Viruses parasitic on plants higher than bacteria.
Viruses whose genetic material is RNA.
A family of RNA plant viruses infecting dicotyledons. Transmission is mainly by mechanical inoculation and through propagative plant material. All species elicit formation of multivesicular inclusion bodies. There are at least eight genera: Aureusvirus, Avenavirus, CARMOVIRUS, Dianthovirus, Machlomovirus, Necrovirus, Panicovirus, and TOMBUSVIRUS.
Ribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of viruses.
PLANTS, or their progeny, whose GENOME has been altered by GENETIC ENGINEERING.
Expanded structures, usually green, of vascular plants, characteristically consisting of a bladelike expansion attached to a stem, and functioning as the principal organ of photosynthesis and transpiration. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2d ed)
Proteins found in plants (flowers, herbs, shrubs, trees, etc.). The concept does not include proteins found in vegetables for which VEGETABLE PROTEINS is available.
A polynucleotide consisting essentially of chains with a repeating backbone of phosphate and ribose units to which nitrogenous bases are attached. RNA is unique among biological macromolecules in that it can encode genetic information, serve as an abundant structural component of cells, and also possesses catalytic activity. (Rieger et al., Glossary of Genetics: Classical and Molecular, 5th ed)
The usually underground portions of a plant that serve as support, store food, and through which water and mineral nutrients enter the plant. (From American Heritage Dictionary, 1982; Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
The functional hereditary units of PLANTS.
Small double-stranded, non-protein coding RNAs (21-31 nucleotides) involved in GENE SILENCING functions, especially RNA INTERFERENCE (RNAi). Endogenously, siRNAs are generated from dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) by the same ribonuclease, Dicer, that generates miRNAs (MICRORNAS). The perfect match of the siRNAs' antisense strand to their target RNAs mediates RNAi by siRNA-guided RNA cleavage. siRNAs fall into different classes including trans-acting siRNA (tasiRNA), repeat-associated RNA (rasiRNA), small-scan RNA (scnRNA), and Piwi protein-interacting RNA (piRNA) and have different specific gene silencing functions.
Concentrated pharmaceutical preparations of plants obtained by removing active constituents with a suitable solvent, which is evaporated away, and adjusting the residue to a prescribed standard.
New immature growth of a plant including stem, leaves, tips of branches, and SEEDLINGS.
Plants whose roots, leaves, seeds, bark, or other constituent parts possess therapeutic, tonic, purgative, curative or other pharmacologic attributes, when administered to man or animals.
A process that changes the nucleotide sequence of mRNA from that of the DNA template encoding it. Some major classes of RNA editing are as follows: 1, the conversion of cytosine to uracil in mRNA; 2, the addition of variable number of guanines at pre-determined sites; and 3, the addition and deletion of uracils, templated by guide-RNAs (RNA, GUIDE).
Deoxyribonucleic acid that makes up the genetic material of plants.
The ultimate exclusion of nonsense sequences or intervening sequences (introns) before the final RNA transcript is sent to the cytoplasm.
Processes orchestrated or driven by a plethora of genes, plant hormones, and inherent biological timing mechanisms facilitated by secondary molecules, which result in the systematic transformation of plants and plant parts, from one stage of maturity to another.
Plants or plant parts which are harmful to man or other animals.
Basic functional unit of plants.
The most abundant form of RNA. Together with proteins, it forms the ribosomes, playing a structural role and also a role in ribosomal binding of mRNA and tRNAs. Individual chains are conventionally designated by their sedimentation coefficients. In eukaryotes, four large chains exist, synthesized in the nucleolus and constituting about 50% of the ribosome. (Dorland, 28th ed)
Parts of plants that usually grow vertically upwards towards the light and support the leaves, buds, and reproductive structures. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
Ribonucleic acid in bacteria having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The genetic complement of a plant (PLANTS) as represented in its DNA.
A plant genus of the family BRASSICACEAE that contains ARABIDOPSIS PROTEINS and MADS DOMAIN PROTEINS. The species A. thaliana is used for experiments in classical plant genetics as well as molecular genetic studies in plant physiology, biochemistry, and development.
A gene silencing phenomenon whereby specific dsRNAs (RNA, DOUBLE-STRANDED) trigger the degradation of homologous mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). The specific dsRNAs are processed into SMALL INTERFERING RNA (siRNA) which serves as a guide for cleavage of the homologous mRNA in the RNA-INDUCED SILENCING COMPLEX. DNA METHYLATION may also be triggered during this process.
Enzymes that catalyze DNA template-directed extension of the 3'-end of an RNA strand one nucleotide at a time. They can initiate a chain de novo. In eukaryotes, three forms of the enzyme have been distinguished on the basis of sensitivity to alpha-amanitin, and the type of RNA synthesized. (From Enzyme Nomenclature, 1992).
RNA sequences that serve as templates for protein synthesis. Bacterial mRNAs are generally primary transcripts in that they do not require post-transcriptional processing. Eukaryotic mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and must be exported to the cytoplasm for translation. Most eukaryotic mRNAs have a sequence of polyadenylic acid at the 3' end, referred to as the poly(A) tail. The function of this tail is not known for certain, but it may play a role in the export of mature mRNA from the nucleus as well as in helping stabilize some mRNA molecules by retarding their degradation in the cytoplasm.
An organism of the vegetable kingdom suitable by nature for use as a food, especially by human beings. Not all parts of any given plant are edible but all parts of edible plants have been known to figure as raw or cooked food: leaves, roots, tubers, stems, seeds, buds, fruits, and flowers. The most commonly edible parts of plants are FRUIT, usually sweet, fleshy, and succulent. Most edible plants are commonly cultivated for their nutritional value and are referred to as VEGETABLES.
The parts of plants, including SEEDS.
RNA consisting of two strands as opposed to the more prevalent single-stranded RNA. Most of the double-stranded segments are formed from transcription of DNA by intramolecular base-pairing of inverted complementary sequences separated by a single-stranded loop. Some double-stranded segments of RNA are normal in all organisms.
Any of the hormones produced naturally in plants and active in controlling growth and other functions. There are three primary classes: auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins.
A plant genus of the family SOLANACEAE. Members contain NICOTINE and other biologically active chemicals; its dried leaves are used for SMOKING.
Proteins that originate from plants species belonging to the genus ARABIDOPSIS. The most intensely studied species of Arabidopsis, Arabidopsis thaliana, is commonly used in laboratory experiments.
RNA that has catalytic activity. The catalytic RNA sequence folds to form a complex surface that can function as an enzyme in reactions with itself and other molecules. It may function even in the absence of protein. There are numerous examples of RNA species that are acted upon by catalytic RNA, however the scope of this enzyme class is not limited to a particular type of substrate.
The processes of RNA tertiary structure formation.
A DNA-dependent RNA polymerase present in bacterial, plant, and animal cells. It functions in the nucleoplasmic structure and transcribes DNA into RNA. It has different requirements for cations and salt than RNA polymerase I and is strongly inhibited by alpha-amanitin. EC 2.7.7.6.
The sequence of PURINES and PYRIMIDINES in nucleic acids and polynucleotides. It is also called nucleotide sequence.
The inherent or induced capacity of plants to withstand or ward off biological attack by pathogens.
Ribonucleic acid in fungi having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
RNA molecules which hybridize to complementary sequences in either RNA or DNA altering the function of the latter. Endogenous antisense RNAs function as regulators of gene expression by a variety of mechanisms. Synthetic antisense RNAs are used to effect the functioning of specific genes for investigative or therapeutic purposes.
The extent to which an RNA molecule retains its structural integrity and resists degradation by RNASE, and base-catalyzed HYDROLYSIS, under changing in vivo or in vitro conditions.
Post-transcriptional biological modification of messenger, transfer, or ribosomal RNAs or their precursors. It includes cleavage, methylation, thiolation, isopentenylation, pseudouridine formation, conformational changes, and association with ribosomal protein.
A family of proteins that promote unwinding of RNA during splicing and translation.
The order of amino acids as they occur in a polypeptide chain. This is referred to as the primary structure of proteins. It is of fundamental importance in determining PROTEIN CONFORMATION.
A thin layer of cells forming the outer integument of seed plants and ferns. (Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2d ed)
The small RNA molecules, 73-80 nucleotides long, that function during translation (TRANSLATION, GENETIC) to align AMINO ACIDS at the RIBOSOMES in a sequence determined by the mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER). There are about 30 different transfer RNAs. Each recognizes a specific CODON set on the mRNA through its own ANTICODON and as aminoacyl tRNAs (RNA, TRANSFER, AMINO ACYL), each carries a specific amino acid to the ribosome to add to the elongating peptide chains.
The spatial arrangement of the atoms of a nucleic acid or polynucleotide that results in its characteristic 3-dimensional shape.
RNA transcripts of the DNA that are in some unfinished stage of post-transcriptional processing (RNA PROCESSING, POST-TRANSCRIPTIONAL) required for function. RNA precursors may undergo several steps of RNA SPLICING during which the phosphodiester bonds at exon-intron boundaries are cleaved and the introns are excised. Consequently a new bond is formed between the ends of the exons. Resulting mature RNAs can then be used; for example, mature mRNA (RNA, MESSENGER) is used as a template for protein production.
Short chains of RNA (100-300 nucleotides long) that are abundant in the nucleus and usually complexed with proteins in snRNPs (RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS, SMALL NUCLEAR). Many function in the processing of messenger RNA precursors. Others, the snoRNAs (RNA, SMALL NUCLEOLAR), are involved with the processing of ribosomal RNA precursors.
RNA which does not code for protein but has some enzymatic, structural or regulatory function. Although ribosomal RNA (RNA, RIBOSOMAL) and transfer RNA (RNA, TRANSFER) are also untranslated RNAs they are not included in this scope.
Closable openings in the epidermis of plants on the underside of leaves. They allow the exchange of gases between the internal tissues of the plant and the outside atmosphere.
A multistage process that includes cloning, physical mapping, subcloning, sequencing, and information analysis of an RNA SEQUENCE.
Members of the group of vascular plants which bear flowers. They are differentiated from GYMNOSPERMS by their production of seeds within a closed chamber (OVARY, PLANT). The Angiosperms division is composed of two classes, the monocotyledons (Liliopsida) and dicotyledons (Magnoliopsida). Angiosperms represent approximately 80% of all known living plants.
The relationships of groups of organisms as reflected by their genetic makeup.
Nucleic acid structures found on the 5' end of eukaryotic cellular and viral messenger RNA and some heterogeneous nuclear RNAs. These structures, which are positively charged, protect the above specified RNAs at their termini against attack by phosphatases and other nucleases and promote mRNA function at the level of initiation of translation. Analogs of the RNA caps (RNA CAP ANALOGS), which lack the positive charge, inhibit the initiation of protein synthesis.
Any detectable and heritable change in the genetic material that causes a change in the GENOTYPE and which is transmitted to daughter cells and to succeeding generations.
The encapsulated embryos of flowering plants. They are used as is or for animal feed because of the high content of concentrated nutrients like starches, proteins, and fats. Rapeseed, cottonseed, and sunflower seed are also produced for the oils (fats) they yield.
Ribonucleic acid in plants having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
A plant species of the family SOLANACEAE, native of South America, widely cultivated for their edible, fleshy, usually red fruit.
Poisoning by the ingestion of plants or its leaves, berries, roots or stalks. The manifestations in both humans and animals vary in severity from mild to life threatening. In animals, especially domestic animals, it is usually the result of ingesting moldy or fermented forage.
Ribonucleic acid in protozoa having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
The reproductive organs of plants.
The loss of water vapor by plants to the atmosphere. It occurs mainly from the leaves through pores (stomata) whose primary function is gas exchange. The water is replaced by a continuous column of water moving upwards from the roots within the xylem vessels. (Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
RNA present in neoplastic tissue.
A localized proliferation of plant tissue forming a swelling or outgrowth, commonly with a characteristic shape and unlike any organ of the normal plant. Plant tumors or galls usually form in response to the action of a pathogen or a pest. (Holliday, P., A Dictionary of Plant Pathology, 1989, p330)
An enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of linear RNA to a circular form by the transfer of the 5'-phosphate to the 3'-hydroxyl terminus. It also catalyzes the covalent joining of two polyribonucleotides in phosphodiester linkage. EC 6.5.1.3.
Complex nucleoprotein structures which contain the genomic DNA and are part of the CELL NUCLEUS of PLANTS.
The above-ground plant without the roots.
A large family of RNA helicases that share a common protein motif with the single letter amino acid sequence D-E-A-D (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp). In addition to RNA helicase activity, members of the DEAD-box family participate in other aspects of RNA metabolism and regulation of RNA function.
A plant species of the family POACEAE. It is a tall grass grown for its EDIBLE GRAIN, corn, used as food and animal FODDER.
A DNA-dependent RNA polymerase present in bacterial, plant, and animal cells. It functions in the nucleoplasmic structure where it transcribes DNA into RNA. It has specific requirements for cations and salt and has shown an intermediate sensitivity to alpha-amanitin in comparison to RNA polymerase I and II. EC 2.7.7.6.
Material prepared from plants.
Very young plant after GERMINATION of SEEDS.
Descriptions of specific amino acid, carbohydrate, or nucleotide sequences which have appeared in the published literature and/or are deposited in and maintained by databanks such as GENBANK, European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), National Biomedical Research Foundation (NBRF), or other sequence repositories.
A DNA-dependent RNA polymerase present in bacterial, plant, and animal cells. The enzyme functions in the nucleolar structure and transcribes DNA into RNA. It has different requirements for cations and salts than RNA polymerase II and III and is not inhibited by alpha-amanitin. EC 2.7.7.6.
The large family of plants characterized by pods. Some are edible and some cause LATHYRISM or FAVISM and other forms of poisoning. Other species yield useful materials like gums from ACACIA and various LECTINS like PHYTOHEMAGGLUTININS from PHASEOLUS. Many of them harbor NITROGEN FIXATION bacteria on their roots. Many but not all species of "beans" belong to this family.
RNA molecules found in the nucleus either associated with chromosomes or in the nucleoplasm.
The act of feeding on plants by animals.
Units that convert some other form of energy into electrical energy.
Constituent of the 60S subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. 28S rRNA is involved in the initiation of polypeptide synthesis in eukaryotes.
Constituent of the 40S subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. 18S rRNA is involved in the initiation of polypeptide synthesis in eukaryotes.
Small kinetoplastid mitochondrial RNA that plays a major role in RNA EDITING. These molecules form perfect hybrids with edited mRNA sequences and possess nucleotide sequences at their 5'-ends that are complementary to the sequences of the mRNA's immediately downstream of the pre-edited regions.
Total mass of all the organisms of a given type and/or in a given area. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990) It includes the yield of vegetative mass produced from any given crop.
Proteins that bind to RNA molecules. Included here are RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS and other proteins whose function is to bind specifically to RNA.
Constituent of 30S subunit prokaryotic ribosomes containing 1600 nucleotides and 21 proteins. 16S rRNA is involved in initiation of polypeptide synthesis.
Sugar-rich liquid produced in plant glands called nectaries. It is either produced in flowers or other plant structures, providing a source of attraction for pollinating insects and animals, as well as being a nutrient source to animal mutualists which provide protection of plants against herbivores.
The restriction of a characteristic behavior, anatomical structure or physical system, such as immune response; metabolic response, or gene or gene variant to the members of one species. It refers to that property which differentiates one species from another but it is also used for phylogenetic levels higher or lower than the species.
The biosynthesis of RNA carried out on a template of DNA. The biosynthesis of DNA from an RNA template is called REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION.
A plant species of the genus SOLANUM, family SOLANACEAE. The starchy roots are used as food. SOLANINE is found in green parts.
Eighteen-carbon cyclopentyl polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from ALPHA-LINOLENIC ACID via an oxidative pathway analogous to the EICOSANOIDS in animals. Biosynthesis is inhibited by SALICYLATES. A key member, jasmonic acid of PLANTS, plays a similar role to ARACHIDONIC ACID in animals.
A species of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria (GRAM-NEGATIVE FACULTATIVELY ANAEROBIC RODS) commonly found in the lower part of the intestine of warm-blooded animals. It is usually nonpathogenic, but some strains are known to produce DIARRHEA and pyogenic infections. Pathogenic strains (virotypes) are classified by their specific pathogenic mechanisms such as toxins (ENTEROTOXIGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI), etc.
The relationship between two different species of organisms that are interdependent; each gains benefits from the other or a relationship between different species where both of the organisms in question benefit from the presence of the other.
Small, linear single-stranded RNA molecules functionally acting as molecular parasites of certain RNA plant viruses. Satellite RNAs exhibit four characteristic traits: (1) they require helper viruses to replicate; (2) they are unnecessary for the replication of helper viruses; (3) they are encapsidated in the coat protein of the helper virus; (4) they have no extensive sequence homology to the helper virus. Thus they differ from SATELLITE VIRUSES which encode their own coat protein, and from the genomic RNA; (=RNA, VIRAL); of satellite viruses. (From Maramorosch, Viroids and Satellites, 1991, p143)
The synthesis by organisms of organic chemical compounds, especially carbohydrates, from carbon dioxide using energy obtained from light rather than from the oxidation of chemical compounds. Photosynthesis comprises two separate processes: the light reactions and the dark reactions. In higher plants; GREEN ALGAE; and CYANOBACTERIA; NADPH and ATP formed by the light reactions drive the dark reactions which result in the fixation of carbon dioxide. (from Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 2001)
The outward appearance of the individual. It is the product of interactions between genes, and between the GENOTYPE and the environment.
The outer layer of the woody parts of plants.
Constituent of 50S subunit of prokaryotic ribosomes containing about 3200 nucleotides. 23S rRNA is involved in the initiation of polypeptide synthesis.
A group of alicyclic hydrocarbons with the general formula R-C5H9.
Acetic acid derivatives of the heterocyclic compound indole. (Merck Index, 11th ed)
Physiological functions characteristic of plants.
The process of moving specific RNA molecules from one cellular compartment or region to another by various sorting and transport mechanisms.
Short sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) of DNA that are complementary to sequences of messenger RNA and allow reverse transcriptases to start copying the adjacent sequences of mRNA. Primers are used extensively in genetic and molecular biology techniques.
Plant cell inclusion bodies that contain the photosynthetic pigment CHLOROPHYLL, which is associated with the membrane of THYLAKOIDS. Chloroplasts occur in cells of leaves and young stems of plants. They are also found in some forms of PHYTOPLANKTON such as HAPTOPHYTA; DINOFLAGELLATES; DIATOMS; and CRYPTOPHYTA.
The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface of the earth that serves as a natural medium for the growth of land plants.
Single-stranded complementary DNA synthesized from an RNA template by the action of RNA-dependent DNA polymerase. cDNA (i.e., complementary DNA, not circular DNA, not C-DNA) is used in a variety of molecular cloning experiments as well as serving as a specific hybridization probe.
The process of cumulative change at the level of DNA; RNA; and PROTEINS, over successive generations.
A functional system which includes the organisms of a natural community together with their environment. (McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
The protoplasm and plasma membrane of plant, fungal, bacterial or archaeon cells without the CELL WALL.
DNA sequences which are recognized (directly or indirectly) and bound by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase during the initiation of transcription. Highly conserved sequences within the promoter include the Pribnow box in bacteria and the TATA BOX in eukaryotes.
A compound obtained from the bark of the white willow and wintergreen leaves. It has bacteriostatic, fungicidal, and keratolytic actions.
Systems of medicine based on cultural beliefs and practices handed down from generation to generation. The concept includes mystical and magical rituals (SPIRITUAL THERAPIES); PHYTOTHERAPY; and other treatments which may not be explained by modern medicine.
Knobbed structures formed from and attached to plant roots, especially of LEGUMES, which result from symbiotic infection by nitrogen fixing bacteria such as RHIZOBIUM or FRANKIA. Root nodules are structures related to MYCORRHIZAE formed by symbiotic associations with fungi.
The biosynthesis of PEPTIDES and PROTEINS on RIBOSOMES, directed by MESSENGER RNA, via TRANSFER RNA that is charged with standard proteinogenic AMINO ACIDS.
Substances released by PLANTS such as PLANT GUMS and PLANT RESINS.
The small RNAs which provide spliced leader sequences, SL1, SL2, SL3, SL4 and SL5 (short sequences which are joined to the 5' ends of pre-mRNAs by TRANS-SPLICING). They are found primarily in primitive eukaryotes (protozoans and nematodes).
Protein or glycoprotein substances of plant origin that bind to sugar moieties in cell walls or membranes. Some carbohydrate-metabolizing proteins (ENZYMES) from PLANTS also bind to carbohydrates, however they are not considered lectins. Many plant lectins change the physiology of the membrane of BLOOD CELLS to cause agglutination, mitosis, or other biochemical changes. They may play a role in plant defense mechanisms.
A plant genus of the family POACEAE that is the source of EDIBLE GRAIN. A hybrid with rye (SECALE CEREALE) is called TRITICALE. The seed is ground into FLOUR and used to make BREAD, and is the source of WHEAT GERM AGGLUTININS.
Widely used technique which exploits the ability of complementary sequences in single-stranded DNAs or RNAs to pair with each other to form a double helix. Hybridization can take place between two complimentary DNA sequences, between a single-stranded DNA and a complementary RNA, or between two RNA sequences. The technique is used to detect and isolate specific sequences, measure homology, or define other characteristics of one or both strands. (Kendrew, Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, 1994, p503)
The reproductive cells of plants.
The process in which substances, either endogenous or exogenous, bind to proteins, peptides, enzymes, protein precursors, or allied compounds. Specific protein-binding measures are often used as assays in diagnostic assessments.
Symbiotic combination (dual organism) of the MYCELIUM of FUNGI with the roots of plants (PLANT ROOTS). The roots of almost all higher plants exhibit this mutually beneficial relationship, whereby the fungus supplies water and mineral salts to the plant, and the plant supplies CARBOHYDRATES to the fungus. There are two major types of mycorrhizae: ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae.
The process of intracellular viral multiplication, consisting of the synthesis of PROTEINS; NUCLEIC ACIDS; and sometimes LIPIDS, and their assembly into a new infectious particle.
The parts of a macromolecule that directly participate in its specific combination with another molecule.
A plant genus of the family POACEAE. The EDIBLE GRAIN, barley, is widely used as food.
A large family of narrow-leaved herbaceous grasses of the order Cyperales, subclass Commelinidae, class Liliopsida (monocotyledons). Food grains (EDIBLE GRAIN) come from members of this family. RHINITIS, ALLERGIC, SEASONAL can be induced by POLLEN of many of the grasses.
Theoretical representations that simulate the behavior or activity of biological processes or diseases. For disease models in living animals, DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL is available. Biological models include the use of mathematical equations, computers, and other electronic equipment.
The fertilizing element of plants that contains the male GAMETOPHYTES.
The failure of PLANTS to complete fertilization and obtain seed (SEEDS) as a result of defective POLLEN or ovules, or other aberrations. (Dict. of Plant Genet. and Mol. Biol., 1998)
Use of plants or herbs to treat diseases or to alleviate pain.
Endogenous substances, usually proteins, which are effective in the initiation, stimulation, or termination of the genetic transcription process.
Established cell cultures that have the potential to propagate indefinitely.
Within a eukaryotic cell, a membrane-limited body which contains chromosomes and one or more nucleoli (CELL NUCLEOLUS). The nuclear membrane consists of a double unit-type membrane which is perforated by a number of pores; the outermost membrane is continuous with the ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM. A cell may contain more than one nucleus. (From Singleton & Sainsbury, Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, 2d ed)
A deoxyribonucleotide polymer that is the primary genetic material of all cells. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms normally contain DNA in a double-stranded state, yet several important biological processes transiently involve single-stranded regions. DNA, which consists of a polysugar-phosphate backbone possessing projections of purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine), forms a double helix that is held together by hydrogen bonds between these purines and pyrimidines (adenine to thymine and guanine to cytosine).
The initial stages of the growth of SEEDS into a SEEDLINGS. The embryonic shoot (plumule) and embryonic PLANT ROOTS (radicle) emerge and grow upwards and downwards respectively. Food reserves for germination come from endosperm tissue within the seed and/or from the seed leaves (COTYLEDON). (Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
Ribonucleic acid in archaea having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
Interruption or suppression of the expression of a gene at transcriptional or translational levels.
A variation of the PCR technique in which cDNA is made from RNA via reverse transcription. The resultant cDNA is then amplified using standard PCR protocols.
A plant genus of the family Cruciferae. It contains many species and cultivars used as food including cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussel sprouts, kale, collard greens, MUSTARD PLANT; (B. alba, B. junica, and B. nigra), turnips (BRASSICA NAPUS) and rapeseed (BRASSICA RAPA).
A kingdom of eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms that live parasitically as saprobes, including MUSHROOMS; YEASTS; smuts, molds, etc. They reproduce either sexually or asexually, and have life cycles that range from simple to complex. Filamentous fungi, commonly known as molds, refer to those that grow as multicellular colonies.
A large plant family of the order Asterales, subclass Asteridae, class Magnoliopsida. The family is also known as Compositae. Flower petals are joined near the base and stamens alternate with the corolla lobes. The common name of "daisy" refers to several genera of this family including Aster; CHRYSANTHEMUM; RUDBECKIA; TANACETUM.
The rate dynamics in chemical or physical systems.
The complete genetic complement contained in a DNA or RNA molecule in a virus.
The determination of the pattern of genes expressed at the level of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell.
A variable annual leguminous vine (Pisum sativum) that is cultivated for its rounded smooth or wrinkled edible protein-rich seeds, the seed of the pea, and the immature pods with their included seeds. (From Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1973)
Models used experimentally or theoretically to study molecular shape, electronic properties, or interactions; includes analogous molecules, computer-generated graphics, and mechanical structures.
A sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide or of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that is similar across multiple species. A known set of conserved sequences is represented by a CONSENSUS SEQUENCE. AMINO ACID MOTIFS are often composed of conserved sequences.
Oils derived from plants or plant products.
Prolonged dry periods in natural climate cycle. They are slow-onset phenomena caused by rainfall deficit combined with other predisposing factors.
Extrachromosomal, usually CIRCULAR DNA molecules that are self-replicating and transferable from one organism to another. They are found in a variety of bacterial, archaeal, fungal, algal, and plant species. They are used in GENETIC ENGINEERING as CLONING VECTORS.
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared range.
A reaction that severs one of the sugar-phosphate linkages of the phosphodiester backbone of RNA. It is catalyzed enzymatically, chemically, or by radiation. Cleavage may be exonucleolytic, or endonucleolytic.
In vitro method for producing large amounts of specific DNA or RNA fragments of defined length and sequence from small amounts of short oligonucleotide flanking sequences (primers). The essential steps include thermal denaturation of the double-stranded target molecules, annealing of the primers to their complementary sequences, and extension of the annealed primers by enzymatic synthesis with DNA polymerase. The reaction is efficient, specific, and extremely sensitive. Uses for the reaction include disease diagnosis, detection of difficult-to-isolate pathogens, mutation analysis, genetic testing, DNA sequencing, and analyzing evolutionary relationships.
The study of the origin, structure, development, growth, function, genetics, and reproduction of plants.
An element with the atomic symbol N, atomic number 7, and atomic weight [14.00643; 14.00728]. Nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas and makes up about 78% of the earth's atmosphere by volume. It is a constituent of proteins and nucleic acids and found in all living cells.
The arrangement of two or more amino acid or base sequences from an organism or organisms in such a way as to align areas of the sequences sharing common properties. The degree of relatedness or homology between the sequences is predicted computationally or statistically based on weights assigned to the elements aligned between the sequences. This in turn can serve as a potential indicator of the genetic relatedness between the organisms.
Self-replicating cytoplasmic organelles of plant and algal cells that contain pigments and may synthesize and accumulate various substances. PLASTID GENOMES are used in phylogenetic studies.
The sequential correspondence of nucleotides in one nucleic acid molecule with those of another nucleic acid molecule. Sequence homology is an indication of the genetic relatedness of different organisms and gene function.
Abscission-accelerating plant growth substance isolated from young cotton fruit, leaves of sycamore, birch, and other plants, and from potatoes, lemons, avocados, and other fruits.
A creeping annual plant species of the CUCURBITACEAE family. It has a rough succulent, trailing stem and hairy leaves with three to five pointed lobes.
A group of ribonucleotides (up to 12) in which the phosphate residues of each ribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the ribose moieties.
Change brought about to an organisms genetic composition by unidirectional transfer (TRANSFECTION; TRANSDUCTION, GENETIC; CONJUGATION, GENETIC, etc.) and incorporation of foreign DNA into prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells by recombination of part or all of that DNA into the cell's genome.
The capacity of an organism to defend itself against pathological processes or the agents of those processes. This most often involves innate immunity whereby the organism responds to pathogens in a generic way. The term disease resistance is used most frequently when referring to plants.
A species of gram-negative, fluorescent, phytopathogenic bacteria in the genus PSEUDOMONAS. It is differentiated into approximately 50 pathovars with different plant pathogenicities and host specificities.
A class of organic compounds known as STEROLS or STEROIDS derived from plants.
Short RNA, about 200 base pairs in length or shorter, that does not code for protein.
The level of protein structure in which combinations of secondary protein structures (alpha helices, beta sheets, loop regions, and motifs) pack together to form folded shapes called domains. Disulfide bridges between cysteines in two different parts of the polypeptide chain along with other interactions between the chains play a role in the formation and stabilization of tertiary structure. Small proteins usually consist of only one domain but larger proteins may contain a number of domains connected by segments of polypeptide chain which lack regular secondary structure.
A set of genes descended by duplication and variation from some ancestral gene. Such genes may be clustered together on the same chromosome or dispersed on different chromosomes. Examples of multigene families include those that encode the hemoglobins, immunoglobulins, histocompatibility antigens, actins, tubulins, keratins, collagens, heat shock proteins, salivary glue proteins, chorion proteins, cuticle proteins, yolk proteins, and phaseolins, as well as histones, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA genes. The latter three are examples of reiterated genes, where hundreds of identical genes are present in a tandem array. (King & Stanfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Nuclear nonribosomal RNA larger than about 1000 nucleotides, the mass of which is rapidly synthesized and degraded within the cell nucleus. Some heterogeneous nuclear RNA may be a precursor to mRNA. However, the great bulk of total hnRNA hybridizes with nuclear DNA rather than with mRNA.
A test used to determine whether or not complementation (compensation in the form of dominance) will occur in a cell with a given mutant phenotype when another mutant genome, encoding the same mutant phenotype, is introduced into that cell.
An annual legume. The SEEDS of this plant are edible and used to produce a variety of SOY FOODS.
A class of plants within the Bryophyta comprising the mosses, which are found in both damp (including freshwater) and drier situations. Mosses possess erect or prostrate leafless stems, which give rise to leafless stalks bearing capsules. Spores formed in the capsules are released and grow to produce new plants. (Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990). Many small plants bearing the name moss are in fact not mosses. The "moss" found on the north side of trees is actually a green alga (CHLOROPHYTA). Irish moss is really a red alga (RHODOPHYTA). Beard lichen (beard moss), Iceland moss, oak moss, and reindeer moss are actually LICHENS. Spanish moss is a common name for both LICHENS and an air plant (TILLANDSIA usneoides) of the pineapple family. Club moss is an evergreen herb of the family LYCOPODIACEAE.
The intracellular transfer of information (biological activation/inhibition) through a signal pathway. In each signal transduction system, an activation/inhibition signal from a biologically active molecule (hormone, neurotransmitter) is mediated via the coupling of a receptor/enzyme to a second messenger system or to an ion channel. Signal transduction plays an important role in activating cellular functions, cell differentiation, and cell proliferation. Examples of signal transduction systems are the GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID-postsynaptic receptor-calcium ion channel system, the receptor-mediated T-cell activation pathway, and the receptor-mediated activation of phospholipases. Those coupled to membrane depolarization or intracellular release of calcium include the receptor-mediated activation of cytotoxic functions in granulocytes and the synaptic potentiation of protein kinase activation. Some signal transduction pathways may be part of larger signal transduction pathways; for example, protein kinase activation is part of the platelet activation signal pathway.
A species of gram-negative, aerobic bacteria isolated from soil and the stems, leafs, and roots of plants. Some biotypes are pathogenic and cause the formation of PLANT TUMORS in a wide variety of higher plants. The species is a major research tool in biotechnology.
The steps that generate the 3' ends of mature RNA molecules. For most mRNAs (RNA, MESSENGER), 3' end processing referred to as POLYADENYLATION includes the addition of POLY A.
A group of plant cells that are capable of dividing infinitely and whose main function is the production of new growth at the growing tip of a root or stem. (From Concise Dictionary of Biology, 1990)
Porphyrin derivatives containing magnesium that act to convert light energy in photosynthetic organisms.
The first continuously cultured human malignant CELL LINE, derived from the cervical carcinoma of Henrietta Lacks. These cells are used for VIRUS CULTIVATION and antitumor drug screening assays.
Proteins found in any species of bacterium.
A family (Aphididae) of small insects, in the suborder Sternorrhyncha, that suck the juices of plants. Important genera include Schizaphis and Myzus. The latter is known to carry more than 100 virus diseases between plants.
Complexes of RNA-binding proteins with ribonucleic acids (RNA).
A group of adenine ribonucleotides in which the phosphate residues of each adenine ribonucleotide act as bridges in forming diester linkages between the ribose moieties.
Constituent of the 60S subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. 5.8S rRNA is involved in the initiation of polypeptide synthesis in eukaryotes.
A species of the genus SACCHAROMYCES, family Saccharomycetaceae, order Saccharomycetales, known as "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast. The dried form is used as a dietary supplement.
Macromolecular molds for the synthesis of complementary macromolecules, as in DNA REPLICATION; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION of DNA to RNA, and GENETIC TRANSLATION of RNA into POLYPEPTIDES.
A genus of gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped bacteria that activate PLANT ROOT NODULATION in leguminous plants. Members of this genus are nitrogen-fixing and common soil inhabitants.
Small RNAs found in the cytoplasm usually complexed with proteins in scRNPs (RIBONUCLEOPROTEINS, SMALL CYTOPLASMIC).
The unfavorable effect of environmental factors (stressors) on the physiological functions of an organism. Prolonged unresolved physiological stress can affect HOMEOSTASIS of the organism, and may lead to damaging or pathological conditions.
The phenotypic manifestation of a gene or genes by the processes of GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION and GENETIC TRANSLATION.
Ribonucleic acid in chloroplasts having regulatory and catalytic roles as well as involvement in protein synthesis.
Woody, usually tall, perennial higher plants (Angiosperms, Gymnosperms, and some Pterophyta) having usually a main stem and numerous branches.
Viruses which produce a mottled appearance of the leaves of plants.
A clear, odorless, tasteless liquid that is essential for most animal and plant life and is an excellent solvent for many substances. The chemical formula is hydrogen oxide (H2O). (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, 4th ed)
The interactions between a host and a pathogen, usually resulting in disease.
A large order of insects characterized by having the mouth parts adapted to piercing or sucking. It is comprised of four suborders: HETEROPTERA, Auchenorrhyncha, Sternorrhyncha, and Coleorrhyncha.
Any of several BRASSICA species that are commonly called mustard. Brassica alba is white mustard, B. juncea is brown or Chinese mustard, and B. nigra is black, brown, or red mustard. The plant is grown both for mustard seed from which oil is extracted or used as SPICES, and for its greens used as VEGETABLES or ANIMAL FEED. There is no relationship to MUSTARD COMPOUNDS.
Small nuclear RNAs that are involved in the processing of pre-ribosomal RNA in the nucleolus. Box C/D containing snoRNAs (U14, U15, U16, U20, U21 and U24-U63) direct site-specific methylation of various ribose moieties. Box H/ACA containing snoRNAs (E2, E3, U19, U23, and U64-U72) direct the conversion of specific uridines to pseudouridine. Site-specific cleavages resulting in the mature ribosomal RNAs are directed by snoRNAs U3, U8, U14, U22 and the snoRNA components of RNase MRP and RNase P.
Plant hormones that promote the separation of daughter cells after mitotic division of a parent cell. Frequently they are purine derivatives.
The property of objects that determines the direction of heat flow when they are placed in direct thermal contact. The temperature is the energy of microscopic motions (vibrational and translational) of the particles of atoms.
Enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of ester bonds within RNA. EC 3.1.-.
A phylum of fungi which have cross-walls or septa in the mycelium. The perfect state is characterized by the formation of a saclike cell (ascus) containing ascospores. Most pathogenic fungi with a known perfect state belong to this phylum.
A class of untranslated RNA molecules that are typically greater than 200 nucleotides in length and do not code for proteins. Members of this class have been found to play roles in transcriptional regulation, post-transcriptional processing, CHROMATIN REMODELING, and in the epigenetic control of chromatin.

