific name for the orchid family, which is a group of flowering plants known for their often elaborate and beautiful flowers. The term "orchidaceae" comes from the Greek word "orkhis," meaning "testicle," likely referring to the shape of the twin tubers in some species.

If you have any medical concerns or questions, I would be happy to help if you could provide more information about what you are looking for.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hordeum" is not a medical term. It is actually the genus name for barley in botany. If you have any medical terms or concepts that you would like me to explain, please let me know!

RNA editing is a process that alters the sequence of a transcribed RNA molecule after it has been synthesized from DNA, but before it is translated into protein. This can result in changes to the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein or to the regulation of gene expression. The most common type of RNA editing in mammals is the hydrolytic deamination of adenosine (A) to inosine (I), catalyzed by a family of enzymes called adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs). Inosine is recognized as guanosine (G) by the translation machinery, leading to A-to-G changes in the RNA sequence. Other types of RNA editing include cytidine (C) to uridine (U) deamination and insertion/deletion of nucleotides. RNA editing is a crucial mechanism for generating diversity in gene expression and has been implicated in various biological processes, including development, differentiation, and disease.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Geraniaceae" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic category in botany, referring to the family of flowering plants that includes geraniums, pelargoniums (often also called geraniums in common language), and several other related genera.

If you have any medical terms or concepts you'd like me to define or explain, I'd be happy to help!

"Fucus" is a genus of brown seaweed that commonly goes by the name "bladderwrack." It's often found in cooler waters in the Northern Hemisphere, particularly in the Baltic Sea and the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

In a medical or pharmacological context, "fucus" is sometimes used to refer specifically to the extracts or compounds derived from this seaweed. These extracts contain various substances, such as iodine, fucoidan, fucoxanthin, and alginic acid, which have been studied for their potential health benefits.

For example, fucoidan has been investigated for its anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, and antitumor properties, while fucoxanthin has shown promise in weight loss studies due to its potential to increase metabolism. However, more research is needed to confirm these effects and establish recommended dosages and safety guidelines.

It's important to note that while some natural health products may contain fucus extracts, they should not be used as a substitute for medical treatment or professional advice. Always consult with a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "peas" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. Peas are a type of legume that is commonly consumed as a vegetable. They are rich in nutrients such as protein, fiber, vitamin C, and vitamin K. If you have any questions about the health benefits or potential risks of consuming peas, I would be happy to try to help with that.

Haptophyta is a group of unicellular algae also known as Prymnesiophytes. They are characterized by the presence of unique organelles called haptonema, which is used for attachment and possibly feeding. Many species have calcium carbonate scales or plates in their cell walls. Haptophyta are important primary producers in marine environments and some of them can form harmful algal blooms. They are also known to produce a wide range of bioactive compounds.

Galactolipids are a type of glycolipid, which are lipids that contain a carbohydrate moiety. They are the most abundant lipids in plant chloroplasts and play important roles in membrane structure and function. The term "galactolipid" refers to lipids that contain one or more galactose molecules as their polar headgroup.

The two major types of galactolipids are monogalactosyldiacylglycerols (MGDGs) and digalactosyldiacylglycerols (DGDGs). MGDGs contain a single galactose molecule, while DGDGs contain two. These lipids are important components of the thylakoid membrane in chloroplasts, where they help to maintain the structural integrity and fluidity of the membrane, as well as facilitate the movement of proteins and other molecules within it.

In addition to their role in plant cells, galactolipids have also been found to be important in animal cells, particularly in the brain. They are a major component of myelin sheaths, which surround and insulate nerve fibers, allowing for efficient electrical signaling. Abnormalities in galactolipid metabolism have been linked to several neurological disorders, including multiple sclerosis and Krabbe disease.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in the eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as DNA molecules in complex with proteins, RNA molecules, and histones to form chromosomes.

The primary function of the cell nucleus is to regulate and control the activities of the cell, including growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction. It also plays a crucial role in the process of mitosis (cell division) by separating and protecting the genetic material during this process. The nuclear membrane, or nuclear envelope, surrounding the nucleus is composed of two lipid bilayers with numerous pores that allow for the selective transport of molecules between the nucleoplasm (nucleus interior) and the cytoplasm (cell exterior).

The cell nucleus is a vital structure in eukaryotic cells, and its dysfunction can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

A plant cell is defined as a type of eukaryotic cell that makes up the structural basis of plants and other forms of multicellular plant-like organisms, such as algae and mosses. These cells are typically characterized by their rigid cell walls, which provide support and protection, and their large vacuoles, which store nutrients and help maintain turgor pressure within the cell.

Plant cells also contain chloroplasts, organelles that carry out photosynthesis and give plants their green color. Other distinctive features of plant cells include a large central vacuole, a complex system of membranes called the endoplasmic reticulum, and numerous mitochondria, which provide energy to the cell through cellular respiration.

Plant cells are genetically distinct from animal cells, and they have unique structures and functions that allow them to carry out photosynthesis, grow and divide, and respond to their environment. Understanding the structure and function of plant cells is essential for understanding how plants grow, develop, and interact with their surroundings.

Protein transport, in the context of cellular biology, refers to the process by which proteins are actively moved from one location to another within or between cells. This is a crucial mechanism for maintaining proper cell function and regulation.

Intracellular protein transport involves the movement of proteins within a single cell. Proteins can be transported across membranes (such as the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, or plasma membrane) via specialized transport systems like vesicles and transport channels.

Intercellular protein transport refers to the movement of proteins from one cell to another, often facilitated by exocytosis (release of proteins in vesicles) and endocytosis (uptake of extracellular substances via membrane-bound vesicles). This is essential for communication between cells, immune response, and other physiological processes.

It's important to note that any disruption in protein transport can lead to various diseases, including neurological disorders, cancer, and metabolic conditions.

DNA Sequence Analysis is the systematic determination of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. It is a critical component of modern molecular biology, genetics, and genetic engineering. The process involves determining the exact order of the four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - in a DNA molecule or fragment. This information is used in various applications such as identifying gene mutations, studying evolutionary relationships, developing molecular markers for breeding, and diagnosing genetic diseases.