Gene silencing: plants and viruses fight it out. (1/2997)

Plants can become 'immune' to attack by viruses by degrading specific viral RNA, but some plant viruses have evolved the general capacity to suppress this resistance mechanism.  (+info)

Cytokinin activation of Arabidopsis cell division through a D-type cyclin. (2/2997)

Cytokinins are plant hormones that regulate plant cell division. The D-type cyclin CycD3 was found to be elevated in a mutant of Arabidopsis with a high level of cytokinin and to be rapidly induced by cytokinin application in both cell cultures and whole plants. Constitutive expression of CycD3 in transgenic plants allowed induction and maintenance of cell division in the absence of exogenous cytokinin. Results suggest that cytokinin activates Arabidopsis cell division through induction of CycD3 at the G1-S cell cycle phase transition.  (+info)

NADH-glutamate synthase in alfalfa root nodules. Genetic regulation and cellular expression. (3/2997)

NADH-dependent glutamate synthase (NADH-GOGAT; EC 1.4.1.14) is a key enzyme in primary nitrogen assimilation in alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) root nodules. Here we report that in alfalfa, a single gene, probably with multiple alleles, encodes for NADH-GOGAT. In situ hybridizations were performed to assess the location of NADH-GOGAT transcript in alfalfa root nodules. In wild-type cv Saranac nodules the NADH-GOGAT gene is predominantly expressed in infected cells. Nodules devoid of bacteroids (empty) induced by Sinorhizobium meliloti 7154 had no NADH-GOGAT transcript detectable by in situ hybridization, suggesting that the presence of the bacteroid may be important for NADH-GOGAT expression. The pattern of expression of NADH-GOGAT shifted during root nodule development. Until d 9 after planting, all infected cells appeared to express NADH-GOGAT. By d 19, a gradient of expression from high in the early symbiotic zone to low in the late symbiotic zone was observed. In 33-d-old nodules expression was seen in only a few cell layers in the early symbiotic zone. This pattern of expression was also observed for the nifH transcript but not for leghemoglobin. The promoter of NADH-GOGAT was evaluated in transgenic alfalfa plants carrying chimeric beta-glucuronidase promoter fusions. The results suggest that there are at least four regulatory elements. The region responsible for expression in the infected cell zone contains an 88-bp direct repeat.  (+info)

Characterization of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii zygote-specific cDNAs that encode novel proteins containing ankyrin repeats and WW domains. (4/2997)

Genes that are expressed only in the young zygote are considered to be of great importance in the development of an isogamous green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. Clones representing the Zys3 gene were isolated from a cDNA library prepared using zygotes at 10 min after fertilization. Sequencing of Zys3 cDNA clones resulted in the isolation of two related molecular species. One of them encoded a protein that contained two kinds of protein-to-protein interaction motifs known as ankyrin repeats and WW domains. The other clone lacked the ankyrin repeats but was otherwise identical. These mRNA species began to accumulate simultaneously in cells beginning 10 min after fertilization, and reached maximum levels at about 4 h, after which time levels decreased markedly. Genomic DNA gel-blot analysis indicated that Zys3 was a single-copy gene. The Zys3 proteins exhibited parallel expression to the Zys3 mRNAs at first, appearing 2 h after mating, and reached maximum levels at more than 6 h, but persisted to at least 1 d. Immunocytochemical analysis revealed their localization in the endoplasmic reticulum, which suggests a role in the morphological changes of the endoplasmic reticulum or in the synthesis and transport of proteins to the Golgi apparatus or related vesicles.  (+info)

Antisense expression of the CK2 alpha-subunit gene in Arabidopsis. Effects on light-regulated gene expression and plant growth. (5/2997)

The protein kinase CK2 (formerly casein kinase II) is thought to be involved in light-regulated gene expression in plants because of its ability to phosphorylate transcription factors that bind to the promoter regions of light-regulated genes in vitro. To address this possibility in vivo and to learn more about the potential physiological roles of CK2 in plants, we transformed Arabidopsis with an antisense construct of the CK2 alpha-subunit gene and investigated both morphological and molecular phenotypes. Antisense transformants had a smaller adult leaf size and showed increased expression of chs in darkness and of cab and rbcS after red-light treatment. The latter molecular phenotype implied that CK2 might serve as one of several negative and quantitative effectors in light-regulated gene expression. The possible mechanism of CK2 action and its involvement in the phytochrome signal transduction pathway are discussed.  (+info)

The mechanism of rhythmic ethylene production in sorghum. The role of phytochrome B and simulated shading. (6/2997)

Mutant sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench) deficient in functional phytochrome B exhibits reduced photoperiodic sensitivity and constitutively expresses a shade-avoidance phenotype. Under relatively bright, high red:far-red light, ethylene production by seedlings of wild-type and phytochrome B-mutant cultivars progresses through cycles in a circadian rhythm; however, the phytochrome B mutant produces ethylene peaks with approximately 10 times the amplitude of the wild type. Time-course northern blots show that the mutant's abundance of the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) oxidase mRNA SbACO2 is cyclic and is commensurate with ethylene production, and that ACC oxidase activity follows the same pattern. Both SbACO2 abundance and ACC oxidase activity in the wild-type plant are very low under this regimen. ACC levels in the two cultivars did not demonstrate fluctuations coincident with the ethylene produced. Simulated shading caused the wild-type plant to mimic the phenotype of the mutant and to produce high amplitude rhythms of ethylene evolution. The circadian feature of the ethylene cycle is conditionally present in the mutant and absent in the wild-type plant under simulated shading. SbACO2 abundance in both cultivars demonstrates a high-amplitude diurnal cycle under these conditions; however, ACC oxidase activity, although elevated, does not exhibit a clear rhythm correlated with ethylene production. ACC levels in both cultivars show fluctuations corresponding to the ethylene rhythm previously observed. It appears that at least two separate mechanisms may be involved in generating high-amplitude ethylene rhythms in sorghum, one in response to the loss of phytochrome B function and another in response to shading.  (+info)

The FLF MADS box gene: a repressor of flowering in Arabidopsis regulated by vernalization and methylation. (7/2997)

A MADS box gene, FLF (for FLOWERING LOCUS F ), isolated from a late-flowering, T-DNA-tagged Arabidopsis mutant, is a semidominant gene encoding a repressor of flowering. The FLF gene appears to integrate the vernalization-dependent and autonomous flowering pathways because its expression is regulated by genes in both pathways. The level of FLF mRNA is downregulated by vernalization and by a decrease in genomic DNA methylation, which is consistent with our previous suggestion that vernalization acts to induce flowering through changes in gene activity that are mediated through a reduction in DNA methylation. The flf-1 mutant requires a greater than normal amount of an exogenous gibberellin (GA3) to decrease flowering time compared with the wild type or with vernalization-responsive late-flowering mutants, suggesting that the FLF gene product may block the promotion of flowering by GAs. FLF maps to a region on chromosome 5 near the FLOWERING LOCUS C gene, which is a semidominant repressor of flowering in late-flowering ecotypes of Arabidopsis.  (+info)

Overexpression of BiP in tobacco alleviates endoplasmic reticulum stress. (8/2997)

To study the role of the lumenal binding protein (BiP) in the transport and secretion of proteins, we have produced plants with altered BiP levels. Transgenic plants overexpressing BiP showed dramatically increased BiP mRNA levels but only a modest increase in BiP protein levels. The presence of degradation products in BiP overproducers suggests a regulatory mechanism that increases protein turnover when BiP is abundant. Antisense inhibition of BiP synthesis was not successful, demonstrating that even a minor reduction in the basal BiP level is deleterious to cell viability. Overexpression of BiP leads to downregulation of the basal transcript levels of endogenous BiP genes and greatly reduces the unfolded protein response. The data confirm that BiP transcription is regulated via a feedback mechanism that involves monitoring of BiP protein levels. To test BiP activity in vivo, we designed a functional assay, using the secretory protein alpha-amylase and a cytosolic enzyme as a control for cell viability. During tunicamycin treatment, an overall reduction of alpha-amylase synthesis was observed when compared with the cytosolic marker. We show that the tunicamycin effect is due to the depletion of BiP in the endoplasmic reticulum because coexpressed BiP alone is able to restore efficient alpha-amylase synthesis. This is a novel assay to monitor BiP activity in promoting secretory protein synthesis in vivo.  (+info)

A plant virus is not defined in medical terms, as viruses are typically considered within the context of living organisms and plants are not classified as such. However, I can provide a general virology definition for you:

Plant viruses are small infectious agents that consist of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat. They infect various plant species, causing a wide range of symptoms and diseases, which can result in significant economic losses in agriculture and horticulture. Plant viruses lack the ability to replicate outside a host cell, and they rely on the host's metabolic machinery for their reproduction. They can be transmitted through various means, such as insect vectors, seeds, or mechanical contact.

RNA viruses are a type of virus that contain ribonucleic acid (RNA) as their genetic material, as opposed to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). RNA viruses replicate by using an enzyme called RNA-dependent RNA polymerase to transcribe and replicate their RNA genome.

There are several different groups of RNA viruses, including:

1. Negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that is complementary to the mRNA and must undergo transcription to produce mRNA before translation can occur. Examples include influenza virus, measles virus, and rabies virus.
2. Positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome that can serve as mRNA and can be directly translated into protein after entry into the host cell. Examples include poliovirus, rhinoviruses, and coronaviruses.
3. Double-stranded RNA viruses: These viruses have a genome consisting of double-stranded RNA and use a complex replication strategy involving both transcription and reverse transcription. Examples include rotaviruses and reoviruses.

RNA viruses are known to cause a wide range of human diseases, ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses such as hepatitis C, polio, and COVID-19. Due to their high mutation rates and ability to adapt quickly to new environments, RNA viruses can be difficult to control and treat with antiviral drugs or vaccines.

Tombusviridae is a family of viruses in the order Picornavirales, characterized by having single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genomes. Members of this family typically infect plants and are transmitted by mechanical means or through contact with contaminated soil. The virions are non-enveloped and have icosahedral symmetry, with a diameter of about 30-34 nanometers. Tombusviruses are known to cause various symptoms in their host plants, including mottling, necrosis, and stunting. Some notable examples of tombusviruses include Tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV) and Cucumber necrosis virus (CNV).

A viral RNA (ribonucleic acid) is the genetic material found in certain types of viruses, as opposed to viruses that contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). These viruses are known as RNA viruses. The RNA can be single-stranded or double-stranded and can exist as several different forms, such as positive-sense, negative-sense, or ambisense RNA. Upon infecting a host cell, the viral RNA uses the host's cellular machinery to translate the genetic information into proteins, leading to the production of new virus particles and the continuation of the viral life cycle. Examples of human diseases caused by RNA viruses include influenza, COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2), hepatitis C, and polio.

Genetically modified plants (GMPs) are plants that have had their DNA altered through genetic engineering techniques to exhibit desired traits. These modifications can be made to enhance certain characteristics such as increased resistance to pests, improved tolerance to environmental stresses like drought or salinity, or enhanced nutritional content. The process often involves introducing genes from other organisms, such as bacteria or viruses, into the plant's genome. Examples of GMPs include Bt cotton, which has a gene from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis that makes it resistant to certain pests, and golden rice, which is engineered to contain higher levels of beta-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. It's important to note that genetically modified plants are subject to rigorous testing and regulation to ensure their safety for human consumption and environmental impact before they are approved for commercial use.

I believe there may be a slight misunderstanding in your question. "Plant leaves" are not a medical term, but rather a general biological term referring to a specific organ found in plants.

Leaves are organs that are typically flat and broad, and they are the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants. They are usually green due to the presence of chlorophyll, which is essential for capturing sunlight and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis.

While leaves do not have a direct medical definition, understanding their structure and function can be important in various medical fields, such as pharmacognosy (the study of medicinal plants) or environmental health. For example, certain plant leaves may contain bioactive compounds that have therapeutic potential, while others may produce allergens or toxins that can impact human health.

"Plant proteins" refer to the proteins that are derived from plant sources. These can include proteins from legumes such as beans, lentils, and peas, as well as proteins from grains like wheat, rice, and corn. Other sources of plant proteins include nuts, seeds, and vegetables.

Plant proteins are made up of individual amino acids, which are the building blocks of protein. While animal-based proteins typically contain all of the essential amino acids that the body needs to function properly, many plant-based proteins may be lacking in one or more of these essential amino acids. However, by consuming a variety of plant-based foods throughout the day, it is possible to get all of the essential amino acids that the body needs from plant sources alone.

Plant proteins are often lower in calories and saturated fat than animal proteins, making them a popular choice for those following a vegetarian or vegan diet, as well as those looking to maintain a healthy weight or reduce their risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Additionally, plant proteins have been shown to have a number of health benefits, including improving gut health, reducing inflammation, and supporting muscle growth and repair.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a single-stranded, linear polymer of ribonucleotides. It is a nucleic acid present in the cells of all living organisms and some viruses. RNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes such as protein synthesis, gene regulation, and cellular signaling. There are several types of RNA including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), small nuclear RNA (snRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA). These RNAs differ in their structure, function, and location within the cell.

A plant root is not a medical term per se, but it is a term from botany, which is the study of plants. However, I can certainly provide a definition for you.

Plant roots are the underground organs of a plant that typically grow downward into the soil. They serve several important functions, including:

1. Anchorage: Roots help to stabilize the plant and keep it upright in the ground.
2. Absorption: Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil, which are essential for the plant's growth and development.
3. Conduction: Roots conduct water and nutrients up to the above-ground parts of the plant, such as the stem and leaves.
4. Vegetative reproduction: Some plants can reproduce vegetatively through their roots, producing new plants from root fragments or specialized structures called rhizomes or tubers.

Roots are composed of several different tissues, including the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, and vascular tissue. The epidermis is the outermost layer of the root, which secretes a waxy substance called suberin that helps to prevent water loss. The cortex is the middle layer of the root, which contains cells that store carbohydrates and other nutrients. The endodermis is a thin layer of cells that surrounds the vascular tissue and regulates the movement of water and solutes into and out of the root. The vascular tissue consists of xylem and phloem, which transport water and nutrients throughout the plant.

A gene in plants, like in other organisms, is a hereditary unit that carries genetic information from one generation to the next. It is a segment of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism. Genes in plants determine various traits such as flower color, plant height, resistance to diseases, and many others. They are responsible for encoding proteins and RNA molecules that play crucial roles in the growth, development, and reproduction of plants. Plant genes can be manipulated through traditional breeding methods or genetic engineering techniques to improve crop yield, enhance disease resistance, and increase nutritional value.

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) is a type of short, double-stranded RNA molecule that plays a role in the RNA interference (RNAi) pathway. The RNAi pathway is a natural cellular process that regulates gene expression by targeting and destroying specific messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, thereby preventing the translation of those mRNAs into proteins.

SiRNAs are typically 20-25 base pairs in length and are generated from longer double-stranded RNA precursors called hairpin RNAs or dsRNAs by an enzyme called Dicer. Once generated, siRNAs associate with a protein complex called the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which uses one strand of the siRNA (the guide strand) to recognize and bind to complementary sequences in the target mRNA. The RISC then cleaves the target mRNA, leading to its degradation and the inhibition of protein synthesis.

SiRNAs have emerged as a powerful tool for studying gene function and have shown promise as therapeutic agents for a variety of diseases, including viral infections, cancer, and genetic disorders. However, their use as therapeutics is still in the early stages of development, and there are challenges associated with delivering siRNAs to specific cells and tissues in the body.

A plant extract is a preparation containing chemical constituents that have been extracted from a plant using a solvent. The resulting extract may contain a single compound or a mixture of several compounds, depending on the extraction process and the specific plant material used. These extracts are often used in various industries including pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food and beverage, due to their potential therapeutic or beneficial properties. The composition of plant extracts can vary widely, and it is important to ensure their quality, safety, and efficacy before use in any application.

A medical definition for "plant shoots" may not be readily available, as the term is primarily used in botany and horticulture. However, I can provide you with a general definition:

Plant shoots refer to the above-ground portion of a plant, which typically includes structures like stems, leaves, flowers, and buds. Shoots originate from the seed or the growing tip of the plant and are responsible for photosynthesis, nutrient absorption, and reproduction. In some contexts, "plant shoots" might also refer to new growth that emerges from an existing plant, such as when a leaf or stem sprouts a new branch or flower.

Medicinal plants are defined as those plants that contain naturally occurring chemical compounds which can be used for therapeutic purposes, either directly or indirectly. These plants have been used for centuries in various traditional systems of medicine, such as Ayurveda, Chinese medicine, and Native American medicine, to prevent or treat various health conditions.

Medicinal plants contain a wide variety of bioactive compounds, including alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, terpenes, and saponins, among others. These compounds have been found to possess various pharmacological properties, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities.

Medicinal plants can be used in various forms, including whole plant material, extracts, essential oils, and isolated compounds. They can be administered through different routes, such as oral, topical, or respiratory, depending on the desired therapeutic effect.

It is important to note that while medicinal plants have been used safely and effectively for centuries, they should be used with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Some medicinal plants can interact with prescription medications or have adverse effects if used inappropriately.

RNA editing is a process that alters the sequence of a transcribed RNA molecule after it has been synthesized from DNA, but before it is translated into protein. This can result in changes to the amino acid sequence of the resulting protein or to the regulation of gene expression. The most common type of RNA editing in mammals is the hydrolytic deamination of adenosine (A) to inosine (I), catalyzed by a family of enzymes called adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs). Inosine is recognized as guanosine (G) by the translation machinery, leading to A-to-G changes in the RNA sequence. Other types of RNA editing include cytidine (C) to uridine (U) deamination and insertion/deletion of nucleotides. RNA editing is a crucial mechanism for generating diversity in gene expression and has been implicated in various biological processes, including development, differentiation, and disease.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the genetic material present in the cells of all living organisms, including plants. In plants, DNA is located in the nucleus of a cell, as well as in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Plant DNA contains the instructions for the development, growth, and function of the plant, and is passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

The structure of DNA is a double helix, formed by two strands of nucleotides that are linked together by hydrogen bonds. Each nucleotide contains a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming the rungs of the ladder that make up the double helix.

The genetic information in DNA is encoded in the sequence of these nitrogenous bases. Large sequences of bases form genes, which provide the instructions for the production of proteins. The process of gene expression involves transcribing the DNA sequence into a complementary RNA molecule, which is then translated into a protein.

Plant DNA is similar to animal DNA in many ways, but there are also some differences. For example, plant DNA contains a higher proportion of repetitive sequences and transposable elements, which are mobile genetic elements that can move around the genome and cause mutations. Additionally, plant cells have cell walls and chloroplasts, which are not present in animal cells, and these structures contain their own DNA.

RNA splicing is a post-transcriptional modification process in which the non-coding sequences (introns) are removed and the coding sequences (exons) are joined together in a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. This results in a continuous mRNA sequence that can be translated into a single protein. Alternative splicing, where different combinations of exons are included or excluded, allows for the creation of multiple proteins from a single gene.

'Plant development' is not a term typically used in medical definitions, as it is more commonly used in the field of botany to describe the growth and differentiation of plant cells, tissues, and organs over time. However, in a broader context, plant development can be defined as the series of changes and processes that occur from the fertilization of a plant seed to the formation of a mature plant, including germination, emergence, organ formation, growth, and reproduction.

In medicine, terms related to plant development may include "phytotherapy" or "herbal medicine," which refer to the use of plants or plant extracts as medicinal treatments for various health conditions. The study of how these plants develop and produce their active compounds is an important area of research in pharmacology and natural products chemistry.

'Toxic plants' refer to those species of plants that contain toxic substances capable of causing harmful effects or adverse health reactions in humans and animals when ingested, touched, or inhaled. These toxins can cause a range of symptoms from mild irritation to serious conditions such as organ failure, paralysis, or even death depending on the plant, the amount consumed, and the individual's sensitivity to the toxin.

Toxic plants may contain various types of toxins, including alkaloids, glycosides, proteins, resinous substances, and essential oils. Some common examples of toxic plants include poison ivy, poison oak, nightshade, hemlock, oleander, castor bean, and foxglove. It is important to note that some parts of a plant may be toxic while others are not, and the toxicity can also vary depending on the stage of growth or environmental conditions.

If you suspect exposure to a toxic plant, it is essential to seek medical attention immediately and, if possible, bring a sample of the plant for identification.

A plant cell is defined as a type of eukaryotic cell that makes up the structural basis of plants and other forms of multicellular plant-like organisms, such as algae and mosses. These cells are typically characterized by their rigid cell walls, which provide support and protection, and their large vacuoles, which store nutrients and help maintain turgor pressure within the cell.

Plant cells also contain chloroplasts, organelles that carry out photosynthesis and give plants their green color. Other distinctive features of plant cells include a large central vacuole, a complex system of membranes called the endoplasmic reticulum, and numerous mitochondria, which provide energy to the cell through cellular respiration.

Plant cells are genetically distinct from animal cells, and they have unique structures and functions that allow them to carry out photosynthesis, grow and divide, and respond to their environment. Understanding the structure and function of plant cells is essential for understanding how plants grow, develop, and interact with their surroundings.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that is a key component of ribosomes, which are the cellular structures where protein synthesis occurs in cells. In ribosomes, rRNA plays a crucial role in the process of translation, where genetic information from messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into proteins.

Ribosomal RNA is synthesized in the nucleus and then transported to the cytoplasm, where it assembles with ribosomal proteins to form ribosomes. Within the ribosome, rRNA provides a structural framework for the assembly of the ribosome and also plays an active role in catalyzing the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during protein synthesis.

There are several different types of rRNA molecules, including 5S, 5.8S, 18S, and 28S rRNA, which vary in size and function. These rRNA molecules are highly conserved across different species, indicating their essential role in protein synthesis and cellular function.

A plant stem is not typically defined in a medical context, but rather in the field of botany. However, I can certainly provide a general biological definition for you.

In plants, stems are organs that serve primarily as support structures, holding leaves, flowers, and fruits aloft where they can receive sunlight and exchange gases. They also act as conduits, transporting water, nutrients, and sugars made during photosynthesis between the roots and shoots of a plant.

The stem is usually composed of three main tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground. The dermal tissue system forms the outermost layer(s) of the stem, providing protection and sometimes participating in gas exchange. The vascular tissue system contains the xylem (which transports water and nutrients upward) and phloem (which transports sugars and other organic compounds downward). The ground tissue system, located between the dermal and vascular tissues, is responsible for food storage and support.

While not a direct medical definition, understanding the structure and function of plant stems can be relevant in fields such as nutrition, agriculture, and environmental science, which have implications for human health.

Bacterial RNA refers to the genetic material present in bacteria that is composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA). Unlike higher organisms, bacteria contain a single circular chromosome made up of DNA, along with smaller circular pieces of DNA called plasmids. These bacterial genetic materials contain the information necessary for the growth and reproduction of the organism.

Bacterial RNA can be divided into three main categories: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). mRNA carries genetic information copied from DNA, which is then translated into proteins by the rRNA and tRNA molecules. rRNA is a structural component of the ribosome, where protein synthesis occurs, while tRNA acts as an adapter that brings amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

Bacterial RNA plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including gene expression, protein synthesis, and regulation of metabolic pathways. Understanding the structure and function of bacterial RNA is essential for developing new antibiotics and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

A plant genome refers to the complete set of genetic material or DNA present in the cells of a plant. It contains all the hereditary information necessary for the development and functioning of the plant, including its structural and functional characteristics. The plant genome includes both coding regions that contain instructions for producing proteins and non-coding regions that have various regulatory functions.

The plant genome is composed of several types of DNA molecules, including chromosomes, which are located in the nucleus of the cell. Each chromosome contains one or more genes, which are segments of DNA that code for specific proteins or RNA molecules. Plants typically have multiple sets of chromosomes, with each set containing a complete copy of the genome.

The study of plant genomes is an active area of research in modern biology, with important applications in areas such as crop improvement, evolutionary biology, and medical research. Advances in DNA sequencing technologies have made it possible to determine the complete sequences of many plant genomes, providing valuable insights into their structure, function, and evolution.

'Arabidopsis' is a genus of small flowering plants that are part of the mustard family (Brassicaceae). The most commonly studied species within this genus is 'Arabidopsis thaliana', which is often used as a model organism in plant biology and genetics research. This plant is native to Eurasia and Africa, and it has a small genome that has been fully sequenced. It is known for its short life cycle, self-fertilization, and ease of growth, making it an ideal subject for studying various aspects of plant biology, including development, metabolism, and response to environmental stresses.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit the expression of specific genes. This process is mediated by small RNA molecules, including microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), that bind to complementary sequences on messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules, leading to their degradation or translation inhibition.

RNAi plays a crucial role in regulating gene expression and defending against foreign genetic elements, such as viruses and transposons. It has also emerged as an important tool for studying gene function and developing therapeutic strategies for various diseases, including cancer and viral infections.

DNA-directed RNA polymerases are enzymes that synthesize RNA molecules using a DNA template in a process called transcription. These enzymes read the sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule and use it as a blueprint to construct a complementary RNA strand.

The RNA polymerase moves along the DNA template, adding ribonucleotides one by one to the growing RNA chain. The synthesis is directional, starting at the promoter region of the DNA and moving towards the terminator region.

In bacteria, there is a single type of RNA polymerase that is responsible for transcribing all types of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA). In eukaryotic cells, however, there are three different types of RNA polymerases: RNA polymerase I, II, and III. Each type is responsible for transcribing specific types of RNA.

RNA polymerases play a crucial role in gene expression, as they link the genetic information encoded in DNA to the production of functional proteins. Inhibition or mutation of these enzymes can have significant consequences for cellular function and survival.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of RNA (ribonucleic acid) that carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a series of three-base code "words," each of which specifies a particular amino acid. This information is used by the cell's machinery to construct proteins, a process known as translation. After being transcribed from DNA, mRNA travels out of the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis occurs. Once the protein has been synthesized, the mRNA may be degraded and recycled. Post-transcriptional modifications can also occur to mRNA, such as alternative splicing and addition of a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail, which can affect its stability, localization, and translation efficiency.

Edible plants are those that can be safely consumed by humans and other animals as a source of nutrition. They have various parts (such as fruits, vegetables, seeds, roots, stems, and leaves) that can be used for food after being harvested and prepared properly. Some edible plants have been cultivated and domesticated for agricultural purposes, while others are gathered from the wild. It is important to note that not all plants are safe to eat, and some may even be toxic or deadly if consumed. Proper identification and knowledge of preparation methods are crucial before consuming any plant material.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Plant Structures" is not a medical term. It is a term used in the field of botany to refer to the different parts of a plant, such as roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Each of these structures has specific functions that contribute to the overall growth, reproduction, and survival of the plant. If you have any questions related to biology or botany, I'd be happy to try and help answer them!

I'm happy to help! However, it seems there might be a slight misunderstanding in your question. RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is typically single-stranded. Unlike DNA, which is double-stranded and forms a double helix, RNA usually exists as a single strand of nucleotides.

There are exceptions to this rule, such as certain types of RNA molecules that can form double-stranded structures in specific contexts. For example:

1. Double-Stranded RNA (dsRNA) viruses: These viruses have genomes made entirely of RNA, which is double-stranded throughout or partially double-stranded. The dsRNA viruses include important pathogens such as rotaviruses and reoviruses.
2. Hairpin loops in RNA structures: Some single-stranded RNA molecules can fold back on themselves to form short double-stranded regions, called hairpin loops, within their overall structure. These are often found in ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules.

So, while 'double-stranded RNA' is not a standard medical definition for RNA itself, there are specific instances where RNA can form double-stranded structures as described above.

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are natural or synthetic chemical substances that, when present in low concentrations, can influence various physiological and biochemical processes in plants. These processes include cell division, elongation, and differentiation; flowering and fruiting; leaf senescence; and stress responses. PGRs can be classified into several categories based on their mode of action and chemical structure, including auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, ethylene, and others. They are widely used in agriculture to improve crop yield and quality, regulate plant growth and development, and enhance stress tolerance.

Tobacco is not a medical term, but it refers to the leaves of the plant Nicotiana tabacum that are dried and fermented before being used in a variety of ways. Medically speaking, tobacco is often referred to in the context of its health effects. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "tobacco" can also refer to any product prepared from the leaf of the tobacco plant for smoking, sucking, chewing or snuffing.

Tobacco use is a major risk factor for a number of diseases, including cancer, heart disease, stroke, lung disease, and various other medical conditions. The smoke produced by burning tobacco contains thousands of chemicals, many of which are toxic and can cause serious health problems. Nicotine, one of the primary active constituents in tobacco, is highly addictive and can lead to dependence.

Arabidopsis proteins refer to the proteins that are encoded by the genes in the Arabidopsis thaliana plant, which is a model organism commonly used in plant biology research. This small flowering plant has a compact genome and a short life cycle, making it an ideal subject for studying various biological processes in plants.

Arabidopsis proteins play crucial roles in many cellular functions, such as metabolism, signaling, regulation of gene expression, response to environmental stresses, and developmental processes. Research on Arabidopsis proteins has contributed significantly to our understanding of plant biology and has provided valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying various agronomic traits.

Some examples of Arabidopsis proteins include transcription factors, kinases, phosphatases, receptors, enzymes, and structural proteins. These proteins can be studied using a variety of techniques, such as biochemical assays, protein-protein interaction studies, and genetic approaches, to understand their functions and regulatory mechanisms in plants.

A catalytic RNA, often referred to as a ribozyme, is a type of RNA molecule that has the ability to act as an enzyme and catalyze chemical reactions. These RNA molecules contain specific sequences and structures that allow them to bind to other molecules and accelerate chemical reactions without being consumed in the process.

Ribozymes play important roles in various biological processes, such as RNA splicing, translation regulation, and gene expression. One of the most well-known ribozymes is the self-splicing intron found in certain RNA molecules, which can excise itself from the host RNA and then ligase the flanking exons together.

The discovery of catalytic RNAs challenged the central dogma of molecular biology, which held that proteins were solely responsible for carrying out biological catalysis. The finding that RNA could also function as an enzyme opened up new avenues of research and expanded our understanding of the complexity and versatility of biological systems.

RNA folding, also known as RNA structure formation or RNA tertiary structure prediction, refers to the process by which an RNA molecule folds into a specific three-dimensional shape based on its primary sequence. This shape is determined by intramolecular interactions between nucleotides within the RNA chain, including base pairing (through hydrogen bonding) and stacking interactions. The folded structure of RNA plays a crucial role in its function, as it can create specific binding sites for proteins or other molecules, facilitate or inhibit enzymatic activity, or influence the stability and localization of the RNA within the cell.

RNA folding is a complex process that can be influenced by various factors such as temperature, ionic conditions, and molecular crowding. The folded structure of an RNA molecule can be predicted using computational methods, such as thermodynamic modeling and machine learning algorithms, which take into account the primary sequence and known patterns of base pairing and stacking interactions to generate a model of the three-dimensional structure. However, experimental techniques, such as chemical probing and crystallography, are often necessary to validate and refine these predictions.

RNA Polymerase II is a type of enzyme responsible for transcribing DNA into RNA in eukaryotic cells. It plays a crucial role in the process of gene expression, where the information stored in DNA is used to create proteins. Specifically, RNA Polymerase II transcribes protein-coding genes to produce precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA), which is then processed into mature mRNA. This mature mRNA serves as a template for protein synthesis during translation.

RNA Polymerase II has a complex structure, consisting of multiple subunits, and it requires the assistance of various transcription factors and coactivators to initiate and regulate transcription. The enzyme recognizes specific promoter sequences in DNA, unwinds the double-stranded DNA, and synthesizes a complementary RNA strand using one of the unwound DNA strands as a template. This process results in the formation of a nascent RNA molecule that is further processed into mature mRNA for protein synthesis or other functional RNAs involved in gene regulation.

A base sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to the specific order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule. In DNA, these nucleotides are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) takes the place of thymine. The base sequence contains genetic information that is transcribed into RNA and ultimately translated into proteins. It is the exact order of these bases that determines the genetic code and thus the function of the DNA or RNA molecule.

"Plant immunity" refers to the complex defense mechanisms that plants have evolved to protect themselves from pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and nematodes. Plants do not have an adaptive immune system like humans, so they rely on their innate immune responses to detect and respond to pathogen invasion.

Plant immunity can be broadly categorized into two types: PTI (PAMP-triggered immunity) and ETI (Effector-triggered immunity). PTI is activated when the plant recognizes conserved microbial patterns, known as PAMPs (Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns), through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) located on the cell surface. This recognition triggers a series of defense responses, such as the production of reactive oxygen species, the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and the expression of defense genes.

ETI is activated when the plant recognizes effector proteins produced by pathogens to suppress PTI. Effector recognition typically occurs through resistance (R) proteins that can directly or indirectly recognize effectors, leading to the activation of stronger defense responses, such as the hypersensitive response (HR), which involves localized programmed cell death to limit pathogen spread.

Overall, plant immunity is a complex and dynamic process involving multiple layers of defense mechanisms that help plants protect themselves from pathogens and maintain their health and productivity.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a type of nucleic acid that plays a crucial role in the process of gene expression. There are several types of RNA molecules, including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). These RNA molecules help to transcribe DNA into mRNA, which is then translated into proteins by the ribosomes.

Fungi are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as larger organisms like mushrooms. Like other eukaryotes, fungi contain DNA and RNA as part of their genetic material. The RNA in fungi is similar to the RNA found in other organisms, including humans, and plays a role in gene expression and protein synthesis.

A specific medical definition of "RNA, fungal" does not exist, as RNA is a fundamental component of all living organisms, including fungi. However, RNA can be used as a target for antifungal drugs, as certain enzymes involved in RNA synthesis and processing are unique to fungi and can be inhibited by these drugs. For example, the antifungal drug flucytosine is converted into a toxic metabolite that inhibits fungal RNA and DNA synthesis.

Antisense RNA is a type of RNA molecule that is complementary to another RNA called sense RNA. In the context of gene expression, sense RNA is the RNA transcribed from a protein-coding gene, which serves as a template for translation into a protein. Antisense RNA, on the other hand, is transcribed from the opposite strand of the DNA and is complementary to the sense RNA.

Antisense RNA can bind to its complementary sense RNA through base-pairing, forming a double-stranded RNA structure. This interaction can prevent the sense RNA from being translated into protein or can target it for degradation by cellular machinery, thereby reducing the amount of protein produced from the gene. Antisense RNA can be used as a tool in molecular biology to study gene function or as a therapeutic strategy to silence disease-causing genes.

RNA stability refers to the duration that a ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecule remains intact and functional within a cell before it is degraded or broken down into its component nucleotides. Various factors can influence RNA stability, including:

1. Primary sequence: Certain sequences in the RNA molecule may be more susceptible to degradation by ribonucleases (RNases), enzymes that break down RNA.
2. Secondary structure: The formation of stable secondary structures, such as hairpins or stem-loop structures, can protect RNA from degradation.
3. Presence of RNA-binding proteins: Proteins that bind to RNA can either stabilize or destabilize the RNA molecule, depending on the type and location of the protein-RNA interaction.
4. Chemical modifications: Modifications to the RNA nucleotides, such as methylation, can increase RNA stability by preventing degradation.
5. Subcellular localization: The subcellular location of an RNA molecule can affect its stability, with some locations providing more protection from ribonucleases than others.
6. Cellular conditions: Changes in cellular conditions, such as pH or temperature, can also impact RNA stability.

Understanding RNA stability is important for understanding gene regulation and the function of non-coding RNAs, as well as for developing RNA-based therapeutic strategies.

Post-transcriptional RNA processing refers to the modifications and regulations that occur on RNA molecules after the transcription of DNA into RNA. This process includes several steps:

1. 5' capping: The addition of a cap structure, usually a methylated guanosine triphosphate (GTP), to the 5' end of the RNA molecule. This helps protect the RNA from degradation and plays a role in its transport, stability, and translation.
2. 3' polyadenylation: The addition of a string of adenosine residues (poly(A) tail) to the 3' end of the RNA molecule. This process is important for mRNA stability, export from the nucleus, and translation initiation.
3. Intron removal and exon ligation: Eukaryotic pre-messenger RNAs (pre-mRNAs) contain intronic sequences that do not code for proteins. These introns are removed by a process called splicing, where the flanking exons are joined together to form a continuous mRNA sequence. Alternative splicing can lead to different mature mRNAs from a single pre-mRNA, increasing transcriptomic and proteomic diversity.
4. RNA editing: Specific nucleotide changes in RNA molecules that alter the coding potential or regulatory functions of RNA. This process is catalyzed by enzymes like ADAR (Adenosine Deaminases Acting on RNA) and APOBEC (Apolipoprotein B mRNA Editing Catalytic Polypeptide-like).
5. Chemical modifications: Various chemical modifications can occur on RNA nucleotides, such as methylation, pseudouridination, and isomerization. These modifications can influence RNA stability, localization, and interaction with proteins or other RNAs.
6. Transport and localization: Mature mRNAs are transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm for translation. In some cases, specific mRNAs are localized to particular cellular compartments to ensure local protein synthesis.
7. Degradation: RNA molecules have finite lifetimes and undergo degradation by various ribonucleases (RNases). The rate of degradation can be influenced by factors such as RNA structure, modifications, or interactions with proteins.

RNA helicases are a class of enzymes that are capable of unwinding RNA secondary structures using the energy derived from ATP hydrolysis. They play crucial roles in various cellular processes involving RNA, such as transcription, splicing, translation, ribosome biogenesis, and RNA degradation. RNA helicases can be divided into several superfamilies based on their sequence and structural similarities, with the two largest being superfamily 1 (SF1) and superfamily 2 (SF2). These enzymes typically contain conserved motifs that are involved in ATP binding and hydrolysis, as well as RNA binding. By unwinding RNA structures, RNA helicases facilitate the access of other proteins to their target RNAs, thereby enabling the coordinated regulation of RNA metabolism.

An amino acid sequence is the specific order of amino acids in a protein or peptide molecule, formed by the linking of the amino group (-NH2) of one amino acid to the carboxyl group (-COOH) of another amino acid through a peptide bond. The sequence is determined by the genetic code and is unique to each type of protein or peptide. It plays a crucial role in determining the three-dimensional structure and function of proteins.

I apologize for the confusion, but "Plant Epidermis" is not a medical term. Instead, it is a term used in botany to describe the outermost layer of cells in plant tissues. The epidermis serves as a protective barrier for the plant, regulating gas exchange and water loss through stomata, and producing cutin, a waxy substance that helps prevent water loss.

In summary, "Plant Epidermis" is a term related to plant biology and not medicine.

Transfer RNA (tRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis, the process by which cells create proteins. In protein synthesis, tRNAs serve as adaptors, translating the genetic code present in messenger RNA (mRNA) into the corresponding amino acids required to build a protein.

Each tRNA molecule has a distinct structure, consisting of approximately 70-90 nucleotides arranged in a cloverleaf shape with several loops and stems. The most important feature of a tRNA is its anticodon, a sequence of three nucleotides located in one of the loops. This anticodon base-pairs with a complementary codon on the mRNA during translation, ensuring that the correct amino acid is added to the growing polypeptide chain.

Before tRNAs can participate in protein synthesis, they must be charged with their specific amino acids through an enzymatic process involving aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. These enzymes recognize and bind to both the tRNA and its corresponding amino acid, forming a covalent bond between them. Once charged, the aminoacyl-tRNA complex is ready to engage in translation and contribute to protein formation.

In summary, transfer RNA (tRNA) is a small RNA molecule that facilitates protein synthesis by translating genetic information from messenger RNA into specific amino acids, ultimately leading to the creation of functional proteins within cells.

Nucleic acid conformation refers to the three-dimensional structure that nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) adopt as a result of the bonding patterns between the atoms within the molecule. The primary structure of nucleic acids is determined by the sequence of nucleotides, while the conformation is influenced by factors such as the sugar-phosphate backbone, base stacking, and hydrogen bonding.

Two common conformations of DNA are the B-form and the A-form. The B-form is a right-handed helix with a diameter of about 20 Ã… and a pitch of 34 Ã…, while the A-form has a smaller diameter (about 18 Ã…) and a shorter pitch (about 25 Ã…). RNA typically adopts an A-form conformation.

The conformation of nucleic acids can have significant implications for their function, as it can affect their ability to interact with other molecules such as proteins or drugs. Understanding the conformational properties of nucleic acids is therefore an important area of research in molecular biology and medicine.

RNA precursors, also known as primary transcripts or pre-messenger RNAs (pre-mRNAs), refer to the initial RNA molecules that are synthesized during the transcription process in which DNA is copied into RNA. These precursor molecules still contain non-coding sequences and introns, which need to be removed through a process called splicing, before they can become mature and functional RNAs such as messenger RNAs (mRNAs), ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), or transfer RNAs (tRNAs).

Pre-mRNAs undergo several processing steps, including 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and splicing, to generate mature mRNA molecules that can be translated into proteins. The accurate and efficient production of RNA precursors and their subsequent processing are crucial for gene expression and regulation in cells.

Small nuclear RNA (snRNA) are a type of RNA molecules that are typically around 100-300 nucleotides in length. They are found within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and are components of small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), which play important roles in various aspects of RNA processing, including splicing of pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) and regulation of transcription.

There are several classes of snRNAs, each with a distinct function. The most well-studied class is the spliceosomal snRNAs, which include U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6 snRNAs. These snRNAs form complexes with proteins to form small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles (snRNPs) that recognize specific sequences in pre-mRNA and catalyze the removal of introns during splicing.

Other classes of snRNAs include signal recognition particle (SRP) RNA, which is involved in targeting proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum, and Ro60 RNA, which is associated with autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus.

Overall, small nuclear RNAs are essential components of the cellular machinery that regulates gene expression and protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells.

Untranslated regions (UTRs) of RNA are the non-coding sequences that are present in mRNA (messenger RNA) molecules, which are located at both the 5' end (5' UTR) and the 3' end (3' UTR) of the mRNA, outside of the coding sequence (CDS). These regions do not get translated into proteins. They contain regulatory elements that play a role in the regulation of gene expression by affecting the stability, localization, and translation efficiency of the mRNA molecule. The 5' UTR typically contains the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in prokaryotes or the Kozak consensus sequence in eukaryotes, which are important for the initiation of translation. The 3' UTR often contains regulatory elements such as AU-rich elements (AREs) and microRNA (miRNA) binding sites that can affect mRNA stability and translation.

Stomata are microscopic pores found in the epidermis of plant leaves, stems, and other organs. They are essential for gas exchange between the plant and the atmosphere, allowing the uptake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and the release of oxygen. Plant stomata consist of two guard cells that surround and regulate the size of the pore. The opening and closing of the stomatal pore are influenced by environmental factors such as light, humidity, and temperature, as well as internal signals within the plant.

RNA Sequence Analysis is a branch of bioinformatics that involves the determination and analysis of the nucleotide sequence of Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) molecules. This process includes identifying and characterizing the individual RNA molecules, determining their functions, and studying their evolutionary relationships.

RNA Sequence Analysis typically involves the use of high-throughput sequencing technologies to generate large datasets of RNA sequences, which are then analyzed using computational methods. The analysis may include comparing the sequences to reference databases to identify known RNA molecules or discovering new ones, identifying patterns and features in the sequences, such as motifs or domains, and predicting the secondary and tertiary structures of the RNA molecules.

RNA Sequence Analysis has many applications in basic research, including understanding gene regulation, identifying novel non-coding RNAs, and studying evolutionary relationships between organisms. It also has practical applications in clinical settings, such as diagnosing and monitoring diseases, developing new therapies, and personalized medicine.

Angiosperms, also known as flowering plants, are a group of plants that produce seeds enclosed within an ovary. The term "angiosperm" comes from the Greek words "angeion," meaning "case" or "capsule," and "sperma," meaning "seed." This group includes the majority of plant species, with over 300,000 known species.

Angiosperms are characterized by their reproductive structures, which consist of flowers. The flower contains male and female reproductive organs, including stamens (which produce pollen) and carpels (which contain the ovules). After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed, while the ovary matures into a fruit, which provides protection and nutrition for the developing embryo.

Angiosperms are further divided into two main groups: monocots and eudicots. Monocots have one cotyledon or embryonic leaf, while eudicots have two. Examples of monocots include grasses, lilies, and orchids, while examples of eudicots include roses, sunflowers, and legumes.

Angiosperms are ecologically and economically important, providing food, shelter, and other resources for many organisms, including humans. They have evolved a wide range of adaptations to different environments, from the desert to the ocean floor, making them one of the most diverse and successful groups of plants on Earth.

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationship among biological entities, such as species or genes, based on their shared characteristics. In other words, it refers to the branching pattern of evolution that shows how various organisms have descended from a common ancestor over time. Phylogenetic analysis involves constructing a tree-like diagram called a phylogenetic tree, which depicts the inferred evolutionary relationships among organisms or genes based on molecular sequence data or other types of characters. This information is crucial for understanding the diversity and distribution of life on Earth, as well as for studying the emergence and spread of diseases.

RNA caps are structures found at the 5' end of RNA molecules, including messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA). These caps consist of a modified guanine nucleotide (called 7-methylguanosine) that is linked to the first nucleotide of the RNA chain through a triphosphate bridge. The RNA cap plays several important roles in regulating RNA metabolism, including protecting the RNA from degradation by exonucleases, promoting the recognition and binding of the RNA by ribosomes during translation, and modulating the stability and transport of the RNA within the cell.

A mutation is a permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism's genome. Mutations can occur spontaneously or be caused by environmental factors such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses. They may have various effects on the organism, ranging from benign to harmful, depending on where they occur and whether they alter the function of essential proteins. In some cases, mutations can increase an individual's susceptibility to certain diseases or disorders, while in others, they may confer a survival advantage. Mutations are the driving force behind evolution, as they introduce new genetic variability into populations, which can then be acted upon by natural selection.

In medical terms, "seeds" are often referred to as a small amount of a substance, such as a radioactive material or drug, that is inserted into a tissue or placed inside a capsule for the purpose of treating a medical condition. This can include procedures like brachytherapy, where seeds containing radioactive materials are used in the treatment of cancer to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Similarly, in some forms of drug delivery, seeds containing medication can be used to gradually release the drug into the body over an extended period of time.

It's important to note that "seeds" have different meanings and applications depending on the medical context. In other cases, "seeds" may simply refer to small particles or structures found in the body, such as those present in the eye's retina.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) in plants refers to the long, single-stranded molecules that are essential for the translation of genetic information from deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) into proteins. RNA is a nucleic acid, like DNA, and it is composed of a ribose sugar backbone with attached nitrogenous bases (adenine, uracil, guanine, and cytosine).

In plants, there are several types of RNA that play specific roles in the gene expression process:

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): This type of RNA carries genetic information copied from DNA in the form of a sequence of three-base code units called codons. These codons specify the order of amino acids in a protein.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA): tRNAs are small RNA molecules that serve as adaptors between the mRNA and the amino acids during protein synthesis. Each tRNA has a specific anticodon sequence that base-pairs with a complementary codon on the mRNA, and it carries a specific amino acid that corresponds to that codon.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): rRNAs are structural components of ribosomes, which are large macromolecular complexes where protein synthesis occurs. In plants, there are several types of rRNAs, including the 18S, 5.8S, and 25S/28S rRNAs, that form the core of the ribosome and help catalyze peptide bond formation during protein synthesis.
4. Small nuclear RNA (snRNA): These are small RNA molecules that play a role in RNA processing, such as splicing, where introns (non-coding sequences) are removed from pre-mRNA and exons (coding sequences) are joined together to form mature mRNAs.
5. MicroRNA (miRNA): These are small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by binding to complementary sequences in target mRNAs, leading to their degradation or translation inhibition.

Overall, these different types of RNAs play crucial roles in various aspects of RNA metabolism, gene regulation, and protein synthesis in plants.

"Lycopersicon esculentum" is the scientific name for the common red tomato. It is a species of fruit from the nightshade family (Solanaceae) that is native to western South America and Central America. Tomatoes are widely grown and consumed in many parts of the world as a vegetable, although they are technically a fruit. They are rich in nutrients such as vitamin C, potassium, and lycopene, which has been studied for its potential health benefits.

Plant poisoning is a form of poisoning that occurs when someone ingests, inhales, or comes into contact with any part of a plant that contains toxic substances. These toxins can cause a range of symptoms, depending on the type and amount of plant consumed or exposed to, as well as the individual's age, health status, and sensitivity to the toxin.

Symptoms of plant poisoning may include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, difficulty breathing, skin rashes, seizures, or in severe cases, even death. Some common plants that can cause poisoning include poison ivy, poison oak, foxglove, oleander, and hemlock, among many others.

If you suspect plant poisoning, it is important to seek medical attention immediately and bring a sample of the plant or information about its identity if possible. This will help healthcare providers diagnose and treat the poisoning more effectively.

I'd be happy to help! However, I believe there might be a slight confusion in your question. RNA stands for Ribonucleic Acid, which is a type of nucleic acid involved in various biological roles in the coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes. On the other hand, protozoan refers to a unicellular organism from the kingdom Protista, which includes a wide variety of simple eukaryotic organisms such as amoebas, paramecia, and plasmodium (the malaria-causing parasite).

There isn't a specific medical definition for "RNA, protozoan" since RNA is a molecule present in all living cells, including human cells, and protozoans are a group of organisms. However, I can tell you that RNA plays crucial roles in protozoan biology, such as acting as a messenger between DNA and ribosomes during protein synthesis or regulating gene expression.

If you have any further questions or need more specific information about RNA in protozoans, please let me know!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "flowers" is not a term that has a medical definition. The term "flowers" is commonly used to refer to the reproductive structures of flowering plants (angiosperms), which are characterized by having both male and female reproductive organs or separate male and female flowers.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health conditions, I would be happy to try to help answer those for you!

Plant transpiration is the process by which water vapor escapes from leaves and other aerial parts of plants to the atmosphere. It is a type of evapotranspiration, which refers to both evaporation from land surfaces and transpiration from plants. Water molecules are absorbed by plant roots from the soil, move up through the xylem tissue to the leaves, and then evaporate from the leaf surface through stomatal pores. This process helps in the transportation of nutrients from the soil to various parts of the plant, regulates the temperature of the plant, and maintains the turgor pressure within the cells. Plant transpiration is influenced by environmental factors such as light intensity, temperature, humidity, and wind speed.

RNA (Ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded molecule similar in structure to DNA, involved in the process of protein synthesis in the cell. It acts as a messenger carrying genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are produced.

A neoplasm, on the other hand, is an abnormal growth of cells, which can be benign or malignant. Benign neoplasms are not cancerous and do not invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body. Malignant neoplasms, however, are cancerous and have the potential to invade surrounding tissues and spread to distant sites in the body through a process called metastasis.

Therefore, an 'RNA neoplasm' is not a recognized medical term as RNA is not a type of growth or tumor. However, there are certain types of cancer-causing viruses known as oncoviruses that contain RNA as their genetic material and can cause neoplasms. For example, human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV-1) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are RNA viruses that can cause certain types of cancer in humans.

A plant tumor, also known as a gall or neoplasm, is an abnormal growth that occurs in plants. These growths can be caused by various factors such as genetic mutations, bacterial or viral infections, and physical injuries. However, the most well-known cause of plant tumors are crown galls, which are induced by the bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

When this bacterium infects a plant through a wound, it transfers a portion of its DNA (T-DNA) into the plant's cells. The T-DNA contains genes that encode enzymes responsible for the production of auxins and cytokinins, two types of plant hormones that promote cell division and growth. As a result, the infected plant cells start to divide uncontrollably, leading to the formation of a tumor-like growth.

Plant tumors can vary in size and appearance, ranging from small bumps to large, disfigured growths. While they are not typically harmful to the plant, they can reduce its aesthetic value and economic productivity. In some cases, plant tumors may also provide a habitat for pests and diseases, which can further harm the plant.

Chromosomes in plants are thread-like structures that contain genetic material, DNA, and proteins. They are present in the nucleus of every cell and are inherited from the parent plants during sexual reproduction. Chromosomes come in pairs, with each pair consisting of one chromosome from each parent.

In plants, like in other organisms, chromosomes play a crucial role in inheritance, development, and reproduction. They carry genetic information that determines various traits and characteristics of the plant, such as its physical appearance, growth patterns, and resistance to diseases.

Plant chromosomes are typically much larger than those found in animals, making them easier to study under a microscope. The number of chromosomes varies among different plant species, ranging from as few as 2 in some ferns to over 1000 in certain varieties of wheat.

During cell division, the chromosomes replicate and then separate into two identical sets, ensuring that each new cell receives a complete set of genetic information. This process is critical for the growth and development of the plant, as well as for the production of viable seeds and offspring.

Aerial parts of plants refer to the above-ground portions of a plant, including leaves, stems, flowers, and fruits. These parts are often used in medicine, either in their entirety or as isolated extracts, to take advantage of their medicinal properties. The specific components of aerial parts that are used in medicine can vary depending on the plant species and the desired therapeutic effects. For example, the leaves of some plants may contain active compounds that have anti-inflammatory or analgesic properties, while the flowers of others may be rich in antioxidants or compounds with sedative effects. In general, aerial parts of plants are used in herbal medicine to treat a wide range of conditions, including respiratory, digestive, and nervous system disorders, as well as skin conditions and infections.

DEAD-box RNA helicases are a family of proteins that are involved in unwinding RNA secondary structures and displacing proteins bound to RNA molecules. They get their name from the conserved amino acid sequence motif "DEAD" (Asp-Glu-Ala-Asp) found within their catalytic core, which is responsible for ATP-dependent helicase activity. These enzymes play crucial roles in various aspects of RNA metabolism, including pre-mRNA splicing, ribosome biogenesis, translation initiation, and RNA decay. DEAD-box helicases are also implicated in a number of human diseases, such as cancer and neurological disorders.

'Zea mays' is the biological name for corn or maize, which is not typically considered a medical term. However, corn or maize can have medical relevance in certain contexts. For example, cornstarch is sometimes used as a diluent for medications and is also a component of some skin products. Corn oil may be found in topical ointments and creams. In addition, some people may have allergic reactions to corn or corn-derived products. But generally speaking, 'Zea mays' itself does not have a specific medical definition.

RNA Polymerase III is a type of enzyme that carries out the transcription of DNA into RNA, specifically functioning in the synthesis of small, stable RNAs. These RNAs include 5S rRNA, transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). The enzyme recognizes specific promoter sequences in DNA and catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between ribonucleotides to create a complementary RNA strand. RNA Polymerase III is essential for protein synthesis and cell survival, and its activity is tightly regulated within the cell.

"Plant preparations" is not a term with a specific medical definition in the field of medicine or pharmacology. However, it is commonly used to refer to various forms of plant material that have been prepared for medicinal use. This can include dried and powdered plant parts, such as leaves, roots, or flowers, as well as extracts or concentrates made from plants. These preparations may be used in traditional medicine or as the basis for modern pharmaceuticals. It is important to note that the safety, effectiveness, and quality of plant preparations can vary widely, and they should only be used under the guidance of a qualified healthcare provider.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "seedling" is not a term that has a specific medical definition. It is an agricultural and horticultural term that refers to a young plant grown from a seed, typically during the early stages of its growth. If you have any questions related to health or medicine, I'd be happy to try to help with those!

Molecular sequence data refers to the specific arrangement of molecules, most commonly nucleotides in DNA or RNA, or amino acids in proteins, that make up a biological macromolecule. This data is generated through laboratory techniques such as sequencing, and provides information about the exact order of the constituent molecules. This data is crucial in various fields of biology, including genetics, evolution, and molecular biology, allowing for comparisons between different organisms, identification of genetic variations, and studies of gene function and regulation.

RNA Polymerase I is a type of enzyme that carries out the transcription of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes in eukaryotic cells. These enzymes are responsible for synthesizing the rRNA molecules, which are crucial components of ribosomes, the cellular structures where protein synthesis occurs. RNA Polymerase I is found in the nucleolus, a specialized region within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, and it primarily transcribes the 5S, 18S, and 28S rRNA genes. The enzyme binds to the promoter regions of these genes and synthesizes the rRNA molecules by adding ribonucleotides in a template-directed manner, using DNA as a template. This process is essential for maintaining normal cellular function and for the production of proteins required for growth, development, and homeostasis.

Fabaceae is the scientific name for a family of flowering plants commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family. This family includes a wide variety of plants that are important economically, agriculturally, and ecologically. Many members of Fabaceae have compound leaves and produce fruits that are legumes, which are long, thin pods that contain seeds. Some well-known examples of plants in this family include beans, peas, lentils, peanuts, clover, and alfalfa.

In addition to their importance as food crops, many Fabaceae species have the ability to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere into the soil through a symbiotic relationship with bacteria that live in nodules on their roots. This makes them valuable for improving soil fertility and is one reason why they are often used in crop rotation and as cover crops.

It's worth noting that Fabaceae is sometimes still referred to by its older scientific name, Leguminosae.

'RNA, Nuclear' refers to Ribonucleic Acid that is located within the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell. It plays a crucial role in the process of gene expression, specifically in the transcription of DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA). During this process, a segment of DNA is copied into a complementary RNA strand, known as a primary transcript. This primary transcript then undergoes various processing steps within the nucleus, such as splicing and capping, to produce mature, functional mRNA. Nuclear RNA also includes other non-coding RNAs, such as ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and small nuclear RNA (snRNA), which are involved in various cellular processes including protein synthesis and regulation of gene expression.

Herbivory is not a medical term, but rather a term used in biology and ecology. It refers to the practice of consuming plants or plant matter for food. Herbivores are animals that eat only plants, and their diet can include leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits, seeds, and other parts of plants.

While herbivory is not a medical term, it is still relevant to the field of medicine in certain contexts. For example, understanding the diets and behaviors of herbivores can help inform public health initiatives related to food safety and disease transmission. Additionally, research on herbivory has contributed to our understanding of the evolution of plant-animal interactions and the development of ecosystems.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "power plants" is not a term used in medical definitions. It is a term commonly used to refer to industrial facilities that generate and distribute power, typically in the form of electricity. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try to help answer those!

28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of the large subunit of the eukaryotic ribosome, which is the site of protein synthesis in the cell. The ribosome is composed of two subunits, one large and one small, that come together around an mRNA molecule to translate it into a protein.

The 28S rRNA is a type of rRNA that is found in the large subunit of the eukaryotic ribosome, along with the 5S and 5.8S rRNAs. Together, these rRNAs make up the structural framework of the ribosome and play a crucial role in the process of translation.