The process of DNA Sequence Analysis typically involves several steps, including DNA extraction, PCR amplification (if necessary), purification, sequencing reaction, and electrophoresis. The resulting data is then analyzed using specialized software to determine the exact sequence of nucleotides.

In recent years, high-throughput DNA sequencing technologies have revolutionized the field of genomics, enabling the rapid and cost-effective sequencing of entire genomes. This has led to an explosion of genomic data and new insights into the genetic basis of many diseases and traits.

... contain few plastids, to 100 or fewer in mature cells, where plastid divisions have given rise to a large number of plastids. ... whereas many gymnosperms inherit plastids from the male pollen. Algae also inherit plastids from only one parent. The plastid ... The plastid (Greek: πλαστός; plastós: formed, molded - plural plastids) is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cells of ... Each plastid creates multiple copies of a circular 10-250 kilobase plastome. The number of genome copies per plastid is ...
Tertiary plastids are believed to have been derived from a red algae replacing secondary plastids. Consistent with our previous ... There are many types of plastids in plants alone, but all plastids can be separated based on the number of times they have ... A plastid is a membrane-bound organelle found in plants, algae and other eukaryotic organisms that contribute to the production ... However, most plastids rarely exceed 200 protein coding genes. A recent study sequenced the genome of a cyanobacterium that was ...
The lack of plastid terminal oxidase indirectly causes photodamage during plastid development because protective carotenoids ... Plastid terminal oxidase or plastoquinol terminal oxidase (PTOX) is an enzyme that resides on the thylakoid membranes of plant ... Plastid terminal oxidase is an integral membrane protein, or more specifically, an integral monotopic protein and is bound to ... Plastid terminal oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of the plastoquinone pool, which exerts a variety of effects on the ...
The bacterial, archaeal and plant plastid code (translation table 11) is the DNA code used by bacteria, archaea, prokaryotic ...
Plastid Chloroplast and etioplast Chromoplast Leucoplast Amyloplast Proteinoplast Wise RR (2007). "The Diversity of Plastid ... van Wijk KJ, Kessler F (April 2017). "Plastoglobuli: Plastid Microcompartments with Integrated Functions in Metabolism, Plastid ... plastid genome) with all other plastids and are predominately inherited maternally in angiosperms. As its name implies, ... Like most plastids, elaioplasts reproduce through binary fission independent from the division of the parent cell, a feature ...
Howe, C.J.; Barbrook, A.C.; Nisbet, R.E.R; Lockhart, P.J.; Larkum, A.W.D. (2008). "The Origin of Plastids". Philosophical ... Other plastids contain storage products such as starch (amyloplasts) or lipids (elaioplasts). Uniquely, streptophyte cells and ... Kim, E.; Archibald, J.M. (2009). "Diversity and Evolution of Plastids and Their Genomes". In Sandelius, Anna Stina; Aronsson, ... larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in ...
Reyes-Prieto A, Weber AP, Bhattacharya D (2007). "The origin and establishment of the plastid in algae and plants". Annual ... Howe CJ, Barbrook AC, Nisbet RE, Lockhart PJ, Larkum AW (August 2008). "The origin of plastids". Philosophical Transactions of ... Archibald JM (August 2015). "Genomic perspectives on the birth and spread of plastids". Proceedings of the National Academy of ... Archibald JM (January 2009). "The puzzle of plastid evolution". Current Biology. 19 (2): R81-R88. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.11.067 ...
The plastids are discoid. At least one species, B. solitarium, exists as single cells. Bacteriastrum biconicum Bacteriastrum ...
Wise RR, Hoober JK (2006-01-01). "The Diversity of Plastid Form and Function". The structure and function of plastids. Vol. 23 ... Amyloplasts are a type of plastid, double-enveloped organelles in plant cells that are involved in various biological pathways ... Starch synthesis and storage also takes place in chloroplasts, a type of pigmented plastid involved in photosynthesis. ... Neuhaus HE, Emes MJ (June 2000). "Nonphotosynthetic Metabolism in Plastids". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant ...
Next, the two plastid-dividing rings, or PD rings form. The inner plastid-dividing ring is located in the inner side of the ... These chloroplasts, which can be traced back directly to a cyanobacterial ancestor, are known as primary plastids ("plastid" in ... The plastid is the site of diverse and complex lipid synthesis in plants. The carbon used to form the majority of the lipid is ... Their plastids have four membranes, lack chlorophyll c and use the type II form of RuBisCO obtained from a horizontal transfer ...
Bouchnak I, van Wijk KJ (October 2019). "N-Degron Pathways in Plastids". Trends in Plant Science. 24 (10): 917-926. doi:10.1016 ... Additionally, a 2013 study in Arabidopsis thaliana revealed the protein ClpS1, a possible plastid homolog of the bacterial ClpS ... November 2017). "PfClpC Is an Essential Clp Chaperone Required for Plastid Integrity and Clp Protease Stability in Plasmodium ... An apicoplast is a derived non-photosynthetic plastid found in most Apicomplexa, including Toxoplasma gondii, Plasmodium ...
... and 4 subunits of the plastid-encoded RNA polymerase complex that are involved in plastid gene expression. The large Rubisco ... Tillich M, Krause K (July 2010). "The ins and outs of editing and splicing of plastid RNAs: lessons from parasitic plants". New ... Moustafa A, Beszteri B, Maier UG, Bowler C, Valentin K, Bhattacharya D (June 2009). "Genomic footprints of a cryptic plastid ... Chloroplasts, like other types of plastid, contain a genome separate from that in the cell nucleus. The existence of ...
Carotenoids involved in photosynthesis are formed in chloroplasts; Others are formed in plastids. Carotenoids formed in fungi ...
... is also encoded in the plastid genome and is required for translation initiation in both plastids and mitochondria. A plastid ... Having only one plastid severely limits gene transfer as the lysis of the single plastid would likely result in cell death. ... The plastid is responsible for haem biosynthesis, which requires plastid encoded tRNA-Glu (from the gene trnE) as a precursor ... Consistent with this hypothesis, organisms with multiple plastids show an 80-fold increase in plastid-to-nucleus gene transfer ...