The 28S rRNA is synthesized in the nucleolus as a precursor RNA (pre-rRNA) that undergoes several processing steps, including cleavage and modification, to produce the mature 28S rRNA molecule. The length of the 28S rRNA varies between species, but it is typically around 4700-5000 nucleotides long in humans.

Abnormalities in the structure or function of the 28S rRNA can lead to defects in protein synthesis and have been implicated in various diseases, including cancer and neurological disorders.

18S rRNA (ribosomal RNA) is the smaller subunit of the eukaryotic ribosome, which is the cellular organelle responsible for protein synthesis. The "18S" refers to the sedimentation coefficient of this rRNA molecule, which is a measure of its rate of sedimentation in a centrifuge and is expressed in Svedberg units (S).

The 18S rRNA is a component of the 40S subunit of the ribosome, and it plays a crucial role in the decoding of messenger RNA (mRNA) during protein synthesis. Specifically, the 18S rRNA helps to form the structure of the ribosome and contains several conserved regions that are involved in binding to mRNA and guiding the movement of transfer RNAs (tRNAs) during translation.

The 18S rRNA is also a commonly used molecular marker for evolutionary studies, as its sequence is highly conserved across different species and can be used to infer phylogenetic relationships between organisms. Additionally, the analysis of 18S rRNA gene sequences has been widely used in various fields such as ecology, environmental science, and medicine to study biodiversity, biogeography, and infectious diseases.

A guide RNA (gRNA) is not a type of RNA itself, but rather a term used to describe various types of RNAs that guide other molecules to specific target sites in the genome or transcriptome. The most well-known example of a guide RNA is the CRISPR RNA (crRNA) used in the CRISPR-Cas system for targeted gene editing.

The crRNA contains a sequence complementary to the target DNA or RNA, and it guides the Cas endonuclease to the correct location in the genome where cleavage and modification can occur. Other types of guide RNAs include small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs), which guide the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) to specific mRNA targets for degradation or translational repression.

Overall, guide RNAs play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including gene regulation, genome editing, and defense against foreign genetic elements.

Biomass is defined in the medical field as a renewable energy source derived from organic materials, primarily plant matter, that can be burned or converted into fuel. This includes materials such as wood, agricultural waste, and even methane gas produced by landfills. Biomass is often used as a source of heat, electricity, or transportation fuels, and its use can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and dependence on fossil fuels.

In the context of human health, biomass burning can have both positive and negative impacts. On one hand, biomass can provide a source of heat and energy for cooking and heating, which can improve living standards and reduce exposure to harmful pollutants from traditional cooking methods such as open fires. On the other hand, biomass burning can also produce air pollution, including particulate matter and toxic chemicals, that can have negative effects on respiratory health and contribute to climate change.

Therefore, while biomass has the potential to be a sustainable and low-carbon source of energy, it is important to consider the potential health and environmental impacts of its use and implement appropriate measures to minimize any negative effects.

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are a class of proteins that selectively interact with RNA molecules to form ribonucleoprotein complexes. These proteins play crucial roles in the post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, including pre-mRNA processing, mRNA stability, transport, localization, and translation. RBPs recognize specific RNA sequences or structures through their modular RNA-binding domains, which can be highly degenerate and allow for the recognition of a wide range of RNA targets. The interaction between RBPs and RNA is often dynamic and can be regulated by various post-translational modifications of the proteins or by environmental stimuli, allowing for fine-tuning of gene expression in response to changing cellular needs. Dysregulation of RBP function has been implicated in various human diseases, including neurological disorders and cancer.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes, which are complex structures inside cells where protein synthesis occurs. The "16S" refers to the sedimentation coefficient of the rRNA molecule, which is a measure of its size and shape. In particular, 16S rRNA is a component of the smaller subunit of the prokaryotic ribosome (found in bacteria and archaea), and is often used as a molecular marker for identifying and classifying these organisms due to its relative stability and conservation among species. The sequence of 16S rRNA can be compared across different species to determine their evolutionary relationships and taxonomic positions.

I apologize for any confusion, but "Plant Nectar" is not a term used in medical definitions. Nectar is a sweet liquid produced by plants in flowers to attract pollinators such as insects and birds. It's a sugar-rich substance that serves as a source of energy for these animals. While it may have some nutritional value, it's not something that would be relevant to medical definitions or human health in a direct sense.

Species specificity is a term used in the field of biology, including medicine, to refer to the characteristic of a biological entity (such as a virus, bacterium, or other microorganism) that allows it to interact exclusively or preferentially with a particular species. This means that the biological entity has a strong affinity for, or is only able to infect, a specific host species.

For example, HIV is specifically adapted to infect human cells and does not typically infect other animal species. Similarly, some bacterial toxins are species-specific and can only affect certain types of animals or humans. This concept is important in understanding the transmission dynamics and host range of various pathogens, as well as in developing targeted therapies and vaccines.

Genetic transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is used to create a complementary RNA molecule. This process is the first step in gene expression, where the genetic code in DNA is converted into a form that can be used to produce proteins or functional RNAs.

During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the DNA template strand and reads the sequence of nucleotide bases. As it moves along the template, it adds complementary RNA nucleotides to the growing RNA chain, creating a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Once transcription is complete, the RNA molecule may undergo further processing before it can be translated into protein or perform its functional role in the cell.

Transcription can be either "constitutive" or "regulated." Constitutive transcription occurs at a relatively constant rate and produces essential proteins that are required for basic cellular functions. Regulated transcription, on the other hand, is subject to control by various intracellular and extracellular signals, allowing cells to respond to changing environmental conditions or developmental cues.

"Solanum tuberosum" is the scientific name for a plant species that is commonly known as the potato. According to medical and botanical definitions, Solanum tuberosum refers to the starchy, edible tubers that grow underground from this plant. Potatoes are native to the Andes region of South America and are now grown worldwide. They are an important food source for many people and are used in a variety of culinary applications.

Potatoes contain several essential nutrients, including carbohydrates, fiber, protein, vitamin C, and some B vitamins. However, they can also be high in calories, especially when prepared with added fats like butter or oil. Additionally, potatoes are often consumed in forms that are less healthy, such as French fries and potato chips, which can contribute to weight gain and other health problems if consumed excessively.

In a medical context, potatoes may also be discussed in relation to food allergies or intolerances. While uncommon, some people may have adverse reactions to potatoes, including skin rashes, digestive symptoms, or difficulty breathing. These reactions are typically caused by an immune response to proteins found in the potato plant, rather than the tubers themselves.

Oxylipins are a class of bioactive lipid molecules derived from the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). They play crucial roles in various physiological and pathophysiological processes, including inflammation, immunity, and cellular signaling. Oxylipins can be further categorized based on their precursor PUFAs, such as arachidonic acid (AA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and linoleic acid (LA). These oxylipins are involved in the regulation of vascular tone, platelet aggregation, neurotransmission, and pain perception. They exert their effects through various receptors and downstream signaling pathways, making them important targets for therapeutic interventions in several diseases, such as cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and neurological conditions.

'Escherichia coli' (E. coli) is a type of gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium that commonly inhabits the intestinal tract of humans and warm-blooded animals. It is a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae and one of the most well-studied prokaryotic model organisms in molecular biology.

While most E. coli strains are harmless and even beneficial to their hosts, some serotypes can cause various forms of gastrointestinal and extraintestinal illnesses in humans and animals. These pathogenic strains possess virulence factors that enable them to colonize and damage host tissues, leading to diseases such as diarrhea, urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and sepsis.

E. coli is a versatile organism with remarkable genetic diversity, which allows it to adapt to various environmental niches. It can be found in water, soil, food, and various man-made environments, making it an essential indicator of fecal contamination and a common cause of foodborne illnesses. The study of E. coli has contributed significantly to our understanding of fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication, gene regulation, and protein synthesis.

In the context of medicine and biology, symbiosis is a type of close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms. Generally, one organism, called the symbiont, lives inside or on another organism, called the host. This interaction can be mutually beneficial (mutualistic), harmful to the host organism (parasitic), or have no effect on either organism (commensal).

Examples of mutualistic symbiotic relationships in humans include the bacteria that live in our gut and help us digest food, as well as the algae that live inside corals and provide them with nutrients. Parasitic symbioses, on the other hand, involve organisms like viruses or parasitic worms that live inside a host and cause harm to it.

It's worth noting that while the term "symbiosis" is often used in popular culture to refer to any close relationship between two organisms, in scientific contexts it has a more specific meaning related to long-term biological interactions.

A satellite RNA is a type of non-coding RNA that does not encode proteins but instead plays a role in the regulation of gene expression. It is so named because it can exist as a separate, smaller molecule that "satellites" around a larger RNA molecule called the helper RNA. Satellite RNAs are often associated with viruses and can affect their replication and packaging. They can also be found in some eukaryotic cells, where they may play a role in regulating the expression of certain genes or in the development of diseases such as cancer.

Photosynthesis is not strictly a medical term, but it is a fundamental biological process with significant implications for medicine, particularly in understanding energy production in cells and the role of oxygen in sustaining life. Here's a general biological definition:

Photosynthesis is a process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy, usually from the sun, into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, such as glucose (or sugar), using water and carbon dioxide. This process primarily takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells, specifically in structures called thylakoids. The overall reaction can be summarized as:

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2

In this equation, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are the reactants, while glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2) are the products. Photosynthesis has two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle). The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane and involve the conversion of light energy into ATP and NADPH, which are used to power the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts and involves the synthesis of glucose from CO2 and water using the ATP and NADPH generated during the light-dependent reactions.

Understanding photosynthesis is crucial for understanding various biological processes, including cellular respiration, plant metabolism, and the global carbon cycle. Additionally, research into artificial photosynthesis has potential applications in renewable energy production and environmental remediation.

A phenotype is the physical or biochemical expression of an organism's genes, or the observable traits and characteristics resulting from the interaction of its genetic constitution (genotype) with environmental factors. These characteristics can include appearance, development, behavior, and resistance to disease, among others. Phenotypes can vary widely, even among individuals with identical genotypes, due to differences in environmental influences, gene expression, and genetic interactions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Plant Bark" is not a term with a specific medical definition. In general, the bark refers to the outermost covering of a tree or other plant, which serves as protection and provides a barrier against external threats. It is composed of layers including the inner bark (phloem), which transports nutrients throughout the plant, and the outer bark (periderm), which is made up of dead cells that form a protective layer.

While some plants or plant parts do have medicinal properties and are used in various forms of traditional or alternative medicine, "Plant Bark" by itself does not have any specific medical connotations. If you're referring to a specific type of plant bark with potential medicinal uses, please provide more details so I can give a more accurate response.

23S Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of rRNA that is a component of the large ribosomal subunit in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In prokaryotes, the large ribosomal subunit contains 50S, which consists of 23S rRNA, 5S rRNA, and around 33 proteins. The 23S rRNA plays a crucial role in the decoding of mRNA during protein synthesis and also participates in the formation of the peptidyl transferase center, where peptide bonds are formed between amino acids.

The 23S rRNA is a long RNA molecule that contains both coding and non-coding regions. It has a complex secondary structure, which includes several domains and subdomains, as well as numerous stem-loop structures. These structures are important for the proper functioning of the ribosome during protein synthesis.

In addition to its role in protein synthesis, 23S rRNA has been used as a target for antibiotics that inhibit bacterial growth. For example, certain antibiotics bind to specific regions of the 23S rRNA and interfere with the function of the ribosome, thereby preventing bacterial protein synthesis and growth. However, because eukaryotic cells do not have a 23S rRNA equivalent, these antibiotics are generally not toxic to human cells.

Cyclopentanes are a class of hydrocarbons that contain a cycloalkane ring of five carbon atoms. The chemical formula for cyclopentane is C5H10. It is a volatile, flammable liquid that is used as a solvent and in the production of polymers. Cyclopentanes are also found naturally in petroleum and coal tar.

Cyclopentanes have a unique structure in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a pentagonal shape, with each carbon atom bonded to two other carbon atoms and one or two hydrogen atoms. This structure gives cyclopentane its characteristic "bowl-shaped" geometry, which allows it to undergo various chemical reactions, such as ring-opening reactions, that can lead to the formation of other chemicals.

Cyclopentanes have a variety of industrial and commercial applications. For example, they are used in the production of plastics, resins, and synthetic rubbers. They also have potential uses in the development of new drugs and medical technologies, as their unique structure and reactivity make them useful building blocks for the synthesis of complex molecules.

Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is not exactly a medical term, but rather a scientific term used in the field of biochemistry and physiology. It is a type of auxin, which is a plant hormone that regulates various growth and development processes in plants. IAA is the most abundant and best-studied natural auxin.

Medically, indole-3-acetic acid may be mentioned in the context of certain medical conditions or treatments related to plants or plant-derived substances. For example, some research has investigated the potential use of IAA in promoting wound healing in plants or in agricultural applications. However, it is not a substance that is typically used in medical treatment for humans or animals.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Plant Physiological Processes" is not a standard medical term. Instead, it falls under the domain of plant science or botany.

In a broad sense, plant physiological processes refer to the functions and mechanisms that occur within plants at the cellular and molecular levels, which enable them to grow, develop, reproduce, and respond to their environment. These processes include photosynthesis, respiration, nutrient uptake and translocation, hormone signaling, water relations, and various other biochemical reactions.

If you're looking for a term related to medical definitions, please provide more context or clarify your request, and I would be happy to help.

RNA transport refers to the process by which messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are transferred from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells. After being transcribed in the nucleus, mRNA molecules must be transported to the cytoplasm where they can be translated into proteins on ribosomes. This process is essential for gene expression and involves a complex network of proteins and RNA-binding factors that facilitate the recognition, packaging, and transport of mRNA through the nuclear pore complex.

The transport of mRNA is a highly regulated process that ensures the proper localization and translation of specific mRNAs in response to various cellular signals. Abnormalities in RNA transport have been implicated in several neurological disorders, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).

DNA primers are short single-stranded DNA molecules that serve as a starting point for DNA synthesis. They are typically used in laboratory techniques such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and DNA sequencing. The primer binds to a complementary sequence on the DNA template through base pairing, providing a free 3'-hydroxyl group for the DNA polymerase enzyme to add nucleotides and synthesize a new strand of DNA. This allows for specific and targeted amplification or analysis of a particular region of interest within a larger DNA molecule.

Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in the cells of green plants, algae, and some protists. They are responsible for carrying out photosynthesis, which is the process by which these organisms convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, such as glucose.

Chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy from the sun. They also contain a system of membranes and enzymes that convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen through a series of chemical reactions known as the Calvin cycle. This process not only provides energy for the organism but also releases oxygen as a byproduct, which is essential for the survival of most life forms on Earth.

Chloroplasts are believed to have originated from ancient cyanobacteria that were engulfed by early eukaryotic cells and eventually became integrated into their host's cellular machinery through a process called endosymbiosis. Over time, chloroplasts evolved to become an essential component of plant and algal cells, contributing to their ability to carry out photosynthesis and thrive in a wide range of environments.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "soil" is not a term that has a medical definition. Soil is defined as the top layer of earth in which plants grow, a mixture of organic material, clay, sand, and silt. If you have any questions related to medicine or health, I would be happy to try to help answer them for you.

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a type of DNA that is synthesized from a single-stranded RNA molecule through the process of reverse transcription. In this process, the enzyme reverse transcriptase uses an RNA molecule as a template to synthesize a complementary DNA strand. The resulting cDNA is therefore complementary to the original RNA molecule and is a copy of its coding sequence, but it does not contain non-coding regions such as introns that are present in genomic DNA.

Complementary DNA is often used in molecular biology research to study gene expression, protein function, and other genetic phenomena. For example, cDNA can be used to create cDNA libraries, which are collections of cloned cDNA fragments that represent the expressed genes in a particular cell type or tissue. These libraries can then be screened for specific genes or gene products of interest. Additionally, cDNA can be used to produce recombinant proteins in heterologous expression systems, allowing researchers to study the structure and function of proteins that may be difficult to express or purify from their native sources.

Molecular evolution is the process of change in the DNA sequence or protein structure over time, driven by mechanisms such as mutation, genetic drift, gene flow, and natural selection. It refers to the evolutionary study of changes in DNA, RNA, and proteins, and how these changes accumulate and lead to new species and diversity of life. Molecular evolution can be used to understand the history and relationships among different organisms, as well as the functional consequences of genetic changes.

An "ecosystem" is not a term that has a specific medical definition, as it is a concept that is more commonly used in the fields of ecology and environmental science. However, I can provide you with the general ecological definition of an ecosystem:

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with each other and their non-living environment, including both biotic factors (plants, animals, microorganisms) and abiotic factors (climate, soil, water, and air). These interactions create a complex network of relationships that form the foundation of ecological processes, such as energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population dynamics.

While there is no direct medical definition for an ecosystem, understanding the principles of ecosystems can have important implications for human health. For example, healthy ecosystems can provide clean air and water, regulate climate, support food production, and offer opportunities for recreation and relaxation, all of which contribute to overall well-being. Conversely, degraded ecosystems can lead to increased exposure to environmental hazards, reduced access to natural resources, and heightened risks of infectious diseases. Therefore, maintaining the health and integrity of ecosystems is crucial for promoting human health and preventing disease.

A protoplast is not a term that is typically used in medical definitions, but rather it is a term commonly used in cell biology and botany. A protoplast refers to a plant or bacterial cell that has had its cell wall removed, leaving only the plasma membrane and the cytoplasmic contents, including organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, and other cellular structures.

Protoplasts can be created through enzymatic or mechanical means to isolate the intracellular components for various research purposes, such as studying membrane transport, gene transfer, or cell fusion. In some cases, protoplasts may be used in medical research, particularly in areas related to plant pathology and genetic engineering of plants for medical applications.

Promoter regions in genetics refer to specific DNA sequences located near the transcription start site of a gene. They serve as binding sites for RNA polymerase and various transcription factors that regulate the initiation of gene transcription. These regulatory elements help control the rate of transcription and, therefore, the level of gene expression. Promoter regions can be composed of different types of sequences, such as the TATA box and CAAT box, and their organization and composition can vary between different genes and species.

Salicylic Acid is a type of beta hydroxy acid (BHA) that is commonly used in dermatology due to its keratolytic and anti-inflammatory properties. It works by causing the cells of the epidermis to shed more easily, preventing the pores from becoming blocked and promoting the growth of new skin cells. Salicylic Acid is also a potent anti-inflammatory agent, which makes it useful in the treatment of inflammatory acne and other skin conditions associated with redness and irritation. It can be found in various over-the-counter skincare products, such as cleansers, creams, and peels, as well as in prescription-strength formulations.

Traditional medicine (TM) refers to health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being. Although traditional medicine has been practiced since prehistoric times, it is still widely used today and may include:

1. Traditional Asian medicines such as acupuncture, herbal remedies, and qigong from China; Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani and Siddha from India; and Jamu from Indonesia.
2. Traditional European herbal medicines, also known as phytotherapy.
3. North American traditional indigenous medicines, including Native American and Inuit practices.
4. African traditional medicines, such as herbal, spiritual, and manual techniques practiced in various African cultures.
5. South American traditional medicines, like Mapuche, Curanderismo, and Santo Daime practices from different countries.

It is essential to note that traditional medicine may not follow the scientific principles, evidence-based standards, or quality control measures inherent to conventional (also known as allopathic or Western) medicine. However, some traditional medicines have been integrated into modern healthcare systems and are considered complementary or alternative medicines (CAM). The World Health Organization encourages member states to develop policies and regulations for integrating TM/CAM practices into their healthcare systems, ensuring safety, efficacy, and quality while respecting cultural diversity.

Root nodules in plants refer to the specialized structures formed through the symbiotic relationship between certain leguminous plants and nitrogen-fixing bacteria, most commonly belonging to the genus Rhizobia. These nodules typically develop on the roots of the host plant, providing an ideal environment for the bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, a form that can be directly utilized by the plant for growth and development.

The formation of root nodules begins with the infection of the plant's root hair cells by Rhizobia bacteria. This interaction triggers a series of molecular signals leading to the differentiation of root cortical cells into nodule primordia, which eventually develop into mature nodules. The nitrogen-fixing bacteria reside within these nodules in membrane-bound compartments called symbiosomes, where they reduce atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia through an enzyme called nitrogenase.

The plant, in turn, provides the bacteria with carbon sources and other essential nutrients required for their growth and survival within the nodules. The fixed nitrogen is then transported from the root nodules to other parts of the plant, enhancing its overall nitrogen nutrition and promoting sustainable growth without the need for external nitrogen fertilizers.

In summary, root nodules in plants are essential structures formed through symbiotic associations with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, allowing leguminous plants to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form while also benefiting the environment by reducing the reliance on chemical nitrogen fertilizers.

Protein biosynthesis is the process by which cells generate new proteins. It involves two major steps: transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA. This RNA copy, or messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information to the site of protein synthesis, the ribosome. During translation, the mRNA is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which bring specific amino acids to the ribosome based on the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA. The ribosome then links these amino acids together in the correct order to form a polypeptide chain, which may then fold into a functional protein. Protein biosynthesis is essential for the growth and maintenance of all living organisms.

Medical definitions typically focus on the relevance of a term to medical practice, and I'm not sure if there is a specific medical definition for "plant exudates." However, in a broader context, plant exudates refer to the various substances that are released or exuded by plants, often as a result of damage or stress. These can include a wide variety of compounds, such as sap, resins, latex, gums, essential oils, and tannins. Some of these compounds can have medicinal properties and are used in various forms of traditional and modern medicine. For example, the resin from certain pine trees (rosin) has been used to treat respiratory ailments, while willow bark, which contains salicin (a precursor to aspirin), has been used for pain relief for centuries.

"Spliced leader RNA (SL-RNA)" is a type of RNA molecule that is present in some single-celled eukaryotic organisms, such as trypanosomes and nematodes. In these organisms, spliced leader RNAs play a critical role in the process of gene expression by providing a "leader" sequence that is added to the beginning of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules during the process of RNA splicing.

SL-RNAs are typically composed of two regions: a conserved 5' " leader" sequence, which is added to the beginning of mRNAs, and a variable 3' " trailer" sequence, which contains the sequences required for recognition and cleavage by the splicing machinery. During RNA splicing, the spliced leader RNA is joined to the target mRNA through a process called trans-splicing, in which the leader sequence of the SL-RNA is ligated to the 5' end of the target mRNA, replacing the original 5' exon.

The addition of the spliced leader sequence to mRNAs can have several important consequences for gene expression. For example, it can help ensure that all mRNAs produced from a given gene contain the same 5' end, even if the gene is transcribed from multiple promoters or undergoes alternative splicing. Additionally, the presence of the conserved leader sequence can serve as a recognition site for RNA-binding proteins, which can regulate mRNA stability, localization, and translation.

Overall, spliced leader RNAs are an important component of the gene expression machinery in many eukaryotic organisms, and their study has provided valuable insights into the mechanisms of RNA processing and regulation.

Plant lectins are proteins or glycoproteins that are abundantly found in various plant parts such as seeds, leaves, stems, and roots. They have the ability to bind specifically to carbohydrate structures present on cell membranes, known as glycoconjugates. This binding property of lectins is reversible and non-catalytic, meaning it does not involve any enzymatic activity.

Lectins play several roles in plants, including defense against predators, pathogens, and herbivores. They can agglutinate red blood cells, stimulate the immune system, and have been implicated in various biological processes such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis (programmed cell death). Some lectins also exhibit mitogenic activity, which means they can stimulate the proliferation of certain types of cells.

In the medical field, plant lectins have gained attention due to their potential therapeutic applications. For instance, some lectins have been shown to possess anti-cancer properties and are being investigated as potential cancer treatments. However, it is important to note that some lectins can be toxic or allergenic to humans and animals, so they must be used with caution.

"Triticum" is the genus name for a group of cereal grains that includes common wheat (T. aestivum), durum wheat (T. durum), and spelt (T. spelta). These grains are important sources of food for humans, providing carbohydrates, proteins, and various nutrients. They are used to make a variety of foods such as bread, pasta, and breakfast cereals. Triticum species are also known as "wheat" in layman's terms.

Nucleic acid hybridization is a process in molecular biology where two single-stranded nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) with complementary sequences pair together to form a double-stranded molecule through hydrogen bonding. The strands can be from the same type of nucleic acid or different types (i.e., DNA-RNA or DNA-cDNA). This process is commonly used in various laboratory techniques, such as Southern blotting, Northern blotting, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and microarray analysis, to detect, isolate, and analyze specific nucleic acid sequences. The hybridization temperature and conditions are critical to ensure the specificity of the interaction between the two strands.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but the term "germ cells" is typically used in the context of animals and humans, referring to the reproductive cells (sperm and eggs) that can give rise to new individuals. It is not commonly used to describe plants.

In plants, the terms often used to refer to the reproductive cells are "male gametophyte" and "female gametophyte." The male gametophyte produces sperm cells, while the female gametophyte produces egg cells. These gametophytes are found within the pollen grains (male) and ovules (female) of plants.

Therefore, there isn't a medical definition for "germ cells, plant," as the term is not applicable in this context.

Protein binding, in the context of medical and biological sciences, refers to the interaction between a protein and another molecule (known as the ligand) that results in a stable complex. This process is often reversible and can be influenced by various factors such as pH, temperature, and concentration of the involved molecules.

In clinical chemistry, protein binding is particularly important when it comes to drugs, as many of them bind to proteins (especially albumin) in the bloodstream. The degree of protein binding can affect a drug's distribution, metabolism, and excretion, which in turn influence its therapeutic effectiveness and potential side effects.

Protein-bound drugs may be less available for interaction with their target tissues, as only the unbound or "free" fraction of the drug is active. Therefore, understanding protein binding can help optimize dosing regimens and minimize adverse reactions.

Mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between fungi and the roots of most plant species. In a mycorrhizal association, fungi colonize the root tissues of plants and extend their mycelial networks into the surrounding soil. This association enhances the nutrient uptake capacity of the host plant, particularly with regards to phosphorus and nitrogen, while the fungi receive carbohydrates from the plant for their own growth and metabolism.

Mycorrhizal fungi can be broadly classified into two types: ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae (or arbuscular mycorrhizae). Ectomycorrhizae form a sheath around the root surface, while endomycorrhizae penetrate the root cells and form structures called arbuscules, where nutrient exchange occurs. Mycorrhizal associations play crucial roles in maintaining ecosystem stability, promoting plant growth, and improving soil structure and fertility.

Virus replication is the process by which a virus produces copies or reproduces itself inside a host cell. This involves several steps:

1. Attachment: The virus attaches to a specific receptor on the surface of the host cell.
2. Penetration: The viral genetic material enters the host cell, either by invagination of the cell membrane or endocytosis.
3. Uncoating: The viral genetic material is released from its protective coat (capsid) inside the host cell.
4. Replication: The viral genetic material uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components, such as proteins and nucleic acids.
5. Assembly: The newly synthesized viral components are assembled into new virus particles.
6. Release: The newly formed viruses are released from the host cell, often through lysis (breaking) of the cell membrane or by budding off the cell membrane.

The specific mechanisms and details of virus replication can vary depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as DNA viruses, use the host cell's DNA polymerase to replicate their genetic material, while others, such as RNA viruses, use their own RNA-dependent RNA polymerase or reverse transcriptase enzymes. Understanding the process of virus replication is important for developing antiviral therapies and vaccines.

In the context of medical and biological sciences, a "binding site" refers to a specific location on a protein, molecule, or cell where another molecule can attach or bind. This binding interaction can lead to various functional changes in the original protein or molecule. The other molecule that binds to the binding site is often referred to as a ligand, which can be a small molecule, ion, or even another protein.

The binding between a ligand and its target binding site can be specific and selective, meaning that only certain ligands can bind to particular binding sites with high affinity. This specificity plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as signal transduction, enzyme catalysis, or drug action.

In the case of drug development, understanding the location and properties of binding sites on target proteins is essential for designing drugs that can selectively bind to these sites and modulate protein function. This knowledge can help create more effective and safer therapeutic options for various diseases.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hordeum" is not a medical term. It is actually the genus name for barley in botany. If you have any medical terms or concepts that you would like me to explain, please let me know!

Poaceae is not a medical term but a taxonomic category, specifically the family name for grasses. In a broader sense, you might be asking for a medical context where knowledge of this plant family could be relevant. For instance, certain members of the Poaceae family can cause allergies or negative reactions in some people.

In a medical definition, Poaceae would be defined as:

The family of monocotyledonous plants that includes grasses, bamboo, and sedges. These plants are characterized by narrow leaves with parallel veins, jointed stems (called "nodes" and "internodes"), and flowers arranged in spikelets. Some members of this family are important food sources for humans and animals, such as rice, wheat, corn, barley, oats, and sorghum. Other members can cause negative reactions, like skin irritation or allergies, due to their silica-based defense structures called phytoliths.

Biological models, also known as physiological models or organismal models, are simplified representations of biological systems, processes, or mechanisms that are used to understand and explain the underlying principles and relationships. These models can be theoretical (conceptual or mathematical) or physical (such as anatomical models, cell cultures, or animal models). They are widely used in biomedical research to study various phenomena, including disease pathophysiology, drug action, and therapeutic interventions.

Examples of biological models include:

1. Mathematical models: These use mathematical equations and formulas to describe complex biological systems or processes, such as population dynamics, metabolic pathways, or gene regulation networks. They can help predict the behavior of these systems under different conditions and test hypotheses about their underlying mechanisms.
2. Cell cultures: These are collections of cells grown in a controlled environment, typically in a laboratory dish or flask. They can be used to study cellular processes, such as signal transduction, gene expression, or metabolism, and to test the effects of drugs or other treatments on these processes.
3. Animal models: These are living organisms, usually vertebrates like mice, rats, or non-human primates, that are used to study various aspects of human biology and disease. They can provide valuable insights into the pathophysiology of diseases, the mechanisms of drug action, and the safety and efficacy of new therapies.
4. Anatomical models: These are physical representations of biological structures or systems, such as plastic models of organs or tissues, that can be used for educational purposes or to plan surgical procedures. They can also serve as a basis for developing more sophisticated models, such as computer simulations or 3D-printed replicas.

Overall, biological models play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of biology and medicine, helping to identify new targets for therapeutic intervention, develop novel drugs and treatments, and improve human health.

Pollen, in a medical context, refers to the fine powder-like substance produced by the male reproductive organ of seed plants. It contains microscopic grains known as pollen grains, which are transported by various means such as wind, water, or insects to the female reproductive organ of the same or another plant species for fertilization.

Pollen can cause allergic reactions in some individuals, particularly during the spring and summer months when plants release large amounts of pollen into the air. These allergies, also known as hay fever or seasonal allergic rhinitis, can result in symptoms such as sneezing, runny nose, congestion, itchy eyes, and coughing.

It is important to note that while all pollen has the potential to cause allergic reactions, certain types of plants, such as ragweed, grasses, and trees, are more likely to trigger symptoms in sensitive individuals.

'Plant infertility' is not a standard medical term, as it is typically used in the context of agriculture and plant biology. However, I can provide you with a general definition related to this context:

Plant infertility refers to the inability of a plant to produce viable seeds, fruits, or propagules due to various factors affecting its reproductive system. These factors may include genetic disorders, environmental stressors (such as extreme temperatures, drought, or nutrient deficiencies), pathogens, pests, or poor pollination. In some cases, assisted reproduction techniques, such as hand-pollination or embryo rescue, might be employed to overcome infertility issues in plants.

Phytotherapy is the use of extracts of natural origin, especially plants or plant parts, for therapeutic purposes. It is also known as herbal medicine and is a traditional practice in many cultures. The active compounds in these plant extracts are believed to have various medicinal properties, such as anti-inflammatory, analgesic, or sedative effects. Practitioners of phytotherapy may use the whole plant, dried parts, or concentrated extracts to prepare teas, capsules, tinctures, or ointments for therapeutic use. It is important to note that the effectiveness and safety of phytotherapy are not always supported by scientific evidence, and it should be used with caution and preferably under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Transcription factors are proteins that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by controlling the transcription of DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA). They function by binding to specific DNA sequences, known as response elements, located in the promoter region or enhancer regions of target genes. This binding can either activate or repress the initiation of transcription, depending on the properties and interactions of the particular transcription factor. Transcription factors often act as part of a complex network of regulatory proteins that determine the precise spatiotemporal patterns of gene expression during development, differentiation, and homeostasis in an organism.

A cell line is a culture of cells that are grown in a laboratory for use in research. These cells are usually taken from a single cell or group of cells, and they are able to divide and grow continuously in the lab. Cell lines can come from many different sources, including animals, plants, and humans. They are often used in scientific research to study cellular processes, disease mechanisms, and to test new drugs or treatments. Some common types of human cell lines include HeLa cells (which come from a cancer patient named Henrietta Lacks), HEK293 cells (which come from embryonic kidney cells), and HUVEC cells (which come from umbilical vein endothelial cells). It is important to note that cell lines are not the same as primary cells, which are cells that are taken directly from a living organism and have not been grown in the lab.

The cell nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle found in the eukaryotic cells (cells with a true nucleus). It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as DNA molecules in complex with proteins, RNA molecules, and histones to form chromosomes.

The primary function of the cell nucleus is to regulate and control the activities of the cell, including growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction. It also plays a crucial role in the process of mitosis (cell division) by separating and protecting the genetic material during this process. The nuclear membrane, or nuclear envelope, surrounding the nucleus is composed of two lipid bilayers with numerous pores that allow for the selective transport of molecules between the nucleoplasm (nucleus interior) and the cytoplasm (cell exterior).

The cell nucleus is a vital structure in eukaryotic cells, and its dysfunction can lead to various diseases, including cancer and genetic disorders.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material present in the cells of organisms where it is responsible for the storage and transmission of hereditary information. DNA is a long molecule that consists of two strands coiled together to form a double helix. Each strand is made up of a series of four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) - that are linked together by phosphate and sugar groups. The sequence of these bases along the length of the molecule encodes genetic information, with A always pairing with T and C always pairing with G. This base-pairing allows for the replication and transcription of DNA, which are essential processes in the functioning and reproduction of all living organisms.

In the context of medical terminology, "germination" is not typically used as a term to describe a physiological process in humans or animals. It is primarily used in the field of botany to refer to the process by which a seed or spore sprouts and begins to grow into a new plant.

However, if you are referring to the concept of germination in the context of bacterial or viral growth, then it could be defined as:

The process by which bacteria, viruses, or other microorganisms become active and start to multiply, often after a period of dormancy or latency. This can occur when the microorganisms encounter favorable conditions, such as moisture, warmth, or nutrients, that allow them to grow and reproduce. In medical contexts, this term is more commonly used in relation to infectious diseases caused by these microorganisms.

Archaeal RNA refers to the Ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules that are present in archaea, which are a domain of single-celled microorganisms. RNA is a nucleic acid that plays a crucial role in various biological processes, such as protein synthesis, gene expression, and regulation of cellular activities.

Archaeal RNAs can be categorized into different types based on their functions, including:

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): It carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where it is translated into proteins.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA): It helps in translating the genetic code present in mRNA into specific amino acids during protein synthesis.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): It is a structural and functional component of ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs.
4. Non-coding RNA: These are RNAs that do not code for proteins but have regulatory functions in gene expression and other cellular processes.

Archaeal RNAs share similarities with both bacterial and eukaryotic RNAs, but they also possess unique features that distinguish them from the other two domains of life. For example, archaeal rRNAs contain unique sequence motifs and secondary structures that are not found in bacteria or eukaryotes. These differences suggest that archaeal RNAs have evolved to adapt to the extreme environments where many archaea live.

Overall, understanding the structure, function, and evolution of archaeal RNA is essential for gaining insights into the biology of these unique microorganisms and their roles in various cellular processes.

Gene silencing is a process by which the expression of a gene is blocked or inhibited, preventing the production of its corresponding protein. This can occur naturally through various mechanisms such as RNA interference (RNAi), where small RNAs bind to and degrade specific mRNAs, or DNA methylation, where methyl groups are added to the DNA molecule, preventing transcription. Gene silencing can also be induced artificially using techniques such as RNAi-based therapies, antisense oligonucleotides, or CRISPR-Cas9 systems, which allow for targeted suppression of gene expression in research and therapeutic applications.

Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to amplify and detect specific DNA sequences. This technique is particularly useful for the detection and quantification of RNA viruses, as well as for the analysis of gene expression.

The process involves two main steps: reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). In the first step, reverse transcriptase enzyme is used to convert RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) by reading the template provided by the RNA molecule. This cDNA then serves as a template for the PCR amplification step.

In the second step, the PCR reaction uses two primers that flank the target DNA sequence and a thermostable polymerase enzyme to repeatedly copy the targeted cDNA sequence. The reaction mixture is heated and cooled in cycles, allowing the primers to anneal to the template, and the polymerase to extend the new strand. This results in exponential amplification of the target DNA sequence, making it possible to detect even small amounts of RNA or cDNA.

RT-PCR is a sensitive and specific technique that has many applications in medical research and diagnostics, including the detection of viruses such as HIV, hepatitis C virus, and SARS-CoV-2 (the virus that causes COVID-19). It can also be used to study gene expression, identify genetic mutations, and diagnose genetic disorders.

'Brassica' is a term used in botanical nomenclature, specifically within the family Brassicaceae. It refers to a genus of plants that includes various vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, and mustard greens. These plants are known for their nutritional value and health benefits. They contain glucosinolates, which have been studied for their potential anti-cancer properties. However, it is not a medical term per se, but rather a taxonomic category used in the biological sciences.

Fungi, in the context of medical definitions, are a group of eukaryotic organisms that include microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. The study of fungi is known as mycology.

Fungi can exist as unicellular organisms or as multicellular filamentous structures called hyphae. They are heterotrophs, which means they obtain their nutrients by decomposing organic matter or by living as parasites on other organisms. Some fungi can cause various diseases in humans, animals, and plants, known as mycoses. These infections range from superficial, localized skin infections to systemic, life-threatening invasive diseases.

Examples of fungal infections include athlete's foot (tinea pedis), ringworm (dermatophytosis), candidiasis (yeast infection), histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis, and aspergillosis. Fungal infections can be challenging to treat due to the limited number of antifungal drugs available and the potential for drug resistance.

Asteraceae is a family of flowering plants commonly known as the daisy family or sunflower family. It is one of the largest and most diverse families of vascular plants, with over 1,900 genera and 32,000 species. The family includes a wide variety of plants, ranging from annual and perennial herbs to shrubs and trees.

The defining characteristic of Asteraceae is the presence of a unique type of inflorescence called a capitulum, which resembles a single flower but is actually composed of many small flowers (florets) arranged in a dense head. The florets are typically bisexual, with both male and female reproductive structures, and are radially symmetrical.

Asteraceae includes many economically important plants, such as sunflowers, daisies, artichokes, lettuce, chicory, and ragweed. Some species of Asteraceae are also used in traditional medicine and have been found to contain bioactive compounds with potential therapeutic uses.

It's worth noting that the taxonomy of this family has undergone significant revisions in recent years, and some genera and species have been moved to other families or renamed.

In the context of medicine and pharmacology, "kinetics" refers to the study of how a drug moves throughout the body, including its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (often abbreviated as ADME). This field is called "pharmacokinetics."

1. Absorption: This is the process of a drug moving from its site of administration into the bloodstream. Factors such as the route of administration (e.g., oral, intravenous, etc.), formulation, and individual physiological differences can affect absorption.

2. Distribution: Once a drug is in the bloodstream, it gets distributed throughout the body to various tissues and organs. This process is influenced by factors like blood flow, protein binding, and lipid solubility of the drug.

3. Metabolism: Drugs are often chemically modified in the body, typically in the liver, through processes known as metabolism. These changes can lead to the formation of active or inactive metabolites, which may then be further distributed, excreted, or undergo additional metabolic transformations.

4. Excretion: This is the process by which drugs and their metabolites are eliminated from the body, primarily through the kidneys (urine) and the liver (bile).

Understanding the kinetics of a drug is crucial for determining its optimal dosing regimen, potential interactions with other medications or foods, and any necessary adjustments for special populations like pediatric or geriatric patients, or those with impaired renal or hepatic function.

A viral genome is the genetic material (DNA or RNA) that is present in a virus. It contains all the genetic information that a virus needs to replicate itself and infect its host. The size and complexity of viral genomes can vary greatly, ranging from a few thousand bases to hundreds of thousands of bases. Some viruses have linear genomes, while others have circular genomes. The genome of a virus also contains the information necessary for the virus to hijack the host cell's machinery and use it to produce new copies of the virus. Understanding the genetic makeup of viruses is important for developing vaccines and antiviral treatments.

Gene expression profiling is a laboratory technique used to measure the activity (expression) of thousands of genes at once. This technique allows researchers and clinicians to identify which genes are turned on or off in a particular cell, tissue, or organism under specific conditions, such as during health, disease, development, or in response to various treatments.

The process typically involves isolating RNA from the cells or tissues of interest, converting it into complementary DNA (cDNA), and then using microarray or high-throughput sequencing technologies to determine which genes are expressed and at what levels. The resulting data can be used to identify patterns of gene expression that are associated with specific biological states or processes, providing valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanisms of diseases and potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

In recent years, gene expression profiling has become an essential tool in various fields, including cancer research, drug discovery, and personalized medicine, where it is used to identify biomarkers of disease, predict patient outcomes, and guide treatment decisions.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "peas" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. Peas are a type of legume that is commonly consumed as a vegetable. They are rich in nutrients such as protein, fiber, vitamin C, and vitamin K. If you have any questions about the health benefits or potential risks of consuming peas, I would be happy to try to help with that.

Molecular models are three-dimensional representations of molecular structures that are used in the field of molecular biology and chemistry to visualize and understand the spatial arrangement of atoms and bonds within a molecule. These models can be physical or computer-generated and allow researchers to study the shape, size, and behavior of molecules, which is crucial for understanding their function and interactions with other molecules.

Physical molecular models are often made up of balls (representing atoms) connected by rods or sticks (representing bonds). These models can be constructed manually using materials such as plastic or wooden balls and rods, or they can be created using 3D printing technology.

Computer-generated molecular models, on the other hand, are created using specialized software that allows researchers to visualize and manipulate molecular structures in three dimensions. These models can be used to simulate molecular interactions, predict molecular behavior, and design new drugs or chemicals with specific properties. Overall, molecular models play a critical role in advancing our understanding of molecular structures and their functions.

A conserved sequence in the context of molecular biology refers to a pattern of nucleotides (in DNA or RNA) or amino acids (in proteins) that has remained relatively unchanged over evolutionary time. These sequences are often functionally important and are highly conserved across different species, indicating strong selection pressure against changes in these regions.

In the case of protein-coding genes, the corresponding amino acid sequence is deduced from the DNA sequence through the genetic code. Conserved sequences in proteins may indicate structurally or functionally important regions, such as active sites or binding sites, that are critical for the protein's activity. Similarly, conserved non-coding sequences in DNA may represent regulatory elements that control gene expression.

Identifying conserved sequences can be useful for inferring evolutionary relationships between species and for predicting the function of unknown genes or proteins.

Medical definitions generally do not include plant oils as a specific term. However, in a biological or biochemical context, plant oils, also known as vegetable oils, are defined as lipid extracts derived from various parts of plants such as seeds, fruits, and leaves. They mainly consist of triglycerides, which are esters of glycerol and three fatty acids. The composition of fatty acids can vary between different plant sources, leading to a range of physical and chemical properties that make plant oils useful for various applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food industries. Some common examples of plant oils include olive oil, coconut oil, sunflower oil, and jojoba oil.

"Drought" is not a medical term. It is a term used in meteorology and environmental science to refer to a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to water shortage and scarcity in the affected areas. Droughts can have various impacts on human health, including dehydration, heat-related illnesses, reduced air quality, increased transmission of waterborne diseases, and mental health issues related to stress and displacement. However, drought itself is not a medical condition.

A plasmid is a small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA of a bacterium or other organism. Plasmids are typically not essential for the survival of the organism, but they can confer beneficial traits such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to degrade certain types of pollutants.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA and can be transferred between bacteria through a process called conjugation. They often contain genes that provide resistance to antibiotics, heavy metals, and other environmental stressors. Plasmids have also been engineered for use in molecular biology as cloning vectors, allowing scientists to replicate and manipulate specific DNA sequences.

Plasmids are important tools in genetic engineering and biotechnology because they can be easily manipulated and transferred between organisms. They have been used to produce vaccines, diagnostic tests, and genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture, medicine, and industry.

In the context of medical terminology, "light" doesn't have a specific or standardized definition on its own. However, it can be used in various medical terms and phrases. For example, it could refer to:

1. Visible light: The range of electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye, typically between wavelengths of 400-700 nanometers. This is relevant in fields such as ophthalmology and optometry.
2. Therapeutic use of light: In some therapies, light is used to treat certain conditions. An example is phototherapy, which uses various wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) or visible light for conditions like newborn jaundice, skin disorders, or seasonal affective disorder.
3. Light anesthesia: A state of reduced consciousness in which the patient remains responsive to verbal commands and physical stimulation. This is different from general anesthesia where the patient is completely unconscious.
4. Pain relief using light: Certain devices like transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) units have a 'light' setting, indicating lower intensity or frequency of electrical impulses used for pain management.

Without more context, it's hard to provide a precise medical definition of 'light'.

RNA cleavage is a biological process in which RNA molecules are cut or split into smaller fragments by enzymes known as ribonucleases (RNases). This process can occur co-transcriptionally, during splicing, or as a means of regulation of RNA stability and function. Cleavage sites are often defined by specific sequences or structures within the RNA molecule. The cleavage products may have various fates, including degradation, further processing, or serving as functional RNA molecules.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a laboratory technique used to amplify specific regions of DNA. It enables the production of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence in a rapid and efficient manner, making it an essential tool in various fields such as molecular biology, medical diagnostics, forensic science, and research.

The PCR process involves repeated cycles of heating and cooling to separate the DNA strands, allow primers (short sequences of single-stranded DNA) to attach to the target regions, and extend these primers using an enzyme called Taq polymerase, resulting in the exponential amplification of the desired DNA segment.

In a medical context, PCR is often used for detecting and quantifying specific pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi, or parasites) in clinical samples, identifying genetic mutations or polymorphisms associated with diseases, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

Botany is the scientific study of plants, encompassing various disciplines such as plant structure, function, evolution, diversity, distribution, ecology, and application. It involves examining different aspects like plant anatomy, physiology, genetics, molecular biology, systematics, and ethnobotany. The field of botany has contributed significantly to our understanding of the natural world, agriculture, medicine, and environmental conservation.

Nitrogen is not typically referred to as a medical term, but it is an element that is crucial to medicine and human life.

In a medical context, nitrogen is often mentioned in relation to gas analysis, respiratory therapy, or medical gases. Nitrogen (N) is a colorless, odorless, and nonreactive gas that makes up about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere. It is an essential element for various biological processes, such as the growth and maintenance of organisms, because it is a key component of amino acids, nucleic acids, and other organic compounds.

In some medical applications, nitrogen is used to displace oxygen in a mixture to create a controlled environment with reduced oxygen levels (hypoxic conditions) for therapeutic purposes, such as in certain types of hyperbaric chambers. Additionally, nitrogen gas is sometimes used in cryotherapy, where extremely low temperatures are applied to tissues to reduce pain, swelling, and inflammation.

However, it's important to note that breathing pure nitrogen can be dangerous, as it can lead to unconsciousness and even death due to lack of oxygen (asphyxiation) within minutes.

In genetics, sequence alignment is the process of arranging two or more DNA, RNA, or protein sequences to identify regions of similarity or homology between them. This is often done using computational methods to compare the nucleotide or amino acid sequences and identify matching patterns, which can provide insight into evolutionary relationships, functional domains, or potential genetic disorders. The alignment process typically involves adjusting gaps and mismatches in the sequences to maximize the similarity between them, resulting in an aligned sequence that can be visually represented and analyzed.

Plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in the cells of plants and algae. They are responsible for various cellular functions, including photosynthesis, storage of starch, lipids, and proteins, and the production of pigments that give plants their color. The most common types of plastids are chloroplasts (which contain chlorophyll and are involved in photosynthesis), chromoplasts (which contain pigments such as carotenoids and are responsible for the yellow, orange, and red colors of fruits and flowers), and leucoplasts (which do not contain pigments and serve mainly as storage organelles). Plastids have their own DNA and can replicate themselves within the cell.

Sequence homology in nucleic acids refers to the similarity or identity between the nucleotide sequences of two or more DNA or RNA molecules. It is often used as a measure of biological relationship between genes, organisms, or populations. High sequence homology suggests a recent common ancestry or functional constraint, while low sequence homology may indicate a more distant relationship or different functions.

Nucleic acid sequence homology can be determined by various methods such as pairwise alignment, multiple sequence alignment, and statistical analysis. The degree of homology is typically expressed as a percentage of identical or similar nucleotides in a given window of comparison.

It's important to note that the interpretation of sequence homology depends on the biological context and the evolutionary distance between the sequences compared. Therefore, functional and experimental validation is often necessary to confirm the significance of sequence homology.

Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone that plays a crucial role in the regulation of various physiological processes, including seed dormancy, bud dormancy, leaf senescence, and response to abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and cold temperatures. It is a sesquiterpene compound that is synthesized in plants primarily in response to environmental stimuli that trigger the onset of stress responses.

ABA functions by regulating gene expression, cell growth and development, and stomatal closure, which helps prevent water loss from plants under drought conditions. It also plays a role in the regulation of plant metabolism and the activation of defense mechanisms against pathogens and other environmental stressors. Overall, abscisic acid is an essential hormone that enables plants to adapt to changing environmental conditions and optimize their growth and development.

'Cucumis sativus' is the scientific name for the vegetable we commonly know as a cucumber. It belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae and is believed to have originated in South Asia. Cucumbers are widely consumed raw in salads, pickled, or used in various culinary applications. They have a high water content and contain various nutrients such as vitamin K, vitamin C, and potassium.

Oligoribonucleotides are short, synthetic chains of ribonucleotides, which are the building blocks of RNA (ribonucleic acid). These chains typically contain fewer than 20 ribonucleotide units, and can be composed of all four types of nucleotides found in RNA: adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). They are often used in research for various purposes, such as studying RNA function, regulating gene expression, or serving as potential therapeutic agents.

Genetic transformation is the process by which an organism's genetic material is altered or modified, typically through the introduction of foreign DNA. This can be achieved through various techniques such as:

* Gene transfer using vectors like plasmids, phages, or artificial chromosomes
* Direct uptake of naked DNA using methods like electroporation or chemically-mediated transfection
* Use of genome editing tools like CRISPR-Cas9 to introduce precise changes into the organism's genome.

The introduced DNA may come from another individual of the same species (cisgenic), from a different species (transgenic), or even be synthetically designed. The goal of genetic transformation is often to introduce new traits, functions, or characteristics that do not exist naturally in the organism, or to correct genetic defects.

This technique has broad applications in various fields, including molecular biology, biotechnology, and medical research, where it can be used to study gene function, develop genetically modified organisms (GMOs), create cell lines for drug screening, and even potentially treat genetic diseases through gene therapy.

Disease resistance, in a medical context, refers to the inherent or acquired ability of an organism to withstand or limit infection by a pathogen, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. This resistance can be due to various factors including the presence of physical barriers (e.g., intact skin), chemical barriers (e.g., stomach acid), and immune responses that recognize and eliminate the pathogen.

Inherited disease resistance is often determined by genetics, where certain genetic variations can make an individual more or less susceptible to a particular infection. For example, some people are naturally resistant to certain diseases due to genetic factors that prevent the pathogen from infecting their cells or replicating within them.

Acquired disease resistance can occur through exposure to a pathogen, which triggers an immune response that confers immunity or resistance to future infections by the same pathogen. This is the basis of vaccination, where a weakened or dead form of a pathogen is introduced into the body to stimulate an immune response without causing disease.

Overall, disease resistance is an important factor in maintaining health and preventing the spread of infectious diseases.

"Pseudomonas syringae" is a gram-negative, aerobic bacterium that is widely found in various environments, including water, soil, and plant surfaces. It is known to be a plant pathogen, causing diseases in a wide range of plants such as beans, peas, tomatoes, and other crops. The bacteria can infect plants through wounds or natural openings, leading to symptoms like spots on leaves, wilting, and dieback. Some strains of "P. syringae" are also associated with frost damage on plants, as they produce a protein that facilitates ice crystal formation at higher temperatures.

It's important to note that while "Pseudomonas syringae" can cause disease in plants, it is not typically considered a human pathogen and does not usually cause illness in humans.

Phytosterols are a type of plant-derived sterol that have a similar structure to cholesterol, a compound found in animal products. They are found in small quantities in many fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, legumes, and vegetable oils. Phytosterols are known to help lower cholesterol levels by reducing the absorption of dietary cholesterol in the digestive system.

In medical terms, phytosterols are often referred to as "plant sterols" or "phytostanols." They have been shown to have a modest but significant impact on lowering LDL (or "bad") cholesterol levels when consumed in sufficient quantities, typically in the range of 2-3 grams per day. As a result, foods fortified with phytosterols are sometimes recommended as part of a heart-healthy diet for individuals with high cholesterol or a family history of cardiovascular disease.

It's worth noting that while phytosterols have been shown to be safe and effective in reducing cholesterol levels, they should not be used as a substitute for other lifestyle changes such as regular exercise, smoking cessation, and weight management. Additionally, individuals with sitosterolemia, a rare genetic disorder characterized by an abnormal accumulation of plant sterols in the body, should avoid consuming foods fortified with phytosterols.

Small untranslated region (UTR) of RNA refers to the non-coding sequences located at the 5' end (5' UTR) or 3' end (3' UTR) of an mRNA molecule that do not contain information for protein synthesis. These regions play a role in the regulation of translation, stability, and localization of the mRNA. The small untranslated regions are so named because they are typically shorter in length compared to other regulatory elements found within the mRNA.

Tertiary protein structure refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of all the elements (polypeptide chains) of a single protein molecule. It is the highest level of structural organization and results from interactions between various side chains (R groups) of the amino acids that make up the protein. These interactions, which include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, van der Waals forces, and disulfide bridges, give the protein its unique shape and stability, which in turn determines its function. The tertiary structure of a protein can be stabilized by various factors such as temperature, pH, and the presence of certain ions. Any changes in these factors can lead to denaturation, where the protein loses its tertiary structure and thus its function.

A multigene family is a group of genetically related genes that share a common ancestry and have similar sequences or structures. These genes are arranged in clusters on a chromosome and often encode proteins with similar functions. They can arise through various mechanisms, including gene duplication, recombination, and transposition. Multigene families play crucial roles in many biological processes, such as development, immunity, and metabolism. Examples of multigene families include the globin genes involved in oxygen transport, the immune system's major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes, and the cytochrome P450 genes associated with drug metabolism.

Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA) is a type of RNA molecule found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells during the early stages of gene expression. The term "heterogeneous" refers to the diverse range of sizes and structures that these RNAs exhibit, which can vary from several hundred to tens of thousands of nucleotides in length.

HnRNA is transcribed from DNA templates by the enzyme RNA polymerase II and includes both introns (non-coding sequences) and exons (coding sequences) that will eventually be spliced together to form mature mRNA molecules. HnRNA also contains additional sequences, such as 5' cap structures and 3' poly(A) tails, which are added during post-transcriptional processing.

Because hnRNA is a precursor to mature mRNA, it is often used as a marker for transcriptionally active genes. However, not all hnRNA molecules are ultimately processed into mRNA; some may be degraded or converted into other types of RNA, such as microRNAs or long non-coding RNAs.

Overall, hnRNA plays a critical role in the regulation and expression of genes in eukaryotic cells.

A genetic complementation test is a laboratory procedure used in molecular genetics to determine whether two mutated genes can complement each other's function, indicating that they are located at different loci and represent separate alleles. This test involves introducing a normal or wild-type copy of one gene into a cell containing a mutant version of the same gene, and then observing whether the presence of the normal gene restores the normal function of the mutated gene. If the introduction of the normal gene results in the restoration of the normal phenotype, it suggests that the two genes are located at different loci and can complement each other's function. However, if the introduction of the normal gene does not restore the normal phenotype, it suggests that the two genes are located at the same locus and represent different alleles of the same gene. This test is commonly used to map genes and identify genetic interactions in a variety of organisms, including bacteria, yeast, and animals.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "soybeans" are not a medical term. They are a type of legume that is commonly used in agriculture and food production. The medical community might discuss soybeans in the context of nutrition or allergies, but there isn't a formal medical definition for this term.

Here's some general information: Soybeans, scientifically known as Glycine max, are native to East Asia and are now grown worldwide. They are a significant source of plant-based protein and oil. Soybeans contain various nutrients, including essential amino acids, fiber, B vitamins, and minerals like calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc. They are used in various food products such as tofu, soy milk, tempeh, and miso. Additionally, soybeans are also used in the production of industrial products, including biodiesel, plastics, and inks. Some people may have allergic reactions to soybeans or soy products.

Bryopsida is a class within the division Bryophyta, which includes the mosses. It is a large and diverse group that contains the majority of moss species. Members of this class are characterized by their stalked, spore-producing structures called sporangia, which are typically borne on specialized leaves called perichaetial leaves. The spores produced within these sporangia are released and can germinate to form new moss individuals.

It is important to note that the classification of plants, including mosses, has undergone significant revisions in recent years, and some sources may use different terminology or groupings than what is described here. However, Bryopsida remains a widely recognized and well-established class within the mosses.

Signal transduction is the process by which a cell converts an extracellular signal, such as a hormone or neurotransmitter, into an intracellular response. This involves a series of molecular events that transmit the signal from the cell surface to the interior of the cell, ultimately resulting in changes in gene expression, protein activity, or metabolism.

The process typically begins with the binding of the extracellular signal to a receptor located on the cell membrane. This binding event activates the receptor, which then triggers a cascade of intracellular signaling molecules, such as second messengers, protein kinases, and ion channels. These molecules amplify and propagate the signal, ultimately leading to the activation or inhibition of specific cellular responses.

Signal transduction pathways are highly regulated and can be modulated by various factors, including other signaling molecules, post-translational modifications, and feedback mechanisms. Dysregulation of these pathways has been implicated in a variety of diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and neurological disorders.

'Agrobacterium tumefaciens' is a gram-negative, soil-dwelling bacterium that is known for its ability to cause plant tumors or crown galls. It does this through the transfer and integration of a segment of DNA called the Ti (Tumor-inducing) plasmid into the plant's genome. This transferred DNA includes genes that encode enzymes for the production of opines, which serve as a nutrient source for the bacterium, and genes that cause unregulated plant cell growth leading to tumor formation.

This unique ability of 'Agrobacterium tumefaciens' to transfer and integrate foreign DNA into plants has been exploited in genetic engineering to create transgenic plants with desired traits. The Ti plasmid is often used as a vector to introduce new genes into the plant genome, making it an essential tool in plant biotechnology.

"RNA 3' end processing" refers to the post-transcriptional modifications that occur at the 3' end of RNA transcripts. While "RNA 3' end processing" is not a specific medical term, it is a fundamental biological process that has implications in various areas of medicine, such as gene regulation and disease pathogenesis.

During RNA 3' end processing, several enzymatic activities take place to generate a mature and functional RNA molecule. These modifications typically include the removal of unnecessary sequences, the addition of a poly(A) tail, and sometimes the incorporation of a specific nucleotide called a "cap."

1. Removal of unnecessary sequences: In many cases, the initial RNA transcript contains non-coding regions (introns) that need to be removed to generate a mature RNA molecule. This process is known as splicing, and it results in the formation of an mRNA (messenger RNA) or other types of functional RNAs, such as rRNA (ribosomal RNA), tRNA (transfer RNA), or snRNA (small nuclear RNA).
2. Addition of a poly(A) tail: After splicing, the 3' end of the RNA molecule is further processed by adding a string of adenine nucleotides, known as a poly(A) tail. This modification is catalyzed by an enzyme called poly(A) polymerase and plays a crucial role in stabilizing the RNA molecule, promoting its export from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and facilitating translation.
3. Incorporation of a cap: At the 5' end of the RNA molecule, a special structure called a "cap" is added. This cap consists of a modified guanine nucleotide that is linked to the first nucleotide of the RNA via a triphosphate bridge. The cap helps protect the RNA from degradation and plays a role in translation initiation by recruiting ribosomes and other translation factors.

Dysregulation of RNA 3' end processing has been implicated in various diseases, including cancer, neurological disorders, and viral infections. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying these processes can provide valuable insights into disease pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets.

A meristem, in the context of plant biology, refers to a type of tissue found in plants that is responsible for their growth. These tissues are composed of cells that have the ability to divide and differentiate into various specialized cell types. Meristems are typically located at the tips of roots and shoots (apical meristems), as well as within the vascular bundles (cambial meristems) and in the cork layers (phellogen meristems). They contribute to the increase in length and girth of plant organs, allowing plants to grow throughout their life.

Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in the chloroplasts of photosynthetic plants, algae, and some bacteria. It plays an essential role in light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis by absorbing light energy, primarily from the blue and red parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and converting it into chemical energy to fuel the synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. The structure of chlorophyll includes a porphyrin ring, which binds a central magnesium ion, and a long phytol tail. There are several types of chlorophyll, including chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, which have distinct absorption spectra and slightly different structures. Chlorophyll is crucial for the process of photosynthesis, enabling the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy and the release of oxygen as a byproduct.

HeLa cells are a type of immortalized cell line used in scientific research. They are derived from a cancer that developed in the cervical tissue of Henrietta Lacks, an African-American woman, in 1951. After her death, cells taken from her tumor were found to be capable of continuous division and growth in a laboratory setting, making them an invaluable resource for medical research.

HeLa cells have been used in a wide range of scientific studies, including research on cancer, viruses, genetics, and drug development. They were the first human cell line to be successfully cloned and are able to grow rapidly in culture, doubling their population every 20-24 hours. This has made them an essential tool for many areas of biomedical research.

It is important to note that while HeLa cells have been instrumental in numerous scientific breakthroughs, the story of their origin raises ethical questions about informed consent and the use of human tissue in research.

Bacterial proteins are a type of protein that are produced by bacteria as part of their structural or functional components. These proteins can be involved in various cellular processes, such as metabolism, DNA replication, transcription, and translation. They can also play a role in bacterial pathogenesis, helping the bacteria to evade the host's immune system, acquire nutrients, and multiply within the host.

Bacterial proteins can be classified into different categories based on their function, such as:

1. Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze chemical reactions in the bacterial cell.
2. Structural proteins: Proteins that provide structural support and maintain the shape of the bacterial cell.
3. Signaling proteins: Proteins that help bacteria to communicate with each other and coordinate their behavior.
4. Transport proteins: Proteins that facilitate the movement of molecules across the bacterial cell membrane.
5. Toxins: Proteins that are produced by pathogenic bacteria to damage host cells and promote infection.
6. Surface proteins: Proteins that are located on the surface of the bacterial cell and interact with the environment or host cells.

Understanding the structure and function of bacterial proteins is important for developing new antibiotics, vaccines, and other therapeutic strategies to combat bacterial infections.

Aphids, also known as plant lice, are small sap-sucking insects that belong to the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. They are soft-bodied and pear-shaped, with most species measuring less than 1/8 inch (3 millimeters) long.