The small plastid, only 0.15-1.5 μm in diameter, is surrounded by four membranes. The two inner membranes are derived from the ... The plastid, at least in the Plasmodium species, also contains "tubular whorls" of membrane that bear a striking resemblance to ... Maréchal E, Cesbron-Delauw MF (May 2001). "The apicoplast: a new member of the plastid family". Trends in Plant Science. 6 (5 ... During the reorganization of the plastid the apicoplast lost its ability to photosynthesize. These losses of function are ...
As an example, the vast majority of all known complex plastid preproteins (an 'unactivated' protein) encoded in the nucleus ... Gould, Sven; Waller, R; McFadden, G (June 2008). "Plastid Evolution". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 59: 491-517. doi:10.1146/ ...
This proposal was made on the basis of the analysis of the plastid genomes. Over 7,000 species are currently described for the ... They also have the most gene-rich plastid genomes known. Red algae do not have flagella and centrioles during their entire life ... Gould, S.B.; Waller, R.F.; McFadden, G.I. (2008). "Plastid Evolution". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 59: 491-517. doi:10.1146 ... McFadden, G.I. (2001). "Primary and Secondary Endosymbiosis and the Evolution of Plastids". Journal of Phycology. 37 (6): 951- ...
... and a Plastid Proteome Database". Plant Cell. 16 (2): 478-99. doi:10.1105/tpc.017814. PMC 341918. PMID 14729914.- The Plastid ... Plastid Protein Database Peltier J, Friso G, Kalume D, Roepstorff P, Nilsson F, Adamska I, van Wijk K (2000). "Proteomics of ... Benning C, Xu C, Awai K (2006). "Non-vesicular and vesicular lipid trafficking involving plastids". Curr Opin Plant Biol. 9 (3 ... These data have been summarized in several plastid protein databases that are available online. According to these studies, the ...
However, large-scale gene loss from plastids has occurred during the course of evolution, and higher plant chloroplasts now ... Gould, Sven B.; Waller, Ross F.; McFadden, Geoffrey I. (2008). "Plastid Evolution". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 59: 491-517 ... Keeling, Patrick J. (2010). "The endosymbiotic origin, diversification and fate of plastids". Philosophical Transactions of the ... and chloroplast genomes reveals plastid phylogeny and thousands of cyanobacterial genes in the nucleus". Proceedings of the ...
The origin of plastids by endosymbiosis signifies the beginning of photosynthesis in eukaryotes, and as such their evolutionary ... Gloeomargarita lithophora is a cyanobacterium, and is the proposed sister of the endosymbiotic plastids in the eukaryote group ... Gould, Sven B.; Waller, Ross F.; McFadden, Geoffrey I. (2008). "Plastid Evolution". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 59 (1): 491 ... "A molecular timescale for eukaryote evolution with implications for the origin of red algal-derived plastids". Nature. 12 (1): ...
de Vries, Jan; Christa, Gregor; Gould, Sven B. (2014). "Plastid survival in the cytosol of animal cells". Trends in Plant ... Sacoglossans have been known to survive for months living solely on the photosynthetic products of their acquired plastids. ... plastids. This earns them the title of the "solar-powered sea slugs", and makes them unique among metazoan organisms, for ... The Structure and Function of Plastids. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. Vol. 23. pp. 451-473. doi:10.1007/978-1- ...
"The Diversity of Plastid Form and Function". The Structure and Function of Plastids. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration ... Etioplasts are an intermediate type of plastid that develop from proplastids that have not been exposed to light, and convert ... Heebak Choi, Taegyu Yi, Sun-Hwa Ha (June 17, 2021). "Diversity of Plastid Types and Their Interconversions". Frontiers in Plant ... Plastid Chloroplast Chromoplast Leucoplast Amyloplast Elaioplast Proteinoplast Gerontoplast Wise, Robert (2007). " ...
The envelope of the plastid, however, remains intact. Wise, Robert (13 September 2007). The Structure and Function of Plastids ... The term gerontoplast was first introduced in 1977 to define the unique features of the plastid formed during leaf senescence. ... A gerontoplast is a plastid that develops from a chloroplast during the senescing of plant foliage. Gerontoplast development is ...
Sato, N. (2006). "Origin and Evolution of Plastids: Genomic View on the Unification and Diversity of Plastids". In Wise, R. R ... Plastids: Plastid are membrane-bound organelle generally found in plant cells and euglenoids and contain specific pigments, ... Leucoplasts are non-pigmented plastids and helps in storage of nutrients. Many cells also have structures which exist wholly or ... There are three types of plastids based upon the specific pigments. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and some carotenoid ...
Biosynthesis takes place in the plastids. As to why plants synthesize tocochromanols, the major reason appears to be for ... Vitamin E biosynthesis occurs in the plastid and goes through two different pathways: the Shikimate pathway and the ...
The Structure and Function of Plastids. Dordrecht, NL: Springer. (Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration Series: Volume 23 ... and other plastids. He was the first to name and describe the chlorophyll-containing structures in chloroplasts known as grana ...
Although plastids probably had a single origin, not all plastid-containing groups are closely related. Instead, some eukaryotes ... Plants and various groups of algae have plastids as well as mitochondria. Plastids, like mitochondria, have their own DNA and ... Sato N (2006). "Origin and Evolution of Plastids: Genomic View on the Unification and Diversity of Plastids". In Wise RR, ... Bodył A (February 2018). "Did some red alga-derived plastids evolve via kleptoplastidy? A hypothesis". Biological Reviews of ...
Baur stated that plastids are carriers of hereditary factors which are able to mutate. in variegated plants, random sorting out ... the genetic results indicate a biparental inheritance of plastids by egg cells and sperm cells in pelargonium. Since the 1930s ... He discovered the inheritance of plastids. In 1908 Baur demonstrated a lethal gene in the Antirrhinum plant. In 1909 working on ... Erwin Baur or Carl Correns: who really created the theory of plastid inheritance? Archived 2005-03-16 at the Wayback Machine. ...
The Structure and Function of Plastids. Springer. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-4020-6570-5. Zak, J. Allen (April 1994). Drop Size ...
"Protalveolata - Wikispecies". Muñoz-Gómez, Sergio A.; Slamovits, Claudio H. (2018). "Plastid Genomes in the Myzozoa". Plastid ... All Myzozoa appears to have evolved from an ancestor that possessed plastids, required through endosymbiosis. The branching ...