Aphids feed on a wide variety of plants by inserting their needle-like mouthparts into the plant's vascular system to extract phloem sap. This feeding can cause stunted growth, yellowing, curling, or distortion of leaves and flowers, and may even lead to the death of the plant in severe infestations.

Aphids reproduce rapidly and can produce several generations per year. Many species give birth to live young (nymphs) rather than laying eggs, which allows them to increase their population numbers quickly. Aphids also have a complex life cycle that may involve sexual reproduction, parthenogenesis (reproduction without fertilization), and winged or wingless forms.

Aphids are an important pest in agriculture and horticulture, causing significant damage to crops and ornamental plants. They can also transmit plant viruses and produce honeydew, a sticky substance that attracts ants and supports the growth of sooty mold fungi.

Controlling aphids may involve cultural practices such as pruning, watering, and removing weeds; biological control using natural enemies such as lady beetles, lacewings, and parasitic wasps; or chemical control using insecticides.

Ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) are complexes composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins. They play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including gene expression, RNA processing, transport, stability, and degradation. Different types of RNPs exist, such as ribosomes, spliceosomes, and signal recognition particles, each having specific functions in the cell.

Ribosomes are large RNP complexes responsible for protein synthesis, where messenger RNA (mRNA) is translated into proteins. They consist of two subunits: a smaller subunit containing ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins that recognize the start codon on mRNA, and a larger subunit with rRNA and proteins that facilitate peptide bond formation during translation.

Spliceosomes are dynamic RNP complexes involved in pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) splicing, where introns (non-coding sequences) are removed, and exons (coding sequences) are joined together to form mature mRNA. Spliceosomes consist of five small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs), each containing a specific small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and several proteins, as well as numerous additional proteins.

Other RNP complexes include signal recognition particles (SRPs), which are responsible for targeting secretory and membrane proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum during translation, and telomerase, an enzyme that maintains the length of telomeres (the protective ends of chromosomes) by adding repetitive DNA sequences using its built-in RNA component.

In summary, ribonucleoproteins are essential complexes in the cell that participate in various aspects of RNA metabolism and protein synthesis.

"Poly A" is an abbreviation for "poly(A) tail" or "polyadenylation." It refers to the addition of multiple adenine (A) nucleotides to the 3' end of eukaryotic mRNA molecules during the process of transcription. This poly(A) tail plays a crucial role in various aspects of mRNA metabolism, including stability, transport, and translation. The length of the poly(A) tail can vary from around 50 to 250 nucleotides depending on the cell type and developmental stage.

5.8S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a type of structural RNA molecule that is a component of the large subunit of eukaryotic ribosomes. It is one of the several rRNA species that are present in the ribosome, which also include the 18S rRNA in the small subunit and the 28S and 5S rRNAs in the large subunit. The 5.8S rRNA plays a role in the translation process, where it helps in the decoding of messenger RNA (mRNA) during protein synthesis. It is transcribed from DNA as part of a larger precursor RNA molecule, which is then processed to produce the mature 5.8S rRNA. The length of the 5.8S rRNA varies slightly between species, but it is generally around 160 nucleotides long in humans.

"Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is not typically considered a medical term, but it is a scientific name used in the field of microbiology. It refers to a species of yeast that is commonly used in various industrial processes, such as baking and brewing. It's also widely used in scientific research due to its genetic tractability and eukaryotic cellular organization.

However, it does have some relevance to medical fields like medicine and nutrition. For example, certain strains of S. cerevisiae are used as probiotics, which can provide health benefits when consumed. They may help support gut health, enhance the immune system, and even assist in the digestion of certain nutrients.

In summary, "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is a species of yeast with various industrial and potential medical applications.

A genetic template refers to the sequence of DNA or RNA that contains the instructions for the development and function of an organism or any of its components. These templates provide the code for the synthesis of proteins and other functional molecules, and determine many of the inherited traits and characteristics of an individual. In this sense, genetic templates serve as the blueprint for life and are passed down from one generation to the next through the process of reproduction.

In molecular biology, the term "template" is used to describe the strand of DNA or RNA that serves as a guide or pattern for the synthesis of a complementary strand during processes such as transcription and replication. During transcription, the template strand of DNA is transcribed into a complementary RNA molecule, while during replication, each parental DNA strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new complementary strand.

In genetic engineering and synthetic biology, genetic templates can be manipulated and modified to introduce new functions or alter existing ones in organisms. This is achieved through techniques such as gene editing, where specific sequences in the genetic template are targeted and altered using tools like CRISPR-Cas9. Overall, genetic templates play a crucial role in shaping the structure, function, and evolution of all living organisms.

Rhizobium is not a medical term, but rather a term used in microbiology and agriculture. It refers to a genus of gram-negative bacteria that can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere into ammonia, which can then be used by plants as a nutrient. These bacteria live in the root nodules of leguminous plants (such as beans, peas, and clover) and form a symbiotic relationship with them.

The host plant provides Rhizobium with carbon sources and a protected environment within the root nodule, while the bacteria provide the plant with fixed nitrogen. This mutualistic interaction plays a crucial role in maintaining soil fertility and promoting plant growth.

While Rhizobium itself is not directly related to human health or medicine, understanding its symbiotic relationship with plants can have implications for agricultural practices, sustainable farming, and global food security.

"Small cytoplasmic RNAs" (scRNAs) are a heterogeneous group of non-coding RNA molecules that are typically 100-300 nucleotides in length and are located within the cytoplasm of cells. They play various roles in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, including serving as components of ribonucleoprotein complexes involved in mRNA splicing, stability, and translation.

Some specific types of scRNAs include small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), which are involved in spliceosomal complexes that remove introns from pre-mRNA; small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), which guide chemical modifications of other RNA molecules, such as ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs); and microRNAs (miRNAs), which bind to target mRNAs and inhibit their translation or promote their degradation.

It's worth noting that the term "small cytoplasmic RNA" is a broad category, and individual scRNAs can have distinct functions and characteristics.

Physiological stress is a response of the body to a demand or threat that disrupts homeostasis and activates the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. This results in the release of stress hormones such as adrenaline, cortisol, and noradrenaline, which prepare the body for a "fight or flight" response. Increased heart rate, rapid breathing, heightened sensory perception, and increased alertness are some of the physiological changes that occur during this response. Chronic stress can have negative effects on various bodily functions, including the immune, cardiovascular, and nervous systems.

Gene expression is the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, such as a protein or RNA molecule. This process involves several steps: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. During transcription, the genetic information in DNA is copied into a complementary RNA molecule, known as messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA then undergoes RNA processing, which includes adding a cap and tail to the mRNA and splicing out non-coding regions called introns. The resulting mature mRNA is then translated into a protein on ribosomes in the cytoplasm through the process of translation.

The regulation of gene expression is a complex and highly controlled process that allows cells to respond to changes in their environment, such as growth factors, hormones, and stress signals. This regulation can occur at various stages of gene expression, including transcriptional activation or repression, RNA processing, mRNA stability, and translation. Dysregulation of gene expression has been implicated in many diseases, including cancer, genetic disorders, and neurological conditions.

I'm happy to help! However, I believe there might be a slight confusion in your question. RNA and chloroplasts are two different biological concepts. Let me clarify:

1. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): It is a type of nucleic acid that plays several crucial roles in the process of translation, decoding the genetic information stored in DNA into proteins. There are three main types of RNA: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).

2. Chloroplasts: They are specialized organelles found in the cells of green plants, algae, and some protists. Chloroplasts are responsible for capturing sunlight's energy and converting it into chemical energy through photosynthesis, which is used to produce glucose and oxygen.

There is no medical definition directly related to 'RNA, chloroplast' as they are separate concepts in biology. However, RNA does play a role in the expression of genes found within the chloroplast genome during photosynthesis. If you have any further questions or need more information about either concept, please let me know!

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "trees" is not a medical term. It is a common term used in various fields, including biology, ecology, and dendrology, to refer to a woody perennial plant with a single stem or trunk that supports branches and leaves in most species.

If you have any questions related to medical terminology or health-related topics, please provide more context so I can offer an accurate and helpful response.

Mosaic viruses are a group of plant viruses that can cause mottled or mosaic patterns of discoloration on leaves, which is why they're named as such. These viruses infect a wide range of plants, including important crops like tobacco, tomatoes, and cucumbers. The infection can lead to various symptoms such as stunted growth, leaf deformation, reduced yield, or even plant death.

Mosaic viruses are typically spread by insects, such as aphids, that feed on the sap of infected plants and then transmit the virus to healthy plants. They can also be spread through contaminated seeds, tools, or contact with infected plant material. Once inside a plant, these viruses hijack the plant's cellular machinery to replicate themselves, causing damage to the host plant in the process.

It is important to note that mosaic viruses are not related to human or animal health; they only affect plants.

Medical definitions of water generally describe it as a colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid that is essential for all forms of life. It is a universal solvent, making it an excellent medium for transporting nutrients and waste products within the body. Water constitutes about 50-70% of an individual's body weight, depending on factors such as age, sex, and muscle mass.

In medical terms, water has several important functions in the human body:

1. Regulation of body temperature through perspiration and respiration.
2. Acting as a lubricant for joints and tissues.
3. Facilitating digestion by helping to break down food particles.
4. Transporting nutrients, oxygen, and waste products throughout the body.
5. Helping to maintain healthy skin and mucous membranes.
6. Assisting in the regulation of various bodily functions, such as blood pressure and heart rate.

Dehydration can occur when an individual does not consume enough water or loses too much fluid due to illness, exercise, or other factors. This can lead to a variety of symptoms, including dry mouth, fatigue, dizziness, and confusion. Severe dehydration can be life-threatening if left untreated.

Host-pathogen interactions refer to the complex and dynamic relationship between a living organism (the host) and a disease-causing agent (the pathogen). This interaction can involve various molecular, cellular, and physiological processes that occur between the two entities. The outcome of this interaction can determine whether the host will develop an infection or not, as well as the severity and duration of the illness.

During host-pathogen interactions, the pathogen may release virulence factors that allow it to evade the host's immune system, colonize tissues, and obtain nutrients for its survival and replication. The host, in turn, may mount an immune response to recognize and eliminate the pathogen, which can involve various mechanisms such as inflammation, phagocytosis, and the production of antimicrobial agents.

Understanding the intricacies of host-pathogen interactions is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and treat infectious diseases. This knowledge can help identify new targets for therapeutic interventions, inform vaccine design, and guide public health policies to control the spread of infectious agents.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Hemiptera" is not a medical term. It is a taxonomic order in the classification of living things, also known as "true bugs." This group includes species such as cicadas, aphids, and bedbugs. If you have a medical term in mind, please provide it so I can give you an accurate definition.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "Mustard Plant" is not a term typically used in medical definitions. Mustard plants are actually a type of crop plant from the Brassicaceae family, which also includes vegetables like broccoli and cabbage. The seeds from these plants are often ground to make mustard condiments and spices. If you're looking for information related to potential medicinal uses or health effects of mustard plants or their derivatives, I would be happy to help with that.

Small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are a specific class of small RNA molecules that range in size from 60 to 300 nucleotides. They are primarily located in the dense granules of the nucleus called nucleoli, which are membrane-less organelles where ribosome biogenesis occurs.

SnoRNAs guide the chemical modification of other RNA molecules, mainly ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). They function as guides for site-specific post-transcriptional modifications, such as 2'-O-methylation and pseudouridination, of their target RNAs. These modifications are essential for the stability, structure, and functionality of the target RNAs.

SnoRNAs can be classified into two main groups based on their secondary structures and sequence motifs:

1. C/D box snoRNAs: These snoRNAs contain conserved sequence motifs known as the C (RUGAUGA) and D (CUGA) boxes, which are located in the 5' and 3' ends of the snoRNA, respectively. They typically guide 2'-O-methylation of their target RNAs.
2. H/ACA box snoRNAs: These snoRNAs contain conserved sequence motifs known as the H (ANANNA) and ACA boxes, which are located in the 5' and 3' ends of the snoRNA, respectively. They typically guide pseudouridination of their target RNAs.

SnoRNAs are encoded by either host genes or as independent transcription units. In some cases, they can be found within introns of protein-coding or non-protein-coding genes and are processed from the primary transcript (pre-mRNA or intron lariat) during splicing.

In summary, small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) are a class of small RNA molecules that guide post-transcriptional modifications, mainly 2'-O-methylation and pseudouridination, of other RNA molecules such as ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs), small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs), and messenger RNAs (mRNAs).

Cytokinins are a type of plant growth hormone that play a crucial role in cell division, differentiation, and growth. They were first discovered in 1950s and named for their ability to promote cytokinesis, the process of cell division. Cytokinins belong to a class of compounds called adenine derivatives, which are structurally similar to nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA.

Cytokinins are produced in the roots and shoots of plants and are transported throughout the plant via the vascular system. They have been shown to regulate various aspects of plant growth and development, including shoot initiation, leaf expansion, apical dominance, and senescence. Cytokinins also interact with other hormones such as auxins, gibberellins, and abscisic acid to modulate plant responses to environmental stresses.

Cytokinins have been used in horticulture and agriculture to enhance crop yields, improve plant quality, and delay senescence. They are also being studied for their potential role in human health, particularly in the context of cancer research.

Temperature, in a medical context, is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or environment. It is usually measured using a thermometer and reported in degrees Celsius (°C), degrees Fahrenheit (°F), or kelvin (K). In the human body, normal core temperature ranges from about 36.5-37.5°C (97.7-99.5°F) when measured rectally, and can vary slightly depending on factors such as time of day, physical activity, and menstrual cycle. Elevated body temperature is a common sign of infection or inflammation, while abnormally low body temperature can indicate hypothermia or other medical conditions.

Ribonucleases (RNases) are a group of enzymes that catalyze the degradation of ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules by hydrolyzing the phosphodiester bonds. These enzymes play crucial roles in various biological processes, such as RNA processing, turnover, and quality control. They can be classified into several types based on their specificities, mechanisms, and cellular localizations.

Some common classes of ribonucleases include:

1. Endoribonucleases: These enzymes cleave RNA internally, at specific sequences or structural motifs. Examples include RNase A, which targets single-stranded RNA; RNase III, which cuts double-stranded RNA at specific stem-loop structures; and RNase T1, which recognizes and cuts unpaired guanosine residues in RNA molecules.
2. Exoribonucleases: These enzymes remove nucleotides from the ends of RNA molecules. They can be further divided into 5'-3' exoribonucleases, which degrade RNA starting from the 5' end, and 3'-5' exoribonucleases, which start at the 3' end. Examples include Xrn1, a 5'-3' exoribonuclease involved in mRNA decay; and Dis3/RRP6, a 3'-5' exoribonuclease that participates in ribosomal RNA processing and degradation.
3. Specific ribonucleases: These enzymes target specific RNA molecules or regions with high precision. For example, RNase P is responsible for cleaving the 5' leader sequence of precursor tRNAs (pre-tRNAs) during their maturation; and RNase MRP is involved in the processing of ribosomal RNA and mitochondrial RNA molecules.

Dysregulation or mutations in ribonucleases have been implicated in various human diseases, such as neurological disorders, cancer, and viral infections. Therefore, understanding their functions and mechanisms is crucial for developing novel therapeutic strategies.

Ascomycota is a phylum in the kingdom Fungi, also known as sac fungi. This group includes both unicellular and multicellular organisms, such as yeasts, mold species, and morel mushrooms. Ascomycetes are characterized by their reproductive structures called ascus, which contain typically eight haploid spores produced sexually through a process called ascogony. Some members of this phylum have significant ecological and economic importance, as they can be decomposers, mutualistic symbionts, or plant pathogens causing various diseases. Examples include the baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea, and morel mushroom Morchella esculenta.

Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) is a type of RNA molecule that is longer than 200 nucleotides and does not encode for proteins. They are involved in various cellular processes such as regulation of gene expression, chromosome remodeling, and modulation of protein function. LncRNAs can be located in the nucleus or cytoplasm and can interact with DNA, RNA, and proteins to bring about their functions. Dysregulation of lncRNAs has been implicated in various human diseases, including cancer.

Recombinant proteins are artificially created proteins produced through the use of recombinant DNA technology. This process involves combining DNA molecules from different sources to create a new set of genes that encode for a specific protein. The resulting recombinant protein can then be expressed, purified, and used for various applications in research, medicine, and industry.

Recombinant proteins are widely used in biomedical research to study protein function, structure, and interactions. They are also used in the development of diagnostic tests, vaccines, and therapeutic drugs. For example, recombinant insulin is a common treatment for diabetes, while recombinant human growth hormone is used to treat growth disorders.

The production of recombinant proteins typically involves the use of host cells, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells, which are engineered to express the desired protein. The host cells are transformed with a plasmid vector containing the gene of interest, along with regulatory elements that control its expression. Once the host cells are cultured and the protein is expressed, it can be purified using various chromatography techniques.

Overall, recombinant proteins have revolutionized many areas of biology and medicine, enabling researchers to study and manipulate proteins in ways that were previously impossible.

I'm sorry for any confusion, but "hydroponics" is not a medical term. It is an agricultural technique and term. Hydroponics refers to the practice of growing plants in nutrient-rich water solutions, without soil. This method allows plants to obtain their necessary nutrients directly from the water, which is enriched with dissolved minerals. Common hydroponic systems include wick systems, deep water culture, nutrient film technique, ebb and flow system, aeroponics, and drip systems.

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are organic chemicals that have a low boiling point and easily evaporate at room temperature. They can be liquids or solids. VOCs include a variety of chemicals, such as benzene, toluene, xylene, and formaldehyde, which are found in many household products, including paints, paint strippers, and other solvents; cleaning supplies; pesticides; building materials and furnishings; office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper; and glues and adhesives.

VOCs can cause both short- and long-term health effects. Short-term exposure to high levels of VOCs can cause headaches, dizziness, visual disturbances, and memory problems. Long-term exposure can cause damage to the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system. Some VOCs are also suspected or known carcinogens.

It is important to properly use, store, and dispose of products that contain VOCs to minimize exposure. Increasing ventilation by opening windows and doors or using fans can also help reduce exposure to VOCs.

Genetic models are theoretical frameworks used in genetics to describe and explain the inheritance patterns and genetic architecture of traits, diseases, or phenomena. These models are based on mathematical equations and statistical methods that incorporate information about gene frequencies, modes of inheritance, and the effects of environmental factors. They can be used to predict the probability of certain genetic outcomes, to understand the genetic basis of complex traits, and to inform medical management and treatment decisions.

There are several types of genetic models, including:

1. Mendelian models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of simple genetic traits that follow Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment. Examples include autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, and X-linked inheritance.
2. Complex trait models: These models describe the inheritance patterns of complex traits that are influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors. Examples include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer.
3. Population genetics models: These models describe the distribution and frequency of genetic variants within populations over time. They can be used to study evolutionary processes, such as natural selection and genetic drift.
4. Quantitative genetics models: These models describe the relationship between genetic variation and phenotypic variation in continuous traits, such as height or IQ. They can be used to estimate heritability and to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) that contribute to trait variation.
5. Statistical genetics models: These models use statistical methods to analyze genetic data and infer the presence of genetic associations or linkage. They can be used to identify genetic risk factors for diseases or traits.

Overall, genetic models are essential tools in genetics research and medical genetics, as they allow researchers to make predictions about genetic outcomes, test hypotheses about the genetic basis of traits and diseases, and develop strategies for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment.

Recombinant fusion proteins are artificially created biomolecules that combine the functional domains or properties of two or more different proteins into a single protein entity. They are generated through recombinant DNA technology, where the genes encoding the desired protein domains are linked together and expressed as a single, chimeric gene in a host organism, such as bacteria, yeast, or mammalian cells.

The resulting fusion protein retains the functional properties of its individual constituent proteins, allowing for novel applications in research, diagnostics, and therapeutics. For instance, recombinant fusion proteins can be designed to enhance protein stability, solubility, or immunogenicity, making them valuable tools for studying protein-protein interactions, developing targeted therapies, or generating vaccines against infectious diseases or cancer.

Examples of recombinant fusion proteins include:

1. Etaglunatide (ABT-523): A soluble Fc fusion protein that combines the heavy chain fragment crystallizable region (Fc) of an immunoglobulin with the extracellular domain of the human interleukin-6 receptor (IL-6R). This fusion protein functions as a decoy receptor, neutralizing IL-6 and its downstream signaling pathways in rheumatoid arthritis.
2. Etanercept (Enbrel): A soluble TNF receptor p75 Fc fusion protein that binds to tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and inhibits its proinflammatory activity, making it a valuable therapeutic option for treating autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and psoriasis.
3. Abatacept (Orencia): A fusion protein consisting of the extracellular domain of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) linked to the Fc region of an immunoglobulin, which downregulates T-cell activation and proliferation in autoimmune diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Belimumab (Benlysta): A monoclonal antibody that targets B-lymphocyte stimulator (BLyS) protein, preventing its interaction with the B-cell surface receptor and inhibiting B-cell activation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
5. Romiplostim (Nplate): A fusion protein consisting of a thrombopoietin receptor agonist peptide linked to an immunoglobulin Fc region, which stimulates platelet production in patients with chronic immune thrombocytopenia (ITP).
6. Darbepoetin alfa (Aranesp): A hyperglycosylated erythropoiesis-stimulating protein that functions as a longer-acting form of recombinant human erythropoietin, used to treat anemia in patients with chronic kidney disease or cancer.
7. Palivizumab (Synagis): A monoclonal antibody directed against the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which prevents RSV infection and is administered prophylactically to high-risk infants during the RSV season.
8. Ranibizumab (Lucentis): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody fragment that binds and inhibits vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), used in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, and other ocular disorders.
9. Cetuximab (Erbitux): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), used in the treatment of colorectal cancer and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
10. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully humanized monoclonal antibody that targets tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, and Crohn's disease.
11. Bevacizumab (Avastin): A recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to VEGF-A, used in the treatment of various cancers, including colorectal, lung, breast, and kidney cancer.
12. Trastuzumab (Herceptin): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets HER2/neu receptor, used in the treatment of breast cancer.
13. Rituximab (Rituxan): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that binds to CD20 antigen on B cells, used in the treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and rheumatoid arthritis.
14. Palivizumab (Synagis): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to the F protein of respiratory syncytial virus, used in the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in high-risk infants.
15. Infliximab (Remicade): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
16. Natalizumab (Tysabri): A humanized monoclonal antibody that binds to α4β1 integrin, used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis and Crohn's disease.
17. Adalimumab (Humira): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis.
18. Golimumab (Simponi): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and ulcerative colitis.
19. Certolizumab pegol (Cimzia): A PEGylated Fab' fragment of a humanized monoclonal antibody that targets TNF-α, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and Crohn's disease.
20. Ustekinumab (Stelara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-12 and IL-23, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and Crohn's disease.
21. Secukinumab (Cosentyx): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
22. Ixekizumab (Taltz): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17A, used in the treatment of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis.
23. Brodalumab (Siliq): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-17 receptor A, used in the treatment of psoriasis.
24. Sarilumab (Kevzara): A fully human monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
25. Tocilizumab (Actemra): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets the IL-6 receptor, used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, systemic juvenile idiopathic arthritis, polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis, giant cell arteritis, and chimeric antigen receptor T-cell-induced cytokine release syndrome.
26. Siltuximab (Sylvant): A chimeric monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment of multicentric Castleman disease.
27. Satralizumab (Enspryng): A humanized monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6 receptor alpha, used in the treatment of neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder.
28. Sirukumab (Plivensia): A human monoclonal antibody that targets IL-6, used in the treatment

Physiological adaptation refers to the changes or modifications that occur in an organism's biological functions or structures as a result of environmental pressures or changes. These adaptations enable the organism to survive and reproduce more successfully in its environment. They can be short-term, such as the constriction of blood vessels in response to cold temperatures, or long-term, such as the evolution of longer limbs in animals that live in open environments.

In the context of human physiology, examples of physiological adaptation include:

1. Acclimatization: The process by which the body adjusts to changes in environmental conditions, such as altitude or temperature. For example, when a person moves to a high-altitude location, their body may produce more red blood cells to compensate for the lower oxygen levels, leading to improved oxygen delivery to tissues.

2. Exercise adaptation: Regular physical activity can lead to various physiological adaptations, such as increased muscle strength and endurance, enhanced cardiovascular function, and improved insulin sensitivity.

3. Hormonal adaptation: The body can adjust hormone levels in response to changes in the environment or internal conditions. For instance, during prolonged fasting, the body releases stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline to help maintain energy levels and prevent muscle wasting.

4. Sensory adaptation: Our senses can adapt to different stimuli over time. For example, when we enter a dark room after being in bright sunlight, it takes some time for our eyes to adjust to the new light level. This process is known as dark adaptation.

5. Aging-related adaptations: As we age, various physiological changes occur that help us adapt to the changing environment and maintain homeostasis. These include changes in body composition, immune function, and cognitive abilities.

"Solanaceae" is not a medical term but a taxonomic category in biology, referring to the Nightshade family of plants. This family includes several plants that have economic and medicinal importance, as well as some that are toxic or poisonous. Some common examples of plants in this family include:

- Solanum lycopersicum (tomato)
- Solanum tuberosum (potato)
- Capsicum annuum (bell pepper and chili pepper)
- Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco)
- Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade)
- Hyoscyamus niger (henbane)

While Solanaceae isn't a medical term itself, certain plants within this family have medical significance. For instance, some alkaloids found in these plants can be used as medications or pharmaceutical precursors, such as atropine and scopolamine from Atropa belladonna, hyoscine from Hyoscyamus niger, and capsaicin from Capsicum species. However, it's important to note that many of these plants also contain toxic compounds, so they must be handled with care and used only under professional supervision.

Northern blotting is a laboratory technique used in molecular biology to detect and analyze specific RNA molecules (such as mRNA) in a mixture of total RNA extracted from cells or tissues. This technique is called "Northern" blotting because it is analogous to the Southern blotting method, which is used for DNA detection.

The Northern blotting procedure involves several steps:

1. Electrophoresis: The total RNA mixture is first separated based on size by running it through an agarose gel using electrical current. This separates the RNA molecules according to their length, with smaller RNA fragments migrating faster than larger ones.

2. Transfer: After electrophoresis, the RNA bands are denatured (made single-stranded) and transferred from the gel onto a nitrocellulose or nylon membrane using a technique called capillary transfer or vacuum blotting. This step ensures that the order and relative positions of the RNA fragments are preserved on the membrane, similar to how they appear in the gel.

3. Cross-linking: The RNA is then chemically cross-linked to the membrane using UV light or heat treatment, which helps to immobilize the RNA onto the membrane and prevent it from washing off during subsequent steps.

4. Prehybridization: Before adding the labeled probe, the membrane is prehybridized in a solution containing blocking agents (such as salmon sperm DNA or yeast tRNA) to minimize non-specific binding of the probe to the membrane.

5. Hybridization: A labeled nucleic acid probe, specific to the RNA of interest, is added to the prehybridization solution and allowed to hybridize (form base pairs) with its complementary RNA sequence on the membrane. The probe can be either a DNA or an RNA molecule, and it is typically labeled with a radioactive isotope (such as ³²P) or a non-radioactive label (such as digoxigenin).

6. Washing: After hybridization, the membrane is washed to remove unbound probe and reduce background noise. The washing conditions (temperature, salt concentration, and detergent concentration) are optimized based on the stringency required for specific hybridization.

7. Detection: The presence of the labeled probe is then detected using an appropriate method, depending on the type of label used. For radioactive probes, this typically involves exposing the membrane to X-ray film or a phosphorimager screen and analyzing the resulting image. For non-radioactive probes, detection can be performed using colorimetric, chemiluminescent, or fluorescent methods.

8. Data analysis: The intensity of the signal is quantified and compared to controls (such as housekeeping genes) to determine the relative expression level of the RNA of interest. This information can be used for various purposes, such as identifying differentially expressed genes in response to a specific treatment or comparing gene expression levels across different samples or conditions.

RNA virus infections refer to diseases or conditions caused by the invasion and replication of RNA (Ribonucleic acid) viruses in host cells. These viruses use RNA as their genetic material, which is different from DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) viruses. Upon entering a host cell, the RNA virus releases its genetic material, which then uses the host cell's machinery to produce new viral components and replicate. This process can lead to various outcomes, depending on the specific virus and the host's immune response:

1. Asymptomatic infection: Some RNA virus infections may not cause any noticeable symptoms and may only be discovered through diagnostic testing.
2. Acute infection: Many RNA viruses cause acute infections, characterized by the rapid onset of symptoms that typically last for a short period (days to weeks). Examples include the common cold (caused by rhinoviruses), influenza (caused by orthomyxoviruses), and some gastrointestinal infections (caused by noroviruses or rotaviruses).
3. Chronic infection: A few RNA viruses can establish chronic infections, where the virus persists in the host for an extended period, sometimes leading to long-term health complications. Examples include HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus), HCV (Hepatitis C Virus), and HTLV-1 (Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1).
4. Latent infection: Some RNA viruses, like herpesviruses, can establish latency in the host, where they remain dormant for extended periods but can reactivate under certain conditions, causing recurrent symptoms or diseases.
5. Oncogenic potential: Certain RNA viruses have oncogenic properties and can contribute to the development of cancer. For example, retroviruses like HTLV-1 can cause leukemia and lymphoma by integrating their genetic material into the host cell's DNA and altering gene expression.

Treatment for RNA virus infections varies depending on the specific virus and the severity of the infection. Antiviral medications, immunotherapy, and supportive care are common treatment strategies. Vaccines are also available to prevent some RNA virus infections, such as measles, mumps, rubella, influenza, and hepatitis A and B.

Endoribonucleases are enzymes that cleave RNA molecules internally, meaning they cut the phosphodiester bond between nucleotides within the RNA chain. These enzymes play crucial roles in various cellular processes, such as RNA processing, degradation, and quality control. Different endoribonucleases recognize specific sequences or structural features in RNA substrates, allowing them to target particular regions for cleavage. Some well-known examples of endoribonucleases include RNase III, RNase T1, and RNase A, each with distinct substrate preferences and functions.

Substrate specificity in the context of medical biochemistry and enzymology refers to the ability of an enzyme to selectively bind and catalyze a chemical reaction with a particular substrate (or a group of similar substrates) while discriminating against other molecules that are not substrates. This specificity arises from the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme, which has evolved to match the shape, charge distribution, and functional groups of its physiological substrate(s).

Substrate specificity is a fundamental property of enzymes that enables them to carry out highly selective chemical transformations in the complex cellular environment. The active site of an enzyme, where the catalysis takes place, has a unique conformation that complements the shape and charge distribution of its substrate(s). This ensures efficient recognition, binding, and conversion of the substrate into the desired product while minimizing unwanted side reactions with other molecules.

Substrate specificity can be categorized as:

1. Absolute specificity: An enzyme that can only act on a single substrate or a very narrow group of structurally related substrates, showing no activity towards any other molecule.
2. Group specificity: An enzyme that prefers to act on a particular functional group or class of compounds but can still accommodate minor structural variations within the substrate.
3. Broad or promiscuous specificity: An enzyme that can act on a wide range of structurally diverse substrates, albeit with varying catalytic efficiencies.

Understanding substrate specificity is crucial for elucidating enzymatic mechanisms, designing drugs that target specific enzymes or pathways, and developing biotechnological applications that rely on the controlled manipulation of enzyme activities.

In the field of medicine, "time factors" refer to the duration of symptoms or time elapsed since the onset of a medical condition, which can have significant implications for diagnosis and treatment. Understanding time factors is crucial in determining the progression of a disease, evaluating the effectiveness of treatments, and making critical decisions regarding patient care.

For example, in stroke management, "time is brain," meaning that rapid intervention within a specific time frame (usually within 4.5 hours) is essential to administering tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), a clot-busting drug that can minimize brain damage and improve patient outcomes. Similarly, in trauma care, the "golden hour" concept emphasizes the importance of providing definitive care within the first 60 minutes after injury to increase survival rates and reduce morbidity.

Time factors also play a role in monitoring the progression of chronic conditions like diabetes or heart disease, where regular follow-ups and assessments help determine appropriate treatment adjustments and prevent complications. In infectious diseases, time factors are crucial for initiating antibiotic therapy and identifying potential outbreaks to control their spread.

Overall, "time factors" encompass the significance of recognizing and acting promptly in various medical scenarios to optimize patient outcomes and provide effective care.

'Medicago sativa' is the scientific name for a plant species more commonly known as alfalfa. In a medical context, alfalfa is often considered a herbal supplement and its medicinal properties include being a source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. It has been used in traditional medicine to treat a variety of conditions such as kidney problems, asthma, arthritis, and high cholesterol levels. However, it's important to note that the effectiveness of alfalfa for these uses is not conclusively established by scientific research and its use may have potential risks or interactions with certain medications. Always consult a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen.

Uridine is a nucleoside that consists of a pyrimidine base (uracil) linked to a pentose sugar (ribose). It is a component of RNA, where it pairs with adenine. Uridine can also be found in various foods such as beer, broccoli, yeast, and meat. In the body, uridine can be synthesized from orotate or from the breakdown of RNA. It has several functions, including acting as a building block for RNA, contributing to energy metabolism, and regulating cell growth and differentiation. Uridine is also available as a dietary supplement and has been studied for its potential benefits in various health conditions.

Introns are non-coding sequences of DNA that are present within the genes of eukaryotic organisms, including plants, animals, and humans. Introns are removed during the process of RNA splicing, in which the initial RNA transcript is cut and reconnected to form a mature, functional RNA molecule.

After the intron sequences are removed, the remaining coding sequences, known as exons, are joined together to create a continuous stretch of genetic information that can be translated into a protein or used to produce non-coding RNAs with specific functions. The removal of introns allows for greater flexibility in gene expression and regulation, enabling the generation of multiple proteins from a single gene through alternative splicing.

In summary, introns are non-coding DNA sequences within genes that are removed during RNA processing to create functional RNA molecules or proteins.

Complementary RNA refers to a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to another RNA or DNA sequence in terms of base pairing. In other words, it is the nucleic acid strand that can form a double-stranded structure with another strand through hydrogen bonding between complementary bases (A-U and G-C). Complementary RNAs play crucial roles in various biological processes such as transcription, translation, and gene regulation. For example, during transcription, the DNA template strand serves as the template for the synthesis of a complementary RNA strand, known as the primary transcript or pre-mRNA. This pre-mRNA then undergoes processing to remove non-coding sequences and generate a mature mRNA that is complementary to the DNA template strand. Complementary RNAs are also involved in RNA interference (RNAi), where small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) or microRNAs (miRNAs) bind to complementary sequences in target mRNAs, leading to their degradation or translation inhibition.

Endophytes are microorganisms, typically bacteria or fungi, that live inside the tissues of plants without causing any visible disease or harm to the plant. They can be found in almost all plant species and are known to exist in a mutualistic relationship with their host plants. Endophytes can provide various benefits to the plants such as growth promotion, increased resistance to pathogens, and protection against herbivores. Some endophytic fungi also produce bioactive compounds that have potential applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry.

Biodiversity is the variety of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live in an ecosystem. It also includes the variety of genes within a species and the variety of ecosystems (such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and oceans) that exist in a region or on Earth as a whole. Biodiversity is important for maintaining the health and balance of ecosystems, providing resources and services such as food, clean water, and pollination, and contributing to the discovery of new medicines and other useful products. The loss of biodiversity can have negative impacts on the functioning of ecosystems and the services they provide, and can threaten the survival of species and the livelihoods of people who depend on them.

Bacterial DNA refers to the genetic material found in bacteria. It is composed of a double-stranded helix containing four nucleotide bases - adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) - that are linked together by phosphodiester bonds. The sequence of these bases in the DNA molecule carries the genetic information necessary for the growth, development, and reproduction of bacteria.

Bacterial DNA is circular in most bacterial species, although some have linear chromosomes. In addition to the main chromosome, many bacteria also contain small circular pieces of DNA called plasmids that can carry additional genes and provide resistance to antibiotics or other environmental stressors.

Unlike eukaryotic cells, which have their DNA enclosed within a nucleus, bacterial DNA is present in the cytoplasm of the cell, where it is in direct contact with the cell's metabolic machinery. This allows for rapid gene expression and regulation in response to changing environmental conditions.

'Bryophyta' is the formal scientific name for a division of non-vascular plants that includes mosses. These plants are small, typically range in size from a few millimeters to a few centimeters, and lack true roots, stems, and leaves. They have simple reproductive structures and obtain water and nutrients directly from the environment through their body surfaces. Mosses are an important part of many ecosystems, particularly in damp or shaded habitats, where they play a role in soil stabilization, nutrient cycling, and water retention.