... contain few plastids, to 100 or fewer in mature cells, where plastid divisions have given rise to a large number of plastids. ... whereas many gymnosperms inherit plastids from the male pollen. Algae also inherit plastids from only one parent. The plastid ... The plastid (Greek: πλαστός; plastós: formed, molded - plural plastids) is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cells of ... Each plastid creates multiple copies of a circular 10-250 kilobase plastome. The number of genome copies per plastid is ...
Retrograde signalling from plastids to the nucleus is necessary to regulate the organelles proteome during the establishment ... The loss of GUN1 (a plastid-localized pentatricopeptide repeat protein) is able to restore nuclear (but not plastid) gene ... genes that encode proteins utilized by plastid-encoded RNA polymerase to transcribe specific sets of plastid genes. We showed ... Sigma factor-mediated plastid retrograde signals control nuclear gene expression Plant J. 2013 Jan;73(1):1-13. doi: 10.1111/tpj ...
Plastids are responsible for manufacturing and storing of food. These often contain pigments that are used in - vt1c5lmm ... Plastids are double-membrane organelles which are found in the cells of plants and algae. ... Plastids are double-membrane organelles which are found in the cells of plants and algae. Plastids are responsible for ...
Plastids have been known to have tentacle-like prostrusions called stromules, which appear to connect each other. Based on a ... They observed that the stromules came into contact with each other for up to 50 minutes, but the plastids colors remained the ... Based on these results, fluorescent proteins are not transferred between plastids. It is concluded in the report that ... The team developed Arabidopsis lines expressing plastid-targeted mEosFP. ...
DNA belonging to the genome of a plastid such as a chloroplast.. ... plastid_sequence (CURRENT_RELEASE). SO Accession: SO:0000740 ( ...
Plastid in human parasites G I McFadden, M E Reith, J Munholland, N Lang-Unnasch ... Plastids in parasites of humans. McFadden GI, Waller RF. McFadden GI, et al. Bioessays. 1997 Nov;19(11):1033-40. doi: 10.1002/ ... Plastids are widespread and ancient in parasites of the phylum Apicomplexa. Lang-Unnasch N, Reith ME, Munholland J, Barta JR. ... A plastid of probable green algal origin in Apicomplexan parasites. Köhler S, Delwiche CF, Denny PW, Tilney LG, Webster P, ...
The fragmentation of the haptophyte-derived plastid genome K. veneficum suggests that it is likely a sign of a host-driven ... Comparison of dinoflagellate plastids that originated from different algal groups has revealed convergent evolution, suggesting ... To determine if this haptophyte-derived plastid contains additional chromosomal fragments that resemble the mini-circles of the ... Decatenation assays and Southern blot analysis indicate that the extrachromosomal plastid sequences do not have the same ...
In Arabidopsis pollen, plastids are inherited also maternally and not created de novo, but arise from pre-existing plastids by ... In Arabidopsis pollen, plastids are inherited also maternally and not created de novo, but arise from pre-existing plastids by ... To be able to follow plastid fate in developing pollen tubes, the colorless plastids in Arabidopsis pollen were visualized by ... To be able to follow plastid fate in developing pollen tubes, the colorless plastids in Arabidopsis pollen were visualized by ...
... Andrea Del Cortona, Frédérik Leliaert (UGent ... "The Plastid Genome in Cladophorales Green Algae Is Encoded by Hairpin Chromosomes." CURRENT BIOLOGY, vol. 27, no. 24, 2017, pp ... A. Del Cortona et al., "The plastid genome in Cladophorales green algae is encoded by hairpin chromosomes," CURRENT BIOLOGY, ... "The Plastid Genome in Cladophorales Green Algae Is Encoded by Hairpin Chromosomes." CURRENT BIOLOGY 27 (24): 3771-3782. doi: ...
While all three plastid KEA members are highly conserved in their transmembrane region and the C-terminal KTN domain, only the ... If an odd number of transmembrane domains existed for inner envelope KEAs, as it was suggested for all three plastid KEA ... The plastid potassium cation efflux antiporters (KEAs) are important for chloroplast function, development, and photosynthesis ... The topology of plastid inner envelope potassium cation efflux antiporter KEA1 provides new insights into its regulatory ...
A plastid shows tow distinct regions-grana and stroma Grana are stacks of membrane-bound, flattened, discold sacs containing ... Plastids are double membraned organelles which are found in plant cells only. They are usually spherical or discoldal in shape ... Plastids are of three types:. 1. Leucoplasts are colorless plastids. They store the food of the plant body in the form of ... Plastids are living and multiply by division of the pre-existing plastids called proplastids. ...
... plastids than from plastids of the red type. GBDP-like methods can be used to reliably infer phylogenies from different kinds ... Our results indicate that, at this taxonomic level, plastid genomes are much more valuable for inferring phylogenies than are ... strategy to compute phylogenetic trees from all completely sequenced plastid genomes currently available and from a selection ... Total length of its plastid genome is 70 kb, which is 44.7% and 44.9% of the plastid genome length found in Atropa and ...
... grandis plastid genome, and the second sequenced and annotated mitochondrial genome of the Myrtales, that of E. grandis. The ...
Here, we have performed an extensive phylogenomic investigation on the origin of primary plastids based on the analysis of up ... However, the question of which present-day cyanobacterial lineage is most closely related to primary plastids has been unclear ... Large-scale phylogenomic analyses indicate a deep origin of primary plastids within cyanobacteria. ... Our results strongly support an early emergence of primary plastids within cyanobacteria, prior to the diversification of most ...
84:1-49), we present a phylogenetic analysis of flowering plants based on a second plastid gene, atpB, analyzed separately and ... Following (1) the large-scale molecular phylogeny of seed plants based on plastid rbcL gene sequences (published in 1993 by ... Phylogenetics of flowering plants based on combined analysis of plastid atpB and rbcL gene sequences ... Phylogenetics of flowering plants based on combined analysis of plastid atpB and rbcL gene sequences. Systematic Biology, 49(2 ...
plastids Topic. Replies. Views. Activity. Apples and Oranges Flower Pigments bluing , rosacyanins , cyanidin , vacuole , co- ... plastids , nucleus , x-diploid , chloroplasts , classical , odour , semi-plena , albino , persia , mendelian , cinnamomae , ... plastids , carotenes , roar , selfridges , x-freedom , spam , race-specific , proliferated , please-feel , offenders , next- ... plastids , carotenes , homology , petioles , chloroplasts , differentiation , initiation , scoring , nuclear , mapping , ...
Plastids Localized Photosynthesis & Starch synthesis • Proplastid: reduced from chloroplasts in megasporocyte; passed to ova; ... produce functional plastids in embryo • Chloroplast: chlorophyll, accessory pigments, starch • The leaf was covered with ...
... the cell contains a golden plastid. This species may occur in large numbers off the eastern seaboard of the USA, causing brown ...
... but discordance among plastid and nuclear gene trees at a few important nodes highlights the complexity of plant genome ... Primary acquisition of the plastid. The primary acquisition of the plastid in an ancestor of extant Archaeplastida was a ... Grosche, C. & Rensing, S. A. Three rings for the evolution of plastid shape: a tale of land plant FtsZ. Protoplasma 254, 1879- ... Both nuclear and plastid phylogenomic analyses agree with previous studies39 in providing strong support for angiosperm ...
Updated 05/02/22) We eat lots of hummus and so go through quite a bit of tahini. Im pretty sure when people set out to reduce their waste, their hummus intake becomes inversely proportional. Theres likely a mathematical theory that proves this. This past weekend, I cooked two cups of chickpeas in my pressure cooker for […]. ...
Although plastids likely had a single origin, not all plastid-containing groups are closely related. Instead, some eukaryotes ... Mitochondria and plastids. Mitochondria are organelles found in nearly all eukaryotes. They are surrounded by double membranes ... Plants and various groups of algae also have plastids. Again, these have their own DNA and are considered to have developed ... like plastids (organelles involved in photosynthesis in plants and algae). The syntrophic hypothesis states that the proto- ...
The types of Plastids are:. * Leucoplast: Plastids without pigment are called Leucoplasts. They are commonly found in cells not ... Chloroplasts: They are most common Plastids found. They are commonly found in green cells exposed to light. ...
... : ... The plastids which are coloured, green and colourless are known respectively as:. Plastids are organelles that synthesize and ...
Dive into the research topics of Universal plastid primers for chlorophyta and rhodophyta. Together they form a unique ...
we learn that interfering with plastid DNA replication, either through mutation of plastid-targeted replication factors, or by ... Plastid stress signaling alters cell cycle progression (Cell Reports) September 4, 2020. /in Plant Science Research Weekly /by ... Although the study leaves somewhat open the relevance of plastid DNA damage per se, it provides an example of how the nuclear ... Synthetic conversion of leaf chloroplasts into carotenoid-rich plastids reveals mechanistic basis of natural chromoplast ...
Studying both plastids and mitochondria and their distinctive physiological pathways in organello may greatly contribute to our ... Apart from that, we extended the protocol so that it is also applicable for the purification of a high-quality plastids ... In contrast, plastid isolates were virtually free of cellular contaminants, featured structurally preserved thylakoids ... This gave rise to plastids of remarkable complex architecture and ultrastructure that require elaborate protein importing, ...
Gweld gwybodaeth am bynciau ymchwil Universal plastid primers for chlorophyta and rhodophyta. Gydai gilydd, maen nhwn ...
... Chao Liua, Huan-Huan Chena, Li ... The first complete plastid genome of Burmannia disticha L. from the mycoheterotrophic monocot family Burmanniaceae [J]. Plant ... Plastid genome evolution of a monophyletic group in the subtribe Lauriineae (Laureae, Lauraceae)[J]. Plant Diversity, 2022, 44( ... The complete plastid genome of an evergreen tree Litsea elongata (Lauraceae: Laureae). Mitochondrial DNA B 5, 2483-2484.https ...
Plastid phylogenomics of the Sansevieria Clade of Dracaena (Asparagaceae) resolves a recent radiation. Larridon, I., van ... Plastid phylogenomics of the Sansevieria Clade of Dracaena (Asparagaceae) resolves a recent radiation. van Kleinwee, I. (Maker ... Plastid phylogenomics of the Sansevieria Clade of Dracaena (Asparagaceae) resolves a recent radiation. Onderzoeksoutput: ...
Gavelis, G. S., & Gile, G. (2018). How did cyanobacteria first embark on the path to becoming plastids? Lessons from protist ... How did cyanobacteria first embark on the path to becoming plastids? Lessons from protist symbioses. FEMS Microbiology Letters ... How did cyanobacteria first embark on the path to becoming plastids? Lessons from protist symbioses. / Gavelis, Gregory S.; ... Gavelis, GS & Gile, G 2018, How did cyanobacteria first embark on the path to becoming plastids? Lessons from protist ...
  • The number of genome copies per plastid is variable, ranging from more than 1000 in rapidly dividing cells, which, in general, contain few plastids, to 100 or fewer in mature cells, where plastid divisions have given rise to a large number of plastids. (wikipedia.org)
  • DNA belonging to the genome of a plastid such as a chloroplast. (sequenceontology.org)
  • The plastid genome in Cladophorales g. (ugent.be)
  • Exceptions to this universal plastid genome architecture are very few and include the dinoflagellates, where genes are located on DNA minicircles. (ugent.be)
  • A chloroplast genome that is composed only of linear DNA molecules is unprecedented among eukaryotes, and highlights unexpected variation in plastid genome architecture. (ugent.be)
  • The plastid genome in Cladophorales green algae is encoded by hairpin chromosomes," CURRENT BIOLOGY , vol. 27, no. 24, pp. 3771-3782, 2017. (ugent.be)
  • Here, we extend the recently described Genome BLAST Distance Phylogeny (GBDP) strategy to compute phylogenetic trees from all completely sequenced plastid genomes currently available and from a selection of mitochondrial genomes representing the major eukaryotic lineages. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In order to facilitate further studies of cytonuclear interactions in Eucalyptus , we report an updated annotation of the E. grandis plastid genome, and the second sequenced and annotated mitochondrial genome of the Myrtales, that of E. grandis . (forestry.co.za)
  • Most inferred species relationships are well supported across multiple species tree and supermatrix analyses, but discordance among plastid and nuclear gene trees at a few important nodes highlights the complexity of plant genome evolution, including polyploidy, periods of rapid speciation, and extinction. (nature.com)