Page for Plant small nucleolar RNA R71 at Rfam plant snoRNA database v t e (GO template errors, Small nuclear RNA, All stub ... It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a guide RNA. R71 belongs to the C/D box class of ... In molecular biology, small nucleolar RNA R71 (also known as snoRNA R71) is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecule which functions ... "Site-specific ribose methylation of preribosomal RNA: a novel function for small nucleolar RNAs". Cell. 85 (7): 1077-88. doi: ...
... of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a 'guide RNA ... Page for Small nucleolar RNA snoR9 at Rfam v t e (Small nuclear RNA, All stub articles, Molecular and cellular biology stubs). ... O-methylation of substrate RNAs. This plant snoRNA was identified in Arabidopsis thaliana by computational screening and ... In molecular biology, snoR9 is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) which functions in the biogenesis (modification) ...
"Discovery and profiling of small RNAs responsive to stress conditions in the plant pathogen Pectobacterium atrosepticum". BMC ... Antisense small RNAs (abbreviated anti small RNA or anti-sRNA) are short RNA sequences (about 50-500 nucleotides long) that are ... which are specific RNA that respond to signal RNA through complementary base pairing utilizing anti-small RNA, have been found ... Sponge RNA is another term used to describe anti-sRNAs. While the mRNA-regulating small RNAs were discovered in 1984, the first ...
In plants, variation for flooding stress tolerance correlated with stress-induced alternative splicing of transcripts ... Circular RNAs are abundant, conserved, and associated with ALU repeats. RNA 2013;19(2):141-57. Zhang Y, Zhang XO, Chen T, et al ... RNA splicing is a process in molecular biology where a newly-made precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) transcript is transformed ... RNA 2014;20(9):1476-87. Virtual Cell Animation Collection: mRNA Splicing RNA+Splicing at the U.S. National Library of Medicine ...
"Genetically Modified Organism-Free RNA Interference: Exogenous Application of RNA Molecules in Plants". Plant Physiology. 182 ( ... A plant-specific RNA polymerase complex, RNA Polymerase IV (Pol IV), is first recruited to silent heterochromatin via its ... While all eukaryotes share three RNA polymerases (RNA Pol I, II and III), plants have two additional polymerases, Pol IV and ... Haag JR, Pikaard CS (July 2011). "Multisubunit RNA polymerases IV and V: purveyors of non-coding RNA for plant gene silencing ...
Ustilago maydis Plants: Arabidopsis thaliana, maize. Computational methods predict a bZIP intron with its characteristic RNA ... The bZIP intron RNA motif is an RNA structure guiding splicing of a non-canonical intron from bZIP-containing genes called HAC1 ... Hooks KB, Griffiths-Jones S (2011). "Conserved RNA structures in the non-canonical Hac1/Xbp1 intron". RNA Biol. 8 (4): 552-556 ... doi:10.4161/rna.8.4.15396. PMC 3225973. PMID 21593604. Ruegsegger U, Leber JH, Walter P (2001). "Block of HAC1 mRNA translation ...
"The hunt for hypoxia responsive natural antisense short interfering RNAs". Plant Signaling & Behavior. 5 (3): 247-251. doi: ... Natural antisense short interfering RNA (natsiRNA) is a type of siRNA. They are endogenous RNA regulators which are between 21 ... natsiRNA has also been shown to alter gene expression in plants responding to environmental stressors. Moldovan, D.; Spriggs, A ... Zhang, Xiaoming; Xia, Jing (22 March 2012). "Genome-wide analysis of plant nat-siRNAs reveals insights into their distribution ...
The Plant Cell. 2 (4): 279-289. doi:10.1105/tpc.2.4.279. PMC 159885. PMID 12354959. Hannon GJ (July 2002). "RNA interference". ... The main types of RNA therapeutics are those based on messenger RNA (mRNA), antisense RNA (asRNA), RNA interference (RNAi), and ... For RNA decoy aptamers, the synthetic RNA aptamer resembles a native RNA molecule. As such, proteins(s) which bind to the ... RNA is synthesized from template DNA by RNA polymerase with messenger RNA (mRNA) serving as the intermediary biomolecule ...
The Plant Journal. 59 (5): 814-825. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2009.03915.x. PMID 19453442. Strässer K, Masuda S, Mason P, ... A 5' cap (also termed an RNA cap, an RNA 7-methylguanosine cap, or an RNA m7G cap) is a modified guanine nucleotide that has ... The primary RNA transcript of a gene is cleaved at the poly-A addition site, and 100-200 A's are added to the 3' end of the RNA ... Transcription is when RNA is copied from DNA. During transcription, RNA polymerase makes a copy of a gene from the DNA to mRNA ...
PCC 6803". Plant Cell Physiol. 47 (7): 878-890. doi:10.1093/pcp/pcj060. PMID 16705009. Su Z, Mao F, Dam P, et al. (2006). " ... The psaA RNA motif describes a class of RNAs with a common secondary structure. psaA RNAs are exclusively found in locations ... Page for psaA RNA at Rfam (Cis-regulatory RNA elements). ... psaA RNAs have been detected only in cyanobacteria, which is ... Structurally, the psaA RNA motif consists of a somewhat complex arrangement of stems resulting from base pairing, and many stem ...
Plant Molecular Biology. 33 (4): 737-743. doi:10.1023/A:1005728420374. PMID 9132065. S2CID 35519690. "GenBank Accs:U42752.1". ... SRG1 RNA (SER3 regulatory gene 1) is a non-coding RNA which represses the expression of SER3 (YER081W). SER3 is a gene which ... Page for srg1 at Rfam (Orphaned articles from April 2014, All orphaned articles, Cis-regulatory RNA elements, Non-coding RNA). ... SRG1 RNA is unrelated to Senescence Related Gene 1 (SRG1), a protein-coding gene found in Arabidopsis thaliana, and is also ...
"RNA editing in plant mitochondria-connecting RNA target sequences and acting proteins". Mitochondrion. Plant Mitochondria in ... Grienenberger JM (1993). "RNA editing in plant organelles". RNA Editing (Benne, R., Ed.), Ellis Harwood, New York. Malek O, ... C-to-U editing often occurs in the mitochondrial RNA of flowering plants. Different plants have different degrees of C-to-U ... Most of the RNA modifications are found on transfer-RNA and ribosomal-RNA, but also eukaryotic mRNA has been shown to be ...
Plant Microbe Interact. 19 (11): 1193-1206. doi:10.1094/MPMI-19-1193. PMID 17073302. Page for gyrA RNA at Rfam v t e (CS1: long ... The gyrA RNA motif is a conserved RNA structure identified by bioinformatics. The RNAs are present in multiple species of ... a plant pathogen. gyrA RNAs are always found in the presumed 5' untranslated regions of gyrA genes, which encodes a protein ... Because of its positioning, the gyrA RNA motif was hypothesized to be a cis-regulatory element acting up the downstream gyrA ...
Plant SRP RNA promoters contain an upstream stimulatory element (USE) and a TATA box.[citation needed] Yeast SRP RNA genes have ... Examples of SRP RNA secondary structures Bacterial SRP RNA (4.5S RNA) from E. coli Bacterial SRP RNA (6S RNA) from Bacillus ... RNA polymerase III also transcribes the genes for 5S ribosomal RNA, tRNA, 7SK RNA, and U6 spliceosomal RNA. The promoters of ... SRP RNA was first detected in avian and murine oncogenic RNA (ocorna) virus particles. Subsequently, SRP RNA was found to be a ...
The Plant Cell. 26 (9): 3661-3679. doi:10.1105/tpc.114.129767. ISSN 1532-298X. PMC 4213160. PMID 25248550. (RNA, Non-coding RNA ... These include the Yfr1 and Yfr2 RNAs. In Prochlorococcus and Synechocystis, non-coding RNAs have been shown to regulate gene ... In molecular biology, Cyanobacterial non-coding RNAs are non-coding RNAs which have been identified in species of cyanobacteria ... Bacillus subtilis BSR sRNAs Bacterial small RNA Brucella sRNA Cyanobacteria Cyanobacterial RNA thermometer Escherichia coli ...
2003). "Plant snoRNA database". Nucleic Acids Res. 31 (1): 432-5. doi:10.1093/nar/gkg009. PMC 165456. PMID 12520043. Page for ... It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a guide RNA. U15 belongs to the C/D box class of ... molecule which functions in the modification of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs, also a type of ncRNAs). This type of modifying RNA ... O-methylation of substrate RNAs. U15 is predicted to guide the 2'O-ribose methylation of 28S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) residue A3764 ...
Plant Dcl2 may play a role in rasi/piRNA biogenesis.) Double-stranded RNAs capable of silencing repeat elements, then known as ... Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) is the largest class of small non-coding RNA molecules expressed in animal cells. piRNAs form RNA- ... Ruvkun G (July 2008). "Tiny RNA: Where do we come from? What are we? Where are we going?". Trends in Plant Science. 13 (7): 313 ... piRNA has a role in RNA silencing via the formation of an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). piRNAs interact with piwi ...
... (RNAP IV) is an enzyme that synthesizes small interfering RNA (siRNA) in plants, which silence gene ... "Role of RNA polymerase IV in plant small RNA metabolism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (11): 4536-4541 ... In the first step of heterochromatin formation, RNAP IV couples with an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase known as RDR2 to make a ... which synthesize RNA from DNA templates. Discovered via phylogenetic studies of land plants, genes of RNAP IV are thought to ...
... (Pol V), previously known as RNA polymerase IVb, is a multisubunit plant specific RNA polymerase. It is ... RNA polymerase V is composed of 12 subunits that are paralogous to RNA polymerase II (Pol II) subunits. Approximately half of ... Pol V transcribes one of the two types of non-coding RNA involved in RdDM. In canonical RdDM, Pol V transcribes a scaffold RNA ... Together with RNA polymerase IV (Pol IV), Pol V is involved in an siRNA-dependent epigenetic pathway known as RNA-directed DNA ...
... small rDNA-derived RNA (srRNA) tRNA fragment (tRF) Y RNA-derived small RNA (ysRNA) The first known function in plants was ... Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) small interfering RNA (siRNA) small nuclear RNA (snRNA), also commonly referred to as U-RNA small ... Small RNA (sRNA) are polymeric RNA molecules that are less than 200 nucleotides in length, and are usually non-coding. RNA ... including piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) and its subspecies repeat associated small interfering RNA (rasiRNA). Small RNA "is ...
In comparison to mammals relatively few studies have focused on the prevalence of lncRNAs in plants. However an extensive study ... small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), and other short RNAs. Given ... an ncRNA repressor of RNA polymerase II transcription". RNA. 13 (4): 583-596. doi:10.1261/rna.310307. PMC 1831867. PMID ... Long non-coding RNAs (long ncRNAs, lncRNA) are a type of RNA, generally defined as transcripts more than 200 nucleotides that ...
"Top 10 plant viruses in molecular plant pathology". Mol Plant Pathol. 12 (9): 938-954. doi:10.1111/j.1364-3703.2011.00752.x. ... Kolakofsky D (April 2015). "A short biased history of RNA viruses". RNA. 21 (4): 667-669. doi:10.1261/rna.049916.115. PMC ... can be synthesized directly from the genome by the viral enzyme RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp), also called RNA replicase ... Negarnaviricota takes the first part of its name from Latin nega, meaning negative, the middle part rna refers to RNA, and the ...
It infects Pseudomonas bacteria (typically plant-pathogenic P. syringae). It has a three-part, segmented, double-stranded RNA ... The virus-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, VP1, is incorporated into the capsid through its association with VP3. VP3 also ... The double-stranded genome is used as a template by the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) to transcribe a positive- ... 14: Structure-Function Insights Into the RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase of the dsRNA Bacteriophage Φ6". Patton 2008. pp. 239-. ...
The following four genera have been proposed for positive sense single stranded RNA satellite viruses that infect plants- ... Negative-sense viral RNA is complementary to mRNA and thus must be converted to positive-sense RNA by an RNA-dependent RNA ... One of these includes RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RNA replicase), which copies the viral RNA to form a double-stranded ... Very rarely viral RNA can recombine with host RNA. RNA recombination appears to be a major driving force in determining genome ...
This RNA has been identified in both the human and mouse genomes. Not to be confused with the plant snoRNA U59. Galardi, S.; ... "Site-specific ribose methylation of preribosomal RNA: a novel function for small nucleolar RNAs". Cell. 85 (7): 1077-88. doi: ... In molecular biology, snoRNA U59 is an RNA molecule that belongs to the C/D class of snoRNA, which contain the C box motif ( ... Page for Small nucleolar RNA SNORD59 at Rfam U59A entry in snoRNABase U59B entry in snoRNABase v t e (GO template errors, Small ...
... identification of 140 candidates for small non-messenger RNAs in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana". Current Biology. 12 (23): ... Page for Small nucleolar RNA snoR86 at Rfam v t e (GO template errors, Small nuclear RNA, All stub articles, Molecular and ... In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA snoR86 (also known as snoR86) is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) which modifies other small ... Plant snoR86 was identified in a screen of Arabidopsis thaliana. Kiss AM, Jády BE, Bertrand E, Kiss T (July 2004). "Human box H ...
This snoRNA is not related to the plant snoRNA snoR9. Galardi, S.; Fatica, A.; Bachi, A.; Scaloni, A.; Presutti, C.; Bozzoni, I ... of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a 'guide RNA ... Page for Small nucleolar RNA snoR9 at Rfam v t e (GO template errors, Small nuclear RNA, All stub articles, Molecular and ... Klein RJ, Misulovin Z, Eddy SR (2002). "Noncoding RNA genes identified in AT-rich hyperthermophiles". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. ...
The presence of tRNA-like structures has been demonstrated in many plant virus RNA genomes. These tRNA-like structures are ... Transfer RNA-like structures (tRNA-like structures) are RNA sequences, which have a similar tertiary structure to tRNA; they ... tRNA-like structures are required for RNA encapsulation and increase RNA stability. They also act as 3'-translational enhancers ... Matsuda D, Dreher TW (March 2004). "The tRNA-like structure of Turnip yellow mosaic virus RNA is a 3'-translational enhancer". ...
... identification of 140 candidates for small non-messenger RNAs in the plant Arabidopsis thaliana". Current Biology. 12 (23): ... Page for Small nucleolar RNA snoR98 at Rfam v t e (GO template errors, Small nuclear RNA, All stub articles, Molecular and ... In molecular biology, Small nucleolar RNA snoR98 (also known as snoR98) is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) which modifies other small ... Plant snoR98 was identified in a screen of Arabidopsis thaliana. Kiss AM, Jády BE, Bertrand E, Kiss T (July 2004). "Human box H ...
... IV synthesizes siRNA in plants. RNA polymerase V synthesizes RNAs involved in siRNA-directed heterochromatin ... messenger RNA (mRNA); or non-coding (so-called "RNA genes"). At least four functional types of RNA genes exist: Transfer RNA ( ... RNA silencing Catalytic RNA (ribozyme) Functions as an enzymatically active RNA molecule. RNA polymerase is essential to life, ... Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes"-a broad class of genes that encode RNA that is not translated into protein. The most prominent ...
Page for Plant small nucleolar RNA R71 at Rfam plant snoRNA database v t e (GO template errors, Small nuclear RNA, All stub ... It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a guide RNA. R71 belongs to the C/D box class of ... In molecular biology, small nucleolar RNA R71 (also known as snoRNA R71) is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecule which functions ... "Site-specific ribose methylation of preribosomal RNA: a novel function for small nucleolar RNAs". Cell. 85 (7): 1077-88. doi: ...
... guide RNA complex with and without a target RNA representing a slicing substrate. The AtAgo10-guide-target complex adopts ... Many AGOs cleave target RNAs using an endoribonuclease activity termed slicing. Slicing by DNA-guided prokaryotic AGOs has ... Here the authors use cryogenic electron microscopy to solve the Arabidopsis thaliana Argonaute10-guide RNA complex with and ... without a target RNA representing a slicing substrate, to provide insights into the slicing mechanism of a eukaryotic Argonaute ...
... discovery that a fungal pathogen known to infect a wide variety of vegetable and fruit crops is capable of hijacking a plants ... RNA interference pathway to suppress host immunity, thereby enhancing its virulen ... New Study Shows Suppression of Plant Immunity by Fungal Small RNAs Oct 10, 2013 ... Next, the scientists evaluated the impact the B. cinerea sRNAs had on plant immunity, generating transgenic Arabidopsis plants ...
Purification of total RNA from plant tissue using the RNeasy® Lipid Tissue Mini Kit - (EN). ...
Isolation of total RNA from plant tissues using the RNeasy® Plant Mini Kit; alternative procedure - (EN). ...
RNA-based pesticide, an Environmentally Friendly Alternative in Pre- and Post-harvest Plant Protection. August 15, 2018 ... RNA-based pesticide, an Environmentally Friendly Alternative in Pre- and Post-harvest Plant Protection ... RNA-based pesticide, an Environmentally Friendly Alternative in Pre- and Post-harvest Plant Protection ... This ability of sRNAs is called "cross-kingdom RNAi". This RNA-based pesticide that works through spray-induced gene silencing ...
... regroups experts in RNA uridylation, RNA degradation and plant virology, and Partner2 (P2) is a leading team in the study of ... RNA viruses represent 80% of the plant infecting viruses and result in diseases strongly affecting agricultural yields, thereby ... The uridylation of viral RNAs has been reported recently in several organisms including plants and animals. To date, ... RNA uridylation plays key roles in gene expression, from promoting the maturation of major non-coding RNAs to favoring the ...
p>Kits for the isolation of RNA from plant materials such as roots, seed, leaves and stem,/p> ... Extraction & Purification - RNA: Plant A range of high quality specialised kits and reagents for RNA isolation, from a range of ... Kits for the isolation of RNA from plant materials such as roots, seed, leaves and stem ... This section also includes RNA preservation solutions for tissues, cells and purified RNA. ...
LOCALIZATION OF ENDOGENOUS RNA POLYMERASE ACTIVITY IN FROZEN SECTIONS OF PLANT TISSUES , Journal of Cell Biology, Volume 39, ... LOCALIZATION OF ENDOGENOUS RNA POLYMERASE ACTIVITY IN FROZEN SECTIONS OF PLANT TISSUES Donald B. Fisher Donald B. Fisher ... Donald B. Fisher; LOCALIZATION OF ENDOGENOUS RNA POLYMERASE ACTIVITY IN FROZEN SECTIONS OF PLANT TISSUES . J Cell Biol 1 ...
Here we report the map-based cloning of mop1, an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene (RDRP), most similar to the RDRP in plants ... which encodes an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Mapping of a gene in maize that functions in paramutation - where one silent ... finds that it encodes a protein involved in RNA processing. This research provides support for the involvement of RNAs in ... We propose that the mop1 RDRP is required to maintain a threshold level of repeat RNA, which functions in trans to establish ...
After a brief review of the main issues, methods and tools related to the DE analysis of RNA-Seq data, this article focuses on ... After a brief review of the main issues, methods and tools related to the DE analysis of RNA-Seq data, the article focuses on ... We finally recommend to RNA-Seq practitioners the production of a pilot dataset to strictly analyze the power of their ... RNA-Seq is a widely used technology that allows an efficient genome-wide quantification of gene expressions for, for example, ...
Contact the Hawaii Department of Agriculture (HDOA), Plant Industry Division, Plant Quarantine Branch to determine if an import ... To download a certificate of analysis for chicory yellow mottle nepovirus with satellite RNA (PV-577), enter the lot number ... The certificate of analysis for that lot of chicory yellow mottle nepovirus with satellite RNA (PV-577) is not currently ... To download a certificate of origin for chicory yellow mottle nepovirus with satellite RNA (PV-577), enter the lot number ...
RNA or total nucleic acid. Choose from instruments that can purify up to 16 or up to 48 samples per run. Maxwell provides ... Plant Genotyping * Plant Pathogen Detection * Veterinary Science Research * Wastewater-Based Epidemiology Clinical Research & ... Maxwell® instruments are used together with cartridge-based purification kits to quickly extract DNA or RNA from many different ...
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Connecting plant water relations phenotype to whole plant success - Bryophytes. *Connecting plant water relations phenotype to ... Domestication underground - exploring how modification of plant hormone signalling, including during plant breeding, influences ... The ARC Centre of Excellence for Plant Success in Nature and Agriculture acknowledges the Traditional Owners of Country ... Evolution and function of molecular networks that control potential and water allocation in plant growth ...
Our company exclusively introduces a rapid RNA extraction technology that does not require the use of phenol or chloroform. On ... Our unique lysis solution rapidly disrupts cells and inactivates cellular RNA enzymes. The plant RNA aid agent, PLANTaid, helps ... Our unique plant RNA auxiliary agent effectively binds to polysaccharides and polyphenols, enhancing their removal. ... This column also captures and clears residual DNA, after which the RNA is selectively eluted and filtered. The filtered RNA, ...
RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) is a powerful approach for measuring gene expression levels in cells and tissues, but it relies on ... A framework for RNA quality correction in differential expression analysis. Andrew E. Jaffe, Ran Tao, Alexis L. Norris, Marc ... A framework for RNA quality correction in differential expression analysis Message Subject (Your Name) has forwarded a page to ... Using RNA-seq data from a molecular degradation experiment of human brain tissue, we introduce the quality surrogate variable ( ...
Uncovering hypergraphs of cell-cell interaction from single cell RNA-sequencing data. View ORCID ProfileKoki Tsuyuzaki, Manabu ... Uncovering hypergraphs of cell-cell interaction from single cell RNA-sequencing data ... Uncovering hypergraphs of cell-cell interaction from single cell RNA-sequencing data ... Uncovering hypergraphs of cell-cell interaction from single cell RNA-sequencing data ...
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Scientists Discover Natural Way To Make Plant-Based Meat More "Meaty" December 6, 2023 ... Tiny RNA That Should Attack COVID-19 Coronavirus Diminish With Age, Disease TOPICS:AgingAugusta UniversityCell BiologyCOVID-19 ... A group of tiny RNA that should attack the virus causing COVID-19 when it tries to infect the body are diminished with age and ... They looked at the RNA sequence of actually two coronaviruses, SARS, which surfaced in 2002, and SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID ...
... all parts of this amazing plant... ... RNA World Paper Retracted BY JEFFREY P. TOMKINS, PH.D. * , ... The RNA World. Nature. 319:618.. * Bernhardt, H. S. 2012 The RNA world hypothesis: the worst theory of the early evolution of ... So not only did this so-called RNA World study cheat by using peptides, meaning it really wasnt just an RNA World, but the ... Not only did this so-called RNA World study cheat by using peptides, meaning it really wasnt just an RNA World, but the ...
This meeting will focus on the contribution of miRNAs and endogenous siRNAs to abiotic stress responses in plants and to ... These recent findings of integrating small RNAs in plant stress regulatory networks will be discussed. RNA Thermosensor and ... RNA molecules appear to have a major role in mediating this interaction in such diverse organisms as plants, nematodes, and ... Role of Endogenous Small RNAs in Plant Stress Responses. Ramanjulu Sunkar, Oklahoma State University. Abiotic stress is one of ...
Plant Bioscience Limited (PBL) announced that the United States Patent Office has allowed claims in its patent application 10/ ... 806,253 for detection of short RNA molecules to identify gene silencin ... ... "A Species of Small Antisense RNA in Posttranscriptional Gene Silencing in Plants", (1999), 286, pp. 950-952). This paper ... Plant Bioscience Limited (PBL) announced that the United States Patent Office has allowed claims in its patent application 10/ ...
Several modifications of this editing system have been established for adoption in a variety of plants, as well as for its ... This review presents an overview of CRISPR-Cas9 and its application in plant genome editing. A catalog of the current and ... The information laid out here will provide options useful for the effective and efficient exploitation of the system for plant ... emerging approaches for the implementation of the system in plants is also presented with details on the existing gaps and ...
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... are non-classical DNA or RNA secondary structures that have been first observed decades ago. Over the years, these four- ... RNA G-quadruplexes (rG4s): genomics and biological functions Nucleic Acids Res. 2021 Jun 4;49(10):5426-5450. doi: 10.1093/nar/ ... Compared to DNA G4s (dG4s), the study of RNA G4s (rG4s) has received less attention until recently. In this review, we will ... G-quadruplexes (G4s) are non-classical DNA or RNA secondary structures that have been first observed decades ago. Over the ...
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been identified as important regulators of gene expression in plants. These RNA molecules ... Special Issue "Cutting-Edge Advances in Long Non-coding RNAs in Plants" * Special Issue Editors ... Interests: bioinformatics; disease; long non coding RNA; plant biology. Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals ... Roles of plant lncRNAs in development, differentiation, and morphogenesis;. *Interactions between plant lncRNAs and other ...
Tag: #RNA #Biotechnology #Biodiversity #Plant Articles: * Unlock the secret of plant viral genome: new starts for protein ... RNA #Biotechnology #Plant * Deciphering a Half-Century Enigma: Unveiling the Role of Pathogenesis-Related Protein 1 (PR1) in ... It can be applied to simultaneous detection of multiple RNAs in the same cell. The results were published in Plant ... In biological study, one sometimes needs to detect the simultaneous presence of a micro RNA (miRNA) and its putative target ...
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  • If we grant the evolutionists a lot of slack and assume that RNA molecules with meaningful biological information could somehow magically burst onto the scene in a chemical milieu favorable to RNA stability and life, there are still many other problems. (icr.org)
  • Plant Bioscience Limited (PBL) announced that the United States Patent Office has allowed claims in its patent application 10/806,253 for detection of short RNA molecules to identify gene silencing in mammals and mammalian cells. (bionity.com)
  • Interest in the detection and use of short RNA molecules (siRNA and miRNA) has seen a dramatic increase over the past few years. (bionity.com)
  • The patent was initially filed in 1999, that is, after Andrew Fire and Craig Mello published on the use of dsRNA to induce silencing in nematodes in1998, but before the publication in 2000 of Thomas Tuschl and colleagues' studies on short RNA molecules in Drosophila. (bionity.com)
  • Now, following substantial additional examination before the USPTO, claims directed to detection of silencing in mammals, through the detection of short RNA molecules, have also been allowed. (bionity.com)
  • This paper describes the authors' ground-breaking work in identifying short RNA molecules as the agents which both signal the occurrence of and induce gene silencing. (bionity.com)
  • These RNA molecules are transcribed from the genome but do not encode proteins, and they have diverse roles in plant growth, development, stress responses, and other biological processes. (mdpi.com)
  • The genome of the geminivirus tomato golden mosaic virus (TGMV) consists of two circular DNA molecules designated as components A and B. The A component contains the only virally-encoded function required for autonomous replication in infected plant cells. (ncsu.edu)
  • At least in plants, DNA regions that become de novo methylated can be defined by homologous RNA molecules in a process termed RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM). (degruyter.com)
  • Viroids are pathogenic circular, non-coding, single-stranded RNA molecules. (degruyter.com)
  • Viroids are non-encapsidated, single-stranded (ss), 250-400 nucleotide (nt)-long circular RNA molecules that do not encode proteins (1, 2). (degruyter.com)
  • Upon inoculation, mature Pospiviroidae RNA molecules enter the plant cell nucleus. (degruyter.com)
  • The sequence specificity of these processes relies on small noncoding RNA (sRNA) molecules. (ed.ac.uk)
  • RNA uridylation plays key roles in gene expression, from promoting the maturation of major non-coding RNAs to favoring the degradation of a plethora of other ones, including small RNAs. (anr.fr)
  • RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) is a powerful approach for measuring gene expression levels in cells and tissues, but it relies on high-quality RNA. (biorxiv.org)
  • Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been identified as important regulators of gene expression in plants. (mdpi.com)
  • In addition to regulating gene expression, RNA silencing is an essential antiviral defense system in plants. (unl.edu)
  • The challenge in gene expression studies for syncytium has always been the isolation of pure syncytial material and subsequent extraction of intact RNA. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In plants, RNA silencing is a fundamental regulator of gene expression, heterochromatin formation, suppression of transposable elements, and defense against viruses. (ed.ac.uk)
  • One of the most direct approaches to quantify gene expression is the isolation of RNA. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Most techniques used to quantify gene expression require the isolation of RNA, usually from a large number of samples. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The isolation of good quality RNA in sufficient amounts is often a prerequisite for the analysis of gene expression, an approach that is widely used in laboratories worldwide routinely. (biomedcentral.com)
  • These constrictions can make RNA isolation a bottleneck for gene expression analysis in many laboratories, especially when involving large numbers of samples. (biomedcentral.com)
  • miRNAs are small noncoding RNAs that have broad regulatory functions on gene expression. (lu.se)
  • The student will analyze gene expression in a reference-based pipeline using existing RNA sequencing data from larvae, pupae, and adult flies from each of the two host forms. (lu.se)
  • We demonstrate here that statistical adjustment employing existing quality measures largely fails to remove the effects of RNA degradation when RNA quality associates with the outcome of interest. (biorxiv.org)
  • Using RNA-seq data from a molecular degradation experiment of human brain tissue, we introduce the quality surrogate variable (qSVA) analysis framework for estimating and removing the confounding effect of RNA quality in differential expression analysis. (biorxiv.org)
  • Triggered by double-stranded RNA, silencing results in degradation or translational repression of target transcripts. (unl.edu)
  • The recruitment of this machinery results in the production of viroid-derived small RNAs (vd-sRNAs) that mediate RNA degradation and DNA methylation of cognate sequences. (degruyter.com)
  • Treatment with higher sucrose concentrations minimizes the risk of RNA degradation, whereas longer incubation times help maintaining the morphology of tissue sections. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Multiple, nearly identical copies of this snoRNA have been identified in the Arabidopsis thaliana genome and it is thought to function as a 2'-O-ribose methylation guide for 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA). (wikipedia.org)
  • Chromatin structure and expression of plant ribosomal RNA genes. (ncsu.edu)
  • In this study, culture-based methods and small subunit ribosomal RNA gene clone library approach were used to characterize microbial communities in MRF bulk fluid and associated biofilm samples collected from fluid systems in an automobile engine plant. (cdc.gov)
  • ribosomal RNA identification of the isolates showed high score similarity with Pseudomonas spp. (lu.se)
  • Some of the enzymes which generate aromatic radicals that break down most prominent bacterial strains found were isolated and tax- the complex linkages present in lignin to compounds of lower onomically identified using 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) se- molecular weight. (lu.se)
  • Here we report the map-based cloning of mop1 , an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene (RDRP), most similar to the RDRP in plants that is associated with the production of short interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting chromatin 5 , 6 . (nature.com)
  • This gene was tagged by insertion of the Tc1 transposon, and the wild-type gene was cloned by chromosomal walking 11 kb from ama-1, a cloned gene encoding the large subunit of RNA polymerase II. (ncsu.edu)
  • RdRp, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. (cdc.gov)
  • The team discovered that 73 of the B. cinerea sRNAs could target host genes in both of the plants studied "under stringent target prediction criteria," the scientists noted. (genomeweb.com)
  • Meanwhile, two plant defense marker genes, which do not contain target sites for the fungal sRNAs, were highly upregulated, leading the researchers to conclude that suppression of some but not all genes is a result of sequence-specific sRNA interaction and not cell death within infected lesions. (genomeweb.com)
  • Although the plants showed normal morphology and development in the absence of pathogen challenge, even though the target genes were suppressed, all three displayed "enhanced susceptibility" to infection upon introduction of B. cinerea . (genomeweb.com)
  • RNA silencing genes control de novo DNA methylation. (nature.com)
  • 2 This idea slowly gained traction and eventually became more popular in the 1980s with discoveries that some types of RNA were involved in enzymatic-like reactions in the complex processing of RNA transcribed from genes. (icr.org)
  • The bacterial genes encoding chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) and beta-glucuronidase (GUS) were transiently expressed in leaf discs from the AR1 promoter in TGMV A. The levels of AR1 and GUS RNAs were similar in leaf discs after adjusting for viral DNA copy number, while CAT RNA was less abundant. (ncsu.edu)
  • The geminivirus transient expression system allows rapid analysis of RNAs transcribed from foreign genes and can serve as a preliminary screen in the construction of transgenic plants. (ncsu.edu)
  • 8/1/2016 - Genetically-modified organisms (GMOs) could soon go the way of the dodo bird, thanks to an emerging new crop management technology that capitalizes on natural plant and soil microbes, rather than harsh chemicals and foreign genes, to combat pests and boost crop yields. (naturalnews.com)
  • Advances in transcriptome sequencing allow for simultaneous interrogation of differentially expressed genes from multiple species originating from a single RNA sample, termed dual or multi-species transcriptomics. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Several floral integrator genes including LsCO , LsFT , and LsLFY were co-expressed with LsARF3 in the overexpression and knockout lettuce plants. (frontiersin.org)
  • This suggests that not only does feeding on the wrong host plant have large fitness costs for these flies, but the genes that are expressed during this life stage are under strong selection. (lu.se)
  • A range of high quality specialised kits and reagents for RNA isolation, from a range of sources including microbial, tissues, cells, blood, plant and many more. (cambio.co.uk)
  • This section also includes RNA preservation solutions for tissues, cells and purified RNA. (cambio.co.uk)
  • For example, DNA provides instructions on how to build muscle cells, but RNA is responsible for developing them into different muscle tissues, such as the fast-acting muscles in our limbs versus the slow-acting ones in our backs. (newscientist.com)
  • Variations in hybridization of RNA from different mouse tissues and embryos to endogenous C-type virus DNA transcripts. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Zamore, P. D., Tuschl, T., Sharp, P. A. & Bartel, D. P. RNAi: double-stranded RNA directs the ATP-dependent cleavage of mRNA at 21 to 23 nucleotide intervals. (nature.com)
  • In order to confirm that the sRNAs suppressed their targets using their host's RNAi pathways, the investigators immunoprecipitated Argonaute 1 - the primary component of the RNA-induced silencing complex that enables RNAi - from Arabidopsis and identified the three sRNAs they have been studying in Ago1-associated fraction pulled from B. cinerea -infected plant samples but not controls. (genomeweb.com)
  • Since then, he has been working as a postodoc in Dr. Wassenegger's lab (RLP AgroScience GmbH, AlPlanta) and his main field of interest is RNA-interference (RNAi) and RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM) in plants. (degruyter.com)
  • Since then, she has been working as a postodoc in Dr. Wassenegger's lab (RLP AgroScience GmbH, AlPlanta) and her main field of interest is RNA-interference (RNAi) and viroid biology in plants. (degruyter.com)
  • Viruses are inducers and targets of RNA silencing. (unl.edu)
  • To condition susceptibility, most plant viruses encode silencing suppressors that interfere with this process, such as the Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) NSs protein. (unl.edu)
  • Demonstrating the suppression of RNA silencing directed against heterologous viruses establishes the foundation to determine the means used by NSs to block this antiviral process. (unl.edu)
  • They even detected remnants of RNA viruses. (newscientist.com)
  • Independent segregation of loci for activation of biologically distinguishable RNA C-type viruses in mouse cells. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Prevalence of the group-specific (gs) antigen and infectious virus expression of the murine C-type RNA viruses during the life span of BALB/cr mice. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Intracellular and virion 35S RNA species of murine sarcoma and leukemia viruses. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • Evolutionary aspects of recombination in RNA viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • RNA recombination in animal and plant viruses. (cdc.gov)
  • A family of RNA plant viruses infecting disparate plant families. (bvsalud.org)
  • Viruses depend completely on cells (bacterial, plant, or animal) to reproduce. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Some viruses have an outer envelope consisting of protein and lipid, surrounding a protein capsid complex with genomic RNA or DNA and sometimes enzymes needed for the first steps of viral replication. (msdmanuals.com)
  • either DNA or RNA viruses may have single or double strands of genetic material. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Single-strand RNA viruses are further divided into those with (+) sense and (-) sense RNA. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Positive-sense RNA viruses possess a single-stranded RNA genome that can serve as messenger RNA (mRNA) that can be directly translated to produce an amino acid sequence. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Negative-sense RNA viruses possess a single-stranded negative-sense genome that first must synthesize a complementary positive-sense antigenome, which is then used to make genomic negative-sense RNA. (msdmanuals.com)
  • DNA viruses typically replicate in the host cell nucleus, and RNA viruses typically replicate in the cytoplasm. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Certain single-strand, (+) sense RNA viruses termed retroviruses use a very different method of replication. (msdmanuals.com)
  • Because RNA transcription does not involve the same error-checking mechanisms as DNA transcription, RNA viruses, particularly retroviruses, are particularly prone to mutation. (msdmanuals.com)
  • the genome of RNA viruses ranges from 3.5 kilobases (some retroviruses) to 27 kilobases (some reoviruses), and the genome of DNA viruses ranges from 5 kilobases (some parvoviruses) to 280 kilobases (some poxviruses). (msdmanuals.com)
  • SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in wastewater cannot currently be used to determine the total number of infected persons in a community or the percent of the population that is infected. (cdc.gov)
  • More data on SARS-CoV-2 concentrations in the feces of infected individuals are needed to be able to understand the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 RNA concentrations in wastewater and how many people in a sewershed are infected. (cdc.gov)
  • Given that SARS-CoV-2 RNA is shed in knowledge gaps between researchers and public health feces of persons with asymptomatic and symptomatic responders is needed. (cdc.gov)
  • wastewater has garnered much attention since the Although wastewater surveillance to assess community fi rst report of detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in infections is not a new idea, the coronavirus disease pan- wastewater in March 2020 ( 6 ). (cdc.gov)
  • Purification and restriction endonuclease analysis of plant nuclear DNA. (ncsu.edu)
  • Unlike most competitors' kits, Norgen's Total RNA Purification Kit allows for the isolation of all sizes of RNA, from the very large RNA down to the microRNA, without the use of phenol. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Total RNA was isolated from 1 x 10 9 E. coli cells using Norgens Total RNA Purification Kit and a competitors kit. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Norgen's Total RNA Purification Kit isolates miRNA from plasma with better diversity than a leading competitor. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Total RNA including miRNA was isolated from 100 μL of plasma using Norgen's Total RNA Purification Kit or 625 μL of plasma using Competitor A's leading miRNA Kit, and was applied to an NCode expression profiling kit. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Microarray images suggested that Norgen's Total RNA Purification Kit (left) isolates a better diversity of miRNA from smaller input amount of plasma than the competitors miRNA kit (right). (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Norgens Total RNA Purification Kit allows consistent isolation of both large and small RNA from different input amounts. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Total RNA was isolated from 10 to 100,000 HeLa cells using Norgen's Total RNA Purification Kit ( blue ), a competitors silica-based kit ( green ) and a phenol-based RNA extraction method ( red ). (norgenbiotek.com)
  • RNA isolated using Norgen's Total RNA Purification had the best linearity (higher R 2 ) and sensitivity (lower C t ) for both large RNA ( S15 ) and small RNA ( miR-21 ). (norgenbiotek.com)
  • This format utlizes Norgen's best-in-class RNA purification technology in a 96-well plate for high-throughput extractions. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • MiRNAs are approximately 19- to 25-nucleotide estimated about 250,000 and mortality does not appear single-stranded, noncoding RNAs that exist in both to correlate well with prevalence. (cdc.gov)
  • Utilizing a proprietary method to rapidly isolate high-quality RNA from plant tissue, the SYNERGYâ„¢ 2.0 RNA Extraction Kit's unique bead beating chemistry replaces RNA isolation procedures requiring harmful reagents. (opsdiagnostics.com)
  • In the present study, we have optimized the procedure of sample preparation for LCM to isolate high quality of RNA from cyst nematode induced syncytia in Arabidopsis roots which can be used for transcriptomic studies. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Consistent RNA yield from the starting material with a small amount Provides sufficient reagents and 3 steps to treat samples. (genedirex.com)
  • While most published protocols, including those for commercial reagents, are either labour intensive, use hazardous chemicals and/or are costly, a previously published protocol for RNA isolation in Arabidopsis thaliana yields high amounts of good quality RNA in a simple, safe and inexpensive manner. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Our results demonstrate that this protocol is applicable to other plant species, including monocots, and offers yield and purity at least comparable to those provided by commercial phenol-based reagents. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Due to its simplicity and the use of inexpensive reagents, this protocol is accessible and affordable and can be easily implemented to work on different plant species in laboratories worldwide. (biomedcentral.com)
  • We set out to determine (i) whether the RNA isolation protocol described by Oñate-Sánchez and Vicente-Carbajosa [ 4 ] (see Additional file 1 ) can be applied to other plant species, and (ii) how the performance of this protocol compares to that of commercial phenol-based ready-to-use reagents. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Following this, the lysis mixture is adjusted with ethanol for RNA binding, which is then adsorbed onto the genomic DNA clearing column. (sbsgenetech.com)
  • The wealth of RNA -sequencing ( RNA-seq ) data available for plants provides the opportunity to implement a harmonized identification and annotation effort for lincRNAs that enables cross-species functional and genomic comparisons as well as prioritization of functional candidates. (bvsalud.org)
  • In biological study, one sometimes needs to detect the simultaneous presence of a micro RNA (miRNA) and its putative target mRNA in the same cell. (sinica.edu.tw)
  • In molecular biology, small nucleolar RNA R71 (also known as snoRNA R71) is a non-coding RNA (ncRNA) molecule which functions in the modification of other small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs). (wikipedia.org)
  • Life requires DNA, RNA, and protein in an interdependent triad in which each molecule is wholly dependent on the other two to exist. (icr.org)
  • One of these additional obstacles is how the first RNA molecule could have possibly replicated itself without the aid of protein polymerases. (icr.org)
  • While researchers had previously extracted DNA from thylacines , many experts considered recovering RNA to be too difficult, as the molecule is more fragile than DNA and they wouldn't normally expect it to survive in something so old unless it had been frozen. (newscientist.com)
  • RNA-Seq is a widely used technology that allows an efficient genome-wide quantification of gene expressions for, for example, differential expression (DE) analysis. (frontiersin.org)
  • Extracting the thylacine's RNA allowed the researchers to identify gaps in the previously extracted genome, and understand how its cells used the genetic traits within its DNA, including RNAs related to slow-acting muscles. (newscientist.com)
  • The genome consists of double-stranded RNA in 10-12 discrete segments, with a total genome size of 16-27 kilobase pair (kbp), depending on the genus. (medscape.com)
  • Retroviruses use reverse transcription to create a double-stranded DNA copy (a provirus) of their RNA genome, which is inserted into the genome of their host cell. (msdmanuals.com)
  • The genome consists of 10 segments of double-stranded RNA. (medscape.com)
  • We have extensive whole genome and RNA sequencing data taken from whole samples of flies at three life stages: larva, pupa and adult. (lu.se)
  • The patent claims derive from research carried out by Baulcombe and Hamilton at The Sainsbury Laboratory in Norwich, UK and published in Science ("A Species of Small Antisense RNA in Posttranscriptional Gene Silencing in Plants", (1999), 286, pp. 950-952). (bionity.com)
  • Since then, many other lncRNAs have been identified in various plant species, and their functions have been investigated using a variety of experimental approaches. (mdpi.com)
  • RNA taken from the desiccated remains of a thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger, could yield a new understanding of the species, which was declared extinct over 40 years ago. (newscientist.com)
  • Mármol Sánchez says that de-extinction isn't the focus of his research, but people who want to bring species back to life will definitely need RNA to provide the full picture of how its cells actually worked. (newscientist.com)
  • Note the presence of small RNA species (red square) in the samples isolated via Norgen's kit and the absence of these RNA species in the competitor RNA preparation. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Dual-species transcriptomics or dual-RNA-seq studies use transcriptomics to assess the transcriptional profiles of multiple organisms originating from the same sample [ 15 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The organisms studied in dual-species transcriptomics experiments are present in different relative abundances and while the read proportions between the two organisms differ by system, most infection models, particularly biologically relevant models, have the total RNA content of the host vastly outnumbering microbe [ 15 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Here, we show that this previously published RNA isolation protocol can be easily extended to other plant species without further modification. (biomedcentral.com)
  • However, a growing body of plant biologists work on other model or non-model species, including crops, and therefore information about the wide applicability of this or a similar protocol would be highly beneficial to a large number of researchers. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Argonaute (AGO) proteins use small RNAs to recognize transcripts targeted for silencing in plants and animals. (nature.com)
  • That first RNA biomolecule would possibly have both informational and enzymatic properties, thus omitting the original necessity of DNA and proteins. (icr.org)
  • Peptides are merely really short versions of proteins, so the scientists essentially cheated and the RNA replication process was not exclusively RNA-based. (icr.org)
  • The addition of chloroform or 1-bromo-3-chloropropane followed by centrifugation results in the separation of the mixture into three phases: an aqueous phase containing the RNA, the interphase containing DNA, and an organic phase containing proteins. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • His fields of research comprise RNA-mediated gene silencing processes with a focus on epigenetic phenomena, including studies on RNA-directed DNA methylation, the characterization of virus silencing suppressor proteins, the development of plant bioreactor platforms and viroid research. (degruyter.com)
  • The core is composed of 3 major (ie, lambda-1, lambda-2, sigma-2) and several minor proteins that surround 10 segments of double-stranded RNA. (medscape.com)
  • For more details, read the article in Current Opinion in Plant Biology . (isaaa.org)
  • Plant Molecular Biology, 10(4), 303–310. (ncsu.edu)
  • Department of Plant Biology Carnegie Institute of Washington 290 Panama Street, Stanford, CA 94305, U.S.A. (ncsu.edu)
  • Michael Wassenegger is associate professor in molecular biology at the University of Heidelberg, deputy director of the AlPlanta Institute for Plant Research and head of the AlPlanta Epigenetics Department. (degruyter.com)
  • RNA "gives you the amount, the diversity and the effectiveness of the [DNA] within the biology of the cell", he says, because it translates, applies and regulates the genetic material in each cell. (newscientist.com)
  • The research group Plant Biology focuses on evolutionary processes, distribution of plant populations in space and time and interaction between plants and between plants and the environment. (lu.se)
  • We study evolutionary processes and conservation biology as well as molecular plant biology. (lu.se)
  • Here we present cryogenic electron microscopy structures of the Arabidopsis thaliana Argonaute10 (AtAgo10)-guide RNA complex with and without a target RNA representing a slicing substrate. (nature.com)
  • Next, the scientists evaluated the impact the B. cinerea sRNAs had on plant immunity, generating transgenic Arabidopsis plants that ectopically expressed the three sRNAs under investigation. (genomeweb.com)
  • Further, the scientists observed a reduced disease susceptibility in Arabidopsis plants in which Ago1 was mutated following B. cinerea inoculation versus wild-type plants, while a B. cinerea mutant that cannot produce the sRNAs under investigation showed reduced pathogenicity on both Arabidopsis and tomato. (genomeweb.com)
  • Compatible interaction is best studied between cyst nematode Heterodera schachtii and the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana . (biomedcentral.com)
  • Nevertheless isolating pure syncytial material and extracting good quality RNA from Arabidopsis roots for downstream application, such as microarray analyses, qPCR and RNA-seq is challenging. (biomedcentral.com)
  • 25 ] used the entire root systems of cyst nematode-infected Arabidopsis plants to perform the first transcriptomic studies. (biomedcentral.com)
  • In this study, we processed >24 Tera base pairs of RNA-seq data from >16,000 experiments to identify â ¼130,000 lincRNAs in four Brassicaceae Arabidopsis thaliana , Camelina sativa, Brassica rapa , and Eutrema salsugineum. (bvsalud.org)
  • We have tested this protocol in tomato and wheat leaves, as well as in Arabidopsis leaves, and compared the resulting RNA to that obtained using a commercial phenol-based reagent. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Oñate-Sánchez & Vicente-Carbajosa published an improved RNA isolation protocol for Arabidopsis that is simple, efficient, affordable, and avoids the use of toxic volatiles [ 4 ]. (biomedcentral.com)
  • With this aim, we systematically extracted RNA from (a) Arabidopsis rosette leaves, (b) wheat leaves and (c) tomato leaves, using the protocol by Oñate-Sánchez and Vicente-Carbajosa [ 4 ], which uses non-toxic buffers containing sodium citrate and citric acid, and a commercial phenol-based reagent (TRI reagent, SIGMA, following the manufacturer's instructions) in parallel. (biomedcentral.com)
  • As shown in Table 1 , in our hands, the theoretical concentration of RNA obtained from a given sample (Arabidopsis, tomato or wheat) was slightly higher when using the procotol by Oñate-Sánchez and Vicente-Carbajosa [ 4 ], according to the spectrophotometric quantification. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Most of the members of the box C/D family function in directing site-specific 2'-O-methylation of substrate RNAs. (wikipedia.org)
  • It is known as a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and also often referred to as a guide RNA. (wikipedia.org)
  • Results show that prokaryotic and eukaryotic AGOs use distinct mechanisms for achieving target slicing and provide insights into small interfering RNA potency. (nature.com)
  • Plant small RNAs: advancement in the understanding of biogenesis and role in plant development. (nature.com)
  • To date, small RNAs have been identified in various fungi and oomycetes, but data has been inconclusive as to whether they regulate host-pathogen interaction. (genomeweb.com)
  • Genetic and functional diversification of small RNA pathways in plants. (nature.com)
  • Herr, A. J. Pathways through the small RNA world of plants. (nature.com)
  • 5 Small chains of amino acids called peptides were used to help keep the products of the replicated short RNAs from binding to each other. (icr.org)
  • Consistent RNA yield from the starting material with a small amount. (cloverbiosciences.com)
  • The Ambion® RNA-Seq Library Construction Kit streamlines high-throughput sequencing of the whole transcriptome and small RNAs, while maintaining strand orientation, on the Illumina® GAII platform. (thermofisher.com)
  • TRI Reagent ® performs well with large or small amounts of tissue or cells and works with many samples including human, plant, yeast, bacterial and viral samples. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Because these flies are so small, we also extracted DNA and RNA of whatever organisms were living inside of sampled individuals. (lu.se)
  • The general objective of the URIVir project is to understand the biological impact of RNA uridylation on the pathogenicity of phytoviruses. (anr.fr)
  • Long intergenic noncoding RNAs ( lincRNAs ) are a large yet enigmatic class of eukaryotic transcripts that can have critical biological functions. (bvsalud.org)
  • Some of the questions we try to answer is which historical vegetation factors have determined today's biodiversity and how biological treatment can make plants' defense against deceases stronger and increase their growth. (lu.se)
  • Over the past year, methods for sewer system contains biological waste from the hu- detection and quantifi cation of SARS-CoV-2 viral RNA in man population it serves. (cdc.gov)
  • The Plant Total RNA Isolation Reagent provides an easy 3-step method to isolate the total RNA from plant samples. (cloverbiosciences.com)
  • This unique reagent system ensures the total RNA with a high yield and good quality from the most common plant samples as well as samples high in polysaccharides. (cloverbiosciences.com)
  • The quality of the PR Reagent (Plant Total RNA Isolation Kit) is tested on a lot-to-lot basis to ensure consistent product quality. (genedirex.com)
  • TRI reagent ® is a quick and convenient ready-to-use reagent useful for efficient total RNA extraction or for the simultaneous isolation of RNA, DNA and protein. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Homogenization or lysis of the tissue sample in TRI reagent ® dissolves RNA, DNA and protein. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • TRI Reagent is an improved version of the single-step total RNA isolation reagent developed by Chomczynski. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • A single reagent that can be used for RNA, DNA and protein isolation that is free of any contamination. (sigmaaldrich.com)
  • Additionally, nucleic acid purity was higher in the RNA samples obtained following this protocol: while the A 260/A230 and A 260/A280 ratios were above 2.0 for these samples, representing high purity, in all cases, the A 260/A230 value in the samples obtained using TRI reagent was generally lower (ranging between 1.40 and 2.06), indicating polysaccharide or, most likely, polyphenol contamination. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Congratulations to Our Customer for Published in Molecular Plant (IF: 22)! (sbsgenetech.com)
  • Department of Molecular Genetics AFRC Institute of Plant Science Research (Cambridge Laboratory), Maris Lane, Trumpington Cambridge CB2 2LQ, U.K. (ncsu.edu)
  • Molecular Plant Development. (ncsu.edu)
  • Our RNA extraction technology shows no bias towards GC content or molecular weight, providing a true representation of RNA content. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Model for requirement of tandem repeats for RDRP amplification of RNA. (nature.com)
  • It uses rolling-circle amplification of RNAs to achieve a high signal/noise ratio. (sinica.edu.tw)
  • The uridylation of viral RNAs has been reported recently in several organisms including plants and animals. (anr.fr)
  • Silencing is a natural phenomenon that occurs in many different organisms from yeasts to plants to humans. (bionity.com)
  • Before now, RNA had only been taken from living organisms and a few ancient plants. (newscientist.com)
  • A monthly celebration of the biodiversity of our planet's animals, plants and other organisms. (newscientist.com)
  • Our unique lysis solution rapidly disrupts cells and inactivates cellular RNA enzymes. (sbsgenetech.com)
  • In 2016, research was published that seemed to provide a solution to this dilemma by showing that RNA could be partially replicated without protein enzymes. (icr.org)
  • The virion core contains several enzymes needed for transcription and capping of viral RNA. (medscape.com)
  • Experimental data shows the SYNERGYâ„¢ 2.0 Plant RNA Extraction Kit yields RNA of equal or better purity compared to other commercial kits and traditional CTAB protocols. (opsdiagnostics.com)
  • We propose that the mop1 RDRP is required to maintain a threshold level of repeat RNA, which functions in trans to establish and maintain the heritable chromatin states associated with paramutation. (nature.com)
  • We used nanopore RNA-seq , transcriptome -wide structural information, peptide data, and epigenomic data to characterize these lincRNAs and identify conserved motifs. (bvsalud.org)
  • Transient expression of heterologous RNAs using tomato golden mosaic virus. (ncsu.edu)
  • Ready-to-use RNA for high performance in any downstream application. (cloverbiosciences.com)
  • Our method allows isolating high-quality RNA from nematode feeding sites that is suitable for downstream applications such as microarray experiments. (biomedcentral.com)
  • RNA carriers negatively impact the efficacy of downstream applications like NGS. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • In recent years, there has been increasing interest in understanding the functions and mechanisms of lncRNAs in plants, and this Special Issue aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge in this field. (mdpi.com)
  • The study of lncRNAs in plants is a relatively new area of research, but it has already revealed several important insights into their roles in gene regulation. (mdpi.com)
  • This type of modifying RNA is usually located in the nucleolus of the eukaryotic cell which is a major site of snRNA biogenesis. (wikipedia.org)
  • Slicing by DNA-guided prokaryotic AGOs has been studied in detail, but structural insights into RNA-guided slicing by eukaryotic AGOs are lacking. (nature.com)
  • It can be applied to simultaneous detection of multiple RNAs in the same cell. (sinica.edu.tw)
  • Long non-coding RNA maternally expressed 3 (MEG3) inhibits cell proliferation in various types of cancer. (spandidos-publications.com)
  • When PSTVd enters the plant cell, a specific signal seems to direct it into the nucleus. (degruyter.com)
  • Endogenous virus-specific RNA in uninfected BALB/c cell line JLS-V9. (microbiologyresearch.org)
  • After a brief review of the main issues, methods and tools related to the DE analysis of RNA-Seq data, this article focuses on the impact of both the replicate number and library size in such analyses. (frontiersin.org)
  • After 4 weeks of conversion, we performed global analyses of RNA and protein levels by RNA-sequencing and mass spectrometry. (lu.se)
  • Each Homogenization Tube contains a grinding matrix which, in conjunction with the Plant Homogenization Buffer and dithiothreitol (DTT), liberates RNA, captures contaminants, and inactivates nucleases detrimental to RNA. (opsdiagnostics.com)
  • Since the late 1980s, researchers explored many aspects of the evolutionary possibilities related to RNA being the first biomolecule, but have found nothing but obstacles including no method of spontaneously forming RNA or its nucleotide building blocks. (icr.org)
  • We investigated the effect of various sucrose concentrations as cryoprotectant on RNA quality and morphology of syncytial sections. (biomedcentral.com)
  • The use of optimal sucrose concentrations as cryoprotection plays a key role in RNA stability and morphology of sections. (biomedcentral.com)
  • Notably, the sRNA that silenced MPK1 and MPK2 was also enriched in tomato plant leaves following B. cinerea infection, and inhibited expression of MAPKKK4, another member of the MAPK signaling cascade in the tomato plant. (genomeweb.com)
  • Meanwhile, tomato plants in which MAPKKK4 was suppressed using a virus-induced gene silencing approach showed enhanced disease susceptibility in response to B. cinerea and contained over 15 times more fungal biomass than control plants. (genomeweb.com)
  • University of California, Riverside researchers this month reported the discovery that a fungal pathogen known to infect a wide variety of vegetable and fruit crops is capable of hijacking a plant's RNA interference pathway to suppress host immunity, thereby enhancing its virulence. (genomeweb.com)
  • One of the main researchers in these discoveries was Scott Gilbert who coined the term "RNA World. (icr.org)
  • Emilio Mármol Sánchez , then at Stockholm University in Sweden, and his colleagues extracted, sequenced and analyzed RNA from a thylacine that had been kept in the collection of the Swedish Museum of Natural History for 130 years. (newscientist.com)
  • Asian Journal of Plant Pathology, 4(2), 603–610. (ncsu.edu)
  • Bernstein, E. & Allis, C. D. RNA meets chromatin. (nature.com)
  • In fact, the full extent of the roles played by RNA uridylation is still being explored and, of note in the context of the URIVir project, RNA uridylation is emerging as a modulator of viral infection. (anr.fr)
  • The mechanism by which NSs suppresses RNA silencing and its role in viral infection and movement remain to be determined. (unl.edu)
  • Synthesis of AR1 RNA was dependent on T-DNA transfer and TGMV DNA replication, demonstrating that it is a plant transcription product. (ncsu.edu)
  • Demonstrating that RNA can be extracted from such an old animal opens the door for doing the same with other museum specimens, or ones preserved in permafrost. (newscientist.com)
  • Our company exclusively introduces a rapid RNA extraction technology that does not require the use of phenol or chloroform. (sbsgenetech.com)
  • Our RNA extraction technology is highly sensitive & linear down to a few cells without the need for carrier RNA. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • Unlike other common extraction methods, our RNA extraction technology does not require the use of such hazardous compounds. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • This format utilizes Norgen's proprietary RNA extraction technology for single column-based extractions. (norgenbiotek.com)
  • By analyzing and classifying the plants we try to explain their evolutionary relationship. (lu.se)
  • 6/20/2015 - We have been fed propaganda for years aimed to convince us that, aside from rare incidents and accidents in which radiation has leaked into the environment, nuclear power plants are one of the safest and "cleanest" sources of energy. (naturalnews.com)