  • Plastid genome evolution of a monophyletic group in the subtribe Lauriineae (Laureae, Lauraceae)[J]. Plant Diversity, 2022, 44(04): 377-388. (kib.ac.cn)
  • Genome size and plastid trnK-matK markers give new insights into the evolutionary history of the genus Lavandula L. (figshare.com)
  • 12. Transcription is a major driving force for plastid genome instability in Arabidopsis. (nih.gov)
  • Studies that used inhibitors of chloroplast biogenesis have revealed that hundreds of nuclear genes are regulated by retrograde signals emitted from plastids. (nih.gov)
  • Virtually all plastid (chloroplast) genomes are circular double-stranded DNA molecules, typically between 100 and 200 kb in size and encoding circa 80-250 genes. (ugent.be)
  • The plastid potassium cation efflux antiporters (KEAs) are important for chloroplast function, development, and photosynthesis. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Although the study leaves somewhat open the relevance of plastid DNA damage per se, it provides an example of how the nuclear DNA replication cycle is sensitive to the state of the chloroplast. (plantae.org)
  • These results indicate that the initial activation of chloroplast gene expression and the expression of some nuclear genes encoding plastid proteins are coupled to leaf cell development. (tamu.edu)
  • The effect of tagetitoxin is selective because this compound does not inhibit barley leaf growth, or the normal accumulation of nuclear-encoded actin and BN3 transcripts and plastid DNA which occurs during chloroplast development. (tamu.edu)
  • This suggests that the activation of plastid transcription during the early stages of chloroplast biogenesis is necessary for the expression of rbcS and cab. (tamu.edu)
  • To further examine the effects of plastid gene expression on nuclear gene expression, we analyzed Arabidopsis mutants that were defective in each of the six sigma factor (SIG) genes that encode proteins utilized by plastid-encoded RNA polymerase to transcribe specific sets of plastid genes. (nih.gov)
  • The team developed Arabidopsis lines expressing plastid-targeted mEosFP. (isaaa.org)
  • In Arabidopsis pollen, plastids are inherited also maternally and not created de novo, but arise from pre-existing plastids by fission. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • The aim of this study was to assess the frequency of plastid transfer from atrazin-resistant ElyF3BC4 Arabidopsis thaliana plants bearing a point mutation in the plastid psbA gene to male sterile N75 plants by spontaneous crossing under field conditions. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Taken together, in this study paternal leakage of Arabidopsis plastids could not be induced by mutations. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • To be able to follow plastid fate in developing pollen tubes, the colorless plastids in Arabidopsis pollen were visualized by the expression of a GFP fusion protein under the control of a pollen specific promoter. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Placing particular emphasis on plastid behavior during specification of sperm cells in pollen of Arabidopsis might shed some light on this very strict process of maternal inheritance in the future work. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • In Arabidopsis, one-third of the genes required for embryo development encode plastid-localized proteins. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • Of 35 Arabidopsis mTERF proteins, 11 are plastid-localized. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • Here, genetic interactions between BSM and the gene encoding plastid homomeric acetyl-CoA carboxylase ACC2 suggest that there is a functional redundancy in malonyl-CoA biosynthesis that permits bsm cell survival in Arabidopsis. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • The Arabidopsis gene encodes a plastid homolog of the mitochondrial alternative oxidase, which is associated with phytoene desaturation. (tam-receptor.com)
  • A role in thylakoid membrane maintenance and reorganization has been proposed for Vesicle Inducing Protein in Plastid 1 (VIPP1), the putative PspA ortholog in Arabidopsis thaliana . (frontiersin.org)
  • The plastome contains about 100 genes encoding ribosomal and transfer ribonucleic acids (rRNAs and tRNAs) as well as proteins involved in photosynthesis and plastid gene transcription and translation. (wikipedia.org)
  • Plant nuclear genes encode the vast majority of plastid proteins, and the expression of plastid genes and nuclear genes is tightly co-regulated to coordinate proper development of plastids in relation to cell differentiation. (wikipedia.org)
  • A microarray analysis showed that these two signals accounted for at least one subset of the nuclear genes that are regulated by the plastid biogenesis inhibitors norflurazon and lincomycin. (nih.gov)
  • ycf1-ndhF genes, the most promising plastid genomic barcode, sheds light on phylogeny at low taxonomic levels in Prunus persica. (kib.ac.cn)
  • Unexpectedly, despite the disappearance of trnI(cau) from the plastome in the Chloroparvula lineage, AUA codons (the codons recognized by this gene product) were detected in certain plastid genes. (netlify.app)
  • By comparing the sequences of plastid protein-coding genes from chloropicophycean and phylogenetically diverse chlorophyte algae with those of the corresponding predicted proteins, we discovered that the AUA codon was reassigned from isoleucine to methionine in Chloroparvula. (netlify.app)
  • They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments in a plastid determine the cell's color. (wikipedia.org)
  • It is a plastid, containing pigments such as xanthophyll (yellow in color) and carotene (orangish-red in color). (syvum.com)
  • Plastids containing carotenoid pigments. (bvsalud.org)
  • Examples include chloroplasts (used for photosynthesis), chromoplasts (used for pigment synthesis and storage), and leucoplasts (non-pigmented plastids that can sometimes differentiate). (wikipedia.org)
  • In land plants, plastids that contain chlorophyll can carry out photosynthesis and are called chloroplasts. (wikipedia.org)
  • They may develop into any of the following variants: Chloroplasts: typically green plastids used for photosynthesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Studying both plastids and mitochondria and their distinctive physiological pathways in organello may greatly contribute to our understanding of photosynthesis, mitochondrial respiration, and diatom evolution. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • carotene (L. carota , carrot) A reddish-orange plastid pigment involved in light reactions in photosynthesis. (fao.org)
  • During the development of proplastids to chloroplasts, and when plastids convert from one type to another, nucleoids change in morphology, size and location within the organelle. (wikipedia.org)
  • 2. Chloroplasts are green plastids because of the presence of chlorophyll. (preservearticles.com)
  • The potato mop-top virus TGB2 protein and viral RNA associate with chloroplasts and viral infection induces inclusions in the plastids. (hq-objective.info)
  • Our results indicate that, at this taxonomic level, plastid genomes are much more valuable for inferring phylogenies than are mitochondrial genomes, and that distances based on breakpoints are of little use. (biomedcentral.com)
  • PLASTID GENOMES are used in phylogenetic studies. (bvsalud.org)
  • However, these proteins only represent a small fraction of the total protein set-up necessary to build and maintain the structure and function of a particular type of plastid. (wikipedia.org)
  • Martin Schattat and colleagues used a photoconvertible fluorescent protein (mEosFP) to test the transfer of proteins in differentially colored plastids. (isaaa.org)
  • Based on these results, fluorescent proteins are not transferred between plastids. (isaaa.org)
  • To help understand the role of plastids in embryogenesis and postembryonic development, we characterized proteins of the mitochondrial transcription termination factor (mTERF) family, which in animal models, comprises DNA-binding regulators of mitochondrial transcription. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • Following (1) the large-scale molecular phylogeny of seed plants based on plastid rbcL gene sequences (published in 1993 by Chase et al. (gla.ac.uk)
  • 84:1-49), we present a phylogenetic analysis of flowering plants based on a second plastid gene, atpB, analyzed separately and in combination with rbcL sequences for 357 taxa. (gla.ac.uk)
  • Several phylogenetic analyses have established that primary plastids arose from a cyanobacterium through endosymbiosis. (pasteur.fr)
  • Plastids can also store products like starch and can synthesize fatty acids and terpenes, which can be used for producing energy and as raw material for the synthesis of other molecules. (wikipedia.org)
  • leucoplasts sometimes differentiate into more specialized plastids: Amyloplasts: for starch storage and detecting gravity (for geotropism) Elaioplasts: for storing fat Proteinoplasts: for storing and modifying protein Tannosomes: for synthesizing and producing tannins and polyphenols Depending on their morphology and function, plastids have the ability to differentiate, or redifferentiate, between these and other forms. (wikipedia.org)
  • Plastids that store starch. (bvsalud.org)
  • Plastids without pigment are called Leucoplasts. (lifeeasy.org)
  • Furthermore, a barley pigment-deficient mutant, alb-f17, and plants containing photo-oxidized plastids show parallel reductions in plastid transcription activity and levels of rbcS and cab mRNA. (tamu.edu)
  • therefore, plastid genetic engineering is a promising tool to reduce the risk of transgene flow, because in most angiosperm species plastids are inherited maternally. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • The authors suggest that these changes are signaled through reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated as a consequence of plastid malfunction. (plantae.org)
  • The isolation of such complex organelles, however, is still demanding, and existing protocols are either limited to a few species (for plastids) or have not been reported for diatoms so far (for mitochondria). (uni-konstanz.de)
  • Plastid translation is essential for cell viability in dicotyledonous species such as tobacco but not in monocotyledonous maize. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • A plastid shows tow distinct regions-grana and stroma Grana are stacks of membrane-bound, flattened, discold sacs containing chlorophyll molecules. (preservearticles.com)
  • By using a number of solutions to circumvent a large range of systematic errors, we have reconstructed a robust global phylogeny of cyanobacteria and studied the placement of primary plastids within it. (pasteur.fr)
  • plastós: formed, molded - plural plastids) is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms. (wikipedia.org)
  • Plastids are double-membrane organelles which are found in the cells of plants and algae. (topperlearning.com)
  • Aureococcus (awe-ree-owe-cock-us) anophagefferens is one of the tiny eukaryotic planktonic algae, the cell contains a golden plastid. (eol.org)
  • All plastids are derived from proplastids, which are present in the meristematic regions of the plant. (wikipedia.org)
  • Plant proplastids (undifferentiated plastids) may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which function they perform in the cell. (wikipedia.org)
  • Although various random nuclear mutations were screened for their potential to allow the transfer of paternal plastids into the egg-cells of the recipient plant, a corresponding mutant line could not be isolated. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Plastids are double membraned organelles which are found in plant cells only. (preservearticles.com)
  • Using the most treelike distance matrices, as judged by their δ values, distance methods are able to recover all major plant lineages, and are more in accordance with Apicomplexa organelles being derived from "green" plastids than from plastids of the "red" type. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Plastid gene expression and plant development require a plastidic protein of the mitochondrial transcription termination factor family. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • Plastids are DNA-containing organelles unique to plant cells. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • Overall, our results indicate that biosynthesis of malonyl-CoA and plastid-derived systemic growth-promoting compounds are the processes that link plant development and plastid gene expression. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • The decreases in plastid transcription and rbcS and rbcL mRNA levels in older dark-grown seedlings could be reversed by plant illumination. (tamu.edu)
  • B. Enteropathogenic bacteria in migrating plant plastids (6). (cdc.gov)
  • This plastid belongs to the "PS-clade" (of the cyanobacteria genera Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus). (wikipedia.org)
  • Here, we have performed an extensive phylogenomic investigation on the origin of primary plastids based on the analysis of up to 191 protein markers and over 30,000 aligned amino acid sites from 22 primary photosynthetic eukaryotes and 61 cyanobacteria representing a wide taxonomic sampling of this phylum. (pasteur.fr)
  • Our results strongly support an early emergence of primary plastids within cyanobacteria, prior to the diversification of most present-day cyanobacterial lineages for which genomic data are available. (pasteur.fr)
  • How did cyanobacteria first embark on the path to becoming plastids? (elsevierpure.com)
  • Each plastid creates multiple copies of a circular 10-250 kilobase plastome. (wikipedia.org)
  • If the initial increase in plastid transcription which occurs early in leaf cell development is prevented by tagetitoxin, a specific inhibitor of the plastid RNA polymerase, rbcS mRNA does not accumulate and cab mRNA accumulation cannot be induced by light. (tamu.edu)
  • The loss of GUN1 (a plastid-localized pentatricopeptide repeat protein) is able to restore nuclear (but not plastid) gene expression in both sig2 and sig6, whereas an increase in heme synthesis is able to restore nuclear gene expression in sig2 mutants only. (nih.gov)
  • In addition, plastid transformation has the advantage that the site of gene insertion can be controlled, high rates of transgene expression and protein accumulation can be achieved and epigenetic effects are absent. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • If an odd number of transmembrane domains existed for inner envelope KEAs, as it was suggested for all three plastid KEA carriers, regulatory domains and consequently protein regulation would occur on opposing sides of the inner envelope. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • This gave rise to plastids of remarkable complex architecture and ultrastructure that require elaborate protein importing, trafficking, signaling and intracellular cross-talk pathways. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • plastid protein. (bio.net)
  • Plastids are living and multiply by division of the pre-existing plastids called proplastids. (preservearticles.com)
  • Most of them possess a unique form of organelle that comprises a type of non-photosynthetic plastid called an apicoplast , and an apical complex structure. (eol.org)
  • The developing plastid has many nucleoids, localized at the periphery of the plastid, bound to the inner envelope membrane. (wikipedia.org)
  • LC-ESI-MS/MS studies on mitochondria and thylakoids, moreover, allowed detailed proteome analyses which resulted in extensive proteome maps for both plastids and mitochondria thus helping us to broaden our understanding of organelle metabolism and functionality in diatoms. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • In the history of life, the most transformative was the 'primary endosymbiosis,' wherein a cyanobacterium was engulfed by a eukaryote and became genetically integrated as a heritable photosynthetic organelle, or plastid. (elsevierpure.com)
  • Even in organisms where the plastids have lost their photosynthetic properties, the plastid is kept because of its essential role in the production of molecules like the isoprenoids. (wikipedia.org)
  • Plastid gene expression is the source of at least one of these signals, but the number of signals and their mechanisms used to regulate nuclear gene expression are unknown. (nih.gov)
  • We showed that SIG2 and SIG6 have partially redundant roles in plastid transcription and retrograde signalling to control nuclear gene expression. (nih.gov)
  • Together these data suggest that such inhibitors can induce retrograde signalling by affecting transcription in the plastid. (nih.gov)
  • RbcL and rbcS mRNA levels and plastid transcription activity are low in the basal meristematic region of barley primary leaves and increase coordinately during leaf cell development with a similar time course in dark-grown or illuminated seedlings. (tamu.edu)
  • RbcL and rbcS mRNA levels and plastid transcription activity decline in older leaf sections of dark-grown or illuminated barley. (tamu.edu)
  • Therefore, while the initial activation of plastid transcription and accumulation of rbcS mRNA are largely light-independent, these events become light-dependent in older leaves of dark-grown barley. (tamu.edu)
  • Retrograde signalling from plastids to the nucleus is necessary to regulate the organelle's proteome during the establishment of photoautotrophy and fluctuating environmental conditions. (nih.gov)
  • Plastid Transformation: How Does it Work? (bvsalud.org)
  • While all three plastid KEA members are highly conserved in their transmembrane region and the C-terminal KTN domain, only the inner envelope KEA family members KEA1 and KEA2 carry a long soluble N-terminus. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • However, the question of which present-day cyanobacterial lineage is most closely related to primary plastids has been unclear. (pasteur.fr)
  • Reconstruction of Plastid Proteomes of Apicomplexans and Close Relatives Reveals the Major Evolutionary Outcomes of Cryptic Plastids. (nih.gov)
  • However, the affiliation of the GFP labeled plastids to either the vegetative or the generative cells was not clear. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • we learn that interfering with plastid DNA replication, either through mutation of plastid-targeted replication factors, or by specific drugs, leads to broad changes in leaf cell number, size and nuclear DNA content. (plantae.org)
  • A plastid of probable green algal origin in Apicomplexan parasites. (nih.gov)
  • Also the plastid transfer from atrazin-resistant, EMS-mutagenized M2ElyF3BC4 plants to wild-type A. thaliana plants by manual crossings under green house conditions was estimated. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • Plastids are organelles that synthesize and store various molecules and are generally pigmented. (philoid.com)
  • Plastids are widespread and ancient in parasites of the phylum Apicomplexa. (nih.gov)
  • In contrast, plastid isolates were virtually free of cellular contaminants, featured structurally preserved thylakoids performing electron transport, but lost most of their stromal components as concluded from western blots and mass spectrometry. (uni-konstanz.de)
  • Plastid DNA copy number is regulated independently. (tamu.edu)
  • The bsm phenotype could be phenocopied by inhibition of plastid translation with spectinomycin. (helmholtz-hzi.de)
  • It was found that plastid-encoded atrazin resistance could not be transmitted via pollen, neither by manual pollination among 65,000 hybrid seeds nor by spontaneous pollination among 2,444,465 hybrid seeds in A. thaliana. (uni-muenchen.de)
  • They are most common Plastids found. (lifeeasy.org)
  • A. F. W. Schimper was the first to name and provide a clear definition of plastids. (wikipedia.org)